A Macro-Environmental Framework for Researching SME’s in the Twenty-first Century Carolyn J. Fausnaugh Griffith University

SUMMARY The ability of policy makers, educators, potential business founders and practicing entrepreneurs to modify policies and practices as a response to academic research in the field of Small and Medium Enterprise (SME’s) has been limited. The globalisation of the field of study is accelerating the need for research designs that facilitate cross country comparisons and insights. The argument is presented that understanding the macro environment in which SME’s operate will move economic understanding of these companies and policymaking forward. To achieve this end, common data on the macro-environmental conditions under which members of the research sample operate should be included in each study. However, relevant common data cannot be selected until we understand the comparative differences in laws, regulations and institutional structures supporting or constraining the SME’s in an economy.

INTRODUCTION Throughout history the inhabitants of the earth have devised ways to organize themselves, first to acquire what is needed for survival, later to provide an increased sense of safety and even later to provide means of personal enjoyment and pleasure. Rules were devised to minimize conflict. As regional populations increased these emerging structures evolved into religions, governments, and economic systems. Within each of these structures humans continue to devise new ways of organizing themselves,. As the number of human beings increased, the structures became more complex, and continued to change. Initially groups of humans were not aware of the existence of other groups. The needs of survival, safety, personal enjoyment and pleasure were constant across groups, but the means devised to meet these needs were diverse. Isolated groups developed different religions, different types of government, and different economic systems. The early roles of religion included providing an explanation for the unexplainable, a sense of personal comfort in times of distress, a sense of belonging, and limits on the behavior of individuals. In some geographical areas the governing structures of the religion served as the only governing structure of the people within that area. And, the economic system was embedded in religious thought. Dissatisfaction with these early social systems led to conflict and physical violence. In some places the number of adherents dissatisfied with the system was sufficiently great, and leaders of the system were

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sufficiently responsive that further innovation began a process that separated the governing structure of local religion from the governing structure of other aspects of life – most notably economic aspects. In other geographic areas there was little or no change. In still other geographic areas there was violence and attempts by a group in an area to impose their religion, government, and economic structures on other areas (colonisation). The world is still engaged in this process. Indeed dissatisfaction with a social system leads to conflict and physical violence even today. And, physical violence is no longer the only tool available to governments attempting to change the patterns of other governments. As the availability and use of information becomes more important to the functioning of societies, the control of information dissemination becomes more and more a tool of change management. The innovations along the way led to the creation of democratic government, and economic systems purportedly driven by market demand. Presently, democratic government combined with a market driven economic system is touted by western governments to be the system most capable of providing survival, safety, personal enjoyment and pleasure, and wealth for the greatest number of people. Indeed, observation of the economic numbers from the United States seems to indicate this is so. However, less than a quarter of the world’s population even claims to live under a democratic government coupled with a market driven economy at this time. And, the systems are not regarded as perfect. The structure of democracy within democratic countries varies. Portions of economies labeled as free market economies are controlled. Many economies are in the process of privatising previously controlled sectors and deregulating previously protected areas. There are vast differences in population between economies and thus in the size of the potential markets within these economies.

Huge differences exist in the legal, regulatory and

tax infrastructures that support and encourage or constrain and discourage economic activity in each economy. It is within these environmental contexts that the study of private ownership and entrepreneurship must move forward in the new millenium.

THE CHALLENGE The study of privately owned companies by students and by academic researchers is globalising. Evidence of this gobalisation can be found in many indicators: the increasing number of countries in which subjects in entrepreneurship and small business management are now available to both undergraduate and graduate students; the number of countries in which academic conferences on entrepreneurship, small business

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and family business are held; the number of journals publishing research in these areas; and the number of countries represented by the research samples reported on in these journals are some of these indicators. As outlined in the introduction, the environments in which small business people and entrepreneurs operate are vastly different and change in these environments is perpetual. Entrepreneurship textbooks exhort students to scan and assess the macro-environment environment in which the new firm will conduct its business and indicate that some regions or cities may be more small business friendly than others. (See Kuratko and Hodgetts [5] for an high end example of textbook coverage.)

