100
Skill Formation, Labour Mobility and Network Evolution - Theoretical Ideas, Organization and Implementation Prof. Dr. Karl-Heinz SCHMIDT Department of Economics University of Paderborn Warburger Str. 100 D-33098 Paderborn GERMANY Phone: +49 05251 60 2083 Fax: +49 05251 60 3546 Sub-theme: - Internal Growth v. Cooperation, or - New Technology and Entrepreneurship Abstract Mainly innovative, export-oriented and flexible enterprises grow. SME's also are expected to grow, but many small firms do not grow. SME's need better chances to expand employment, production and sales. Innovative industries and SME's are investigated as to labour qualifications and employment (Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Japan). Hypotheses based on human capital theory and network economics are applied to analyse internal and external arrangements of skill formation, labour mobility and technology transfer. Conclusions: (1) Innovations increase demand for creative and flexible labour and entrepreneurial activities. (2) Innovation networks sustain vocational and regional mobility of employees and entrepreneurs. (3) Network evolution satisfies needs of SME's for independent and flexible productive resources corresponding to evolutionary strategies. 1.
Problem, definitions and data
Increasing rates of technological changes, fluctuating preferences of consumers and the integration and globalization of markets strengthen the demand for new criteria of the optimal allocation of resources. The innovations turn out to be endogenous variables of the economic development. Consequently, individual enterprises and networks of enterprises influence the rates of technical change, labour productivity and economic growth at a growing extent. SME's are expected to grow, too, but empirical data and theoretical reasoning point out that firms of different size have
Page 1
37
different chances to grow. Many small firms do not grow, while others realize high rates of growth of employment, investment and production. Two problems can be identified: (1) What is the relation between innovations and demand for labour by SME's under the conditions of increasing rates of technological change? (2) Which are the effects of innovations on the skill formation and mobility of labour, and which employment strategies may be recommended for SME's? The following paper investigates the differences of labour qualifications and of the organization of skill formation and recurrent vocational and technical education in industries incorporating SME's to a large extent. Also, the organization of innovative firms, technology transfer, labour mobility and employment is to be analysed. Herewith, new ideas based on evolutionary economics and network evolution will be applied, and their impact on the relation of skill formation and recurrent schooling and training is investigated. Furthermore the effects of innovations on labour mobility -- in house, interfirm, intersectoral and interregional -- will be considered. Finally, the concept of innovation networks and its relations to the concept of labour mobility and to the idea of evolutionary strategies of SME's are pointed out. The paper ends with conclusions for the evolution of networks corresponding to evolutionary strategies in the SME-sector. The following definitions of evolutionary economics, network evolution and evolutionary strategies will be applied in the following sections: -
Evolutionary economics investigates the effects of innovations and the disequilibrium processes of structural changes.[1]
-
Network evolution describes the coordinated development of co-operative activities operated by independent units (organizations, enterprises, individuals) and aiming at common targets.[2]
-
Evolutionary strategies point out the coordinated application of measures orientated to long-term economic targets of independent units (organizations, enterprises, individuals) under the conditions of changing technological and environmental conditions.[3]
2.
