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THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SMALL BUSINESS SECTOR IN THE PACIFIC - THE ROLE OF SMALL BUSINESS INCUBATORS by John Parke (1) ABSTRACT This paper discusses the potential role of incubators in the development of the small business sector in the Pacific; and reasons for the high success rate of small businesses established in incubators. The flexibility of the incubator model has allowed incubators to be successfully established in a wide range of business environments in a variety of countries at different stages of economic development. The successful establishment of incubators in the Pacific will depend on how effectively the model can be adapted to the diversity of cultural and economic environments of the region. Key issues are the selection of appropriate incubator managers and the effective training of both the incubator manager and the small businesses operating in the incubator. INTRODUCTION The concept of small business incubators was created in the East and Mid-West of America to create jobs in local economies seriously affected by the decline of large industries. The first incubator was established in 1959, in Batavia, N.Y. . Steffens reported (1992:29) that by 1992 more than 480 incubators had been established in the US and Canada. About 40% of all incubators were started by economic development agencies, reflecting their potential role in economic development strategies. Another 30% were created by public-private partnerships, and 17 % had been started by universities seeking markets for their faculty research projects. The first incubator in Australia was established in 1985. There were in 1994, 35 incubators operating in Australia. In addition to these 35, there were 9 incubators under construction and a further 8 proposed incubators for which feasibility studies had been completed. The Australia New Zealand Association of Incubators Association has been established to facilitate the further development of incubators in the region. Incubators accommodate a wide variety of businesses. The majority of such businesses are found to be in the service sector, followed by light manufacturing and then the wholesale/ distribution sector. This breakdown of business categories is representative of where business growth is occurring and reflects the target market of incubators. ___________________________________ (1) Marketing for Success, Lyneham, ACT, Australia CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL BUSINESS INCUBATORS

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A small business incubator is an organization in a building or group of buildings where independently owned and operated small businesses are assisted to become established. Each incubator has a manager who not only acts as an administrator for the complex, but also acts as an adviser to the businesses within the incubator. The businesses within the incubator are also provided with a mentor, generally from the local community. Business training (both formal or informal) is also provided. Other names for similar organizations include managed work spaces, nursery estates, venture units and innovation centers. The particular role of incubators is to assist small businesses during the early stages of operations, typically during the initial year or two of operations. This period is the highest risk phase of business failure (approx. 75% failure rate in Australia). This is comparable with the failure rate of the small business sector in other countries. A business will graduate from an incubator once the business's operations have been successfully established. The average length of stay in both Australian and American incubators is approximately 2 years (Gardner and Kenyon, 1994:3; and Bianchi, 1993:49). Incubators are typically established in existing premises, such as former warehouses and factories. The tenants share resources, such as office machines, supplies and support staff. The number of businesses housed in each incubator varies considerably from as few as 5 to as many as 80 businesses. The average number of business units in Australian incubators in 1994 was 23 (Gardner and Kenyon, 1994:35). The size of an incubator will depend largely on the amount of finance available to facilitate the operations of the incubator. A general purpose incubator such as the ones now successfully operating in Canberra and Wollongong need to have in excess of 1500 sq. meters of useable space to be financially viable (Hoefer, 1994:5). Incubators generally have a small staff that includes an operational manager and administrative staff. On average, incubators employ 2.32 full time staff, with additional unpaid or voluntary people working in the incubator - an average of 4.05 (Gardner and Kenyon 1994:31). Support is also provided by a panel of specialists and professionals who provide services by way of sponsoring the organization and assisting its management committee. This reflects the community nature of these organizations. The majority of incubators are still dependent on the public sector for revenue. However all are aiming to become self-supporting within varying time frames. Rents for small businesses operating in incubators are typically at or near market rates. Cheap rents can discourage graduation, lead to unrealistic business strategies and attract criticism from outside businesses for unfair competition. Most incubators have been developed by local management committees. The main advantages of this style of management is that it enables the organization to be flexible and responsive to the needs of the local community.