Indeed, academics contend that entrepreneurship

either springs from individuals seizing opportunities caused by existing dislocations in the environment or the ability of individuals to see an opening where an economic dislocation can be caused in an otherwise stable environment [6]. However, academic research seldom discloses the status of macro-environmental environmental factors for the research sample. The creation of privately owned companies is routinely touted by academics and supportive politicians as providing several benefits to a society. Within the U.S. economy small and medium size companies are seen to be the engine that drives the economy. They are seen as providing individuals with access to economic equality, and as stabilizing the economy during downturns [3][4]. With the collapse of communism the importance of individual entrepreneurs has been unquestioned. Several economies have been in transition from controlled to market driven (examples are Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia and others). These transitioning economies are not progressing at similar rates of change. However, I am aware of no systematic attempts by academics to capture environmental factors affecting rates of new enterprise formation, operation and growth of privately owned companies. The first political step in these new market driven economies has to be the drafting and passage of laws to create the institutional structures that support a market driven economy. I am aware of no systematic attempts to identify institutional structures that affect small and medium size companies and the fundamental differences in the institutional structures that affect the formation, operation and growth of SME’s. Thus we have three research omissions: 1) the lack of attention to macro-environmental factors affecting small and medium enterprises; 2) the lack of attention to laws and regulations and 3) the lack of attention to the existence and condition of institutional structures that support or constrain SME’s. I believe there are three fundamental reasons for these omissions. First, academic research on SME’s is a relatively new phenomenon as evidenced by the age of academic infrastructure supporting the field. The first annual Babson Conference took place in 1981 [9]. Division status was granted to the Entrepreneurship Division of the U.S. Academy of Management in 1987. Likewise, the research streams have not yet moved to

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comparisons of findings between and among economies. (I do not say countries because of the China example of one country, two systems currently evolving.) The structure of education is such that researchers have focused their efforts on samples within an economy and not across economies. Finally, entrepreneurship researchers and theorists are inclined to view existing theory in other fields of study and lament that theory does not seem to apply to the start-up and early growth phases of new firms. This is not bad, given that indeed the theories and models do not. However, research on and theorising about phenomenon related to the start-up and early growth of firms is solidly within the domain of entrepreneurship researchers. Thus, I would argue that proposals for modifications to relevant models and theories will have to be generated, at least in part, by us entrepreneurship researchers. This will not be an easy task. Comments by Coase[2] in his address for acceptance of the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences might offer us some needed encouragement. He comments that the main activity of economics since the publication of The Wealth of Nations “has been to fill the gaps in Adam Smith’s system, to correct his errors, and to make his analysis more exact”. Coase continues with the observation that microeconomics has focused almost exclusively on the forces that establish price and that this focus has resulted in the “neglect of other aspects of the economic system.” Specifically, economic theory has neglected the institutional arrangements which govern the process of exchange. As these institutional arrangements determine to a large extent what is produced, what we have is a very incomplete theory.” Further on in his paper Coase comments on the nature of transaction costs and that empirical work is needed to provide “fundamental insight “ into transactions costs. He quotes a 1988 paper which repeats a statement first made in 1970: “An inspired theoretician might do as well without such empirical work, but my own feeling is that the inspiration is most likely to come through the stimulus provided by the patterns, puzzles, and anomalies revealed by the systematic gathering of data, particularly when the prime need is to break our existing habits of thought”. [1] It would seem that our study of small and medium size enterprises across economies would be a fertile source for “fundamental insights” into the environmental conditions and institutional structures within an economy that give rise to transaction costs and thus create differences in the rates of enterprise formation, survival, and growth.

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MACRO-ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - CRUDE BEGINNINGS The introduction to this paper offers some suggestions as to which environmental factors might be of interest. Four factors come to mind: 1) population; 2) the flow of information; 3) aggression; and 4) religion. Only population and religion are among the factors listed Kuratko and Hodgetts [5]. Population Population size and age distributions have long been included in lists of macro-environmental factors. Thus, there is a tacit acknowledgment that population is a factor affecting the economy in which the small-ormedium-size enterprise is embedded.

