Extended Essays 2013/2014

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Extended Essays 2013/2014



Extended Essays 2013/2014 3

NICK ALCHIN

GUY ROBERTS

Class of 2014 – to be part of a programme that required you to have tasted true academic research, and to do so in your own chosen area, with your own chosen research question, is a remarkable thing. You may not have realised it at the time, but seeing this collection really drives home the scholarly heights you have scaled. From twin studies, to CBD delineation, from arranged marriages to tomato antioxidants, from substrates for Turing machines to the effect of Facebook on adolescent self-esteem, the breath and depth of your studies is little short of astonishing, and you have once again, set a high bar for those who follow.

The IB extended essay allowed you to follow your passion. The idea behind that was that if the IB was letting you pick what you wanted to research, you should be passionate about that topic, that choice. Especially since you would be spending so much time with it.

Congratulations!

Time thinking about your proposal. Time meeting with your supervisor. Time researching, outlining, planning. Time writing. And more time writing. And even more time editing. You spent an enormous time with your EE and probably more than you expected. And it shows. And your passion shows. It is unmistakable from the topics you choose to work with and the research and writing you completed. To celebrate your passion, we have collected your extended essay abstracts in one place so that you can see the diversity of your interests and passions. To give you the chance to see the incredible ideas that you as a class have. And so that you can see how truly remarkable your class is. And a few of you have had your extended essays reprinted here in their entirety. The departments thought that you exemplified the drive and passion, writing and research, the commitment and excellence that the IB asks for in completing the extended essay. I hope when looking at the collected works here, you see that the IB extended essay is more that just a 4000 word research essay in a topic of your choice, but a chance to pursue your passion. Congratulations on such great work and I hope you find them as inspiring as we did.

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Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 1–STUDIES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

ABSTRACTS ENGLISH

AGARWAL, ADITYA

BANSAL, VIBHAVARI

This essay deals with the two webcomics Joy of Tech and XKCD to analyze their attitudes towards the open source model of distribution of media on the internet. It aims to explore along the guiding statement:

Up till this date in society children’s greatness has often been undermined with people assuming that they are immature and not knowledgeable however people fail to realise how children are great in their own way. The brilliance of children is evaluated by different authors choice to use child narrators for their stories as opposed to adults, and seeing how this would change the story.

“Comparison of the ways in which the webcomic sites XKCD and The Joy of Tech treat the Open Source Development Model and related entities in their webcomics.” Webcomics in the context of this essay are limited to comics initially crafted for the internet, and the scope for comics analysed is hence limited to the Joy of Tech and XKCD comics found online via features available on their website URLs: http://www.xkcd.com and http://www.geekculture.com/joyoftech. The essay also examines available news reports, essays, etc. from various online and print sources in order to explore the subject area sufficiently. The essay concludes by establishing that the two comics do differ in their treatment of open source media. XKCD seems to be more liberal and idealistic, while The Joy of Tech seems to take a more skeptical stance towards open source media. XKCD’s reasoning seems to be primarily the moral responsibility of using open-source media while The Joy of Tech primarily supports its stance based on the practical issues with relying on open-source media completely.

Certain characteristics are more evident in children than adults are courage, determination, the ability to forgive and most importantly honesty. The possession of these traits affects how the stories were narrated as well as how they are in their own way great. By evaluating these characteristics in the narrators of The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros, To Kill A Mockingbird by Harper Lee and Extremely Loud and Incredibly Loud by Jonathan Safran Foer it can be seen how these books benefit by child narrators and how children are in fact respectable. Hence displaying how children should not be misjudged as naive or useless as they have done remarkable things.



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BISBO, MARIE

BUITELAAR, JAMIE

HALL, OLIVIA

This essay will asses the question: How are the themes of guilt with respect to the Second World War presented in the two novels: Time’s Arrow and Atonement?

Poetry has long been a recognised and institutionalised literary art form. Recently, the phenomenon of spoken word poetry has made its way back into the public eye. Poetry slams, competitions of interactive spoken word performances, have increased the popularity of spoken word poetry. However, some poets, readers and critics have stated their nonregardance of slam as poetry. This essay investigates the poetic and literary techniques used both by slam poets and traditional poets that mark the closeness of slam to traditional poetry by answering the question:

To answer the research question, “In poems by Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman, how are the similarities in the images of Death, which represent human nature, portrayed and how can contextual factors influence the perception of these images?”, this essay compares Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman’s poetry to illustrate the imagery of death and the similarities and dissimilarities between these and the contextual issues which may account for the influences behind some of these themes.

The object of this investigation is to analyse how the Second World War has been approached in post-modernist British literature. I found that in the two works chosen, guilt played a large role in the development of the characters, and this guilt was linked with the Second World War. I also found that what was significant about the two works was that they showed how the war still affects society, and that there is still a lingering guilt tied to the events. More specifically, the guilt stems from not knowing how it could have happened at all. As such, I wanted to look at how Ian McEwan and Martin Amis present this idea of guilt and the Second World War and how they aim to make their audience complicit in the actions of the characters, in other words making us feel guilty. In this investigation I look at the development of the concept of guilt through different literary devices. Furthermore, I look at criticisms that illustrate the historical context, and I found that in writing the novels, the two authors were reflecting a guilt that they themselves feel over the war, despite not being directly involved in it. In looking at the two works and analysing their purposes, I have concluded that guilt is persistent in the wake of the Second World War and has shaped society, but also that guilt is an integral aspect to growing up.

How do similarities in literary techniques show that slam/spoken word is as valid a form of poetry as it’s traditional counterparts? This essay uses the works of three slam/ performance poets in relation to the works of three traditional poets as the basis for a comparison of literary techniques and their effects in communicating the poets’ artistic intention. The comparisons are made between Mayda del Valle’s Elemental and Gwendolyn Brooks’ We Real Cool, Taylor Mali’s On Girls Lending Pens and W. H. Auden’s The More Loving One, and Benjamin Zephaniah’s The Death of Joy Gardner and Henry Lawson’s The Ballad of the Drover. They focus on literary devices specific to each poem and how they overlap through the different types of poetry. Through this comparison, the essay comes to the conclusion that slam poetry uses the same devices and techniques as traditional poetry, and is therefore firmly embedded in the poetic sphere. Furthermore, spoken word poems remain effective on the page due to these poetic techniques, they do not depend fully on invigorating performances to support their merit. Lastly, these poems are reminiscent of the spoken poetry that preceded today’s traditional poetry, and therefore cannot be considered as outside of the poetic sphere.

These contextual issues are of importance due to the poets having shared similar experiences in the American Civil War (they were both shared political views: the Union). However, the poets’ uniqueness in their work is also discussed regarding their internal influences: Whitman’s grief after the loss of President Abraham Lincoln and Dickinson’s heightened perception of reality. The themes of their poetry differ due to this, but they all revolve around the motif of death as this imagery is being used to accentuate the theme of human nature; for example, war or emotions. To study this topic, the comparisons are between selected poems and are in organised sections, each with an extensive insight and critical analysis into the imagery of death within each poem. Although Dickinson and Whitman have differing contextual issues, it is ultimately these contextual matters which permit us opposing perspectives on a single theme or idea, depending on the effect of the issue on the poet. Through enabling us varying perspectives, the poets convey to us the message that it is not always one solution or emotion being dealt with at one time which is important, but rather our awareness of other perceptions and emotions towards the same idea that truly defines our own extensive human nature.

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Extended Essays 2013/2014

HESCHUK, SYDNEY ANN

HSUEH, HO HSUAN

KIM, E-JUN

In John Green’s novel Looking for Alaska the story follows Miles, a teenager who moved to boarding school, where he goes to seek the ‘Great Perhaps’ during this time Miles meets incredible new friends who have a great impact on his life, especially Alaska, who dies halfway through the story to catalyse the rest of Miles’ Hero’s Journey. Similarly, in Green’s novel The Fault in Our Stars the story follows Hazel, a teenager suffering from cancer who meets Augustus and he helps her overcome her ‘terminal’ state in her life. Augustus’s death also catalyses the rest of Hazel’s Hero’s Journey. To answer the question “How does John Green utilize the concept of death as a mentor as defined through Joseph Campbell’s ‘Hero’s Journey’ in his novels?” this essay compares two novels by John Green in which both of the protagonists in the novels follow a very similar Hero’s Journey where the mentor of the story is the concept of death.

In this extended essay, the effect of childhood circumstances on the course of a character’s development is analysed in the research question, “Compare the causes and effects of a father’s isolation from his son in Neil Gaiman’s American Gods and Sandman: Volume 6 on the personality development.” This essay aims to evaluate the connections between a father’s motive for isolating himself from his son and their impact on the son’s life and personality development.

Arthur Golden’s Memoirs of a Geisha touches heavily on the appearance and the aesthetic description of almost each and every significant character throughout the novel. And each detail, minor or major, influences the character, and how it determines the personality that characters have. Golden has successfully described many of his character’s aesthetics in Memoirs of a Geisha, using Chiyo’s perspective to narrate the story, in order to capture the essence of the characters. This essay explores the relationship between a character’s aesthetics, and how their roles are affected by them.

This essay discusses the steps of the Hero’s Journey that are relevant to both of the novels in order to illustrate the similarity between them. It also discusses the corresponding concept of the mentor of death in both of the novels. Furthermore, some steps of the Hero’s Journey were not considered in this essay. This is because they did not apply to either one or both of the novels. To study this topic, the applicable steps between the novels are organised into sections based on their order in the Hero’s Journey. John Green created two novels with a similar Hero’s Journey through the use of a corresponding concept of death as a mentor. Through this mentor, both of the protagonists experienced similar journeys although their stories were different.

The four areas that will be covered this discussion are the personalities developed from the sons’ childhood circumstances, the personalities and motives of the fathers’ isolation from their sons, the relationship between the sons and their wives, and finally the resolution of the relationship between father and son. These are the most prominent aspects that are interlinked with the causes as well as characteristics of both sons’ personality development. Many parallels can be drawn between the father and son’s personalities, displayed predominantly from their actions and emotions expressed in relationships with lovers. Although interactions between father and son in both novels are either immensely lacking or nonexistent, the repercussions of this on the sons’ childhoods induce personality similarities in adulthood. In one case, this paternal isolation is one factor that forces early independence upon the son, whilst also creating major insecurities reflected in his marital involvement.

Appearance vs Reality questions how much can one’s physical appearance can reflect his or her personality. The curiosity and the link to one of the major themes of the novel led to the question to which the essay will attempt to answer, “Does the aesthetics of the characters in Memoirs of a Geisha have an affect on the roles they play throughout the novel?” It is argued that Golden’s intention of using the theme Appearance vs Reality was to show how Geishas were perceived as almost-celestial beings, but having to studied each major characters in the novel and their appearances, I have concluded that the aesthetics of a character only emphasizes their role throughout the novel.



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KIM, JUNG EUN

KRISHAN, NAIK

WILDING, GEORGIA

Jonathan Safran Foer’s Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close and Mark Haddon’s The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night Time are novels that contain tragedy and eventual emotional resolution. Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close looks closely into Oskar’s grieving process and The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night Time is a novel about how Christopher copes with his mother’s death and his father’s betrayal. This essay focuses on the process of emotional resolution of the protagonists, by asking:

This extended essay deals with the roles different genders in society have and also with the reasons we have for categorising genders based on the story of Cal, the protagonist hermaphrodite from the book Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides who undergoes a very arduous life before finding himself in the end.

Jonathan Safran Foer’s Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close is a unique structural work that investigates into the emotions felt after periods of loss. His use of a new form of writing, metamodernism enhances his ability to create a true representation of grief that is experienced by those after the devastations of the Dresden bombings and the attack of 9/11. This essay is an exploration into the inability to express ones feelings of loss manifesting itself in physical and psychological behavior of characters reflected in structural form of the metamodern novel Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close.

How does the creation of a book in Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close and The Curious Incident of the Dog in the Night Time lead to the Protagonists’ emotional resolution after being affected by death? The scope of this essay consists of two works, and the protagonists of the novels are consistently compared throughout the novel. The characters’ reactions to their parent’s death are discussed, as they are quite different. Furthermore, the use of narration and the creation of books are analysed to understand Oskar and Christopher’s final emotional resolution. This essay also consists of a comparison between the different journeys they go through, in search of the truth about their parent’s death. Also, the character’s emotional resolution is extensively analysed. The protagonists face much emotional instability as they struggle to express their feelings. In conclusion, however, Oskar and Christopher reach emotional resolution through the creation of books and the journey they take.

This investigation is based on evidence from Eugenides’ characterisation and literary techniques from the novel and explores a very interesting topic that applies to every person: Gender. The book itself is based upon the interesting idea that ‘sex biological and gender is cultural’, which can be used to debate the line of division between gender roles. Cal’s life is filled with dilemmas and through the use of allusions to Greek mythology; Eugenides’ has raised many questions and considerations about the need for drawing a line between gender roles. This essay furthers these points and could give people a new perspective on how they perceive the differences between gender and sex. In the conclusion of this essay, I have found that it is necessary to have gender roles in society, but at the same time, the genders themselves need to be more diverse in order to compensate with a changing world.

The novel Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close is the primary source used in the exploration. Secondary sources were used to increase the knowledge of the tragedies on Dresden and the United States of America. Further sources were also used to gain a basic knowledge and understanding of the commonly accepted definition and stages of grief. The exploration examines the author’s manipulation of the structural form of the novel to show the manifestations of grief, however as the essay is English based the knowledge on the grief phenomenon is limited. Further research into the phenomenon would allow for a deeper analysis of the linkages. The exploration concludes that Jonathan Safran Foer’s unique graphology and structure enable the audience to understand the unique facets of suffering after a time of loss. He takes a topic of loss, incomprehensible to so many and attempts to demonstrate the diverse range of emotions and feelings that occur using metamodern techniques. Furthermore, the techniques the author uses are investigated as they enable a true representation of the grief phenomenon to be shown. The exploration acknowledges the powerful effect of the novel and acknowledges the authors ability to show fundamental information on the individuality of suffering.

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Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 1–STUDIES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

SELECTED CATEGORY 1 ‘AND YOU, MISS, ARE NO LADY.’ TO WHAT EXTENT CAN GONE WITH THE WIND BY MARGARET MITCHELL BE CONSIDERED A FEMINIST NOVEL?

KURIAN, NOMISHA

Introduction

Margaret Mitchell’s Gone with the Wind, published in 1936, is a historical drama set in Clayton County, Georgia, and Atlanta during the American Civil War. It depicts the adventures and hardships of Scarlett, the daughter of a Southern plantation owner. The struggles of Scarlett’s family are also examined in the context of post-war poverty and political conflict. Since the novel’s depiction of nineteenth-century women has been subject to both praise and censure from feminists, this essay assesses the extent to which it can be considered a feminist novel.

‘With enough courage, you can do without a reputation.’ Margaret Mitchell’s disregard for society’s judgment is reflected in Scarlett O’Hara—the fiery protagonist of Mitchell’s first and only novel, Gone with the Wind. This research was inspired by Scarlett’s memorability as a character. Spirited, feckless and indomitable, her character develops the central theme of survival in Gone with the Wind.

Only the original text is examined and not the 1939 film adaptation. Firstly, the novel’s sociological and cultural contexts are examined to demonstrate that its protagonist, Scarlett, champions female liberty by the standards of her era. Next, her romantic interests—Charles, Frank and Rhett—are analysed to show that the depiction of their attitudes toward women supports the feminist slant of the novel. The characterisation of Melanie, Scarlett’s sister-in-law, is also discussed to show that even secondary female characters are empowered. In order to gain a balanced perspective, the essay then considers those aspects of the novel that prevent it from being wholly sympathetic to feminism. These include Mitchell’s hostile portrayal of African-American women, as well as her glamorized representation of marital rape. It is concluded that while these aspects cannot be reconciled with the principles of feminism, Gone with the Wind is nevertheless empowering for the female reader. Thus, to a great extent, it may be considered a feminist novel.

Although it is sometimes dismissed as popular fiction, the novel’s literary merit lies in its complex, nuanced characterization, as well as its nature as an evocative historical drama. Set against the backdrop of the American Civil War, it took the literary world by storm in 1936. Prior to publication, Mitchell modestly conjectured that her book would gain a regional readership at best. But over a million copies have been distributed worldwide, and the novel also won the Pulitzer Prize in 1937. Perhaps the biggest reason for its phenomenal success is its appeal to a female audience. Scarlett’s battle to survive in the fragile post-war South is a poignant testament to female resilience. Time and again, she rebuts female stereotypes by choosing candour over diplomacy, independence over subservience and defiance over docility. Moreover, the diverse characters that either help or hinder her, demonstrate the power of women in a patriarchal society. However, to what extent can it be said the novel is feminist? Does the strength of Scarlett’s character justify this label, or are certain aspects of the novel anti-feminist? It is worth researching this question because feminist analysis of Gone with the Wind has always been controversial. While modern feminists such as Molly Haskell consider it an ode to female empowerment, scholars like Marilyn Friedman have criticized the novel’s patriarchal constructs of sexuality. Thus Gone with the Wind does not merit automatic approval as a feminist novel. To determine if such a label is appropriate, this



essay will define feminism as ‘the doctrine advocating the political, social, economic and all other rights of women equal to those of men’ (The Princeton Wordnet). Taking into account the cultural context, characterization, and portrayal of marriage and sexuality, this path breaking twentieth century work will then be explored in relation to feminism.