Evolutionary economics and network evolution
Though evolutionary economics has emerged out of the dissatisfaction with the way technical change was treated in
Page 2
37
mainstream economics,[4] it is not only the criticism of neoclassical economic theory which makes up the contents of the contributions designated as evolutionary economics. It is the endogenous creation, diffusion and utilization of new knowledge and new opportunities of actions, which constitute the object of new attempts to explain the economic development by basic concepts covering disequilibrium and instability of economic activities. But a basic concept which incorporates the related contributions has not (yet) been developed. Therefore the ideas of economic equilibrium and of stable development -- key concepts of neoclassical economics -- also are not (yet) out of discussion.[5] In order to give way to that discussion, the economic development should be investigated under consideration of individual behaviour and of microeconomic activities of learning, creating new internal and external (environmental) conditions and decision making on future paths of development. Already J.A. Schumpeter's analysis of the economic development referred to individuals who create new ideas and knowledge and to individuals who learn, adopt, diffuse and apply the new ideas and "new combinations".[6] The actual contributions to evolutionary economics focus on questions like: How is new knowledge created? Under which conditions are innovations carried out? Which effects result from new paths of economic development? To answer these questions, different concepts were elaborated, like an evolution-concept based on the idea of a changing potential of new knowledge, or an evolutionconcept based on the idea of self-organization creating a spontaneous order which is orientated to a status of equilibrium.[7] Contrasting to the latter, the former concept considers the idea of the continuous creation and destruction of knowledge during discontinuous processes of economic development.[8] Regarding the size-structure of firms and focusing on SME's, the central point of evolutionary economics is the impact of disequilibrium and of variable paths of development on the enterprise structure and on the development of individual enterprises, especially of SME's. As creation and destruction of knowledge is considered, it may happen that the new knowledge is created and utilized in large enterprises while the available (traditional) knowledge is devaluated (destroyed) in small firms. Economies of large scale at research, learning and production might explain the advantages of large enterprises. On the other hand, economies of scope and decentralizing effects of new technologies turn out to bring about new advantages for small firms. These advantages are of technological and/or economic kind. They are used as effective arguments for the creation and expansion of evolutionary networks of organizations, enterprises or individuals. In the SME-sector evolutionary networks have been developed at different extent in countries designated by fluctuating/continuing
Page 3
37
rates of economic growth. The central point as to the development of SME's is the organization of co-operative activities operated by independent firms. Yet, inhere the key-problem of networks becomes obvious: Is it possible to organize and to manage evolutionary networks in the SME-sector in such a way, that the participating companies and the networks will experience technological and economic stability? The creativity and the flexibility of the individual firms and of the SME-networks will depend on the potential of new knowledge and on its actualisation.[9] Consequently, the innovativeness of human capital formation and utilization is of basic importance for the evolutionary potential of SME's and of SME-networks. Therefore, the skill formation, schooling and training facilities, activities and effects in SME-oriented industries must be investigated. 3.
Innovative skill formation and recurrent schooling and training
The relations of skill formation, schooling and training activities and of employment and labour incomes have been described by various approaches of labour market theories like the job search and labour turnover theories, labour contract theories, human capital theory and labour market segmentation theories.[10] According to mainstream economics the human capital theory offers the adequate explanation of the relations of skill formation, employment and labour incomes. But the increasing unemployment rates and the accelerating technological chances have pointed out that the conditions of the labour markets have changed and that various additional factors determine the wage rates and employment in enterprises of different size and industries. Consequently, the suppositions of the human capital theory were diversified and the approaches of labour market segmentation theories were elaborated under consideration of a larger set of structural variables like profession, social origin industry, mobility barriers etc.[11] The segmentation theories actually let conclude that the wage rates are determined independently from the rates of unemployment, which means that the rates of employment also are determined not (only) by wage rates, but by additional variables. As such determinant variables should be considered: the additional human capital investment by means of increased expenditures for professional skill formation, schooling and training activities, introductory courses to science and technology, research seminars a.o. forms of learning. From this point of view the expenditures of SME's for skill formation, schooling and training may be seen to be part of human capital investment, but also to contribute to the development of specific qualifications of labour which may be occupied at different work places -- according to specific crafts, professions or
Page 4
37
divisions of the enterprises. In fact, this specification of labour and of work places is part of the traditional characteristics of SME's, because the SME's always had to compete by "differentiated goods and services",[12] which could be supplied only by employment of specialized and qualified labour. Conclusively, the decisions on skill formation, vocational training and schooling in SME's may be explained as decisions on human capital investment. Following the hypothesis of human capital theory, they are orientated to positive rates of return on investment, and they represent expectations of increasing monetary and non-monetary future incomes. As a supply-oriented approach the human capital theory also shall explain the differences of individual incomes by demonstrating the differences of labour qualifications and of labour productivity. But herewith institutional factors are relevant, because they determine different ways of getting qualified: a vocational training and schooling sector and an academic sector are part of the educational system, with each sector consisting of different sections. Innovative skill formation depends on innovative activities, schooling and training at the workplace, at external schooling and training institutions and at recurrent education centers. The vocational schooling and training may be organized at different locations: at the workshop, at school or at both locations, the latter representing the "dual system" of vocational education. The vocational training and schooling system in fact differs as to the locations of learning in various countries. In Austria, Germany and Switzerland the vocational training and schooling system consists of two subsystems: a vocational schooling system and a practical training system. The vocational schooling system consists of three departments: schooling of workers having finished the apprenticeship, and schooling of skilled workers who have practised their profession for at least five years and who want to finish the "master exams". The vocational training system is more orientated to practical work, mainly at the workshop of enterprises, in which the apprentices and workers are employed. The practical training "on the job" is combined with schooling and training in public or semi-public training and schooling centers "off the job". These centers are of increasing importance for the innovations and for the diffusion of new technologies. Conclusively, the training and schooling centers are of basic importance for the innovativeness of vocational training and schooling "off the job" and "on the job". As a country which has organized vocational training and schooling in a different way, Japan may be considered.