Population has three dimensions of interest; size, age distribution, and

well-being. It is the trend of each of these dimensions that is most informative. We perceive changes in population as occurring slowly and incrementally. However, recent evidence suggests this view can be erroneous with sudden disruptions to trend occurring. Both war and natural disasters can radically change population distribution. During 1999 we saw war and large migrations of people in Bosnia [10]), East Timor [11], and Chechnya [12]. We heard of earthquakes causing significant destruction in Turkey [13) and Taiwan [12][16]. Indeed the earthquake damage to Taiwan was so extensive that Taiwan’s economic growth rate was adjusted downward from 5.7% to 5.4%. Destructive storms accompanied by floods and mudslides struck Venezuela [15]. And, we have high incidence of HIV/AIDS in Africa1 and mounting concern over the spread of HIV/AIDS in Asia2. Such sudden disruptions to population trends are particularly significant to smaller privately owned companies in smaller countries. How do such disruptions affect the incidence of business creation, its survival and growth?

And, for what period of time is a past disruption meaningful in

understanding current phenomenon?

Information, Knowledge and Education Pundits have labeled the 1990’s as the beginning of the information age. The first amendment of the U.S. constitution guarantees the each resident of the U.S. the right to free speech. In that economy, the 1

New adult HIV infections in Africa have numbered more than 1,400,000 each year since 1991. That is an average of more than 3,800 new HIV/AIDS infections each day. Nearly 34 million people in the world are now infected. More than 22 million of them are African. In 1998 over 4 million more Africans were infected. The epidemic has rapidly undone the economic advances gained over the last 40 years. Perhaps the potential of this disease is best communicated by reductions in life expectancy on the African continent. These reductions range from a high of 22 years (Botswana (62-40) to a low of 4 years (Nigeria 58-54) with an average of 12 years. [17]

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Worldbank[17] information indicates high levels of infection among those practicing the riskiest behaviors in Yunnan Province in China, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysis and Vietnam. According to UNAIDS data an estimated 5.3 million people were infected in Asia as of the end of 1996.

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guarantee of free movement of information is fundamental. Yet, movement of information is not totally free. The law offers some protection to companies for their trade secrets and the law governing patents and copyrights is well developed. The U.S. presses for similar protection globally. What are the legal positions of other countries with respect to citizens’ right to speak freely? And, what limits exist? In what circumstances does an individual surrender these rights? The availability of information to the Small Business Enterprise is dependent on the right to bring one’s personal thoughts into being, the infrastructure to disseminate information, the slant with which information is disseminated and the ability of the population to interpret the importance of that information and apply it to their economic decisions. Distribution and slant are important factors. What is the status of the media within an economy? How many means of communication exist for people to send and receive information are there within the economy? Do the formal media tend to disseminate positive images of business owners, negative images of business owners or ignore the role of business in the economy? Are the media inclined to the use of inflammatory and sensational words and images when reporting commercial news? And, what is the status of intellectual development and education in the economy/country? Toffler [8], writes “while land, labor, raw materials, and capital were the main ‘factors of production’ in the Second Wave economy of the past, knowledge – broadly defined here to include data, information, images, symbols, culture, ideology, and values – is the central resource of the Third Wave economy.” Aggression Throughout 1999 we heard reports of aggression in its many forms and in many countries. Bosnia first comes to mind. The geographic area formerly known as Yugoslavia has been through ten years of civil war and turmoil. Will this period of destruction give rise to a post-aggression period in which entrepreneurship flourishes and new levels of wealth and well-being are achieved? Over what period of time? Or, has the culture and infrastructure been destroyed and the economic well-being of citizens in that area been destined to several generations of struggle? How can aggression be classified? Are some forms of aggression more detrimental to SME’s than others? Do some SME’s benefit from aggression? The overseas perception of the United States, a high stable country from a political perspective, is, that of a country increasingly violent from both within (random shootings) and without (threats of terrorism).

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Statistics indicate that tourism to Florida decreased the year following the worldwide reporting of the shooting of two German Tourists. Apparently, it is very difficult to do business in Russia because of gangsters and organised crime. Certainly war disrupts and possibly destroys both the SME’s and their markets.