1. Cultural context Economic Gone with the Wind was published in 1936, when the Great Depression engulfed the world in a vortex of economic misery. Mitchell’s portrayal of the financial downfall of the South after it lost the Civil War mirrored the fragile economy of the world at the time. This heightened the book’s popularity; women empathized with Scarlett as they, too, employed drastic means to save their families from destitution. At first glance, Scarlett’s bid to raise money by buying a sawmill may seem insignificant. However, closer analysis reveals that this single act reflects feminist principles of female independence and subverts multiple economic conventions of the nineteenth century. Firstly, by managing the mill, Scarlett becomes self-employed in a society wherein ‘the place of a well-bred female was in the home’ (Mitchell, 530). The contrast between her dynamism, and the idleness expected of a woman, is emphasized by the disapproving tone of her first husband, Frank, when he condemns her actions as ‘unthinkable’ (Mitchell, 496). Moreover, Scarlett demonstrates praiseworthy autonomy in purchasing the sawmill ‘without even consulting her own husband’ (Mitchell, 496). The reflexive pronoun highlights the all-powerful role of the husband in nineteenth-century Georgia: he was believed to possess ‘superior knowledge’ that a wife should ‘accept in full’ (Mitchell, 496). However, Scarlett rejects these chauvinistic conceptions by refusing to seek Frank’s advice. Mitchell

further reinforces the feminist plea for women’s equality through Scarlett’s entry into a rugged, masculinized industry. Unlike conventionally feminine spheres of the era, such as baking or sewing, the lumber industry was male-dominated. Scarlett’s infiltration of this patriarchal world is conveyed by her portrayal as an ‘intruder among strange rough workmen’ (Mitchell, 497). The unconventionality of her initiative is thus emphasized to show female victory over societal constraints. Mitchell also satirizes restrictive gender roles when she describes how Scarlett succeeds. Scarlett only earns loyal patrons by pretending to be a ‘helpless little lady who would probably starve if customers didn’t buy her lumber’ (Mitchell, 516). Thus we see her exploiting the stereotype of female fragility, appealing to male chivalry as a ‘helpless little lady’. This presents an intriguing paradox. On the one hand, Scarlett defies a bigoted society that scorns women’s employment. On the other, she succeeds by exploiting the stereotype upheld by that very society. Thus Mitchell pays tribute to female ingenuity: even a victim of the patriarchy can harness the conventions that shackle her. Mitchell also encourages us to question gender roles by comparing Scarlett’s love of the mills to the love women generally possess for their offspring. Not only does her protagonist’s labelling of the mills as ‘her darlings, her pride’ resemble maternal endearments, but she is shown to ‘nurse’ her ‘little mill’ akin to a mother lavishing care on an infant (Mitchell, 953). It is worth noting that Scarlett bestows no such affection on her real children; this is emphasized by the rhetoric that a ‘cat’ would be a ‘better mother’ than her (Mitchell, 922). By channelling her protagonist’s capacity for love and sentiment into her work instead of her progeny, Mitchell mocks the nineteenthcentury stereotype that ‘all women needed was babies to make them completely happy’ (Mitchell, 501). In a world that perceived women first and foremost as child bearers,

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Scarlett’s entrepreneurship thus epitomises female liberation from gender roles.

Political At the time of the book’s publication, women had not impacted the political sphere of North America. Many remained unaware about politics, ignoring their privilege to vote (McGowan, 403). Gone with the Wind has had to contend with feminist criticism for seeming to support this trend of female political indifference; Scarlett’s apathy surfaces visibly when she listens to men discuss an amendment allowing black people to vote. She is portrayed as having ‘little interest in the legislature, feeling that its doings could hardly affect her’ (Mitchell, 592). This may seem to reinforce the stereotypical belief in women’s inability to understand politics. Furthermore, the men are clustered in front of a saloon, a place restricted to male entry at the time and therefore symbolic of masculine exclusivity. However, on close inspection, we see that Scarlett’s disinterest stems not from her gender, but from the fact that politics seems to ‘hardly affect her’. (Mitchell, 592) Rather than making an anti-feminist statement, Mitchell is emphasizing the self-centeredness of her protagonist— Scarlett’s attention is caught solely by what personally involves her. Indeed, once she realizes that the fate of the amendment could result in the loss of her sugar mills, her political awareness awakens. Referring to the legislature, she declares ‘Great balls of fire! They ought to be shot!’ (Mitchell, 593). Her newfound fervour is emphasized by the repetition of exclamation marks, as well as the epithet ‘Great balls of fire’ in an era where female profanity was socially unacceptable. Through her protagonist’s shift from indifference to agitation, Mitchell suggests that political interest depends not on gender, but on an individual’s awareness of the effect the government has on him or her. Thus the scene shows the need for women to recognize the relevance of political issues, in accordance with the

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feminist concept that women should be educated about politics rather than be excluded from it.

2. Feminism and romance: Scarlett’s relationships Scarlett’s first two marriages to Charles and Frank are notable for her insistence on self-assertion. Her rejection of the Southern ideal of obedient wifehood has led feminist critic Molly Haskell to declare that Scarlett inspires women who ‘refuse to go docilely into marriage’. However, it is her third marriage to the hero of the novel—Rhett, which is most empowering from a female perspective.

Charles Charles’s characterization as ‘too shy to string two consecutive words together’ (Mitchell) highlights, by contrast, Scarlett’s bold and expressive nature. The strength of her will is shown by her refusal to have sex with Charles: ‘Go away! I’ll scream if you come near me! I will—I will!’ (Mitchell).  At this juncture in the novel the year is 1861, when North American wives were expected to perform their conjugal duties as a matter of course (Degler, 1468). However, Scarlett’s repetition of ‘will’ and the imperative ‘Go away’—as opposed to the soft, humble tones expected from model nineteenthcentury women  - shows her to be unusually resolute and commanding for her time. Her denial of Charles’ marital rights thus becomes a symbol of female assertion, exemplifying modern feminism that claims the body of a woman to be her property, not that of her husband.

Frank If Scarlett represents non-conformity, her second husband represents subservience to tradition. Frank’s repressive beliefs are emphasized by the repetition of the subjunctive in his statement: ‘A wife should be guided by her husband’s superior knowledge, should accept his opinions in full and should have none of her own’ (Mitchell,

496). His didactic tone shows he perceives his wife as an object to be moulded by his thinking. Moreover, symbolic of a patriarchy dismissive of female independence, he thinks it ‘unwomanly’ for Scarlett to work when she has a ‘husband amply able to provide for her’ (Mitchell, 496). However, Scarlett’s successful rebuttal of his attempts to confine her suggests the novel’s feminist outlook. She did so many things a husband should not permit, according to his views, but if he ordered her to stop them, argued or even criticized, a storm broke on his head. He had only to say: “Sugar, if I were you, I wouldn’t--” and the tempest would break. Her black brows rushed together to meet in a sharp angle over her nose and Frank cowered, almost visibly. (Mitchell, 499) The metaphor of Scarlett’s anger as a ‘storm’ and a ‘tempest’ suggest she is strong and unstoppable as a force of nature. By contrast, Frank fails to uphold his patriarchal values, instead becoming a caricature of a bullied husband. His inability to match Scarlett’s will is conveyed through the placatory diminutive ‘Sugar’ and the mild tone of ‘If I were you’, as well as humble diction such as ‘cowered’. Therefore, through Frank and Scarlett’s marriage, male chauvinism is satirized and portrayed as ineffectual in the face of female power.

Rhett While Charles and Frank are both sexist and unsympathetic as characters, Rhett is the hero of the novel and progressive in his views on women. This is highly significant because Mitchell’s depiction of her hero as sympathetic to women’s liberation indicates her support of it. Since feminism as a movement had not materialized in the 1860s, Rhett never uses the term. Nevertheless, he espouses ideas feminist in nature, and encourages Scarlett to rebel against oppressive social customs. This can be observed at their very first encounter, when Rhett applauds her for

shattering her gender stereotype. When she calls him ‘no gentleman’ for eavesdropping on her conversation with another guest, he responds, ‘And you, miss, are no lady.’ (Mitchell, 120) His distinction between Scarlett and a lady is perfectly justifiable. Ladies could ‘never interrupt gentlemen’, be ‘forward’, ‘rude’ or ‘outspoken’ (Mitchell, 60) and Scarlett abides by none of these conventions. Thus it hardly surprises the reader that Rhett labels her no lady, but what is unexpected is his approval. “No one can remain a lady after saying and doing what I have just overheard.  However, ladies have seldom held any charms for me.  I know what they are thinking, but they never have the courage or lack of breeding to say what they think.  And that, in time, becomes a bore.  But you, my dear Miss O’Hara, are a girl of rare spirit, very admirable spirit, and I take off my hat to you.’’ (Mitchell, 120) Mitchell thus uses Rhett to criticize the unspoken, yet pervasive Southern code of conduct for women. She also parodies a lady’s traditional, repressive upbringing through Rhett’s ironic assertion that it is a lack of breeding that leads to true honesty. Moreover, although Mitchell highlights Scarlett’s failure to be a lady (‘No one can remain a lady after saying and doing what I have just heard’) she portrays her as all the more superior for it. Diction such as ‘rare’ and ‘admirable’ characterizes Scarlett as praiseworthy, not abnormal, in Rhett’s eyes. Therefore he advocates female self-expression. Rhett also upholds the feminist concept of women’s right to employment. Not only does he provide Scarlett funds to buy her sawmill, but also encouragement to ignore the town’s disapproval. This is shown in the allusion to the Oriental proverb ‘The dog may bark but the caravan passes on’ when Rhett declaims, ‘Let the dogs bark, Scarlett. Nothing will stop your caravan’ (Mitchell, 530). The caravan symbolizes Scarlett’s unrelenting drive to work, and by declaring that nothing will ‘stop the caravan’, Rhett



demonstrates unusual faith in his wife at a time when it was ‘unheard of for a woman to be in business’ (Mitchell, 496). In addition, by reducing the townspeople to animals, he attempts to transmit his contempt for societal judgment to Scarlett. He also lends her emotional support by listening to her ‘moans about lost customers’ and ‘applauding her triumphs’ (Mitchell, 529). Moreover, Rhett greatly contributes to Scarlett’s empowerment by his refusal to treat her as a delicate, sheltered Southern woman. When he deserts her in the midst of the Civil War to enlist, he affirms her strength: ‘Dear Scarlett! You aren’t helpless. Anyone as selfish and determined as you are is never helpless.’ (Mitchell, 381) Furthermore, due to his abandonment, Scarlett is compelled to travel home without being cosseted by a male escort. This compels her to undertake unfamiliar physical rigors, such as pushing wheels out of gullies, finding water, and harnessing a horse. Mitchell reveals Scarlett’s physicality awakening through her discovery of ‘muscles she did not know she possessed’  (Mitchell, 386). Thus Rhett’s actions trigger Scarlett to surmount the primary weakness used to justify the treatment of women as inferior: physical fragility. Furthermore, his respect for women is highlighted by the birth of Bonnie, the daughter he fathers with Scarlett. In the nineteenth century, men were conditioned to expect a son as the first-born. The relationship between the gender of the first-born and the father’s sense of pride is shown in Melanie’s concern that Bonnie being a girl will tarnish Rhett’s ‘manhood’ (Mitchell, 863). However, Rhett rejoices in Bonnie’s femininity, as stressed by the classically feminine adjective ‘beautiful’ when he describes her as ‘by God, the most beautiful baby you ever saw!’ (Mitchell, 866) The use of profanity further emphasizes his appreciation of her girlhood. In addition, the bold diction used to describe him as ‘shamelessly’ and ‘openly’ proud of her—

despite the town’s scepticism—shows that his very affection is a form of social audacity (Mitchell, 869). In addition, Rhett’s role in Bonnie’s upbringing is also significant. Feminism objects to the social understanding that the responsibility for the care of children belongs to their mothers (Fiss, 413) but Gone with the Wind subverts this societal assumption. Rhett becomes Bonnie’s primary caregiver, a ‘man trying to raise a little girl all by himself’ (Mitchell, 888) His masculinity is juxtaposed with the delicate feminine imagery of a ‘little girl’, the incongruity emphasized by ‘all by himself’. However, we are encouraged to support this unexpected paternal care in two ways. Firstly, Mitchell portrays its physiologically positive impact on Rhett. He ‘looks healthier’, ‘laughs more’ and after he discovers Bonnie thinks the smell of alcohol ‘nasty’ he stops imbibing it and the ‘puffiness in his cheeks’ disappears (Mitchell, 892, 893). Secondly, he gains greater social acceptance—formerly disapproving townsfolk come to ‘smile’ as he goes by with his child, and even the ‘strictest old ladies’ admire his ability ‘to discuss the ailments and problems of childhood’ (Mitchell, 893). Thus Mitchell portrays Rhett’s parenting as beneficial to child and father alike, giving weight to the feminist model of active fatherhood.

3. Characterisation of Melanie Melanie, Scarlett’s sister-in-law by virtue of her marriage to Charles Hamilton, is the second most prominent female character in the novel. She is Scarlett’s antithesis in many respects—gentle while Scarlett is abrasive, meek while Scarlett is defiant. However, Mitchell grants her exceptional bravery and independence of thought, suggesting that female empowerment may fall along a wide spectrum of personalities. Melanie’s empowerment manifests on two separate occasions. Firstly, she shows physical valour when she intervenes in Scarlett’s conflict with a Yankee officer during the siege of Atlanta.

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Even though she has just undergone a traumatic pregnancy—the most feminine reason for weakness—she leaps to Scarlett’s defence, ‘her weak arm weighed down with Charles’ saber’ (Mitchell, 431). Her appropriation of her brother’s weapon conveys her willingness to step out of the feminine mould and do physical battle against a male. Her daring is further underscored through the masculine imagery of war in the metaphor ‘There were banners and bugles of courage in Melanie’s quiet blood’ (Mitchell, 431). Secondly, Melanie personifies integrity when she protects Scarlett from rumours in the town. When Scarlett is accused of an affair with Ashley, Melanie’s husband, Melanie denies the allegations out of loyalty to Scarlett. Furthermore, to defend her sister-in-law’s innocence, she cuts off her friendships with all those in the town who believe in Scarlett’s guilt, even family members and friends of long standing. Melanie’s actions are not immediately visible as a vehicle for feminism. But by depicting a woman who prizes family and friendship sacrificing those close ties, Mitchell advocates that women have the fortitude to uphold their convictions.   She held a line of tatting in her hands and she was driving the shining needle back and forth as furiously as though handling a rapier in a duel. (Mitchell, 925) The contrast between the dainty imagery of a woman sewing and the harsh masculine imagery of a ‘duel’ shows that despite Melanie’s surface femininity, she has all the inner fire and pluck ascribed to men of the South. Moreover, by setting Melanie’s conflict in the stereotypically feminine world of gossip and scandal, Mitchell directly addresses the female reader, highlighting very real issues of integrity and self-expression. Melanie’s daring is further symbolized through her recurring comparison to swords. Not only does she grasp a sword to defend Scarlett against the Yankee soldier, but

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Mitchell also uses the simile of her standing ‘like a thin, shining blade’ to protect Scarlett from social ruin (Mitchell, 923). In addition, Scarlett observes that ‘beneath the gentle voice of Melanie, there was a thin flashing blade of unbreakable steel’ and that Melanie is her ‘sword and her shield’ and ‘a sword flashing between her and the world’ (Mitchell 431, 984, 988). This reinforces the idea that despite her fragile appearance, Melanie is as hardy and indomitable as a blade. Although not as conspicuously rebellious as Scarlett, she fulfils the feminist ideal of a strong-willed, dauntless woman.

4. Portrayal of black females Mitchell’s coloured female characters are not endowed with the same traits of bravery and self-sufficiency as are the white female characters. Admittedly Mammy, the family slave, is portrayed as forceful and unyielding; Rhett labels her the ‘real head of the household’ and ‘a smart old soul’ (Mitchell, 827). However, all her strength of will is directed towards protecting Scarlett. Despite gaining independence post the Civil War, she does not seek gainful employment or attempt to create a new identity for herself. She is ‘devoted to the last drop of blood’ to Scarlett’s family (Mitchell, 24) mindless loyalty her only definitive trait as a female character. Mammy’s obedience and lack of independence are further underscored through canine imagery comparing her to a ‘large black Cerberus’ and a ‘bloodhound’ (Mitchell, 533). Her repeated comparison to a dog erodes her identity as a woman, reducing her to a one-dimensional symbol of fidelity and slavish allegiance. Prissy, the black maid who assists at Melanie’s childbirth, is also devoid of any substance of mind or spirit. Belittling diction is used in Scarlett’s denunciations of her as ‘simple-minded’, ‘slow as molasses in January’ and a ‘worthless child’ (Mitchell). The intrepid spirit of white characters like Melanie and Scarlett is also mysteriously absent in Prissy: she is so easily terrified that she cannot even ‘go running round in

the dark’ by herself (Mitchell, 364). Thus, although Mitchell successfully combats oppressive white female stereotypes, she fails to shatter the nineteenth-century stereotype of dependent, mentally backward African-American female slaves. In the words of critic Janelle Colette, she only tells ‘half a story’.  

initiated forcibly or against the recipient’s will’ (Kuntz, 2), Rhett undoubtedly rapes Scarlett. Her lack of consent is conveyed through pleading dialogue such as ‘Take your hands off me’ and ‘Let me go’ (Mitchell, 916). However, the most troubling aspect of this rape from a feminist perspective is Scarlett’s condoning of it the morning after.