Page 5
37
Vocational training is carried out "on the job", with some additional activities being supplied "off the job" by vocational training and schooling centers or by large enterprises. The most important location of training and learning is the enterpriseworkshop. Summarizing, the innovativeness of training and schooling in the considered countries depends on the innovativeness of the equipment and organization of the workplaces at the workshop. As a complementary measure the facilities of public or semi-public training and schooling centers may be found. In Europe, these centers are of increasing importance for the dynamics of the vocational training and schooling sector. But to some extent the impact of external facilities for schooling and training is also recognized in Japanese companies, organizations and public institutions. 4.
Innovation-oriented labour mobility
Innovative schooling and training is correlated with labour mobility, because after finishing the schooling and training programs, the labour productivity is expected to be increased, and the flexibility of the employees is presumed to be higher than before participating in the schooling and training activities. The schooling and training is especially necessary in order to prepare the employees for the operation and maintenance of new machinery and new information and communication equipment. But after schooling and training the employees generally are needed at new or other workplaces of the enterprise or at different divisions of the firm. Therefore intrafirm or interfirm transfers of workers will be carried out. According to this conclusion, the labour mobility is expected to be higher in innovative enterprises and industries than in less innovative sectors of the economy. Taking the human capital theory and the labour market segmentation theory into account, the following hypothesis may be set out to investigation: the labour mobility is increased in enterprises and industries aiming at the formation of internal labour markets by means of vocational training and schooling in order to allocate qualified labour and to stabilize the employment of technologically advanced and highly motivated employees. Conclusively, it should be possible to demonstrate by empirical data, that innovative SME's are characterized by higher training and schooling activities, higher labour mobility and higher productivity of labour compared to less innovative SME's. Yet, selected empirical data on employment and schooling and training activities in the considered countries let conclude, that the numbers of employees are increased only in few
Page 6
37
industries, and that only some of these industries are designated by high shares of SME's and highly innovative production. In these industries the negative effect on employment following from the substitution of labour by innovative capital investment is overcompensated by the positive effect on employment following from the increase of productivity and output and by the decrease of average costs per unit of production in the innovative enterprises. In the majority of industries the negative effect of innovative capital investment on employment obviously overcompensates the positive effect of the growing productivity and production capacity. If the demand does not grow adequately, the production capacity will be underutilized. In Germany the relative changes of employees and gross invested capital (1990-93) and the percentage of employees of SME in relation to the employees of the industry (1990) let presume positive effects of innovative capital investment in SME in the foodstuff industry, in the industry of metal products and to some extent in the automobile industry and electrotechnical industry (Table 1). To recognize further details, specific surveys and case studies of individual companies are necessary. Table 1: Employees of selected industries in Germany* 1990 and 1993 Industry es
Employees
Gross invested capital
(1000) 1990
1993
1993 (1990
(1985
=100)
=100)
Mrd.DM
Employe of SME (%) 1990
- Iron production
179
126
70
50
2
54
- Mechanical engineering
1.075
880
82
104
6
41
- Automobile industry
890
747
84
114
11
41
- Electrotechnical industry
1.036
874
84
111
9
44
- Precision mechanics and optics
144
123
85
93
1
44
Page 7
37
- Metal products
334
299
90
142
3
44
- Textiles
210
151
72
71
1
74
- Foodstuff
463
460
99
160
8
81
* West Germany: Source:
estimated calculations based on statistics of establishments (Arbeitsstattenzahlungen)
Bundesministerium fur Wirtschaft (ed.): UnternehmensgroBenstatistik 1992/1993 - Daten und Fakten, Studienreihe Nr. 80, Bonn 1993, p.142 f. Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft (IW) (ed.): Zahlen zur wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Ausgabe 1991, Koln 1991; Ausgabe 1995, Koln 1995; Tab 63,65.