Levels of aggression change

by neighborhood. Perhaps multiple measures are needed; the level of aggression in the economy, the level of aggression relative to other economies, and the level of aggression within some perimeter of the SME under study. Religion Religion is thought to impact entrepreneurial behavior in an economy. Economies also differ in the link between government and religion. The United State touts separation of church and state. Yet, the Christian evangelical right has been able to organize and place their candidates in influential political positions. The USSR suppressed religion, yet it rapidly re-emerged once communism was abolished. In Iraq the law of the land is religious law. In multicultural economies, multiple religions exert influence on small and medium enterprises. Do the religious beliefs of the entrepreneur influence the creation, survival, and growth of small and medium enterprises? In what way? Or, perhaps the work we researchers need to do is in the area of personal values and goals and the correlation between various values, goals, and the religion practiced. If the writers who contend that the world’s religions have more commonalties than differences are correct, particularly Huston Smith [7], we may find it is the values and goals of the individual rather than the institution of organised religion that best captures this influence. Or perhaps it is the conservatism or intensity of the religious thought that most matters and not the presence, absence, or content of particular religious thought.

LAWS, REGULATIONS, AND INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES WITHIN ECONOMIES Current wisdom in the West indicates that democratic government combined with free market forces is the economic system capable of generating more economic wealth for citizens of a country than any other known economic system. Several Asian countries are attempting to achieve the benefits of this system without embracing all or even most of the tenets of democratic government and free market forces. Political rhetoric in this arena is strong. Whatever the form of government, economic systems are created and managed by the laws and regulations stipulated by that government. I believe labels such as democracy and free market forces are too

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broad, limit our understanding of the political - economic interface and do not facilitate comparisons of SME’s across economies. Thus, we researchers need to conceptualise the political/legal framework within which the small and medium enterprises are created and function at a more micro level. Eight areas where the laws and regulations of an economy affect all firms within that economy and cause differences between economies are: 1.

legal structures of firms

2.

taxation – both structure and overall composite rate

3.

directors responsibilities and liabilities

4.

securities law and private financing

5.

bankruptcy

6.

intellectual property, and

7.

competitive conditions

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employment

Each of these areas is complex and is associated with an infrastructure through which the laws and regulations are administered and enforced. The systems, procedures, and common practices used by representatives of the government to facilitate business transactions and enforce compliance with laws and regulations directly impacts the ability of SME’s to thrive and grow or increases the likelihood they will stagnate or falter. Thus, we are interested in three aspects, the actual rules, the infrastructure that administers the rules, and the level of compliance with those rules. What are the rules? What is the pattern and frequency of change in the rules? Does infrastructure exist to disseminate the rules? How administratively difficulty is compliance for the SME? How evenly are the rules applied? Legal Structures of Firms Legal structures are generally chosen by founding owners to maximize limits on owner’s liability and minimize taxes. Although similar words may be used at an abstract level, for example the label “corporation,” the actual functioning of the legal form may differ. The forms of structures available differ between countries. A privately owned corporation in Australia or Canada may be subjected to considerably different legal pressure than a similar corporation owned in the United States. Thus, there is a need to identify these differences and seek an understanding of the broader implications of these differences. Under some tax systems, the use of multiple legal structures may decrease tax liabilities. The interaction between taxation and use of legal structures is substantial. Simulations between countries would be

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an excellent way to study this phenomenon. However, the use of multiple legal structures may increase transaction costs in less apparent ways. Can these increased costs be teased out and the operating cost of multiple legal structures be determined?

Taxation – Structure and Composite Rate The payment of taxes results in a reduction in cash flow available for other purposes. Thus, the reduction of tax payments is a goal of most SME owners. In a publicly traded corporation there is a separation of the taxation of the owners, even management employees with stock ownership, from taxation of the company itself. Most, if not all, members of management in a publicly traded company do not have the ability to coordinate decisions of the company with their own person tax situation. It is different in the SME. The connection between business decisions and ownerships short-term gains in income is more apparent.