5. The depiction of Scarlett’s sexuality

He had humbled her, hurt her, used her brutally through a wild mad night and she had gloried in it. (Mitchell, 918)

Mitchell’s attitude to her protagonist’s sexuality is ambivalent. On one hand, she champions female sexual liberation through Scarlett’s attempt at prostitution. Desperate to earn money to pay taxes on her home, Scarlett decides to sell herself to Rhett while unmarried. While morally questionable, this decision shows her refusal to shrink from her sexuality. In a society where intimacy was a subject so taboo that ‘mares never foaled nor cows calved’ and hens ‘almost didn’t lay eggs’ (Mitchell, 98) Scarlett differentiates herself from other women by scorning to conceal her sexuality. Her liberation is emphasized by the ‘curious sense of lightness and freedom’ (Mitchell, 529) that waylays her as soon as she decides to prostitute herself. Moreover, Mitchell highlights Scarlett’s assertive nature through her declaration ‘I won’t go to him like a beggar.  I’ll go like a queen granting favors’ (Mitchell, 529). The simile shows Scarlett’s resourcefulness in using her sexuality as a weapon. Even in a position of weakness— she is the party in need of money and dependent on Rhett to give it to her  - she embraces whatever power she can find. Thus her ethically ambiguous but bold decision emphasizes female empowerment. On the other hand, the novel’s most controversial scene glorifies female subjugation. A short while after Rhett and Scarlett are married, he, consumed by jealousy over Scarlett’s alleged infidelity, overpowers her in a scene considered tantamount to rape by critics such as Marilyn Friedman. Through a lens where rape is defined as ‘intimate sexual contact

In this line, Mitchell underscores Rhett’s brutality only to glamorize it as resulting in a ‘wild mad night’. Furthermore, the word ‘gloried’ stresses Scarlett’s acceptance and enjoyment of her assault. This romanticising of rape has, justifiably, led to an outcry among feminists. Mitchell not only allows her hero to ‘hurt’ and ‘humble’ Scarlett without incurring punishment, but also trivialises one of the most distressing crimes against women as an ‘ecstasy of surrender’ (Mitchell, 918). Thus, despite Scarlett’s candid attitude toward her sexuality, Mitchell’s approval of her rape detracts from her protagonist’s sexual empowerment.

Conclusion Mitchell celebrates the power of the feminine through Scarlett and Melanie, her main female characters. However, her failure to extend this privilege to black female characters dilutes the feminist nature of the novel. Feminism is not a movement aimed at white women, but women of every race. Therefore the degrading characterization of Mammy and Prissy fails to follow the principle of universal female empowerment. In addition, Mitchell’s endorsement of what is indisputably sexual assault, by the very hero of her novel, is questionable by feminist standards. Were the novel to be published today, the scene would invite much more censure and protest than it did in 1936. Thus Mitchell’s portrayal of rape prevents the novel from being considered completely feminist.



Having acknowledged this, it is impossible to ignore the groundbreaking portrayal of Scarlett. She defies oppressive patriarchal traditions in a multitude of ways— economically, politically, socially and physically. Melanie also shows qualities of resilience and independence that emphasize female power. In addition, aside from his rape, Mitchell’s hero is far from a male chauvinist. Rhett provides the practical means as well as moral support for Scarlett’s empowerment. Indeed, Mitchell strikes a formidable blow for feminism by portraying a hero sympathetic to feminist ideals. She also uses secondary male characters such as Charles and Frank to satirize misogynistic concepts of marriage rather than sanction them. Thus Gone with the Wind, while not all-embracing of female empowerment, can to a great extent be considered a feminist novel. Although written almost a century ago and set in a society long since perished, it remains a testament to the strength and capability of women as a sex.

Works cited Print sources Clinton, Catherine, and Christine A. Lunardini. The Columbia guide to American women in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000. Print. Cott, Nancy. No small courage: a history of women in the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Print. Degler, Carl. “What Ought To Be And What Was: Women’s Sexuality In The Nineteenth Century.” The American Historical Review 79.5 (1974): 1467. Print. Fiss, Owen. “What is Feminism?” Faculty Scholarship Series 13.2 (1994): 413. Print. Haskell, Molly. Frankly, my dear: Gone with the wind revisited. New Haven [Conn.: Yale University Press, 2009. Print. Herzog, Ashley. Feminism vs. women. United States: Xulon Press, 2008. Print.

Kelly, Joan. Women, history & theory: the essays of Joan Kelly. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. Print. Lodge, David. 20th century literary criticism: a reader. London: Longman, 1972. Print. McGowan, Josephine. “A Decade of Women’s Rights.” Commonweal [New York] 11 Feb. 1931: 403. Print. Mitchell, Margaret. Gone with the wind. New York: Macmillan, 1936. Print. Riley, Glenda. Inventing the American woman: an inclusive history. 4. ed. Wheeling, Ill: Harlan Davidson, 2007. Print. Young, William H., and Nancy K. Young. The Great Depression in America: a cultural encyclopaedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2007. Print.

Online Sources Auchmutey, Jim. “At 75, Gone with the Wind still attracts fans, cash and controversy—CNN.com.” CNN.com International—Breaking, World, Business, Sports, Entertainment and Video News. Cable News Network, 25 May 2011. Web. 4 May 2013. . Colette, Janelle. “Romanticizing the Old South: A Feminist, Historical Analysis of Gone with the Wind.” Feminist: The Grassroots, Interactive Community for Women. Feminist.com, 27 Apr. 2012. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. . Doucet, Andrea. “Andrea Doucet, Ph.D.: Between Two F-Words: Fathering and Feminism.” Breaking News and Opinion on The Huffington Post. HuffPost Partner Studio, 2 Apr. 2011. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. . Economic and Social Council, United Nations. “International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.” Office

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of the High Commissioner for Human Rights/ OHCHR Welcome page. The United Nations, 16 Dec. 1966. Web. 1 July 2013. . Fortin, Elaine. “Early Nineteenth Century Attitudes Toward Women and Their Roles as Represented By Literature.” Teach US History. American Antiquarian Society, 9 Apr. 2001. Web. 1 July 2013. . Haskell, Molly. “Molly Haskell on the enduring appeal of Gone With The Wind | Film | The Guardian.” Latest US news, world news, sport and comment from the Guardian | guardiannews.com | The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, 13 May 2009. Web. 9 May 2013. . Kuntz, Tom. “A Scholarly Debate: Rhett and Scarlett: Rough Sex Or Rape? Feminists Give a Damn—New York Times.” The New York Times—Breaking News, World News & Multimedia. N.p., 19 Feb. 1995. Web. 8 May 2013. . Larbalestier, Justine. “The Problem with Gone with the Wind | Justine Larbalestier.” Justine Larbalestier: Writing, Reading, Eating, Drinking, Sport. Justine Larbalestier, 1 Dec. 2009. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . Perkerson, Medora. “Margaret Mitchell: American Rebel—Interview with Margaret Mitchell from 1936 | American Masters | PBS.” PBS: American Masters. Public Broadcasting Service, 12 Mar. 2012. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. .

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GROUP 1–STUDIES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

SELECTED CATEGORY 2 HOW HAS THE SYMBOL OF THE VAMPIRE RETAINED RELEVANCE FROM BRAM STOKER’S DRACULA TO CHARLAINE HARRIS’S DEAD UNTIL DARK?

MICHAEL, NATALIE

1. Introduction

This essay explores how the symbol of the vampire has evolved in English literature to retain relevance to society throughout the centuries. To represent the shifts in the evolution of the vampire symbol, this essay examines three significant novels—Bram Stoker’s Dracula, Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire and Charlaine Harris’ Dead Until Dark.

Vampires have seen a renaissance in literature in recent times. The fanged devil of the night has now transformed into a tortured hero who is conflicted about his bloodsucking status. Why then are vampires, which were first written about in novels over 190 years ago, still captivating readers and remained relevant in the modern age? Throughout English literature, the symbol of the vampire has retained its relevance by adapting to society’s interests and divergent tastes at the time of publishment. The vampire is a symbol used to reflect society’s’ inherent fears and anxieties. This is what has made the novels popular and extremely relatable across age and cultural lines. This essay will be focusing on Bram Stoker’s Dracula, Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire and Charlaine Harris’ Dead Until Dark. The reason for this choice of novels, is that they chart the evolution of the vampire from the supernatural Dracula that was feared by the Victorian society to the emotionally inclined Louis, and finally to the socially accepted and almost human Bill. These three novels are evidence of literary pieces that have still retained popularity and relevance throughout the centuries due to their discussion of topics that still plague the common man.

It starts off with Stoker’s Dracula setting the foundation for how vampires acted, appeared and interacted with society. It also sets the precedence of Dracula being the foreign outsider which reflected Victorian society’s fears of a foreign-threat changing their culture and taking away their loved ones. It continues to explore the vampire’s adaptation through the characters Louis and Claudia in Rice’s Interview with Vampire. The novel takes a more emotional approach to vampires as both Louis and Claudia display strong human and emotional characteristics even after their transformation. This makes them more relatable and reflects society’s growing interest in the outsider and the exotic; which is a significant shift from the views of Victorian society. This foreignness literally disappears in Harris’s Dead Until Dark as they are living openly and are grudgingly accepted by society. In fact the humans in the novel have taken an obsessive interest in them to the point of manipulating their blood. This shifts the vampire from predator to prey. This mirrors society’s continuous desire for self-improvement, which in today’s world is achieved through science and technology. It is difficult to pinpoint the exact reason why the symbol of the Vampire is so relevant, as this could be due to many factors, however the essay does showcase the evolution of the vampire and how they have retained relevance by being not only a reflection of society’s interests and divergent tastes, but also a reflection of society’s inherent fears and anxieties.

2. Dracula – the symbol of Victorian anxieties: 2.1 Fear of the foreigner Since the publication of Bram Stoker’s Dracula in 1897, the vampire has become a literary icon. Bram Stoker set the standard for the look of the European bloodsucker that was to be feared by the Victorian society. The seminal Count Dracula of Stoker’s imagination, displays unnatural characteristics such as, “has hair growing on his palms, fangs and red eyes; he has an aversion to holy objects and garlic, and he is able to transform into, for instance, a bat or mist” (Kristensen, 23). These differences exaggerate his foreignness by making him



appear animalistic and otherworldly. This fed into the Victorian fear of the foreign-threat changing their culture and taking away their loved ones.  It is also projected in the figure of Count Dracula who had come from a foreign, unknown destination to live close to civilization and was a reflection of the anxieties that the Victorian society had on foreigners invading their land (Paulden, 246). The invasion of Dracula extends beyond the foreigner and includes an invasion of the virginal womenfolk and the normalcy of everyday life. This was relevant at the time of publication as it reflected the fears that the people had on foreigners flooding Britain as the empire was at its decline, and the possibility of reverse colonialism was very real. Dracula then becomes a representation of the colonial oppressor who had come to retaliate the years of British colonization (Johnson, 77). He does this through systematic and careful planning by learning the ways of an Englishman through the unsuspecting Jonathan Harker, to integrate into British society, which he can then invade and infect.

2.2 Unnatural and deviant behavior Dracula is a sexual symbol that spoke to the fears and anxieties that plagued the Victorian mind, “whose fundamental anxiety, an equivocation about the relationship between desire and gender, repeats … a pivotal anxiety of late Victorian culture” (Craft, 108).  In other words, the Victorians were being forced to question their gender relations. This led to rigid boundaries of accepted behavior amongst men and especially women. Dracula, who was the feared foreigner, manifested deviant behavior such as incest, overwhelming female sexuality and polygamy, implied homosexuality and cannibalism. Not only Dracula, but also the human characters act out these acts of unnaturalness and deviance throughout the novel. For example, the subliminal theme of incest is explored through the relationship between Dracula and Mina as she delved further

into vampirism, “flesh of my flesh; blood of my blood; kin of my kin” (Stoker, 320). In this scenario, incest is displayed as Mina transitions from Dracula’s lover to a child in his possession, with his blood running through her. Deviance in the text was not limited to Dracula alone, but also in the female characters. For example, the theme of overt female sexuality is most prominent in the (vampire) women in the castle, “deliberate voluptuousness which was both thrilling […] arched her neck she actually licked her lips like an animal” (Stoker, 42). This behavior was unnatural for Victorian women as they are seen to be pure, demure and chaste. Polygamy too is hinted at by Lucy, “Why can’t they let a girl marry three men, or as many as want her, and save all this trouble? But this is heresy, and I must not say it” (Stoker, 65) who here, realizes the perversion of those thoughts. Another taboo topic explored was that of homosexuality and homoeroticism, which was implied through Dracula’s possessiveness of Jonathan Harker, “How dare you touch him, any of you? How dare you cast eyes on him when I had forbidden it? Back, I tell you all! This man belongs to me” (Stoker, 43). This signals Dracula’s sexual need to dominate both women and men. Besides the unnatural feeding of blood that Dracula displayed, the issue of cannibalism is also hinted at when Dracula gives the vampire women a bag containing a “half-smothered child”(Stoker, 43) for them to presumably feed on.

2.3 Tension between science and religion Stoker’s Dracula not only explores issues of gender and sexual subversion but also pushes the boundaries on organized religion, namely Christianity. This is an important theme as it paralleled the way Christianity was being questioned amongst the Victorian society at the time, especially with the advent of science and theories of evolution. The character of Professor Van Helsing embodies the tension between science and religion, “I have tried to keep an open mind and it is not the ordinary things in life that

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could close it but the strange things” (Stoker, 205). It can be suggested that Stoker held the character of Van Helsing in high regard due to his open-mindedness and it can also be said that this was a criticism on how Stoker viewed the general Victorian people to be close-minded. “You are clever man, friend John; you reason well, and your wit is bold; but you are too prejudiced. You do not let your eyes see nor your ears hear, and that which is outside your daily life is not of account to you. Ah, it is the fault of our science that it wants to explain all; and if it explains not, then it says there is nothing to explain. But yet we see around us every day the growth of new beliefs.” (Stoker, 211) In other words, the rational man of science, John Seward, struggles with theories that he believes are correct, but cannot scientifically prove them. The character points out the flaws in both science and religion whilst again promoting open-mindedness and alternative thinking. This is relevant as the Victorian society was facing the great age of doubt where long held beliefs in religion were in great upheaval due to the improvement of scientific thought. This led to massive rejection on both sides where people either discounted religion or science.

3. Interview with the (emotional) vampire 3.1 Fascinated by the Exotic Society moved from being frightened of the foreigner to fascinated by the exotic in the 20th Century and this is brought to the fore in Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire. Published in 1976, the novel, like many other vampire themed novels, was heavily influenced by Bram Stoker’s Dracula, but it also establishes a new trajectory in the vampire novels. The novel is revolutionary as it contradicts some of the preconceived notions we had about the vampire. This novel shows the motion of the vampire developing more human characteristics, where they experience emotions and live among/ closer to society than any other previous vampire in English literature. This

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pointed to society’s changing attitudes towards the foreignness of the vampire. The societies response changed from the fear of the foreigner to being intrigued by the differences. Evidence of this, is Daniel’s strong interest in interviewing the vampire and learning more about his ‘exotic’ history (Rice, 1).

3.2 Emotionally conflicted Throughout the interview, Louis constantly discusses the emotional impact he experiences with deaths of loved ones. Louis had a close relationship with his brother Paul, which led to suicidal thoughts and alcoholism when Paul accidentally died. Louis is compounded with guilt because he feels responsible for his brother’s death, which is evidence of his emotional connections, “I had laughed at him, I had not believed him, he had fallen because of me” (Rice, 10). This could be symbolic of the guilt from not being able to reconcile his religious beliefs of that of his brother, which is further explored when Louis says, “I was a Catholic; I believed in saints. […] But I didn’t, couldn’t believe my brother” (Rice, 9).  It can be suggested that this is a deterrent from Rice to ponder the reality of religion because it leads to negative consequences. Even though Louis is far into vampirism, there are still signs of human emotions that follow death, which is evidenced by how emotionally affected he is by Claudia’s death, “Madeline and Claudia were not there. They were dead. […] There was no time, no purpose” (Rice, 310).

3.3 Getting to know Louis The interview also gives the reader a glimpse into Louis’ personality, which allows the reader to empathize with him and not view him as the feared vampiric outsider akin to Stoker’s Dracula. Louis describes his last sunrise in a nostalgic tone, “A paling behind the lace curtains and then a gleam growing brighter and brighter in patches among the leave of the tree. Finally the sun came through the windows themselves and the

lace lay in shadows on the stone floor” (Rice, 15). This acknowledges the presence of his lingering humanity. Louis also sets himself apart from other vampires on his refusal to kill fellow human beingsevidenced during the interview when Louis confesses his diet of street rats, and his stronghold on his own humanity. This is something that Lestat constantly complains about, which supports the concept of the development of the vampire, as within the supernatural characters are a broad range of personalities, morals and principles, paralleling society. There are many emotional and strong human characteristics of the vampire shown to the reader, such as Louis’s need to protect Claudia, his anguish at the death of loved ones and his and Claudia’s denial of their vampiric urges. What this does, is that it allows the audience to connect and empathize, significantly with Louis and Claudia.

3.4 Unconventional family Yet even with the emotional progress of the vampires, they are still used as a vessel to discuss society’s fears at the time. Around the time of publishment, society became more aware of the disease “AIDS”; they associated this illness with homosexuality and gay-marriage. The novel explores a same-sex marriage through Louis and Lestat (Freeman, 2008). Struggling to fit in with society, Louis and Lestat ‘adopt’ a human child, yet the unnaturalness of this family causes problems for all three characters. The unconventional family unit also parallels the fears of the breakdown of traditional family unit in society. The vampire becomes a “liminal, transgress figure, a stage upon whom the fears and secret desires of society could be acted” and the vampire novel, a space where “social commentary”, could be effectively played out (Benefiel, 262).

3.5 Physical appearance vs. mental maturity Furthermore, Claudia matures over the years, however her body does not,

causing her to have tantrums, which is a representation of adolescent rebellion and the worry of the uncontrollable child. It also means that her physical self can never represent her emotional and mental maturity. This is the root of her frustration and a manifestation of how people in society are stuck within themselves, wherein the inward self does not parallel outward appearance, “her doll-like face seemed to possess two totally aware adult eyes, and innocence seemed lost somewhere with neglected-toys and the loss of a certain patience”  (Rice, 102). This quote could suggest Rice’s comments on the dramatic and sudden changes from childhood innocence to teenage rebellion. It could also reflect the way children were growing up too fast at the time, especially when they are constantly inundated with visions of war, violence and sex. Events of the time such as the Hippie movement and the Vietnam War, exposed children to taboo topics forcing them to mature faster.