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The characteristics of small business incubators in the US are similar to those in Australia. The results of a survey of 150 incubators in the US show that 90% are operated as non-profit entities. Incubator tenants employ an average of 54 persons per incubator. There is an average of 12 tenants per incubator. The predominant industry sectors represented include service firms, light manufacturing, technology products and research and development. The main objectives of incubators include the encouragement of local economic opportunities and economic development generally. SUCCESS RATE OF SMALL BUSINESS INCUBATORS Business incubators have proved to be an effective means of successfully establishing new small businesses. There are indications that incubators not only lead to a significant reduction in the failure rate of small businesses, but also that graduate businesses are better managed, more dynamic and more profitable than non-incubated businesses. In Australia 50% of all businesses established in incubators in 1988 are known to be still operating (Gardner and Kenyon, 1994:3). This is a very high success rate when considering that only approximately 5% of non-incubated businesses continue operating after 5 years. Information on annual revenue was provided f or 62 incubated businesses. These business revenues totalled 13.705 million dollars - averaging $221,048 per business (Gardner and Kenyon, 1994:3). This is a significant amount of revenue which has a multiplier effect throughout the economy. In total, 208 businesses graduated from 16 incubators in the 6 years ending 1994. The creation of employment in any community will provide a positive impact on the local environment. When this is accompanied by the establishment of a new viable business the direct and indirect impacts on the community are amplified. Gardener found (Gardner and Kenyon, 1994:3) that in Australia, 72% of the small businesses that graduate from an incubator are known to be operating within the respective incubator's community. This could have considerable importance on the role potential of incubators in regional economic development programs. It would be an advantage for a region that is targeted for economic development to invest resources in the establishment of a business incubator if the majority of the businesses created through such a program were likely to remain operating in that particular area, rather than to relocate elsewhere. REASONS FOR THE HIGH SUCCESS RATE OF SMALL BUSINESS INCUBATORS The main reasons for the ability of incubators to reduce the failure rates of small businesses are: 1. The reduction of the financial burdens in operating a small business, especially initially, thus allowing for a degree of flexibility in the management of that business. The start-up phase of a small business is associated with considerable uncertainty as to the

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operating levels of the business, in particular the level of sales. This results in considerable problems in planning for a small business in terms of the size of facilities and the length of a suitable lease. These problems are compounded by the fact that businesses often have cash flow problems at this period when a business is faced with many set-up costs. These problems are reduced in an incubator by giving business's access to equipment such as photocopiers and fax machines on a user-pay basis, thus reducing the business's set-up costs. Further, incubators provide facilities to businesses on a very flexible nature. Offices are licensed (not leased), generally on a month to month basis. The flexible entry/exit and expansion/reduction arrangements, while creating problems for the incubator management, are seen to be an essential feature of an incubator. 2. The creation of an environment of cooperation and synergy. Small businesses are often isolated from other businesses, both physically and operationally. According to research by the International Labor Office, loneliness seems to be emerging as the biggest single danger for the small firm (ILO, 1994). One of the greatest strengths of incubators comes from having a number of small businesses located under one roof which operate in an environment of cooperation. Such an environment provides a number of both direct and indirect advantages for the businesses involved. Gardener (Gardner and Kenyon, 1994:2) promotes the importance of having newly started businesses exposed to the 'atmospherics of business' by being located with other businesses at varying stages of their development. It is likely that there is empathy amongst the older, albeit relatively young other businesses within the incubator, towards the new entrants. This creates what is called an apprenticeship environment for new operators. Having businesses operate under one roof greatly encourages synergies between the businesses. Value-added opportunities are also enhanced by incubators. The co-location of businesses provides an easier environment for buying and selling between incubated businesses, as well as creating opportunities for joint venturing. 3. Ensuring business operators have the necessary skills operate successfully a small business. Incubators seek to minimize potential failure rates by: (a) Setting entrance criteria to be met by applying businesses. Small businesses applying to operate in an incubator are required to meet certain entrance criteria. Such an evaluation is largely dependent on the soundness of the business plan of the small business. Technical assistance can be provided to assist the business to develop such a plan. There are two main advantages to this evaluation process. Firstly the process ensures the business prepares a thorough business plan, an essential task that is often neglected by small businesses. Secondly the incubator can assist in identifying applying small businesses which are non-viable, before they begin to operate.