According to a survey of 4.500 German enterprises carried out mid 1994 by the Federal Labour Office, Nurnberg, only small firms occupying less than 10 persons intended to increase the number of employees up to mid 1995. Industries of expanding employment were the construction business, production oriented and personal services and non-profit organizations. Up to 1999 about 45% of the West-German enterprises expect their numbers of employees to be kept on the level of 1994. Only 21% of the considered companies expect the employees to be increased, but 13% presume that their employment will be decreased (Table 2). Table 2: Expected employment of German enterprises 1994-1999 Percentage of enterprises with numbers of employees... (compared to mid 1994) (%) More than Up to 10% constant Up to 10% More than closed
10% higher higher less 10% less
7 14 45 9 19 2
\ \ \ / / /
number of firms considered: 1.608 number of employees considered: 29.185
Source: Institut fur Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung der Bundesanstalt fur Arbeit: Beschaftigungstrends Nr. 4, 1995, p. 4. Innovation-oriented labour mobility also concerns the regional dimension of mobility. The statistical data of the German state of Hessen point out, that during the years 1991-1994 the total number of employees covered by social security shrinked (-1,6%)
Page 8
37
while the number of commuters in Hessen increased (+0,9%), but with considerable regional differences. Firstly, large agglomeration areas attracted less commuters than in former periods, whereas smaller industrial or service-oriented regions attracted increasing numbers of commuters. Secondly, commuters without a finished professional education decreased (-4,6%), whereas commuters having finished a professional education (+1,5%), especially those who finished an academic education, increased (+11,4%). Thirdly, the rate of decrease of commuters was lower than the rate of decrease of local employees, a result which corresponds to the statement, that commuters are to a large extent highly qualified and motivated. Conclusively, commuters are employed at high rates in innovative industries and at a large amount integrated into the internal labour market of the enterprises (Table 3). Table 3: Relative changes of the employees covered by social security and of commuters into communities of the state of Hessen, Germany 1991-1994 Employees covered by social security (%)
Commuters coming from other communities (%)
total
-1,6
+0,9
...having finished an academic education
+9,8
+11,4
...having finished a professional education
-0,4
+1,5
...having not finished a professional education
-7,2
-4,6
Source:
Landesarbeitsamt Hessen, Referat Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufsforschung, Frankfurt a.M.(ed.): ABF aktuell, Pendler-Atlas Hessen, Neue Folge 1, Frankfurt a.M. 1995, p. 1-8, 143 ff.
But also regionally mobile persons need additional professional knowledge in order to be continuously employed. In West Germany the percentage of persons who participated in recurrent education increased from 1979 to 1992 by 70%. Yet, severe differences as to the firm size, applied technologies, enterprise organization, age and qualification of the concerned employees should not be neglected. Employees of smaller firms participated in the recurrent education at a lower rate than employees of larger firms. Especially workers participated less than salaried
Page 9
37
persons and government officials. Older persons also make use of the supplied programs of recurrent education less than younger persons, mainly up to the age of 35 years. In the German state of Hessen the total employment during the period 1980-1994 was increased (+10%), while the number of employees without finished professional education was decreased (-18%), especially in manufacturing production and construction business. New workplaces instead were created in the service sector, but mainly for employees who have finished a profession education (Table 4). This trend will be continued and therefore additional activities as to recurrent education are necessary.[13] Table 4: Results of programs of recurrent professional education in Hessen, Germany 1994 Total
(%)
Participants who finished programs
21.817
100
-
without finished elementary school with finished elementary school with finished junior high school with finished senior high school
814 9.615 7.194 4.194
3,7 44,1 33,0 19,2
-
Salaried employees/public officials* professional workers non-professional workers apprentices other employees unemployed persons
9.179 6.000 5.007 179 171 1.181
42,1 27,5 22,9 0,8 1,2 5,5
Source:
5.