4. Vampires out of the coffin 4.1 New vampire for the new millennium The new millennium has brought another shift in the vampire narrative with Charlaine Harris’ Dead until Dark. As it was published in the 21st century, taboo subjects such as sex, unnatural relationships and prostitution were no longer kept in the dark. This is representative of the open culture and tolerance of different types of people in the modern society where such things are openly discussed on a daily basis. The most striking feature is the fact that the protagonist is Sookie Stackhouse, a female with power. She drives the narrative and is the one who has been waiting for the vampires to visit her in her small country hometown. This is vastly different from the first two novels where the vampires were something hidden and feared. In the novel, the vampires are living relatively peaceably with the human race as the “legally recognized undead” (Harris, 1).



This eliminates the human fear of the unknown, which vampires represent in the first two novels. The fear has been replaced by an intense desire to consume what vampires produce.

4.2 Unquenchable thirst for physical improvement One of the reasons for this shift is the rise of science. The symbol of the vampire in this novel represents how science has changed the traditional notions of vampirism (synthetic blood). It also parallels society’s unquenchable thirst for physical improvement, which “V” provides, “My blood is supposed to improve your sex life and your health” (Harris, 13); and this sets the new precedence for human beings being villains in the novel, and also raises questions on how humanistic vampires can be and how vampiric humans can be.

4.3 Sookie – the ordinary protagonist Sookie differentiates herself from the start by saving vampire Bill, the vampire that subverts the traditional gender roles where male vampires were dominant in the first two novels. It’s interesting that she saves Bill from humans who were trying to exploit him by harvesting his blood because typically vampires were the threat. Sookie also proves to be different from the other women we encounter in Stoker’s Dracula and Rice’s Interview with the Vampire, through her ordinariness. Here is a 25 year-old-woman who is having relationship problems, living with her grandmother in a rural Southern town and holds a blue-collar job. Mind reading or telepathy is also discussed in great detail in the novel, with heroine, Sookie Stackhouse living with this ‘cursed’ ability. The fact that she is shunned and disregarded, and views her mind reading as a liability, could point to Harris’ comment on our celebrity, paparazzi-obsessed and over thinking culture, where we desire to know what people are thinking about and constantly over-analyzing that

information. Oftentimes, Sookie’s ability’ leads to her being in negative situations and having restricted relationships, “But I have a disability. […] The result is that I almost never have a date” (Harris, 2). This could be a message from Harris how even though society has the desire/obsession to know everything, it’s better that we don’t. Sometimes ignorance is bliss.

5. Vampires through the ages 5.1 The shift towards a more personal approach The evolution of the vampire figure in the three novels follows the trope from the supernatural ‘Other’ Dracula to the ‘almost human’ Bill. This follows the “demythologization” (Kristensen, 10) of our bloodsucking friend who has crossed over from the realm of myths and legends to the very ordinary town of Bon Temps, New Orleans. This demythologization is more a product of how society has changed to become more accepting of foreignness and differences as well as their embracing of all things different. The form of the three novels further informs this evolution. For example, Stoker’s Dracula is written in the epistolary form, which includes diary entries, letters and newspaper clippings. This creates a true-to-life account for the reader, which adds to its authenticity and its ability to scare and shock the Victorian society. Anne Rice’s novel follows in this vein as she uses the form of an ongoing interview to tell the story of Louis, yet this is done to neither shock or scare but to involve the reader into empathizing and feeling for Louis. This shift towards a more personal approach to the vampire narrative parallels the way society was changing their views to what constituted good and evil, especially in the wake of the two World Wars and the Vietnam War. This leads to the popularity of Interview with the Vampire, which delves into the reasons of active acts of evil. The twentieth century carries through the idea of the emotional vampire

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but the twenty first century pushes that concept even further by making the vampire almost human. Harris does this successfully by using a first person narrative that bridges the gap between humans and vampires even further. In Dead Until Dark, the reader almost becomes Sookie Stackhouse because of her relatable characteristics, and since she sees herself mirrored more closely to the vampire characters than her fellow humans, we are given that opportunity too.

5.2 Evolution Another way to view the novels and the evolution of the vampires would be through Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. American psychologist, Abraham Maslow created a psychological theory of human motivation. Throughout the three novels, the symbol of the vampire also follows the developmental growth of humans according to Maslow. If we interpreted the hierarchy of needs in a pyramid, (Appendix, 8.1) Bram Stoker’s Dracula occupies the base as it is the first seminal novel and society still viewed vampires as more animalistic than humanistic and Dracula was just a being of physiological needs, nothing more. This is evident throughout the novel as most of Dracula’s actions are centered around food, sex and sleep. Interview with the Vampire on the other hand is placed in the middle of the pyramid as the needs of the vampire Lestat are towards love and belonging, which pushes him towards creating his unnatural family. Louis also speaks to the movement away from just physiological needs when he mocks the simplicity of humans, “I saw my real gods … the gods of most men. Food, drink and security in conformity” (Rice, 14). Lastly, Dead Until Dark parallels the pinnacle of Maslow’s pyramid and the progress of human development. The world that Harris’ vampires live in is one of acceptance and lack of prejudice, where they live openly and vampire blood is revered instead of feared. The way the vampires utilize their powers also reflects the upward development as Bill and Eric use their abilities for sport. This is manifested in Fangtasia, the “exotic

18

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underworld” (Harris, 102), where vampires interact with willing humans, also known as “fangbangers” (Harris, 101), for leisure and not just to satiate their basic needs as Bram Stoker’s Dracula does. The vampires themselves deal with morality issues and seem conflicted about their natural instincts. This is clearly seen when Bill resists his natural urges out of respect for Sookie who is clearly upset. “Bill’s fangs had retracted, but I knew he was still suffering from hunger.” (Harris, 73).

5.3 Significance of dracula, interview with the vampire and dead until dark The three novels arguably signify important transitions in the vampire literary canon and parallel the development of human thought. Bram Stoker’s Dracula deals with the actions of Dracula and his physicalities. This is just a superficial reflection of Dracula as there is no attempt to consider his emotional needs or intentions behind his actions. Whereas Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire explores retrospectively the reasons and motivations behind the actions of the vampires in the novel, “But I think in retrospect that he himself wanted to know his own reasons for killing, wanted to examine his own life” (Rice, 96). Charlaine Harris’ Dead Until Dark goes one step further by considering the ‘how’, as the novel delves into how the “legally recognized undead” (Harris, 1) lives and interacts with humans in the modern age, now that they are not feared.

5.4 Intertextuality Not only do the novels relate to each other on a thematic level, both Interview with the Vampire and Dead Until Dark reference Stoker’s Dracula as well as Rice’s Interview with the Vampire respectively. The authors freely use these old myths such as those inspired by Bram Stoker’s Dracula “to shape, and add resonance to, their presentation of contemporary life” (Lodge, 99). This shows us just how influential the first two novels

were in informing the literary vampire canon. For example, when Claudia and Louis were travelling in search of other vampires, they came across one in Transylvania—the birthplace of Stoker’s Dracula, only to be disappointed with this “mindless, animated corpse.” (Rice, 190) While Sookie Stackhouse pointedly refers to Anne Rice at the start of Dead Until Dark, “New Orleans was a real centre for them—the whole Anne Rice thing right?” (Harris, 1) These two references also show just how significant the locations of all three novels prove to be, that both Transylvania and New Orleans are steeped in vampire history. Additionally it is used as a structural device through allusions and direct quotations that according to T.S Eliot, “manipulates a continuous parallel between contemporaneity and antiquity” (Lodge, 101), which helps to locate the new reader with the evolution of the vampire and how much he has changed together with society. Dead Until Dark uses allusions and direct quotations from Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire as well as the Hollywood adaptation featuring Tom Cruise to highlight the obsession society has with vampiric culture. This mirrors Sookie’s own obsession with her vampire Bill. “The clothes ranged from reproductions of those worn by Brad Pitt and Tom Cruise in Interview with the Vampire” (Harris, 101). This follows the choice of the three novels, which charts the progression of the vampire from a fanged, caped monster to a smooth and suave but still deadly being.

6. Conclusion Dracula ultimately sets the tone for how vampires are viewed for the next 80 years. Vampiric literature is heavily influenced by Stoker’s vision of the vampire, which manages to successfully combine superstitious beliefs and religion with modern science and technology. This successful attempt at marrying both the modern and traditional with the fears of society at the time has made Stoker’s Dracula remain relevant as well as a

benchmark for future vampire novels. It is also credit to Stoker who seemed to predict the future of his society when Harker writes, “We seem to be drifting into unknown places and unknown ways into a whole world of dark and dreadful things”. (Stoker, 398). Nevertheless, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly how the symbol of the vampire has retained relevance through English Literature, as it is an amalgamation of multiple factors. However this essay focuses on the adaptation of the vampire who has skillfully adjusted to the wants, needs and fears of the prevailing society at the time of publication. Yet, within the 150 years that separate the three novels discussed, the essential themes and human conditions they examine are both timeless and universal. After all, Jonathan Harker’s curiosity parallels our own curiosity about the unknown, while Louis’s internal conflict between human morals and immorality is something that everyone has faced, and Sookie’s differences makes her a challenge to fully be possessed by both Bill and Eric which speaks to gender relations even now. This is what has made the novels stand the test of time and remain beloved by audiences young and old. It can then be suggested that their relevance was both a product of the relatability of the characters and each novel’s ability to speak to the problems and societal attitudes of the time.

7. Works cited Novels Harris, Charlaine. Dead Until Dark. New York: Ace Books, 2001. Print. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. N.p.: Viking Penguin, 1993. Print. Spencer, Kathleen L. Purity and Danger: Dracula, the Urban Gothic, and Late Victorian Degeneracy Crisis. London, 1992. Print. Stoker, Bram. Dracula. London: Vintage, 1897. Print. Stoker, Bram. The New Annotated Dracula. New York: W.W. Norton &​Co, 2008. Print.



Rice, Anne. Interview with the Vampire. New York: Ballantine Books, 1976. Print.

Websites Benefiel, Candace R. Blood Relations: the Gothic Perversion of the Nuclear Family in Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire. Winston-Salem: Online Publishment, 2004. Online. Freeman, Kelly. Evolution of Vampires: From Dracula to Interview with a Vampire. Yahoo: 2008. Online essay. Johnson, Allan. Modernity and Anxiety in Bram Stoker’s Dracula. Critical Insights: Dracula. Salem Press: 2009. Online. Kristensen, Marianne. The Literary Vampire—From Supernatural Monster to the Actual Human. Thesis. Universitetet I Stavanger, 2010. Online.

8. Appendix 8.1 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Charlaine Harris’ Dead Until Dark

Anne Rice’s Interview With The Vampire

Bram Stoker’s Dracula

morality, creativity, spontaneity, problem solving, lack of prejudice, acceptance of facts Self-esteem, confidence, achievement, respect of others, respect by others friendship, family, sexual intimacy

security of: body, employment, resources, morality, the family, health, property breathing, food, water, sex, sleep, homeostasis, excretion

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20 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 1–STUDIES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

ABSTRACTS CATEGORY 3 HOW DO THE ADVERTISEMENTS PRODUCED IN THE SINGAPOREAN ANTI-SMOKING CAMPAIGN REFLECT THE CHANGING STRATEGIES USED BY THE GOVERNMENT TO TARGET LOCAL AUDIENCES?

LAI, YIN Despite the well-known health risks, smoking is an addiction that is prevalent worldwide. The Singaporean government, having established that smoking was one of the primary causes of numerous chronic diseases, decided to take action in reducing smoking prevalence. The anti-smoking campaign in Singapore has been an ongoing movement that has seen many changes and alterations to strategies employed in their advertisements. In this essay, there is an exploration of the values of Singaporeans that the advertisements target, as suggested by the producer’s intent and the audience’s reception. The changing aims of the advertisements are tracked so as to identify the strategy employed during that period of the campaign. The systematic development of strategies in the antismoking campaign is investigated, based on four advertisements from four distinct junctures of the campaign. The campaign’s earlier approach included the utilisation of scare tactics to urge smokers amongst its audience to recognise the physical ails from smoking, pushing them towards cessation. This progressed to an inclusion of the pathos appeal, enhancing the scare tactics to encompass not only physical impacts of smoking, but also social impacts. However, due to the lack of support for these strategies, they shifted to include the significance Singaporeans place on family and community support, towards presenting the benefits of a smokefree life, instead of the drawbacks of being a smoker. The anti-smoking campaign eventually developed into the present iQuit movement, where members of the public are encouraged to be involved, whether in producing materials for the campaign or to volunteer as one of the faces to be featured in the campaign as a ‘quit champion’. Through the use of visual aid, appropriate diction, modality, voice and tone, the advertisements have undertaken different approaches to logos, pathos and ethos,

resulting in varying effects and responses from the audience.

Introduction In the 1970s, the Singaporean government recognized that the ill effects of excessive smoking should be formally addressed1. They adopted a ‘multipronged’ approach, introducing tobacco taxation, bans on tobacco advertising and promotion, and initiated anti-smoking campaigns and educational programs within the community (NTCP Info). Through nationwide movements and events within a smaller community, the campaign aims to ‘denormalize’ the act of smoking in the community, by encouraging smoking cessation and prevention. An interest in the link between this prevalent health issue and the developing social movement has sparked the investigation: how do the advertisements produced in the Singaporean anti-smoking campaign reflect the changing strategies used by the government to target local audiences? This essay explores the shifting strategies the Health Promotion Board (HPB) has employed in the anti-smoking advertisements to better suit the social, cultural, familial values of Singaporeans, at three different time periods: 2001, 2005 and 2010. These were significant markers in this campaign, with the shifts in strategies: from utilizing scare tactics to promoting social benefits, and finally encouraging public involvement in the campaign. As a Singaporean, the campaign’s progression would be personally interesting to investigate as it outlines the Singaporean government’s growing understanding of its people as the young nation develops. Furthermore, there is value in studying

“Medical research showed that while there were several contributing factors in chronic diseases, smoking provided one of the clearest links… A campaign against smoking was the logical route to take.” (Health Promotion Board 30). 2010.

1



the anti-smoking campaign as it has seen gradual success in the form of a decrease in smoking prevalence and lung cancer rates (NTCP info). This indicates that the development of strategies are suited for the local community, thus a study into this campaign could prove to be useful for future social movements that require the public’s support. Through numerous linguistic and visual devices in the campaign’s advertisements, such strategies can be identified and investigated.

Analysis 2001 – Employment of scare tactics to achieve education about ill effects of smoking During 1999 to 2001, the Ministry of Health (MOH) employed scare tactics in anti-smoking advertisements placed in the public areas of Singapore. As seen in Appendix 1, they were explicit in nature, taking on a cold and confrontational approach. Their scientific angle has allowed the audience-producer relationship to be between a didactic teacher and his student, aligning with the goals of the government at the time: addressing the general lack of knowledge amongst citizens. The advertisement is effectively dehumanizing through its visual elements, allowing for an “objective” scientific angle on the issue of smoking. This is evident through the repulsively realistic image of a brain presumably from someone who has died, indicated by its pale coloring. The implied setting of a sterile laboratory no longer presents this brain as an organ that sustains life, but merely as an object for clinical investigation. Furthermore, with the organ separated from the body, the person is no longer seen human, but merely as the biological evidence of the effects of smoking. Furthermore, with his anonymity, this person is also reduced to the clear label of “smoker”, implicitly separating smokers amongst the audience from the rest of the society. The logos and lack of emotional

appeal can be viewed to form a basis for scientific credibility. The advertisement maintains this scientific credibility through diction of low modality. Although it aims to present the physical consequences of smoking, the low modality behind the word “can” in “smoking can lead to a stroke” presents stroke as merely a potential consequence. This maintains the integrity in the information presented, as it does not claim facts that are not absolutely true – stroke is only a possible consequence of smoking. However, the producer concludes the advertisement with a sentence of high modality, “every cigarette is doing you damage” – effectively emphasizing the certainty of the harms of smoking but retaining truthful statements. As the advertisement was meant to be a tool for the education of the Singaporean society, the producer-audience relationship is seen to be one between a teacher and a student. Perhaps the angle towards objectivity and integrity is a reflection of the nation’s view on teacher-student relationships. The advertisement’s bluntness could imply that teachers are viewed to be impartial to the presentation of information. Although education was the intent, the advertisement seemed more as an assault of the audience through the aggressive diction used. The implied ignorance of the audience could be received as a comment on their stupidity. This can be seen through the use of absolute diction in “the next time you want to light up”2, suggesting a degree of inevitability for the urge to smoke. This insinuates a lack of discipline amongst the audience, and can be perceived as insulting. Furthermore, the line “get this in your head” is abrupt with the use monosyllabic vocabulary and demanding diction. The ambiguity behind the pronoun “this” allows for a pun in the elliptical sentence, where there is a cataphoric suggestion of paying attention to the following line, and also

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an anaphoric allusion to the disconcerting image of the brain with the word “head”. It implies an underlying warning of the consequences of smoking: any smoker amongst the audience could suffer the same predicament as the “smoker” with the dead brain in the advertisement. The harsh diction causes for the formation of an implicit insult directed at the audience, where it is insinuated that their lack of knowledge has led to the rise in smoking amongst the community. This reflects the issue that the advertisement is aiming to rectify: its audience’s lack of knowledge on the harmful effects smoking has on one’s health. The strategy of utilizing scare tactics is evident through visual and sound devices in the supporting paragraph. This is especially so with the anaphoric reference to the image through the words “minor stroke”3, allowing for visual alignment where the informative paragraph is constantly being supported by the repulsive image provided. It is further enhanced through the use of the ‘b’ alliteration, with words such as “blood”, “brain”, ”blocked” and “burst”. The irregular intervals of the alliteration mirrors the imagined heavy spurting and blunt throbbing of the brain. The coordinated clause “or” in the explanation of what could happen in your brain4 allows for the build up of this sound device, allowing the impression of a bursting blood vessel to be at a crescendo. Perhaps it was the intent of the producer to highlight the urgency of smoking cessation through the use of these scare tactics, urging smokers amongst the audience to take action before they are in the same predicament as the “smoker” in the advertisement.

Full quote: “This is the damage done to a brain by a minor stroke.”