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(b) Providing training and associated support. Business training offered by incubators includes diagnostic assessment, training courses and workshops, a business library, reference and referral services. The regular contact between the small businesses, the incubator manager and the mentors, is a highly effective means of identifying, providing and monitoring the specific training needs of resident businesses. (c) Identifying and responding to management problems at an early stage. The early identification of, and effective action in response to management problems can significantly benefit the efficient management of a business. A small business manager operating in isolation, with little experience, is less likely to be able to detect such problems as a person with considerable experience and expertise in small business management. Business incubators provide an environment to enable small businesses to detect and respond to potential management problems in four ways. Firstly a number of businesses operating under one roof encourages small business managers to learn from each other's experiences. Secondly incubators are able to provide effective training to resident business managers on both a formal and informal basis. Thirdly resident business managers are provided with a mentor, who is an experienced business person from the local community. The mentor is there to provide regular technical and, importantly, morale support to the small business manager. Fourthly, an incubator manager is in regular contact with resident business managers on an ongoing basis. Therefore the incubator manager has a particularly important role to play in identifying management issues amongst the resident businesses that may require action. In these ways, an inexperienced small business operator in an incubator is provided with support and advice from experienced business people. This support is provided through the incubator's established network of business specialists. Such a support network would be very difficult for a small business to establish independently. 4. The cost-effective nature of business incubators. An important factor that contributes to the ongoing success of incubators is their cost effectiveness. Incubators are relatively inexpensive to establish and operate. Incubators can also be financially self-sustaining. An incubator is cost-effective to establish and operate. Firstly they are often established in unused or underused premises meaning a building is often provided at minimal cost. Secondly they require only a small administrative staff to operate. The large majority of assistance is offered from the larger community in the form of sponsorship. Thirdly they receive payments from the small businesses operating in the incubator for the use of premises and equipment. Fourthly they require only a basic range of equipment to operate, including a fax, photo-copier and phone system. Fifthly they normally operate as non-profit organizations.

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The relatively small investment required to establish an incubator is important when considering the ineffectiveness of other strategies to encourage small business growth through the over reliance on mutual or local authorities to encourage small enterprises artificially through tax exemptions or subsidies, as these incentives have often failed to generate permanent and stable development (ILO, 1994). 5. The flexibility in the management of incubators. The ability of an incubator to develop an operating environment that encourages the development of small businesses is dependent on the relationships between a large range of and number of individuals and organizations involved with the incubator. These include relationships between the resident businesses, the incubator manager, outside advisors and mentors, the range of other specialists providing services to the incubator and also the general community. It is largely the responsibility of the incubator manager to actively manage and monitor the health and nature of these relationships. The difficult task of managing these relationships is made more complicated by the fact that the needs of small businesses in the early stages of development are often unpredictable. However it is essential that the incubator is operated in a way that it provides the necessary flexibility to meet these unpredictable needs of the small businesses involved. An example of this is the issue of deciding for how long a small business should remain in an incubator. Restraints, such as arbitrary time limits are unhelpful as the time of graduation of different business varies. It is essentially a natural process that occurs when a business is established and wanting to improve its image. Flexibility is the key to a successful incubator. 6. The flexibility of incubators in different regions and in different contexts. The importance of the flexibility of incubators lies firstly in their ability to provide a dynamic and flexible operating environment that is suitable for the particular small businesses operating in a particular incubator. Secondly, the flexibility of incubators allows them to operate successfully in a variety of regions and business environments. The executive director of the US National Business Incubation Association, Dinah Adkins (McKee, 1992:41), points out that the reason why their industry is growing is that incubators are adaptable. In addition to operating in urban centers, 26% of incubators in the US are located in rural areas (Bianchi, 1993:49). Incubators are also located near federal research laboratories or on campuses of universities. Such incubators are termed research parks. Research parks act as a bridge between academic research, knowledge, and expertise on one hand and innovation and commercial exploitation on the other. Tenants have access to ideas and expertise and the network of the university environment and in return offer support for student projects, dissertations and industrial experience for the students. Parks are generally owned and managed by the institution (Dalton, 1994:3).