Landesarbeitsamt Hessen, Frankfurt a.M.(ed.): Weiterbildung in Hessen im Zeichen des Strukturwandels, ABF aktuell, 20.Oct.1994, p. 76 ff., p. 126 f.
Innovation networks, mobility of employees and evolutionary strategies of SME
Innovative enterprises demand increased and flexible qualifications of labour, but the supply of labour is endangered by the accelerating technological changes to be set out to mismatching of the labour markets, that is to be not adequately upskilled considering the innovative demand for labour. In order to increase the qualifications of labour, the enterprises and public institutions in many countries have developed facilities and programs for recurrent professional schooling and training, external research and development, information processing, management counselling and cooperation in various fields of management. Technical schools, business schools, technology
Page 10
37
centers, research institutes, management training centers and related facilities have been developed in many countries. The more the concerned institutions are prepared to cooperate at the stratification of their policies, the more the institutions form an "innovation pole". The general pattern of an "innovation pole" is characterized by four constituent factors: (1) the organizational scheme, (2) internal effects, (3) external effects, and (4) structural factors designating the production and employment of the involved institutions and enterprises. According to the organizational scheme of the institutions, private or public or semi-public innovation poles may be distinguished. As to the sectoral structure of the involved enterprises and institutions industrial, service sector-oriented and diversified innovation poles can be identified. Considering empirical data it may be pointed out, that the "innovation poles" in Germany, Austria and Switzerland and in similar ways in Japan combine activities which are based on high rates of technological change and on highly qualified and skilled labour. The internal effects and the external effects are based on decentralizing effects of new technologies which are developed and applied in the "innovation poles" and transferred to other enterprises and institutions. The structural factors in addition to the internal and external effects tend to increase the share of SME in the production and employment pattern of the concerned sectors and of the regions, in which the innovation poles are located. They are organized as to different patterns such as networking, cooperatives, joint ventures, investment companies, machinery-teams, information-exchange groups, employment companies and specific arrangement of close cooperation. As the "innovation poles" are developed at different locations, three types of locations can be distinguished: central (city centers), decentralized (countryside) and "footloose" (diffused) locations. The locations are important factors for the external effects of "innovation poles" and for the mobility of labour participating in the recurrent education programs of the polefacilities. The external effects of the schooling, teaching and research activities are of high influence on the spillovers, spin-ins and spin-offs of the recurrent education, research and consultation activities carried out by the pole-facilities. They should be considered to determine the economic effects of skill formation and labour mobility, though differences of the external effects on the mobility of employees in the environmental regions must be considered. In Austria, Switzerland and Germany the motivation of employees
Page 11
37
for mobility and recurrent education is also influenced by the system of professional education. It is contrasting to the Japanese system. While in the regarded European countries three labour market systems -- apprenticeship, professional practice and mastership -- sustain the motivation of employees, in Japan the internal professional training at the workshop is of greater importance for the professional education, mobility and innovative behaviour of the employees. Therefore OJT and internal transfers of workers from one workplace to another in the company are more widespread in Japan than in the European countries. But even in Japan external facilities of schooling, teaching, research, development and consultation are recognized to be efficient institutions of recurrent education and innovations in the SMEsector. Related empirical data point out the interdependence of innovative activities of companies and of innovative training and schooling institutions, the link being the motivation of employees. In Germany the expenditures of internal and external research and development financed by companies and institutions of cooperative research in 1994 were of a relatively high amount in innovative industries like electrical engineering, automobiles and chemicals, but on a lower level in mechanical engineering. Interestingly, the majority of apprentices (males) 1992 decided to enter an apprenticeship in the innovative professions of these industries, for example car-mechanics, industrial and electrical mechanics. Also, the percentage of employees was on a high level in the innovative industries like mechanical engineering, automotive industry and electrical engineering (Table 5). Table 5: Employees 1993, apprentices 1992 and expenditures for research and development 1994 in Germany* Industry
Employees 1993 (1.000)
R&D-expenditures 1994 (Mrd. DM)
Automobile industry Mechanical engineering Electrotechnical industry Precision mechanics and optics Metal products
747 880 874
12,7 5,3 15,4
123 299
-
Profession
Apprentices (males) 1992 (1.000)
-
Automobile mechanic Industrial mechanic Electrical mechanic Furniture production
83,6 65,7 49,6 33,6
Page 12
37
- Whole sale and international trade - Bank accountant - Plumber - Carpenter
29,9 29,8 28,8 27,1
* West Germany Source:
Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft Koln (IW) (ed.), Zahlen zur wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung..., 1995, Tab 63, 109, 116.