3

“A stroke occurs when a blood vessel in your brain becomes blocked or when a blood vessel bursts and bleeds into the brain.”

4 2

Full quote: “The next time you want to light up, think about what you may be doing to your brain.”

22 Extended Essays 2013/2014

In an interview with an employee5 at the Health Promotion Board (HPB), the producer of the campaign, it was mentioned that these 2001 advertisements were not well received by the public due to their graphic nature. However, as these advertisements were released earlier on in the campaign, the presentation of the images can be seen as “no surprise”. The team behind the advertisements was “made up of mostly doctors and nurses”6 and thus not familiar with “concepts of behavior change and the use of media”7. Therefore, the logos appeal was adopted, as producers were focused on public education.

2005 – Inclusion of pathos to highlight society’s perception of smokers In late 2001, the Health Promotion Board (HPB) was established, allowing for more focus on the development of the antismoking campaign. As the campaign progressed, HPB adjusted its strategy to include pathos. Appendix 2 shows a controversial advertisement released in 2005. Although there is still the use of a graphic image as in 2001, the advertisement no longer aimed to provide the objective, dehumanizing angle on smoking, but to highlight the social perception of smokers.

5

Joanne Chandler, Deputy Director (Substance Abuse - Policy), Adult Health Division, Health Promotion Board. Full quote: “… because it was made up mostly of doctors and nurses, the focus was on the diseases to which a smoker might succumb. And so it was no surprise that early campaign messages contained graphic pictures …” – Dr Koh Yang Huang, Principal Consultant, Health Promotion Academy and former head, Patient Health Education Unit, Training and Health Education department (THE) (Health Promotion Board 32)

6

Full quote: “We were new to concepts of behavior change and use of the media … so when we talked about smoking, we always showed lungs and hearts and how we could get into trouble” – Dr Rose Vaithianathan, former Director of the Youth Health Division (Health Promotion Board 32)

7

Similar to 2001, the physical ailments from smoking are presented using a disconcerting visual, with a female model as a smoker, dramatizing the physical consequences of prolonged smoking. She is presented as a sad image of a lack of health, with the yellow pigmentation and imperfections of her skin. The focus is drawn towards her mouth, where her pain is suggested through the presentation of numerous sores and the slight gape of her lips. This suggests the discomfort that smoking can cause, a subtle warning to smokers amongst the audience – a similar strategy as in 2001. However, the focus on this individual has allowed for an element of pathos, presenting an implicit warning to smokers – they will not only be physically similar to the woman presented, but also perceived in a similar light. The suggestion that smoking will affect one’s appearance could be an appeal towards the audience’s vanity, where their desire to avoid the same disheveled appearance is evoked. This repulsion towards the persona is reinforced by her low socioeconomic position that is insinuated through her impoverished appearance. For example, her crooked yellow teeth show the lack of proper dental care and aesthetics, providing subtle insight into her financial situation. With her face being placed in the absolute center of the page and the rule of thirds defied, there is an enhancement in her expression of anguish, suggested by her watery eyes. This could be alluding to regret towards the predicament that her smoking habit has led to, reinforcing smoking’s physical and social consequences the advertisement aims to highlight. Thus, HPB’s appeal for smokers to take action was done through the a kind of catharsis, where smokers should first feel pity for this woman, then be horrified by the idea of that same emotion being directed towards them, prompting them to take action against their smoking habits. A smoker’s social situation is further highlighted when he are referred to using the pronoun “you”, as opposed to “we” that refers to presumably a group of non-

smokers. It is thus implied that smokers are segregated from the rest of society and form one distinct entity, having to fend for themselves. However, there is still a large appeal for personal action even within this smoking community created in the advertisement. Smokers amongst the audience are urged through the declarative and assertive statement, “it’s time you acted on it”, where action is reinforced with the high modality of the declarative “it’s” used. The pronoun “you” singles out individual smokers and emphasizes that smoking cessation is one’s personal decision and responsibility. This is emphasized through the hyperbolic imperative conclusion to the paragraph, “save your life”, reminding audiences that the support of others is not as crucial as one’s resolve. The issue of the audience’s pride is addressed through the advertisement’s tone. The paragraph in this advertisement is a contrast to the advertisement produced in 2001, with the producer-audience relationship being between friends. The register of authority present in 2001 has been lowered to a casual conversation. This is done through the use of contractions such as “won’t”8 and “it’s”9, allowing for colloquial expression and an informal tone; and conjunctions such as “after all”10 and “but”11, creating a conversational tone for the paragraph. Additionally, the impartment of knowledge is subtler in this advertisement. Although it acknowledges that smokers understand the health risks from smoking, thus causing them to attempt to kick their addiction previously12, the prose continues to reiterate those said risks13. HPB has seemingly taken

“We won’t tell you smoking is a harmful habit”

8

“…it’s time you acted on it”

9

“After all, you already know that.”

10 11

“But we think you need to know it gets much harder when you don’t quit.” “…quitting is hard. You know that too.”

12

“…smoking is a harmful habit”

13



a passive-aggressive approach, so as to avoid dismissing the audience’s intellectual capabilities. This not only rectifies the previous ignorance towards the value of pride amongst Singaporeans in 2001, but also addresses the increasing level of education in the country at the time. Even so, the graphic nature of the advertisement brought negative response from the local community, much like in 2001. As the advertisement was placed in public places where children frequented, one of the larger concerns of the public was the exposure of a visibly “disconcerting”14 image to the impressionable. The importance Singaporeans place on family was not taken into account with this continuation scare tactics in the campaign. However, this was rectified in advertisements published later in 2005, with the focus placed on the benefits of an anti-smoking life can have on a family unit (Appendix 3).

2005 – A shift to address familial values of Singaporeans By 2005, with the well-established education program, strategies shifted away from imparting knowledge to the audience, towards presenting social benefits. Advertisements took on a communitybased approach, focusing more on the relationships of a smoker with his society, exhibiting emphasis on communal support as an aid towards smoking cessation. The benefits of a smoke-free life are highlighted through the close relationship presented in the foreground image of Appendix 3. The visual shows the interaction between two people from different generations – a man and his son, representing the closeness in the community in a smoke-free life. The “ex-smoker”15 is in close proximity with his son, their head-to-

“There were some complaints that these antismoking commercials were visually disturbing and thus too disconcerting for children.” (Ng 1036)

head contact suggests the close relationship they share. With the absence of a cigarette, it is suggested that this closeness is a result of smoking cessation. The advertisement paints a pleasant image of the smoke-free life, encouraging smoking cessation amongst its audience so that they can “enjoy” its benefits too. With a light, playful mood being created with the bright colors of their clothes and comical expressions, the appeal of smoking cessation is heightened. The portrayal of their joy can be seen as the incentive for smoking cessation, where one would have a carefree and harmonious family after doing so. The responsibility of a parent is emphasized through the portrayal of a parent-child relationship. Parents are often associated with the security that they can provide for their child, thus they have a role to fulfill. There is perhaps a suggestion that the fulfilling of the parent’s role, as portrayed in the image, would bring the close relationship that is presented. Their closeness is reinforced through the typically mundane chore of cleaning, with the implication that their joyful expressions are not dependent on the task, but the company. The act of cleaning paints a picture of a responsible parent for the “ex-smoker”, teaching his son to take on responsibility in their household. This is supported by the content of the text, where he claims that his final resolve to decide to quit smoking was due to his son wanting to follow in his footsteps16. He is portrayed to be claiming responsibility over the health of both himself and his son, taking action to protect them. This concept of a role model is implicitly contrasted with the irresponsibility of a smoking parent, subtly challenging parents in the audience to take up responsibility to set a good example by smoking cessation. The act of cleaning can serve as a visual metaphor for him to “clean up his act”

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and quit smoking. This “ex-smoker” has “cleaned” away his addiction, and is left with a blank slate (symbolized by the transparent glass they are cleaning) after which he has to maintain the cleanliness. It is also significant that he is doing this “cleaning” himself, along with his son, as it symbolizes that he has kicked his smoking habits based on his own actions and decisions, with the support of loved ones. Producers utilized the ethos appeal through the use of personalization and an accessed voice. Unlike Appendix 1, the provision of a name, Abdullah Kassim, and the visual reference of his face grounds the content of the paragraph in reality, giving the impression that he is more of a person than a character. His testimony also includes details that are relevant to Singaporeans. For instance, eighteen is described to be a pivotal age when he started smoking17. In Singapore, one’s eighteenth birthday can be seen as a rite of passage towards responsibilities of making legal decisions, since it is the legal age for alcohol consumption, driving and smoking (StraitsTimes.com). This allows the advertisement to be more relatable to the audience. Perhaps the conversational tone and personal voice achieved through the use of contractions, such as “that’s when I decided to call QuitLine”, was intended to create a higher level of trust amongst the audience. This voice allows for the subtle presentation of the physical ails from smoking. For instance, the mention of a “heart attack”18 is a reminder to the audience of a serious health risk from smoking. However, the message is masked with the concern for the wellbeing of Kassim and his father. This subsequently applies to the smokers in the audience, encouraging them to examine their own lives in the light of their loved ones. Kassim’s voice allows for the events described to seem more likely to

14

15

“Abdullah Kassim, 36, ex-smoker”

17

“I overheard my son say he’d like to smoke, just like me, when he grows up.”

16

“I had been smoking since I was 18.” “I stopped smoking when my father suffered a heart attack”

18

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happen in reality. Thus, the advertisement brings into light that it is possible for smokers to be unaware of his addiction, just as Kassim once was19. It can be seen that producers are urging smokers to take action after being aware of one’s addiction, since the word “today”20 implies immediate and continuous action on the smoker’s part. Unlike in the past, this campaign had a positive reception from the public, with over 5000 smokers receiving smoking cessation counseling at the six corresponding roadshows that was held. 21

2010 – Encouragement of public involvement to evoke unification of community The “iQuit” movement was introduced in 2010, effectively grouping all anti-smoking events under one brand. This allowed for public recognition and higher visibility in the country. This campaign has evolved to be more interactive, with both the production and the subject of advertisements, effectively blurring lines between producer and audience. Appendix 4 is an example of this community involvement as it is created by a local blogger. It presents an atypical form of advertising, where its primary purpose is not to promote smoking cessation, but to present the campaign’s past successes. In contrast to the scare tactics in 2001, this advertisement is taking an indirect approach, where there is no attempt in persuading the audience to quit smoking, but convincing them to be part of a successful movement. This strategy can be seen as a cultural reference to the Singaporean values

“But that only lasted two weeks, and I realized I was addicted.”

19

“Today, I’m glad to be a good example for him.”

20

“The campaign saw over 5,000 smokers receiving face-to-face smoking cessation counseling. (HPB. gov.sg)

towards favorable results. As seen under “The Results”, iQuit is portrayed to be more impressive than other internal and external campaigns through the use of comparative language. For example, the hyperbolic verb “shot up” in “number of calls to QuitLine shot up by 313% …” creates an impression of rapid progress and strong support for the campaign. This use of statistics also provides concrete evidence of results in the campaign, forming a basis of credibility to the information presented. The evidence of its success is presented succinctly through bullet points, allowing for the clear distinctions between different achievements. These indicators are presented as a movement that had already occurred, the advertisement is thus an invitation to join the success iQuit has already achieved, which suits this meritocratic and results-oriented nation. The diction in the advertisement indicates the change in strategy, where judgments on smoking and smokers are avoided. For instance, the word “situation” provides connotations of neutrality that “problem” would not have. Furthermore, it has acknowledged the issue of the past discrimination of smokers, where they “felt… singled out as outcasts”. This is a stark contrast to advertisements produced in 2001 where it was the intent to segregate smokers from the rest of the community. The aim of iQuit is seen to be the unification of the community, where “quitters” will have the support in their process of smoking cessation. This foreground image is a compilation of numerous official iQuit advertisements, consisting of various “quit champions”22, volunteers who are willing to share their smoking cessation journey. They are featured as the focus of the official campaign, highlighting their process towards a smoke-free life, a unique strategy for the iQuit movement as compared to past

21

“Every quitter was turned into a celebrity and became champions of the movement”

campaigns. The sense of community is raised through this image presenting the Everyman of Singapore, consisting of people from various ages and races. Singapore prides itself in being a multicultural society; the mix of races present seems to enhance the amount of response that the campaign has received. This impression of overwhelming support is also created through the large number of people with limited space in between them. This is reinforced by the photographs at the bottom of the advertisements, showing the audience that each individual “champion” has a collective group to support him through his decision. Despite their physical differences, the unity of the “champions” is reinforced through the repeated gesture of holding up two fingers. This not only creates a recognizable symbol for the movement, but also mimics the act of smoking, but with the absence of a cigarette. This aligns with the Health Promotion Board’s (HPB) overarching aim to ‘denormalize’ smoking in a local context, where cigarettes are consistently absent in advertisements studied. Although these “champions” are presented as one united entity, their individuality is expressed through their various reasons for quitting smoking on their shirts. These handwritten messages suggest a personal touch to the shirt, and also the story behind each “champion”. The shirts show that each individual has a different reason to quit, such as health23, financial24 and family25 reasons. They reinforce the lack of discrimination against smokers, emphasizing that each individual is viewed as unique. Furthermore, they present the benefits of a smoke-free life, and can be used to reach out to ongoing smokers among the audience with a similar background. There is a focus on re-appropriating language, “from Anti-Smoking to Pro “I don’t want my heart to stop again”

23 24

22

25

“Waste a lot of $$$$”

“Protection for baby”



Quitting”, to better suit their strategy of involving smokers from the community with the desire for smoking cessation. The change in prefix reflects a positive perspective shift for the program, promoting ideas such as personal action and decision-making. The repetition of “quit” allows for branding throughout the campaign. This is especially significant in the local context, as the same word has been used to challenge those who are not committed to the country in Prime Minister Goh’s national day rally speech in 200226. His speech sparked a “strong response”27 from the public; including personal attacks to Goh, criticizing his “quitter” daughter who married an Englishman28. Thus, this campaign has removed connotations of failure and defeat from “quit”, to evolve into a word that represents decisiveness and finality, reversing the impact of the 2002 speech. The iQuit campaign is seen to be the most successful anti-smoking campaign in Singapore presently, based on success indicators for the movement (NTCP Info): a steady decrease in both smoking prevalence and lung cancer rates.

Conclusion As seen with the advertisements studied, the strategies employed in the Singaporean anti-smoking campaign differ vastly from one another. The narrow scope of analysis is one limitation of this essay as it only focuses on the four chosen advertisements

26

27

Full quote: “Fair-weather Singaporeans will run away whenever the country runs into stormy weather. I call them “quitters”… Look yourself in the mirror and ask, am I a “stayer” or a “quitter”? Am I a fair-weather Singaporean or an all-weather Singaporean?” – Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong, National Day Rally 2002 Speech, 18 August 02

“My speech on ‘stayers’ and ‘quitters’ has aroused a strong response from Singaporeans, as it was meant to be.” – Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong

28

“PM Goh in London visiting his “quitter” daughter, Jin Theng. She lives in England with her very British husband, Lee Craven.” (YeoCheowTong.com)

(Appendix 1 to 4). However, these are iconic advertisements produced in a significant period of time for the campaign. They were each selected from a line of similar advertisements, as they can be seen to encapsulate both the strategy the producer was utilizing and the progress of the campaign. Furthermore, despite its current success, the strategies for iQuit continue to evolve as producers gain more insight to the values of the Singaporean society. For instance, iQuit’s most recent event, the “Blue Ribbon Challenge”, invites smokers to take a 28day smoke-free challenge in June 2013. Strategies employed for this event have evolved since 2010, with a larger focus on social media activity. There have been ongoing tips and encouragements posted on its Facebook page29, with currently over 39000 likes30. Facebook was also the platform where the “quit champions” uploaded their personal stories. At the end of the challenge, celebratory photos and anecdotes were shared online. This event has garnered nationwide support, especially from the younger audiences.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 25

Appendices Appendix 1

Health Promotion Board: Get this in your head: Smoking can lead to a stroke. Advertisement. 2001: n. pag. Print.

Appendix 2

In conclusion, the Singaporean anti-smoking campaign has seen many shifts in strategies. Each advertisement employed numerous literary techniques and devices to align with its overarching strategy. There has been growing support for the campaign with each publication, suggesting that strategies in later publications are better suited for the values of the local community. With HPB continuing to initiate new campaigns and legislations, aiming towards ‘denormalizing’ smoking in the community, research and analysis can be extended into the future strategies employed. This investigation was unable to show insight into the next strategy shift in the advertisements of the antismoking campaign in Singapore. 29

“I QUIT Club - Singapore, Singapore - Community & Government.” Facebook. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 2013. .

30

as of October 2013

Health Promotion Board: Quitting Is Hard. Not Quitting, Is Harder. Advertisement. 2005: n. pag. Print.

26 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Appendix 3

Not Quitting, Is Harder. Advertisement. 2005: n. pag. Print. Source for controversial, modified scare tactic employed in anti-smoking advertisement in 2005.

official information from HPB (Joanne Chandler) about evolvement of anti-smoking movement and actions in Singapore, and also success rates.

Source for an example of new anti-smoking campaign, with a modified strategy aiming towards familial and social gain of smoke-free life.

10 Years of Inspiring Healthy Living. Singapore: Health Promotion Board, 2012. Print.

Health Promotion Board: Everyone Loves Quitters. Advertisement. 2012: n. pag. Print.

Official information about the process of arriving at the current iQuit campaign.

“Prime Minister’s National Day Rally 2002 Speech, 18 August 02.” Ministry of Home Affairs. N.p., 18 Aug. 2002. Web. 10 May 2013.

Appendix 4

. Cultural significance of the word “quit”, when Prime Minister Goh Chok Tong used “quit” to refer to citizens who choose to migrate, challenging Singaporeans to decide whether they were a “stayer or quitter”.

“Singapore Ministers Salaries.” YeoCheowTong. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2013. .

Health Promotion Board: Everyone Loves Quitters. Advertisement. 2012: n. pag. Print.