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Therefore, the basic concept of the incubator model has successfully been adapted to operate in a variety of environments. The model has been proven, in practice, to be flexible. However it is the effective management of the various relationships involved that facilitates this success. It is the responsibility of the incubator manager to coordinate and manage the various relationships and to ensure the effective dynamics and operations of the incubator. THE ROLE OF THE INCUBATOR MANAGER The role of the incubator manager is central to the successful operations of an incubator. It is the dynamic and positive environment created within an incubator that facilitates the growth of the resident small businesses. This environment is created through a number of apparently loosely related relationships between the various individuals and organizations involved with the incubator. This vital task is the responsibility of the incubator manager. This task of managing the dynamic environment of an incubator means that incubator managers have a wide variety of management responsibilities. In particular these include managing the effective administration of the incubator, providing both technical and morale support to resident small businesses and ensuring the positive dynamics of the wide variety of individuals and organizations involved both directly and indirectly with the incubator. An effective manager needs to be skilled in all of these areas. If an incubator manager lacks any of these management skills, the environment of the incubator is likely to be negatively affected. This negative impact on the environment within the incubator can therefore have a negative impact on those small businesses operating in the incubator. The importance of the position of incubator manager and the skilled nature of the position places tremendous importance on the selection of and the training required by potential candidates. THE GROWING WORLDWIDE INTEREST IN AND USE OF INCUBATORS The high success rate of small businesses operating in incubators and the flexibility of the incubator model has resulted in a significant growth in the number of incubators operating on a worldwide basis. Incubators are now located in a number of economically developed and developing countries, including the middle East, in eastern Europe and the former Soviet bloc. The successful establishment of the first incubator in Poland is discussed in more detail later in this paper. This case study provides a good example of how the basic incubator model can be successfully modified to suit the particular business environment of a region. ARE BUSINESS INCUBATORS RELEVANT TO THE PACIFIC? The incubator model can be shown to be relevant in the developing countries in the Pacific region. The incubator model has successfully been used in a wide variety of business environments, including areas that are economically underdeveloped. The basic incubator model can be effectively introduced in new areas using the experience and expertise of incubator specialists