But the professional education of the apprentices and the recurrent education of the employees was carried out by internal and external facilities. They cooperate as educational and innovation networks. The "innovation poles" are part of these networks. As they are oriented to innovative professional education and R & D, they may be characterized as evolutionary networks. Similar networks are available in Austria and Switzerland. In Austria the personnel of innovative industries was increased mainly in the service sector. The SME increased the number of employees mainly in specific industries of the manufacturing sector -- chemicals and plastics industry, metal working -- and of the service sector -- production-oriented services and personal services.[14] In Switzerland the innovative industries increased the number of employees and the expenditures for R & D and for human capital investment, too. Especially the expenditures of companies and network facilities -- external university seminars, technology center programs, courses of continuing teaching and management -were increased. But in spite of these activities, profiles showing the required skills of qualified workers and staff and the available skills of qualified persons let conclude, that gaps between the required and available skills of qualified personnel continue to exist. This conclusion is also valid for other industrialized countries and for developing countries. Therefore the development of primary and secondary qualification profiles may be recommended. Primary qualifications concern the formal education, professional experience and quantitative job categories like wage rates, working times and productivity indicators etc. Secondary qualifications include the communication and cooperation capabilities, selfreliance, abilities to accept and to react on criticisms and to take over responsibilities.[15]
Page 13
37
In Japan the internal professional training is of greater importance for the professional education than in Europe, but according to case studies of Japanese companies and "innovation poles", the management of manufacturing companies is interested at a growing extent to cooperate with them and to send employees to technology centers, schooling and R & D institutions and management seminars. The management of the "innovation poles" is also interested to attract more employees, staff personnel, managers and entrepreneurs to diffuse new specific technical and organizational knowledge especially to SME.[16] On the whole the empirical data demonstrate that cooperative activities of "innovation poles" are demanded at a growing extent. For the management strategies they will be of greater importance as evolutionary networks. Conclusions Mainly three conclusions can be drawn from the empirical data and theoretical ideas on innovative activities, "innovation poles" and the development of networks aiming at innovations and at the stabilization of the economic development: (1)
Innovations increase the demand for creative and flexible labour and entrepreneurial activities. Related empirical data of Germany, Austria and Switzerland and of Japan point out the same tendency.
(2)
Innovation networks sustain the vocational and regional mobility of labour. This statement concerns mainly skilled workers, but also management personnel and entrepreneurs. Innovation networks attract especially employees and managers for seminars, courses and consultation meetings. But they create also external effects for the benefits of distant regions.