Works Cited Health Promotion Board: Get this in your head: Smoking can lead to a stroke. Advertisement. 2001: n. pag. Print. Source for an example of scare tactics employed in anti-smoking advertisement in 1999-2001.

Health Promotion Board: Quitting Is Hard.

NTCP Info. Singapore: Health Promotion Board, n.d. DOCX.

Health Promotion Board: Ready to Quit? Give It a Try! Advertisement. 2005: n. pag. Print.

Source for an example of iQuit advertisement, launched in 2010.

Health Promotion Board: Ready to Quit? Give It a Try! Advertisement. 2005: n. pag. Print.

individual campaigns, and information of campaigns in the near future.

Ng, Deborah HL, Et Al. Stop-Smoking Television Advertisements. Singapore: Annals Academy of Medicine, Dec. 2007. PDF. Information about reception of 2005 controversial advertisement (Appendix 2).

“I QUIT Club - Singapore, Singapore Community & Government.” Facebook. N.p., n.d. Web. Oct. 2013. . Official “I Quit Club” FaceBook page

“HPB AR 2008 - Strike a Balance.” Health Promotion Board. N.p., n.d. Web. 2 Nov. 2013. .

Information on the public’s response on Prime Minister Goh’s 2002 National day rally speech.

Information on reception of “Ready to Quit? Give it a try!” (Appendix 3)

Sim, Royston. “Raise Legal Smoking Age to 21 to Deter NSFs: Organisation.” The Straits Times. N.p., 01 June 2013. Web. 03 Aug. 2013.

Bibliography

. Information on legal smoking age

Chandler, Joanne. Personal interview. 22 Apr. 2013. Health Promotion Board, Deputy Director (Substance Abuse - Policy), Adult Health Division. Contributor to the “iQuit” campaign, providing resources such as past and present advertisements. Also provided insight on strategies and aims of the

“Opium & Opium Smoking.” Singapore Infopedia. National Library Board, Singapore, 2002. Web. 10 May 2013 . Information for the origins and emergence of opium smoking and subsequently tobacco smoking in Singapore.

“Health Promotion Board.” Be Part of the Biggest Quit-smoking Movement in Singapore Starting 1 June 2013. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2013.


persona_article/Youth___11946>. Official website for “iQuit” anti-smoking campaign.

“Health Promotion Board.” Smoking Control Programmes for Adults. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 May 2013. . Information on official smoking legislations, partnerships and smoking cessation services.

Strategies over Time. Singapore: Health Promotion Board, n.d. PPTX. official information from HPB (Joanne Chandler) providing an overview of significant markers in antismoking campaign in Singapore.

Hill, Dan. About Face: The Secrets of Emotionally Effective Advertising. Great Britain: Kogan Page Limited, 2010. Print. Book providing information about the importance of effective use of faces and simplicity to attract audiences’ limited attention. Information was applied to anti-smoking advertisements, most of which included the use of faces and simple phrases.

Barry, Pete. The Advertising Concept Book: Think Now, Design Later : A Complete Guide to Creative Ideas, Strategies and Campaigns. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2008. Print. Book providing information on crafting advertisements. Skills taught in the book were used as an analysis point for the crafting of the antismoking campaigns.

Gaalen, Anneloes Van. The Medium Is the Message: And 50 Other Ridiculous Advertising Rules. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: BIS, 2009. Print. Book providing quick overview of the basic rules behind crafting an advertisement, allowing for the application of such rules to the anti-smoking advertisements. This book also provided many quotes to support strategies employed by the antismoking advertisements.

Fletcher, Winston. Advertising: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. Print. Book providing a quick introduction to advertising, allowing for fast understanding of the medium.

Bernardin, Tom, and Mark Tutssel. Humankind. Brooklyn, New York: PowerHouse, 2010. Print. Book about the case study of Leo Burnett, an advertiser that used his medium to change behavior. His strategies were explored as a comparative point to the anti-smoking advertisements that had a similar aim of a change in social behavior.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 27

28 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 1–STUDIES IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

ABSTRACTS LANGUAGES OTHER THAN ENGLISH

BAO, ZEYA

I-CHUN CHEN

《城南旧事》是林海音最具影响 力的一部作品， 回忆童年是小说的核 心。作家运用了诸多心理刻画手法， 塑造了纯真、仗义且富有同情心的英 子。本文将通过对以下三种心理描写 手法的赏析，由此看出英子的性格品 质。 一．她·直接·真实 直接心理描写法是本部小说中出现 最多的手法之一。她迈进了那扇黑洞 洞的大门、为素未相识的妞儿伸张正 义、订下了“我们去看海“的约定。 二．她·独白·抒情 英子的内心常充满自语和纠结。她 对爸爸和兰姨娘的暧昧感到厌恶、她 为秀贞的故事而落泪、她和妞儿怄气 是对友情的珍视。 三．她·幻觉·朦胧 幻觉和想象的画面也出现在英子的 心理活动中。挚友离去、新的开始。 她想象中的画面有着她对过往的回 忆，更有她对往事的留恋。 通过对上述心理刻画方法的探 讨，英子的内心世界将会展现在读者 眼前，以此引领读者看到一个善良、 有人情味、正义的，感情细腻丰富的 英子。

龍應台的親情三部曲描述 了作者身為一位女性所經歷的心路歷 程。其中 “成長”的這個主題思想更讓人耐人 尋味。在陪伴著父母的衰老與兒子們 的成長過程中，作者的思想也跟著 他們一起成長。本文將從以下三個方 面來分析作者心靈上的“成長”的旅 程。 一、成長中， 學會責任 龍應台第一次體驗當媽媽的 感覺，事業不再是優先的考慮。看著 孩子一天天的成長，她也有了願意為 孩子犧牲事業的意願。 二、成長中，有了耐心 面對逐漸衰老的父母，龍應 台溫柔地照顧母親，莊嚴地安撫父親 放不下的心事。她對人生也有了新的 領悟。面對已成年的兒子，龍應台耐 心地與他通信，嘗試著去瞭解孩子的 內心世界。 三、成長中，學會放手 身為子女，龍應台在送走父 親的最後一刻，她“深深地凝望”， 目送父親。身為母親，兒子逐漸長 大，她也學習著如何去“放手”，讓 孩子去獨立地探索這個世界。 通過上述的探討，從她的親 情三部曲中看到了龍應台內心的成長 過程，她學會了責任，耐心及放手， 也讓讀者陪著她一起成長。



Extended Essays 2013/2014 29

KAMEYAMA, KAHO

VALVERDE, STEVEN

YANG, YARAN

文学作品の一ジャンルである小説のなか でも特に推理小説は、殺人、強奪、詐欺 など人間社会では必ず発生する犯罪を扱 っているが故に読者の興味をそそるもの だ。いつの時代でも多くの人に読まれ、 関心の的であった推理小説も作者が異な れば読者の受ける印象も変わる。 松本清張、高村薫の代表的な二人の推理 小説作家の作品「点と線」「砂の器」「 黄金を抱いて翔べ」「マークスの山」を 題材とし、「作風にはその作家が活躍す る時代の風潮がどこまで反映されている のか」という課題に基づいて分析した。 その際、時代が彼らに与えた影響の域 を狭めるために、修辞法、プロットの構 想、会話の特徴の３点に焦点を絞り込ん だ。序章で両作家の作家人生を振り返 り、昭和、平成という二つの時代の概要 を示した。第一章では修辞法について分 析し、利用された修辞法の種類やそれら の効果について述べた。続く第二章で は、焦点をプロットの構想に切り替え、 登場人物や時系列、作品設定上の時代に ついて顕著な相違が見られることを導き 出した。第三章では会話文の役割や用途 について比較し、最終章でどのような時 代からの影響が見られたのか提示した。 時代は社会に与える影響力の根源であ り、それはその時代に生きる全ての人々 の人生を翻弄する。分析した結果、文学 においても両作家の文体に時代からの影 響が顕著に見られ、語彙、プロットの構 想、会話などにその痕跡を残しているこ とが明らかになった。

En el presente ensayo se analizará la perspectiva del libro Limón Blues, de la autora costarricense Anacristina Rossi, donde se narra la discriminación de la población afrocaribeña en Costa Rica. Se analizó esta novela de Rossi puesto que se quería investigar a fondo un problema social y político que aquejaba y aún aqueja a Costa Rica.

《边城》这部小说主要是描绘翠 翠与傩送、天保三人之间的爱情的悲 剧，以及翠翠和爷爷相依为命的亲 情，呈现出凄婉动人的人情美和人性 美。本篇习作旨在从翠翠成长的历程 探寻其忧愁从何而来。

Una vez finalizada la lectura de Limón Blues, se decidió analizar la obra bajo la teoría de la Subalternidad, expuesta por Homi Bhabha. En la cual expone la perspectiva de que para dar una critica, el personaje principal, en este caso es Orlandus, debe moverse en un ambiente marginalizado, donde su voz es silenciada por una élite, dentro de este contexto sería la élite imperialista. De esta manera el protagonista se volvería un silenciado subalterno y consecuentemente un representante del ser costarricense. A lo largo del ensayo se presenta un análisis del contexto de la novela, aspectos como la biografía de Anacristina Rossi, la Teoría de la subalternidad, el contexto histórico y ficticio de la obra, seguido por el análisis de la utilización de Orlandus como herramienta de crítica y su efectividad. La Teoría de la Subalternidad fue evaluada y analizada a lo largo de la obra. Se analizó hasta qué punto Orlandus, el protagonista de Limón Blues, puede considerarse como un subalterno, y como Anacristina Rossi emplea a este personaje como punto de partida para la crítica de la discriminación de la población Afrocaribeña en Costa Rica. Después de analizar cuidadosamente la obra, se concluyó qué esta teoría es efectiva porque Orlandus no tiene éxito en sus acciones.

一 “孤雏”般的身世 翠翠从小失去双亲，只能与年迈 的祖父相依为命，仿佛注定了翠翠的 孤独， 恰如孤雏一般的凄凉哀怨。 二 隐约，朦胧的爱情 在迷人的鼓声中回忆起与傩送的 相遇， 翠翠心中有情又无法言说。最 后等待傩送归来的希望也颇有几分缥 缈不定。淡淡的忧愁从爱情中浮现。 三 直白，浓厚的亲情 最终爷爷还是走了，引发翠翠对 亲人离去的无限痛苦和悲伤，使得那 份忧愁深深地沁入亲情中去。 翠翠的成长伴随着美妙的初恋和 温暖的亲情。同时也掺杂着一份或隐 约或无奈的忧愁。这忧愁中蕴藏着人 性的真善美。

30 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 2– LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

ABSTRACTS

LEENDERS, CAROLINE

OBERMAN, NOAH

Ce mémoire examinera la banlieue de Paris, et plus précisément comment celle-ci est dépeinte dans  le roman, Kiffe Kiffe Demain de Faïza Guène. L’intrigue du roman tourne autour d’une jeune fille de 15 ans appelée Doria, qui vit dans la banlieue de Paris avec sa mère. A travers Doria, l’auteur nous décrit son quotidien ainsi que celui des habitants de sa banlieue. De nombreux thèmes sociaux, économiques et culturels sont abordés et la question à laquelle j’essaierai de répondre tout au long de ce mémoire est: La perception de la banlieue à travers les yeux de Doria dans Kiffe Kiffe Demain: Réalité ou fiction ?

A travers ce mémoire, j’ai abordé le sujet de l’évolution de la langue française. J’ai essayé d’analyser les causes de cette évolution et ce que cette évolution entraîne avec elle. J’ai utilisé une variété de sources incluant un sondage, des articles et des publications des linguistes et sociologistes. Je prends en compte différents arguments mais dès le début j’ai pu constater que la langue française évolue vers une version d’un français plus anglicisé et aussi que c’est un phénomène naturel. Par conséquent, nous ne devrions pas nous inquiéter. Donc, tout au long de mon mémoire je me suis focalisé à soutenir ce point de vue au lieu de reconnaître l’argument opposé.

Afin de répondre à la question, j’ai d’abord lu et examiné le roman. Au début, j’ai trouvé six thèmes puis j’ai décidé de traiter les trois thèmes qui, selon moi, reflétaient le mieux la vie de la banlieue: le racisme et discrimination, la pauvreté et le chômage et finalement la culture musulmane. Pour voir si la perception de Doria sur la banlieue était  proche de la réalité ou de la fiction j’ai fait plusieurs références croisées entre le roman et d’autres sources telles que d’autres livres et des articles. Après avoir examiné ces trois thèmes en détails je suis arrivée à la conclusion que la perception de la banlieue à travers les yeux de Doria dans Kiffe Kiffe Demain n’est pas seulement de la fiction et qu’au contraire, elle est objective et réaliste.

Le mémoire commence avec une analyse de l’histoire de la langue française et de son origine. Puis, toujours au sujet de l’histoire des langues je me suis penché sur les tendances des langues et plus spécifiquement les tendances d’évolution de la langue française à travers des centaines années. Après, le mémoire se focalise sur les changements surtout pendant les dernières années. J’ai soutenu ma thèse avec des exemples montrant comment la langue française s’anglicise et quelles en sont les raisons. La dernière partie évalue la situation en prenant en compte différents points de vue. Certains estiment que l’évolution de la langue française est un sujet d’inquiétude alors que d’autres sont en faveur de ma thèse et estiment que l’évolution est naturelle. La conclusion que j’ai tiré de ce mémoire est qu’il semblerait vraiment que la langue devienne plus anglicisée. Mais, comme je l’ai déjà dit, l’évolution d’une langue se produit naturellement et de façon continue.



OOI, MATHILDE

WEISSER LOPEZ, BRUNO

Durante su dictadura desde 1936 hasta 1975, Francisco Franco intentó encontrar la manera de alterar su reputación de un dictador cruel y despiadado y distraer a la población española del déficit económico y falta de control político de la Posguerra Civil. Franco fue capaz de transformar ese estereotipo en ser percibido como un líder carismático con el uso de fútbol como una forma de propaganda. Por lo tanto, he decidido investigar ¿en qué medida Franco usó el fútbol como una forma eficaz de propaganda?

La monografía se ha escrito sobre los trasplantes de órganos en España porque la medicina, el idioma español y el país mismo son muy interesantes. España ha sido líder en el número de órganos trasplantados para muchos años consecutivos, la monografía trata de entender qué aspecto de la cultura española ha influido en esto.

Esta monografía explorará las vías por las cuales Franco pudo utilizar el deporte como un vehículo para diseminar información con fines políticos, también analizará los efectos de su intervención política en el fútbol tras oportunidades específicas: La Copa Mundial de 1950, el uso de futbolistas talentosos y la utilización del fútbol contra su régimen por la oposición. Responder a ésta pregunta abarca el análisis del libro La Roja, por Jimmy Burns para entender más dichos acontecimientos investigados y analizados por el autor. Además, he usado fuentes primarias como la película de Ladislau Kubala para aprender cómo se transmitió la propaganda y cómo esto fue percibido. Franco consiguió con éxito usar el fútbol como una forma de propaganda porque arraigó pasión por el fútbol en la sociedad española. Franco reprimiría el caos social y amplificaría su poder aprovechando los resultados triunfales del Mundial del 1950, explotando jugadores excepcionales de su equipo afiliado, el Real Madrid. Además, Franco dominó a su oposición creando todo tipo de maniobra para que el Real Madrid Brillase sobre los equipos rivales. A consecuencia, el fútbol hizo el papel crucial de ayudar Franco a permanecer en el poder, enmascarar el desorden político y económico y transformar España en un país más fuerte y unido.  

La información se encuentra en la literatura del red y la literatura en las bibliotecas, sino también se recogieron informaciones de primera mano de los hospitales españoles y el pueblo español. Las preguntas se publicarán en foros para recoger opiniones, y consultas fueron enviados a hospitales preguntando sobre sus procedimientos de trasplante de órganos. Era difícil obtener información inicialmente, pero con el tiempo y más esfuerzo, se obtuvo una gran cantidad de información. Fue útil la obtención de las opiniones de los ciudadanos españoles y era útil saber qué hospitales mismos consideran tan eficaz. A través de esta investigación aprendí que la comunidad social, el apoyo del gobierno y de los coordinadores de trasplantes en el hospital, son los que causan la diferencia en la tasa de trasplantes en comparación con otros países. Estos aspectos están conectados para proporcionar un proceso de trasplante integral, lo que asegura un éxito de principio a fin. Esto demuestra que hay una cultura de cuidar a los enfermos y un gobierno que está promoviendo el trasplante de órganos. El resultado ha sido un procedimiento más eficaz, con coordinadores de trasplantes que facilitan el proceso en los hospitales.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 31

32 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

ABSTRACTS ECONOMICS

BAIJU, GRACE

BIDASARIA, PURVI

In this essay I will be responding to the research question: “To what extent is the Certificate of Entitlement effective by looking at demand for niche market cars in comparison to mass market makes over 2 years”. This extended essay mainly focuses on the effectiveness of the government policy, known as vehicle quota system in reducing the road congestion in Singapore. I will be evaluating the policy as a solution to market failure and looking at its effectiveness through behavioural economics.

In this essay I shall be responding to the research question:

The information used in this essay comprises of data obtained from land transport authority, theory from economic textbooks, questionnaires given to a quota sample of 40 participants and general information from car companies. This investigation is focused on two particular car companies— “Nissan” and “Porsche”, since they best represent mass market makes and niche market cars respectively. I compared changing sales and retail prices to changing COE prices ($) over a period of two years. I also collected data on how often people use their car depending on the COE price ($). This investigation led me to the conclusion, that government attempt to reduce congestion and pollution by cars is only effective to a certain extent. Although COE has been effective in controlling vehicle population growth to 3% or less over the years, my data showed that higher COEs led to people using cars more often, through analysis of behavioural economics. Therefore, high COE backfired. The data also lead to the conclusion that high COEs affected mass market makes more than niche market cars; people preferred to buy more expensive cars, as the COE was a smaller percentage of the price of niche marker cars. In turn highlighting the unfairness behind the system.