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from other countries. The basic incubator model can be effectively modified to suit the particular business environment (Tiffany Meyer Haugen, 1990:25-27). The factors to be considered include the racial mix of the population, the business sectors involved and cultural considerations of the area. Initial modifications can be achieved partly through discussion between international and local specialists, and partly by the establishment of a managing committee being made up largely of local representatives. It is important to identify the needs of the region or community and then create an incubator infrastructure which will encourage the development of firms in that area. The incubator manager would be an appropriate local person. The business culture of the incubator would naturally evolve taking into account the particular needs and ambitions of individual businesses involved with the incubator. The incubator model would be cost-effective to establish, and would aim to be self-sustaining, or at least require only minimum external funding to operate. Once a number of incubators have been established in a country, a national committee could be established to coordinate and expand the number of incubators in the country. Such a committee could cooperate with other national incubator bodies, particularly in the Pacific region, to assist the further development of the model and to cooperate in areas such as training. HOW THE BASIC INCUBATOR MODEL WILL NEED TO BE MODIFIED TO SUIT THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT OF THE PACIFIC The successful establishment and operation of small business incubators in the Pacific will depend largely on how effectively the basic incubator model can be modified to suit the particular business environment of the region. Factors that will influence the operation of incubators in the Pacific include the following: 1. Cultural environment of the region. Traditional customs can have a marked impact on businesses operating in the region - for example kerekere in Fiji or far te in Rotuma. This custom allows a person to ask another person for a product, on the understanding that person can ask for a product or service, in return, at a later date. Such customs can run contrary to modern economic practices especially if, for instance, someone goes to his or her friend, the local storekeeper, to kerekere a packet of cigarettes or a tin of pilchards. Those managing the incubator will need firstly to understand and be sensitive to local issues that impact directly or indirectly on the small businesses operating in the incubator; secondly to be able to offer advice to the small businesses operating in the incubator about matters concerning local cultural issues; and thirdly to be sensitive to the attitude of the local community to the incubator. The support and involvement of the local community is important to the success of the incubator. The incubator management will need to be able to develop a sense of cooperation not only within the incubator itself, but also between the incubator and the general community. 2. Economic environment of the region.

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The economy of the countries of the Pacific have been generally based on a subsistence culture. This is now changing, particularly around urban centers. However the development of a market orientated system and private enterprises can be slowed due to the resistance in the change of attitudes away from those associated with the original subsistence culture (Parke, 1994: 8). Those managing the incubator will need firstly to understand and be sensitive to the aspirations of the small businesses operating in the incubator; secondly to encourage the small businesses to become more market orientated so that they will be responsive and dynamic to the changing needs of their markets; thirdly to encourage businesses to develop their general management skills including financial planning, communication and negotiation skills; fourthly to encourage small businesses to diversify away from traditional agricultural activities to alternate economic activities, such as the garment industry and tourism-associated activities in Fiji; and fifthly to understand that the process of encouraging businesses to become market orientated is likely to be a gradual and long-term process. 3. The cultural and economic diversity of the Pacific region. There is great diversity in the characteristics of people both within the Pacific region and within individual countries in the region. For instance, Holmes (1980: 1) quotes Oliver who said "Differences between coast and inland tribes ... marked tribal differences in matters such as kin alignment ... rank ... totemism, age grading, and cultism, spell despair for anyone seeking a simple formula for understanding the Solomonese as an entity". If Oliver's point is valid for the Solomons, how much more so is it valid for Melanesia generally, Fiji and Western Polynesia. Those managing the incubator will need firstly to identify and be aware of cultural and economic characteristics of their particular area; secondly to provide a service to meet the particular needs of small businesses in their particular area; and thirdly to monitor the changing needs of their area in order to meet economic and cultural changes as they occur. A national planning policy to establish incubators in a country would need a degree of flexibility to ensure that any differences in the particular needs of businesses within the different areas of the country may be met. KEY ISSUES When considering the three factors that will influence the operations of incubators in the Pacific, two main issues arise. 1. The selection and training of incubator managers. The role of the incubator manager is of central importance to the successful operations of the incubator as a whole. The responsibilities of the incubator manager are to be responsible for the administration of the incubator, to act as an adviser and mentor to the small businesses operating in the incubator, and to manage actively the multitude of relations between the small businesses in