(3)
The development of "innovation poles" mainly in Japan demonstrates that a network evolution can be identified. The cooperation of internal and external facilities of professional education, R & D and consultation is organized to satisfy the needs of SME for utilizing independent and flexible productive resources in correspondence to the evolutionary strategies of the management of companies and of cooperative "innovation poles". Bibliographic references:
Allen, P.M. (1988): Evolution, innovation and economics, in: Dosi, G. et al. (eds.), p. 95-119;
Page 14
37
Biervert, B., Held, M. (Hg.) (1992): Evolutorische Okonomik. Neuerungen, Normen, Institutionen, Campus Verlag, Frankfurt/New York; Buttler, F., Gerlach, K. (1988): Arbeitsmarkttheorien, in: Handworterbuch der Wirtschaftswissenschaft, Band 9, Stuttgart a.o., p. 686-696; Cuny, R.H. und Stauder, J. (1993): Lokale und regionale Netzwerke, in: Wirtschaftsdienst, H. 3, Baden-Baden, p. 150-157; Dopfer, K. (1990): Elemente einer Evolutionsokonomik: ProzeB, Struktur und Phasenubergange, in: Witt, U. (1990), p. 19-47; Dosi, G. et al. (eds.) (1988): Technical Change and Economic Theory, Pinter Publishers, London and New York; Dosi, G., Orsenigo, L. (1988): Coordination and transformation: an overview of structures, behaviours and change in evolutionary environments, Dosi, G. et al. (eds.), p. 13-37; EIM-ESNR (eds.) (1993): The European Observatory for SMEs, First Annual Report, Zoetermeer NL; Freeman, Chr. (1988): Part I Introduction, in: Dosi, G. et al. (eds.) (1988), P. 1-8; Frohlich, E.A./Hawranek, P.M./Lettmayr, C.F./Pichler, J.H. (1995): Manual for Small Industrial Businesses. Project Design and Appraisal, UNIDO, General Studies Series, Vienna; Grabher, G. (ed.) (1992): The Embedded Firm: On the Socio-Economics of Industrial Networks, London, New York; Hofstatter, S. (1990): Technologietransfer als Instrument zur Forderung von Innovationen in technologieorientierten Klein- und Mittelunternehmungen, Diss. St. Gallen, Bamberg; IW 1995: Institut der Deutschen Wirtschaft Koln (1995): Zahlen zur wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1995, Koln; Monck, C.S.P. a.o. (1990): Science parks and the growth of high technology firms, London 1988, repr.; Pleitner, H.J. (ed.) (1993): Small and Medium-sized Enterprises on their way into the next century, 20th International Small Business Congress 1993, St. Gallen; Schmidt, K.-H. (1989): Strategien innovativer kleiner und
Page 15
37
mittlerer Unternehmen in der Schweiz, IGW Impulse 5, Schweizerisches Institut fur gewerbliche Wirtschaft, St. Gallen; Schmidt, K.-H. (1991): Innovationen, Internationaliserung und 0ekologisierung kleiner und mittlerer Unternehmungen, IGW Impulse 7, St. Gallen; Schmidt K.-H. (1994): Regional Innovation Poles in Japan, University-GH Paderborn, Department of Economics, Paderborn; Schmidt, K.-H. (1995): Innovation poles. Theoretical concepts and empirical data from Japan and Germany. In: industry and Higher Education, Vol. 9, Nr. 1, p. 25-30; Teece, D. (1988): Technological change and the nature of the firm, in: Dosi, G. et al. (eds.), p.256-281; Witt, U. (Hg.) (1990): Studien zur Evolutorischen Okonomik I, Schriften des Vereins fur Socialpolitik, Band 195/I, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin; Witt, U. (Hg.) (1992): Studien zur Evolutorischen Okonomik II, Schriften des Vereins fur Socialpolitik, Band 195/II, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin; [1]
Biervert, B. Und Held, M. (1992), p. 8 f;
[2]
See: Dosi, G., Orsenigo, L. (1988), p. 13ff; Witt, U. (1990), p. 13;
[3]
See: Dosi, G., Orsenigo, L. (1988), P. 21;
[4]
Dosi, G. et al. (eds.) (1988), Preface; Freeman, Chr. (1988), p. 1 f;
[5]
Witt, U. (1990), p. 13 f;
[6]
Schumpeter, J.A. (1934/1961), p. 66 f;
[7]
Witt, U. (1990), p. 13 f;
[8]
Dopfer, K. (1990), p. 39;
[9]
See: Dopfer, K. (1990), p. 30;
[10] Buttler, F., Gerlach, K. (1988), p. 686 ff; [11] Buttler, F., Gerlach, K. (1988), p. 694); [12] Gutersohn, A. (1977), p. 211 ff;
Page 16
37
[13] Landersabeitsamt Hessen, Frankfurt a.M. (ed.): ABF aktuell, 20.10.1994, p. 1 f; [14] Institut der deutschen Wirtschaft (IW) (ed.): Zahlen zur wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung 1995, Tables 63 and 109; [15] UNIDO, 1994, p. 51; [16] Schmidt, K.-H., 1994;
Page 17