To what extent is the local vegetable market ‘Malwa Mill’ in Indore perfectly competitive? The purpose of this research is to determine the workings of local vegetable and fruit markets in India and determine the behavior of firms. For the purpose/scope of this essay I will be concentrating on the local fruit and vegetable market in my hometown called malwa mill. In order to collect my secondary data I researched the Internet and textbooks about perfectly competitive market structures and the local municipal corporation Nagar Nigam. In order to collect my primary data I prepared two surveys, one for the vendors and one for the consumers. These questionnaires were based on the sole purpose to explore the behavior of firms and consumers of Malwa Mill. After conducting the surveys I formulated another survey for the municipal corporation officials, so that they could answer the questions which the vendors and consumers were unable to. After collecting all the required information I analyzed the data collected through surveys against the theory i.e. the six characteristics of a perfectly competitive market. I have reached the conclusion that Malwa Mill is a fairly perfectly competitive market after analyzing that the products are fairly homogenous, the firms are price takers considering that they are being ambiguous about their profit margins, there is fairly perfect information in the market, there are a large number of small firms, there are low barriers to entry and exit and that firms try to increase profits through different techniques like selling fresh produce.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 33

BHATTACHARYA, APALA

CITWAR, EDUARDO

GEORGIOU, ALEXANDER

In this essay I shall be responding to the research question: “To what extent has the Singapore government’s intervention in the central public transport system led to a socially optimal production?” I shall be evaluating the government interventions place on the two firms in question—SMRT & SBS Transit and reflect upon their effectiveness to bring the production of trains and busses to a point that is socially optimal.

The investigation carried out in this essay aimed to evaluate: “To what extent does the fruit market in Humaitá, Rio de Janeiro conform to a perfect competition market structure.” In order to answer the research question, I designed a data collection method that allowed me to assess the application of each of the main assumptions of the economic theory of perfect competition into the fruit market.

This paper aimed to determine the extent of the European Union’s austerity program’s success in achieving its goals of positioning the Greek economy for recovery and maintaining a reasonable standard of living on both a national and regional level. It further aimed to examine the extent to which regional differences affected the efficacy of the program.

The scope for this essay is to highlight and evaluate the consequences of the placed interventions and apply economic theory to evaluate its efficiency. In this essay, it is assumed that a socially optimal point exits and is therefore quantifiable and achievable. I investigate this through the aid of primary research in the form of surveys and interviews with the three concerned parties—the commuters, the two firms as well as the government bodies known as the Land Transport Authority and the Public Transport Council respectively. I have reached the conclusion that although on a general basis government interventions create unnecessary consequences in the form of deadweight loss, LTA and PTC together have increased the production as well as the usage of MRTs and busses in Singapore by applying effective economic measures. Though the current usage and production of MRTs and busses is not considered socially optimal by the government body and are therefore hoping to increase this number in the future, the local opinion is that the central public transport system is in reality overused and therefore increasing the demand is seen as for the same impractical. Furthermore, through my research it has come to my notice that even with the placed measures the number of people using private cars does not substantially diminish as is the LTA’s goal and therefore unresolved queries as to the motivations for such actions.

Data about the market was obtained through the use of observation of prices and number of stalls, interviews with 2 stall owners, and a questionnaire that was answered by 30 consumers. The data gathered provided information about several aspects of the market which I compared to the economic theory of perfect competition, leading to a final conclusion about the extent to which the fruit market fits into that model. The initial expectation was that the market would conform to a significant extent to most of the theoretical assumptions of the perfect competition model, however, the final outcome was rather disappointing, as the data suggested that out of the 6 characteristics of perfect competition examined, the fruit market did not conform to a significant extent to 3 (‘Homogeneous products’, ‘Perfect information’ and ‘Perfectly elastic demand’), conformed partially to 2 (‘No barriers to entry and exit’ and ‘Lack of long-run abnormal profits or losses’), and only conformed significantly to 1 characteristic (‘Large number of firms’). Therefore, I reached the conclusion that the fruit market at Humaitá, Rio de Janeiro only conforms to a very little extent to the model of perfect competition.

This was achieved by analysis of two sets of data—national level metrics sourced from Eurostat, and regional level survey responses collected in June 2013 in the Greek capital of Athens and island of Hydra. The paper concludes that austerity had failed to achieve its goals in Greece. It also notes that significant regional variation did exist, and cautioned policy makers to note the impact of both inter-regional and intra-national level variation in economic conditions.

34 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GRACE, RACHAEL

GUPTA, PRANAV

KHERA, SONICA

Research question

In this essay I will research: “To what extent do world bulk tea prices affect the price of tea retailed in Kolkata, India?—An investigation why prices behave so differently in the bulk tea market compared to the retail market.” I will evaluate the extent to which retail tea prices in Kolkata are affected by the price of India’s bulk tea (‘bulk tea’ refers to the tea that is sold in wholesale packing, and is of one specific type of grade). I will make evaluations to this thesis statement using the IB Economics knowledge I have for market structures and the characteristic features of that market structure.

Traffic congestion is a negative externality prevalent in Singapore, due to overconsumption of roads. The Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) system is an indirect tax on road consumption, which is implemented by the Singapore government so as to achieve the socially optimal quantity of road usage in the Central Business District (CBD) area. The ERP system comprises of gantries at congested roads, which operate during peak hours at varying surcharges.

To what extent is UD. Makmur Tani Jaya a price maker or a price taker in the market of high acid crude palm oil in Medan, Indonesia?

Reason to choose this topic This topic was chosen because my family runs a business related to crude palm oil and I am very interested in how the market of crude palm oil works.

Method of approaching investigation This investigation focuses on the pricing method of crude palm oil companies. It was conducted through means of primary and secondary research. Primary research included a survey that was distributed out to three companies and recording the daily change in price of crude palm oil and exchange rates of USD to IDR. An interview with an individual from one of the companies were also carried out to acquire a more in depth understanding of their pricing method to identify to what extent UD. Makmur Tani Jaya is a price maker or price taker. Secondary research included researching economic theories from textbooks and the internet to help support my conclusion.

Summary of conclusion It has been concluded that UD. Makmur Tani Jaya operates more as a price taker than a price maker in the market of high acid crude palm oil in Medan, Indonesia.

The scope of my investigation is mainly to see the correlation of the commodity price- the bulk price and the product price- the retail price. In this investigation I would focus my research on how the bulk tea market of the world is monopolistically competitive and the retail market is oligopolistic. And, further see a correlation in the prices of both these markets. To measure this correlation between these two prices, I have studied the prices of a particular firm in the monopolistically competitive market- the wholesale market and recorded prices from August ’13 I have studied a various number of factors and the respective market structure of the bulk tea market and the retail market to see the reason for more fluctuation of prices in the commodity rather than the product. I have then further evaluated the degree of volatility of both the markets and the effect they have on each other.

The research question being investigated is: How effective is the Electronic Road Pricing system in reducing traffic congestion during the morning peak hours, at Victoria Street and Nicoll Highway in Singapore? To address this question, data was gathered using both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was obtained through two channels. Firstly, the average number of cars passing through ERP gantries at fixed time intervals, for varying ERP surcharges, was counted. This data was used to calculate the Price Elasticity of Demand (PED) for road usage in the CBD. Qualitative data was also recorded. Secondly, a questionnaire regarding the ERP system was distributed to 50 car-owners. Secondary data was obtained from research on government websites, official statements and newspaper articles. All the data was used collectively to evaluate the success of the ERP system in achieving its goals. The analysis of two gantries in the CBD concluded that the ERP is only partially effective in achieving its goals, as ERPpriced roads continue to experience traffic congestion. Motorists do not consider public transport to be a viable alternative to driving, and are willing to pay ERP surcharges to enter the CBD, as the demand is mostly high and inelastic. Thus, road usage is above the socially optimal level and traffic congestion is the negative externality which continues to exist as a result.  



Extended Essays 2013/2014 35

KIM, YOUNG DO

KONGBOONMA, TACHAPAN

KUMAR, ISHA

In this essay, I will be responding to the research question:

This extended essay investigates the nature of the post-paid mobile network operators market in Bangkok. This constantly growing market (Appendix 1) is anticipated to behave like an oligopoly. From the customers’ perspective, it seems that the market is being dominated by a small number of firms as supported by the fact that the majority could only recall 4 mobile network operators (Appendix 4). Therefore, this essay will look and examine the behavior and the features of this market which leads to the research question, “To what extent is market for post-paid mobile network operators in Bangkok oligopolistic?” This essay will explain the characteristics of an oligopoly that differentiate an oligopoly from other types of market and also analyze whether the situation in this industry aligns to or not. Therefore, the research will look specifically into the concentration ratio, level of barriers to entry, non-collusive oligopoly behavior and the interdependence of the market. Furthermore, this essay will assess the extent to which the market correlates with the characteristics mentioned.

In my Extended Essay I decided to study the market for cars in Kolkata, India. My research question is “To what extent is the market for cars in Kolkata, India oligopolistic?”

“To what extent does the Sodexo operate as a profit-maximizing monopoly?” I shall be exploring the pricing policy of Sodexo as our school’s only provider of food and beverages, extent to which it is separated from other food and beverage providers and consumer satisfaction level, and compare them to the main features of a typical profit-maximizing monopoly. Even though a monopoly may be defined as a single firm dominating a local area (school campus), it is not the only factor that justifies monopoly. In order to investigate this issue, a survey was conducted on 40 members in the school community who are potential consumers of Sodexo—students, teachers and parents—in order to gain knowledge on how Sodexo operates.  Interview with Sodexo manager in charge at UWCSEA East was held to approach this issue from the producer’s point of view. Different characteristics of a typical monopoly are compared with the data gained from the primary researches to judge how much monopoly-like power Sodexo actually possesses. I have reached the conclusion that although Sodexo operate like a monopoly in that it is a price-maker and high barriers to entry exists, it is restricted by a series of rules and regulations by the School Board, which acts like a government body on a typical industry. Sodexo does show typical monopoly behaviour, however it may be a result of strict rules and regulations. Consumers, on the other hand, somewhat believe Sodexo controls the “market” solely on its own. Sodexo in itself may be better deemed as a natural monopoly serving UWCSEA community.

The scope of this essay is to examine only in Bangkok region. Additionally, members of 3 different mobile network operators, AIS, DTAC and truemove, are interviewed to gain insight from producer’s perspective. Also, a survey is conducted to gain information from a consumer’s perspective in attempt to understand consumer’s behaviors and their knowledge of the market. It has come to a conclusion that the market for post-paid mobile network operators is relatively oligopolistic. Although there is an element of bias in this investigation as convenient sampling is used instead of random sampling but majority of the characteristics of an oligopoly is proved true in this investigation. However, there is an unresolved question whether this market is a collusive or non-collusive oligopoly since information involved is sensitive.

In order to determine this, I first looked at the theory of Oligopolies. Then, I conducted surveys, which included responses from 50 car customers across the city of Kolkata, and conducted interviews on 4 car dealers in the city. I also found out about the various promotional strategies from car websites. The information thus collected, was used to determine the extent to which the car market in Kolkata was oligopolistic. I concluded that the market for cars in Kolkata was oligopolistic to a large degree in terms of number of firms, importance of non-price factors, similarity of products and availability of information, barriers to entry and the importance of price were taken into consideration. This was according to the data collected from the interviews and surveys.

36 Extended Essays 2013/2014

KUSDIANTO, JESSICA

LEGAULT, PHILIPPE

SHILOTRI, NIDHI

In this essay I respond to the research question: “What economic factors have led to J.CO’s market dominance of 70% in Jakarta’s donut market, and to what extent do they reflect the features of a monopoly market structure?” As J.CO’s high market share shows that the firm is a monopoly and indicates that there are high barriers to entry in the donut market, I investigated the key economic factors that have caused J.CO to create these high barriers. I also analysed the extent to which these economic factors indicate that the donut market in Jakarta has a monopoly structure.

In this essay I will attempt to respond to the following research question: “To what extent does Café des Artistes use non-price competition in order to secure market share in the coffee market in Gaspé, Canada.” I will assess the methods of non-price competition used by Café des Artistes and Tim Hortons. My essay covers the extent to which Café des Artistes has competed through non-price competition to gain and maintain market share.

In this essay, I shall be responding to the research question:

I will conduct a research to assess the importance of given habits of coffee drinking consumers from both firms. Data will originate from a survey in which consumers will be asked to rank the importance of local product, quality of product, quality of service, ambience, speed of delivery and price. The owner of Café des Artistes will also be interviewed on the competition between both firms. Some of the observations will stem from my experience as an employee of the Café des Artistes.

I will carry out my investigation by examining the key characteristics and implications of the monopolistic competition theory and will then apply these to the market the nail salons operate in. The essay will cover the characteristics of low barriers to entry and exit, large number of firms and product differentiation and analyze them against the nail salon market’s characteristics. Furthermore, I investigate the tendency of firms in monopolistically competitive markets to make normal profits and indulge in price and non-price competition, in order to asses the extent which the nail salons exhibit such behavior.

I conducted a range of both primary and secondary research to address the question. Firstly, I conducted interviews with the owner of J.CO and a manger of one of its competitors. I also acquired data on J.CO’s sales figures and costs and collected primary data by surveying respondents in an open public forum regarding Jakarta’s donut market and J.CO with a questionnaire. My secondary sources were in the form of textbooks and journal articles where I derived the content of the theory. I have reached the conclusion that the key economic factors that have led to J.CO having a large market share are product quality, research and development, economies of scale and marketing. Also, the economic factors identified reflect to a large extent the features of a monopoly market structure as they have led to J.CO having most of the features of a monopoly. Based on this research, for J.CO to maintain its position as a monopoly the firm should focus on enhancing the economic factor of product differentiation, and on employing new and modern marketing tools as this will help maintain its market dominance in the long run.

My research has revealed that Café des Artistes uses quality of product, market segmentation, quality of service and ambience in its non-price competition business strategy, while Tim Hortons relies on speed of delivery, nationwide reputation, market segmentation and lower prices. The conclusion states that both firms control different segments of the market catering to consumer demands.

“To what extent are the nail salons in Far East Plaza operating in a monopolistically competitive market structure?” I shall be evaluating the extent of monopolistic competition of the nail salon market in Far East Plaza in which 35 different suppliers operate in close proximity of each other.

In answering the question, I have collected extensive primary data about types of services offered, price ranges and product differentiation techniques to analyze the nail salon market’s characteristics and behavior. I have reached the conclusion that although the market for nail salons appears to operate in a monopolistically competitive market, it does not actually conform to most of the theory’s characteristics and implications. The market does not have low barriers to entry and exit and product differentiation is done to a very negligible degree. The presence of abnormal profits further suggests that the lack of non-price and price competition, leading me to conclude that the nail salons in Far-East Plaza operate in a monopolistically competitive market to a small extent.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 37

SINGH, YASH

SRIVATSAN, VARUN

TANTIA, YASHRAJ

The pricing mechanism for different vendors around Singapore, all supplying the same product, is unique and relatively unexplored. When multiple vendors sell the same product, a 300ml can of Coca Cola, there is a significant price variance. I set out to account for the price inconsistency using theory from the HL IB Economics Diploma. Thus, I will respond to the research question of: To what extent can theory from the HL IB Economics Diploma explain the price structure of a can of Coca Cola at different vendors around Singapore?

Research question:

This essay is based on the health conditions and the economic development in two villages: Manoharpur and Barijhati, both of which are in India. The research question of this essay is: To what extent does the availability of clean water affect the health indicators in the provinces of Manoharpur and Barijhati and, it turn, what effect do these changes in the health indicators have on the economic development of the villages?

The scope of this essay is to firstly, explore the theory within price discrimination and the third degree, based on the characteristic of location, to find out if one of Singapore’s leading supermarkets, NTUC FairPrice, price discriminates. In order to do so, data was collected from each of the three supermarket extensions and compared, providing a foundation through which third degree price discrimination could be argued. The next portion of the research paper encompassed recording the prices of the soft drink when sold in different market structures—starting off by comparing two local monopolies in the form of a condominium shop and a concert venue. The last section of this paper will look at two oligopolies—the three leading supermarkets in Singapore, followed by the three highest ranked hotels in a certain area. With diagrams and theory from the course, explanations are then provided which explain the pricing scheme. The result shows that theory from the IB Economics Diploma can be used thoroughly to validate the price variance, and will work with peripheral factors outside of the industry’s control to present a logical answer. However, the conclusion also shows that there will be theory outside of the IB HL Economics course, which can be used to explain price variance.

To what extent is the hairdressing market in Hougang Complex, Singapore monopolistically competitive?

Method of research: Firstly, I drew up a list of all the characteristics of a monopolistically competitive firm. I then used that to compare it to what the market and the firms actually exhibited. This was done through a mixture of questionnaires, interviews and observational data. The questionnaire asked the shop owners how difficult they found it to start up their business, factors affecting pricing, how aware they were of competitor’s prices, costs & profits, and knowledge of their competition. The customers who visited the shops were also asked on their loyalty, experience, pricing etc. This was then collated and analyzed to see what characteristics were being exhibited by the market, and finally, whether this matched the theoretical characteristics.

Relevance By determining market structure, generally, it can be seen if theoretical characteristics match real life aspects of the market. Also, it provides a model specific to the market through which decisions and predictions can be made.

Summary of conclusion It was found that the hairdressing market is, to a large extent, monopolistically competitive, but there are some characteristics that do not match. Also, there is the possibility that the market could become oligopolistic in the future, as it exhibits some of the characteristics of this structure.