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the incubator, the staff, the incubator's support network and the general community. The role of the manager in the Pacific region is made more complicated because of the need to understand and be sensitive to the often complicated cultural issues in the region. Therefore incubator managers in the Pacific will need to be carefully selected and effectively trained. The person chosen should be from the local region and should have a thorough understanding of the cultural issues of that particular area. 2. The provision of effective business training to businesses operating in the incubator. A large majority of small business managers in the Pacific region have little or no formal training. They are accustomed to running a small business using very simple management techniques with little emphasis on areas such as financial control and marketing. There will be increasing pressures on small businesses to improve further their management skills for them to compete on local and international markets. It will be important that small businesses operating in incubators are provided with effective training to ensure their success. Parke (1994:10-12) discusses in more detail the particular training needs of small businesses operating in the Pacific region. THE SUCCESS OF SMALL BUSINESS INCUBATORS IN ECONOMICALLY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES The successful establishment of small business incubators in Poland, an economically developing country, is a working example that illustrates major issues that are likely to be experienced if incubators are to become established in the Pacific region (Kurzydlowski, 1994). Some of the major issues raised are as follows: 1. Establishing cooperation between relevant bodies to act as the basis of the network for the operations of the incubator. The concept of establishing a business incubator at the Warsaw University of Technology was introduced in November 1990. It involved the collaboration of representatives from the Warsaw University of Technology, major Polish corporations, the Polish government and US Northwestern University's Technology Innovation Center (a high-technology incubator). 2. Identifying international experts to assist establish first incubators.

Expert project teams from Northwestern University's Technology Innovation Center visited Poland to train the Polish incubator staff. Staff also had the opportunity to undertake training with the US National Business Incubation Association and had site visits to incubators in the United States.

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3. Finding suitable premises, and equipment. The Warsaw University of Technology provided the Center with office space, staffing, some equipment and a small research facility. 4. Funding and funding restraints. Funding was provided by the Polish Ministry of National Education, the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research and the Polish Science Foundation. The aim was for the incubator to become self-funding, because of the uncertainty of ongoing external funding. However without some initial external financial assistance the incubator could not have become established. The low level of external and university aid led the incubator to adopt an incremental growth approach. This involved gradually increasing the size of its operations. The incubator started in 2 rooms equipped with a telephone and a couple of desks before expanding its operations. 5. Organizing a small number of employed staff and a larger number of volunteer help was established. The employed incubator staff included a secretary, accountant, laboratory technician and director. In addition, a full-time adviser from the MBA Enterprise Corps of the United States provided advice to the Center and its tenants on business and management issues. The incubator staff was also assisted by a board of advisers, a Chairman of the Board as well as members of the faculty, student body and volunteers from the business community. 6. Identifying the role and mission of the new enterprise. The incubator looked to provide workable and attainable start-up conditions for tenants. The office provided computer equipment, secretarial services and a business library. The management and staff of the center provided an advisory service for the businesses involved. Also, the center promoted entrepreneurial opportunities throughout the university community, encourage individuals with marketable ideas and research results to commercialize these ideas and helped firms to make the best use of the Warsaw University of Technology's resources. 7. Establishing and promoting the use of networks. Firms operating in the incubator were encouraged to seek advice from the incubator's support network of business and technical professionals. An important initial aim of the incubator was the development of channels of communication between the incubator and the business community. 8. The need for effective planning. Faced with the shortage of funds and the pressure of high expectations from those involved in the incubator, it was decided not to carry out a feasibility study for the incubator. The failure to follow such a businesslike approach to the building of the incubator certainly resulted in some

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errors which could otherwise have been avoided. The staff of the incubator in Poland pointed out that others should take advantage of their experience so as to avoid making similar mistakes. The management of the incubator in Warsaw identified the following steps to assist in the further development of incubators in Poland: *

To refine further the incubator's operational procedures, to upgrade facilities and to improve the services offered to the incubated businesses.

*

To create an institution that can give small businesses in the incubator easier access to seed funding. This may involve the institution taking an equity position with the small businesses involved.

*

To investigate the most effective means by which the established incubator can share its experience with other centers in Poland interested in establishing an incubator. This is an effective means of expanding the existing incubator's support network to other parts of Poland.

*

To further expand the incubator's international support network.