And, the

owners are in a decision making position such that their understanding of tax minimization takes precedence. I chose the word “understanding “ carefully. Taxes are complex. Thus, the owner(s) of an SME rely heavily on the professional advice of accountants and others to make decisions. What is the relationship between various structures of tax assessment and the vibrancy of the small business sector? What tax rules exist that treat SME’s less favorably than larger corporations? Do taxation structures matter to the success of SME’s within an economy? Across economies? How are tax disputes settled? What is the frequency of tax disputes for SME’s? What is the propensity for SME’s to pay tax assessments vs appeal or litigate tax assessments? Minniti and Bygrave[6] have hypothesized that the level of existing entrepreneurial activity affects the number of people choosing to become entrepreneurs. I would offer a similar hypothesis to the area of tax minimization and propose that the intensity of the tax minimization goal among small and medium size business owners within an economy drives the business decisions of that sector. Tax minimization fads come into vogue and then fade. How intense is the culture of tax minimization in the economy? What impact is the tax minimization goal having on the long-term growth of SME’s? Directors Responsibilities and Liabilities The functional roles of management and directors may have evolved differently between countries. If this is so, I would expect the laws and regulations governing the conduct of directors to differ. I would also expect case transcripts to reveal some of these differences.

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How do the rules change between countries? What is the frequency of litigation against or between directors? What issues are litigated? Are some countries more tolerant of directors’ power than others? Are differences perceptual on the part of the entrepreneur’s or actual and embedded in laws and regulations? Securities Law and Private Financing The availability of capital for business start-up and growth is essential in an economy. Entrepreneurship researchers tend to study the experiences of individuals and smaller enterprises seeking capital. However, for our research to discover root causes of differences in the growth performance of SMEs between economies, we must conceptualise the structure of informal capital markets up to the point where companies become public companies. I believe we will find significant differences. The question will be, which of these differences is important? At what investment levels do government rules and regulations overseeing private investment in companies become activated? What are filing requirements? What are disclosure requirements? What government agencies have the responsibility for oversight? Bankruptcy The exit of companies from doing business is an expected aspect of market based economies. Theoretically, it is a feature necessary for the reallocation of resources which the market has dictated as not properly allocated. However, the mechanisms within which this reallocation is achieved differ between countries and the amount of stigma associated with the process differs dramatically between countries. What relief is available for companies that find themselves insolvent? What is the process by which liquidation is forced? What is the process of voluntary liquidation? How negatively is the experience viewed in the culture? What are the legal requirements to be met by the individuals to achieve rehabilitation? Intellectual Property The implementation and harmonization of worldwide intellectual property laws and the enforcement of those laws is particularly important at this time of rapid change and convergence in the media and media delivery systems around the globe. Technology has made many things possible that were not even considered just a few years ago. What is the status of these laws? What is the process by which violations of intellectual property ownership are identified? What aspects of these laws are most important to smaller companies? Or, are the costs of defending intellectual property so great that smaller companies simply cannot defend their intellectual

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property? If this is so, do these continue to identify their intellectual property and and register it? Or, are intellectual assets being ignored in most of this sector? Intellectual property is an area of great importance at this time, for both SME’s and individuals. It’s importance as a research issue is increased by the impression that the cost of mechanisms to protect it are beyond the economic means of most SME’s and individuals. Yet, future flows of cash may be very dependent on the intellectual properties now being created. The enormity and obfuscuity of the area cause me to think its implications for SME’s are high and increasing. Competitive Conditions Population size differences may be a root cause for differences in competitive conditions between countries. What are the differences in the number of SME’s per capita and the size of those SME’s in a large mature economy (such as the U.S.) compared to a smaller mature economy (such as Canada or Australia)? What differences exist in the laws and regulations governing competitive conditions? Which industries are monopolies, are oligopolies in each economy? What is the price premium in the monopolistic and oligopolistic industries? How cost sensitive are the SME’s to the price premium in these industries? What are the implications for global trade? Employment In an economic sense the availability of individuals to work for an employer constitutes a market in the same way materials or capital form a market. And, the rules for employing an individual constitute regulation of that market. Thus, labor is a regulated market. And, the degree and the nature of regulation of that market is different in each economy. Research is needed to identify which aspects of employment are perceived as most troublesome to SME’s within each economy and then a comparison across economies.

DISASTER RECOVERY PREPAREDNESS Earlier in this paper I wrote of instances of rapid population change. Rapid population shifts most frequently occur in response to natural disasters or aggression. Natural disasters will always occur. And, although we hope that the level of aggression will diminish, it is a fact of life at this time in history. What humanity cannot change, we must respond to. In the instance of destructive forces, the status of internal disaster recovery systems and the willingness of governments to request and accept international assistance in these situations becomes an environmental factor for the SME’s. This factor is particularly important in smaller countries where a regional dislocation constitutes a major national crises. We hear of international efforts to

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provide immediate relief for food, water, shelter. However, what are the mechanisms by which the SME’s recover from such disruptions?

SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS This paper identifies three omissions from research on SME’s: 1) the status of macro-environmental factors affecting the entrepreneurs and small and medium enterprises under study at the time data are gathered for the study; 2) the status of laws and regulatory rules affecting the existence and economic conditions of the enterprises under study; and 3) the existence, effectiveness, and operating efficiency of institutional structures that support SME’s. Comparison of studies of SME’s operating in different economies is not possible without considering the macro environmental forces and the laws and regulations impinging on the business formation decision. Simultaneously, the existence and condition of institutional structures that administer and enforce the laws and regulations impacts the ability of the firms and willingness of their owners to adapt and grow. At the operational level these factors are not static. Change is frequent and not always incremental. Therefore, to move the discovery of factors strategic to the success of dynamic economies forward, there is the need to more fully conceptualise these forces and factors in ways that can be routinely included in studies of privately owned small and medium size enterprises. Much of this work will require a technical understanding of specific areas of law. The work will be difficult for SME researchers. However, if entrepreneurship researchers do not tackle these difficult areas, who will? Let us seek research partners from within the ranks of the legal and accounting professions and proceed.

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References [1] Coase, R. H., The Firm, The Market, and The Law, Chicago: University Press, (1988), p.71. [2] Coase, R. H., “The institutional structure of production.”, American Economic Review, Sept. Vol 82(4), (1992), p.713-719. [3] Fausnaugh, Carolyn J., Assessing Entrepreneurial Potential: A Study of Venture Capitalists’ Decision Making, (1995), Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia. [4] Joyner, Brenda E., Key Tasks and Decisions Heuristics of Founding Entrepreneurs of Successful New Ventures During Venture Creation and Development: An Exploratory Study, (1995), Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia. [5] Kuratko, D. F. and Hodgetts, R. M., Entrepreneurship: A Contemporary Approach, Dryden Press. (1998), p. 193-210. [6] Minniti, M. and Bygrave, W.,“The microfoundations of entrepreneurship”, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, Summer, 23(4), (1999), p. 41-52. [7] Smith, H., “The World’s Religions’, HTTP://www.SpritSite.com/writing/hussmi/index.htm, 1/14/00. [8] Toffler, A. and Toffler, H., War and Anti-War, New York: Little Brown and Company, (1993), p. 58. [9] Vesper, Karl H., “Scanning the frontier of entrepreneurship research” in Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, ed. Karl H. Vesper, (1981), p. vii-xiv. [10] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service, “UNHCR Lists ‘More Than 915,000’ Kosovar Refugees Abroad”, (13 May (1999), Article ID: FTS19990513000545, Searchword: Bosnia Refugees. [11] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service. “AFP: E. Timor Exodus to W. Timor Swells to 232,672 People”, (27 Sept. 1999), Article ID: FTS19990927000438, Searchword: Timor Refugees. [12] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service, “Refugees Exodus from Chechnya Exceeds 233,000”, (29 Nov. 1999), Article ID: FTS19991129000326, Searchword: Chechnya Refugees. [13] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service, “Yearender: Top Ten World News Events of 99.” (24 Dec. 1999), Article ID: FTS19991224000124, Searchword: Earthquake Turkey. [14] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service. “AFP: At Least 60 dead, 100s injured in Tawain Earthquake”, (20 Sep 1999), Article ID: FTS19990920001838, Searchword: Taiwan Earthquake. [15] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service. “Taiwan Envoy to Vatican Donates to Venezuelan Victims”, (23 Dec. 1999(, Article ID: FTS19991223000781, Searchword: Venezuela Flood. [16] World News Connection-Electronic Subscription Service., “Economic Conference With Japan Opens in Tokyo”, (06 Dec. 1999), Article ID: FTS19991206000405, Searchword: Taiwan Earthquake [17] Worldbank Fact Sheet, “HIV/AIDS in Africa: Highest Rates in the World.” HTTP://www.worldbank.org/html/extdr/hivaids/aidsafr.htm,1/10/2000.

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