I spent one and a half years working with small businesses in Poland from 1991 to 1993. This period followed the end of Communist rule in Poland in 1989 which "marked the end of one system of business and the beginning of a new system of business and the beginning of a new system based on a market economy" (Parke, 1993:4). My experience supports the issues raised by Kurzydlowski. I consider that particular importance should be placed on developing a national strategy for the establishment of incubators and the development of a national committee made up largely of local representatives to facilitate the exchange of ideas, experiences and materials that would assist the effective modification of the basic incubator model to suit the developing market economy of Poland. Similarly I consider that the model appropriately modified could be applied to suit the developing market economies of the Pacific where I have also had some experience. HOW TO MEASURE THE SUCCESS OF SMALL BUSINESS INCUBATORS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES It would be useful to have some universally standard measures of success of incubators in the Pacific. Possible measures of success suited to economically developing countries are proposed in a paper entitled 'Measuring People-Centered Development: The Problems of Data Availability and Documentation' (Meyer and Burayidi, 1992). They include the measurement of:

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*

The industrial mix of an area, taking into account the diversification and resilience of local businesses to external and local economic shifts and shocks.

*

The proportion of local output sold outside the community.

*

The number of formal and informal credit institutions per thousand people. The accessibility to credit facilities for the purpose of investment in the local area. Failure to recognize informal credit provision processes has led to inappropriate policies in industrialized countries as well as the third world. CONCLUSION

Incubators have proven to be an effective means of establishing successful small businesses. The success of incubators lies largely in their ability to create an environment of cooperation, support (both morale and technical), learning and the sharing of business experiences. This positive environment is created through the active management of the relations and interactions between the small businesses operating in the incubator, the incubator staff, trainers and the extensive support network that the incubator can access in the general community. A major advantage of incubators in their role of facilitating the growth of small businesses lie in their adaptability to service the particular needs of small businesses in different business environments. This has meant that small business incubators have been successfully established in a wide range of operating conditions within different countries. The basic incubator model can be derived from countries with established incubators, and in particular economically developing countries who have successfully established incubators. This basic model can then be effectively modified to suit the different cultural and economic environments within the Pacific region. It is concluded that there is a role for small business incubators in the Pacific, as a proven, sustainable, cost-effective means of encouraging the growth of small business in the region. BIBLIOGRAPHY Bianchi, A. (1993) "New Businesses: Incubator Update", in INC. Vol. 15. Jan 1993:49. Dalton, I. (1994) "The Role and Effectiveness of University Related Research Parks: The International Evidence", in proceedings of the Symposium on Research Parks and Incubators: Implications and Innovation and Job Creation in Australia. La Trobe University R&D Park, Bundoora, Victoria. Gardner, J. and A. Kenyon (1994) Business Incubators in Australia - An Evaluation. Haugen, T.M. (1990) "Getting a Head Start: The Rise of Business Incubators", in Business Forum, Winter 1990: 25-27.

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Hoefer, P., S.J. Noy, J.C. Schooneveldt and J. Webb (1994) "Business Incubators: The Australian Experience", in the proceedings of the 5th ENDEC World Conference on Entrepreneurship 1994. National Development Center, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. ILO (1992) "Industrial districts: the road to success for small businesses", in Monthly Labor Review. Feb. 1992:46-47. McKee, 13. (1992) "A Boost for Start-Ups" in Nation's Business, August 1992: 40-42. Meyer, P.B. and Burayidi, M. (1992)

"Measuring People-Centered Development: The

Problems of Data Availability and Documentation", in proceedings of the Third Working for Common Wealth Conference, Commonwealth Association for Local Action and Economic Development, Kuala Trangganu, Malaysia, April 1992. Parke, J. (1993) Marketing for Small Businesses in Poland, Dom Wydawniczy "ANKAR", Warsar. Parke, J. (1994) "The Development of the Small Business Sector in Melanesia, Fiji and Western Polynesia", in proceedings of the Australian Development Studies Network Symposium, "Teaching for development, an international review of Australian formal and non formal education for Asia and the Pacific, held at the Australian National University, Canberra, in September 1994. Steffens, R. (1992) "What the Incubators Have Hatched", in Planning, May 1992:28.

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