As economic development depends on many factors, the two villages have been chosen in such a way that variable other than health indicators, such as education and social structure, have minimum effect on the economic development. The first hand primary data has been collected over a period of two month on variable such as change in the availability of clean water, life expectancy at birth, infant mortality rate, income levels and number of working hours per day. The initial assumption was that the larger the village, the better the health indicators, and the more economically developed it is. However, the data collection and processing proved the initial hypothesis partly correct but partly wrong. The larger village of Manoharpur had a large change in water availability over the last decade in comparison to the smaller village of Barijhati, however, proved to have a slow rate of economic development in comparison to the latter. Furthermore, analyzing the data proved that the higher economic development in Barijhati was due to the development projects taking place nearby and because of its close proximity to urbanization. Thus, the data held up the conclusion that Barijhati was more economically developed than Manoharpur due to factors other than health indicators.

38 Extended Essays 2013/2014

TONG, WING HONG In Singapore, hawker center is one of the main food supplies, and people like to spend money on buying food at different hawker stands. This paper is going to study how hawker stands behave to attract customers from its market structure; thus as to provide a root cause analysis on profit for the stands. In order to know how stands gain profit, the entire hawker structure that is similar to monopolistic competition should be examined and the question leaves to: To what extent does the Kovan hawker center in Singapore resemble a monopolistically competitive market structure. To have a non-biased essay, it first acknowledges the monopolistic market characteristics, and data will be collected and compared to the realistic hawker market structure’s characteristics. The first aspect will discuss and compare numbers of substitutes, which indirectly provide implications on the numbers of stands in hawker market; thus, this essay is able to tell whether hawker center has high number of substitutes similar to monopolistic competition. Then, the investigation focuses on the characteristics of product differentiation and price competition from the theoretical point of view, and distinguish whether it exists in hawker market. Finally, low barriers of entry and exit in monopolistic competition will be discussed and compared with the hawker structure, and so to prove the hawker presenting profit, and then compare if the theoretical short run supernormal profit exists in hawker. The conclusion is the hawker center market structure partially mirrors the economic monopolistic structure, where numerous hawker stands gains short run and long run profit with the assistance of the high barriers of entry and exit, through product differentiation and price competition.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 39

GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

SELECTED ECONOMICS TO WHAT EXTENT DO WORLD COFFEE BEAN COMMODITY PRICES AFFECT RETAIL COFFEE PRODUCT PRICES IN THE SINGAPORE MARKET?

KANG, HEE JIN (LESLIE)

1. Introduction

Through this essay, I have answered the research question: “To what extent do world coffee bean commodity prices affect retail coffee product prices in the Singapore market?” by examining each stage of the coffee commodity chain. After covering theories regarding firms and market structures, I wanted to investigate how coffee beverages have stable prices while world coffee bean prices rapidly fluctuate. Moreover, since Singapore has a unique market where local kopitiam and imported coffee coexist, price changes within each sector would shed light on final coffee price determination.

1.1

The scope of this essay is to examine how each market structure contributes to pricing in respective markets. I researched that coffee bean prices are volatile due to perfect competition in production. I scrutinized oligopoly existing between various importers, exporters and roasters that process coffee to supply the retail market. Then I analyzed the Singapore retail market at different levels: oligopolistic coffee Arabica market for multinational retailers, monopolistic competition of coffee-Robusta-oriented local kopitiam retailers, and oligopolistic local hypermarket retailers. My investigation involved observing and collecting prices of coffee beans, and that of multinational and local retail products. Afterwards I analyzed my primary data based on secondary sources—websites, textbooks, and a survey. I concluded that the effect of commodity price changes on retail product pricing is largely affected by market structures within the commodity chain. Exporters, roasters, and retailers have more ability to determine and stabilize their prices than local kopitiam retailers who are relatively more susceptible to commodity price changes. Consequently, I observed stable retail coffee pricing in Singapore, with the exception of local kopitiam retailer Ya Kun Kaya Toast. Therefore, the effect of world coffee commodity price changes on retail coffee product pricing in Singapore is inversely proportional to the stakeholders’ market within the commodity chain.

History and Development of the Coffee Industry

Coffee is known to have been cultivated in Yemen and popularized as a beverage in the Arab world since the 15th century. By the 1600s the Dutch became the main suppliers of coffee to Europe, operating coffee farms in Malabar and Batvia, and by the 1700s had introduced the coffee plant to Central and South America while the British introduced coffee to Jamaica. Coffee beans are a dominant cash crop in such regions today, highly renowned of their quality. (“The Story Of Coffee.” ico.org.) Today coffee is one of the most valuable primary products in world trade as a habitual beverage fulfilling everyday consumer utility worldwide, with 2.25 billion cups of coffee consumed daily predominantly in developed nations. (Ponte, “The ‘Latte Revolution’? …”) Simultaneously coffee beans are a valuable cash crop that constitutes national income. Hence coffee plays an instrumental role in boosting economic development of many Less Economically Developed Nations - between 2010 and 2010, in Burundi, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Honduras and other eleven nations average share of coffee exports exceeded 10% of their total export earnings. (“World Coffee Trade.” ico.org.) Such dependence on coffee production for income may be threatened by the general trend of decreasing coffee prices worldwide since April 2011 (“ICO Indicator Prices.” ico. org.) and the recent dwindle in growth of the European coffee market. (“World Coffee Trade.” ico.org.)

Figure 1. Monthly Average of World Coffee Bean (Arabica and Robusta) Prices

40 Extended Essays 2013/2014

However the Singapore market has seen a consistent increase in consumption: brewing demand has raised coffee bean imports to S$1.4 billion in 2011, up from S$1.1 billion in 2008. (Chan, “S’poreans Drinking More Coffee.”) Major coffee Arabica retailers in Singapore appear to keep their prices stable albeit decreasing coffee commodity prices worldwide. As an avid consumer within the Singaporean coffee market myself, I came to question how the price for a cup of coffee in my hand every morning could stay stable when market prices for coffee beans fluctuate rapidly on a monthly basis. Hence I chose this topic to investigate further the rationale behind such phenomena, by collecting changes in price of retail coffee brands within the Singapore market and applying relevant theories I had learned in the classroom during the past year. Moreover, I believed that consumption trends in Singapore would be especially interesting to identify, considering that it is a nation emerging from a developing to a more developed economy. I gathered that retail coffee pricing is not only determined by the producers’ supply alone, but also by trading between various middlemen and retailers before it reaches the consumers. I believe that the effect of commodity price on retail coffee product price would be inversely proportional to the market power that each firm holds. Hence I aim to construct a coherent explanation to my question “to what extent do world coffee bean commodity prices affect retail coffee product prices in the Singapore market?” by examining the different market structures (and different market power and pricing policies respectively) of the stakeholders involved in each stage of the commodity chain between the producers and the Singaporean consumers.

1.2 Method of Approach In order to investigate the extent to which coffee commodity prices affect the retail

prices of coffee in Singapore, I will look into three main stages of the coffee market: global production and manufacturing, trade between stakeholders within the commodity chain, and the retail market in Singapore. I have obtained primary data by recording prices of various coffee Arabica products every first and third Saturday of the month from 5th January 2013 to 17th August 2013, from the following Singapore retail and roaster stores: the Illy Cafe in Bugis, Starbucks Cafe in Harbourfront Station and Giant in VivoCity. I have done likewise with coffee Robusta products of Ya Kun Kaya Toast in Vivocity and Cold Storage in Harbourfront Station, from 4th May 2013 to 17th August 2013. I have also surveyed an opportunity sample of High School students and staff in school regarding any observations of coffee product price changes. My secondary data are Internet articles, databases, and Economic textbooks - which I have used to obtain the history of price changes of coffee in the world market, the global and local structure of the coffee market, and relevant economic theory to support my primary data. My answer to the research question will focus on the extent to which the price of coffee beans affect retail coffee prices, and relevant explanations.

percentage of market output. Approximately 25 million farmers and coffee workers in over 50 countries are involved in producing coffee worldwide, (“Coffee Frequently Asked Questions.” Global Exchange.) having close to no influence over prevailing market price. Hence as illustrated in Figure 2.1 farmers are ‘price-takers’, adhering to the market equilibrium (output of Qm units) at price Pm set by the New York Coffee Exchange, or imposed by middlemen (coyotes) who purchase directly from small-scale coffee farms. (“Coffee Frequently Asked Questions.” Global Exchange.) Hence theoretically supply is perfectly price elastic, with producers responding instantly and easily to price changes (S. Maley, J. Walker 91) as illustrated in Figure 2.2 where all output is produced only at world equilibrium price Pm.

2. Discussion

Perfect competition assumes barriers to entry – any conditions that can prevent a firm from entering an industry such as high startup of sunk costs, copyrights, patents, and economies of scale (Tragakes 541) – are almost non-existent, and farmers are free to enter or leave the industry at any stage of production. (A. Glanville, J. Glanville 545) Perfect competition also assumes that all producers and consumers have perfect information regarding products, prices, resources and production methods. (Tragakes 168) Such conditions will simultaneously prevent firms from making normal profit in the long run (Blink et al. 103), the microeconomic timeframe where all inputs can be changed. (Tragakes 547) As shown in Figure 2.1 and 2.2 new firms entering the market will increase supply

2.1 Coffee Production: A ‘Volatile’ Commodity Two species of coffee plants are predominantly cultivated in the coffee industry: the Arabica and the Robusta, which can again be divided into smaller subtypes depending on region and processing methods. Although certain beans such as Vietnamese Robusta and the Java Arabica (“Major Coffee Producers.” National Geographic.) are more renowned and preferred of their quality, theoretically coffee beans can be regarded as a homogenous agricultural commodity that is traded in a perfectly competitive market. Within perfect competition, an infinitely large number of producers supply a low

Figures 2.1 & 2.2. Market forces in Perfectly Competitive Coffee Industry and Coffee Bean Farm



importer in a consuming region. Then the green beans go under roasting and grinding processes by roasters and retailers before it reaches household consumers in form of retail product. (Talbot 34)

from S to S1, decreasing prices from Pm to P1. This will erode abnormal profit indicated in the shaded area, since farmers have to take the decreasing market price and shift supply to D1 accordingly. At one stance the coffee bean industry may seem to be of monopolistic competition in which a large number of firms sell products differentiated from one another, giving producers more freedom over their pricing. (Blink et al. 121) Although some differentiation with various picking or drying methods may exist, such differentiation will not increase producers’ power to set prices at a significant scale. Therefore the coffee bean industry can still be categorized as a perfectly competitive market. Perfect competition also assumes full mobility of all resources. However, this may not be applicable for coffee bean production since farming itself is fixed within a certain timeframe and is heavily based on land, a fixed factor with very little unused capacity. (Tragakes 69) This subsequently contributes to volatile prices of coffee bean as a commodity. Both supply and demand are both price inelastic due to unexpected non-price factors, leading to more volatile price changes than relatively price elastic commodities as illustrated in Figure 2.3 below – since both consumers and producers respond slowly to price changes (Welker et al. 72) for the former than the latter. Various factors affecting quantity and pricing of commodities include changes in population and labour, and political relations between producer and consumer nations – supply is especially affected by weather since coffee beans are only grown in ‘bean belt’ regions with optimal tropical conditions. (“Major Coffee Producers.” National Geographic.) Furthermore, as the coffee tree itself begins to produce only three to five years after planting, supply responds very slowly to price (Talbot 35) – prolonging coffee shortage in the short run, the timeframe in which at least one input is fixed and unchangeable. (Tragakes 552)

Extended Essays 2013/2014 41

Figure 2.3. Price Inelastic Supply and Demand Accounting for Coffee Market, compared to a Market for Goods with Price Elastic Supply and Demand

‘Price-taker’ farmers in perfect competition have to adhere to such largely fluctuating market prices, which may aggravate poverty in developing nations with many producers dependent on income from farming. This was the case of the recent coffee crisis in Columbia, where farmers made significant loss due to decreasing world prices of coffee Arabica – on top of sharp decrease in output due to torrential rains that diseased coffee plants from excessive moisture, and destroyed roads and bridges for transporting commodities to markets. (“Coffee Crisis in Full Swing in Colombia.” English Pravda.ru.)

2.2 Procurement and Manufacturing: The Commodity Chain The worldwide coffee trade market is described as a ‘commodity chain’ where a string of various parties between producers and consumers collectively affect the final price of the processed coffee products charged on the consumers. In essence, green beans – processed and dried, but unroasted coffee seeds (Haeger, “Processing and Roasting.”) – are shipped from one region to another as a result of transaction between an exporter from a producing region to an

Figure 2.4 Interaction Between Different Stakeholders Within the Commodity Chain (Ponte, “The ‘Latte Revolution’? …”)

2.2.1 Exporters and Importers: Procurement of Green Coffee Middlemen exporters or ‘coyotes’ purchase harvested coffee directly from small farmers, and are known to keep a high profit percentage to themselves by taking advantage of their producers with transactions below the market price. Meanwhile, larger plantations have more producer sovereignty, able to export their own harvests or make direct transactions with multinational coffee processing or distributing firms – in this case prices are set and regulated by the New York Coffee Exchange. (“Coffee Frequently Asked Questions.” Global Exchange.) Importers purchase green coffee from renowned exporters or large plantations either on order of a coffee roaster, or for their own account. In case of the former importers tailor and deliver its coffee seeds directly to the importers’ needs, while for the latter they bring and stock up large container loads of coffee to gradually sell at numerous orders in smaller quantities. (Talbot 35) Either way, many roasters with inadequate capital resources for obtaining commodities rely on importers for quality green coffee – hence importers hold some sovereignty over the types of commodities they offer in the green coffee market. Meanwhile, importers in the specialty coffee sector purchase directly from small farmer cooperatives, which may also embrace sustainabilityoriented initiatives such as Fair Trade. (“Coffee Frequently Asked Questions.” Global Exchange.) Meanwhile, hedgers – producers, roasters, and merchant firms involved in transporting coffee products from the beginning to the end of the commodity chain (Bussing-Burks 128) – also purchase large quantities to obtain coffee at the lowest price possible, in form of ‘Coffee C Future Contract’ fixed by the New York

42 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Coffee Exchange at the world benchmark price of 37,500 pounds of coffee per contract. (Bussing-Burks 127) Therefore the volatility of prices during coffee production would not affect the stakeholders in the commodity chain to a large extent. 2.2.2 Roasters: Coffee Processing & Manufacturing There are several routes for processing producing nations’ green coffee into final retail products. Although smaller segment of the roasters rely on conventional roasting methods, industrialisation in coffee processing has enabled the majority to produce soluble ‘instant coffee’ retail products. (Talbot 35) Most commonly, large roasting companies roast, grind and pack their coffee in form of wholesale goods to sell to retailers such as supermarkets, food stores or large discounters. Such roasters tend to be foreign multinational corporations (MNCs) dominating markets – Figure 2.5 presents the five largest roasters who purchase almost 45% of green coffee worldwide. (“Coffee Roasters.” Tropical Commodity Coalition.)

In contrast to the numerous producers within perfectly competition who independently produce homogenous goods, oligopolistic roaster firms have more freedom in decisions on pricing, roasting techniques, advertising and other differentiation strategies. Because such few firms hold a large share of the market, the decisions of each firm would have a larger influence on the coffee market. Therefore oligopolistic firms are mutually interdependent of each other, lest a decision of one firm brings unfavourable or threatening effects to the demands and profits to others. (Tragakes 201) Such coffee roasters may form a collusive oligopoly by either formally agreeing to restrict output or prices to limit competition and maximize profit (Tragakes 541) or charging similar prices under implied collusion (Blink et al. 128) – as shown in Figure 2.6 where firms behave like monopolies, rigidly holding price at P albeit decreasing average costs. This had been exemplified by coffee roasters Tchibo, Melitta and Dallmayr in Germany who were fined for colluding to fix product prices for coffee beans, espresso coffee and filter coffee since 2000. (“Watchdog Slaps … Price Fixing.” Deutsche Welle.)

Figure 2.5 Worldwide Coffee Roasting and Manufacturing Market Share

Such coffee roaster firms take form of an oligopsony where few large buyers dominate a market, (Pietersz, “Oligopsony.”) displaying strategic behaviours similar to that of few large oligopolistic suppliers who dominate a large share of the market for identical or differentiated goods. (S. Maley, J. Waker 224) Simultaneously such oligopsonistic roasters could likewise be regarded as firms in oligopoly, since they supply the processed coffee to various retailers.

Figure 2.6 Market for Coffee Roaster Cartel in Collusive Oligopoly

However, roasters in Figure 2.5 are unlikely to take form of collusive oligopoly, due to a large number of independent roasters in the market and lack of a dominant firm that will make agreement amongst cartel members difficult to reach. (Tragakes 205) Therefore such oligopolistic roasters in the world market may alternatively be non-collusive,

much aware of their competitors’ actions regarding price determination.

Figure 2.7 Market for Coffee Roaster Firm in NonCollusive Oligopoly

Firms in non-collusive oligopoly may hold price rigidity likewise, due to ‘kinked’ demand curves. Under the assumption that the firm only knows the quantity and price at Point A on its demand curve as shown in Figure 2.7, if a firm increases its price beyond that of Point A most of its competitors would not follow. Hence the firm would lose a lot of demand to cheaper substitutes from other firms. If a firm decreases its price below that of Point A, this may initiate a ‘price war’ as other firms also attempt to decrease their prices, which could harm all firms in the industry from decreased revenue. The demand curve for a noncollusive oligopoly is ‘kinked’ because prices above Point A would make the demand for the roaster’s product price elastic, whereas prices below Point A would make a relatively price inelastic demand due to less changes in quantity demanded in proportion to price change. Furthermore, even if marginal costs decrease from MC1 to MC2 firms would prefer to maintain its price at P in order to maximise profits. Therefore such firms would stick to stable prices, reluctant to raise or lower prices in fear of losing profit. (Blink et al. 131) Overall, the oligopolistic worldwide market structure of roasting firms indicates that the retail coffee products may not be proportionally affected by the price of green coffee beans itself. Taking into account the structure of the retail coffee market in Singapore, the effect of price changes in green coffee beans on retail coffee pricing may diminish even further.



2.3 The Coffee Market in Singapore I: Multinational Corporation (MNC) Retailers Roasters may also provide ‘coffee services’ in which other firms purchase processed beans to provide brewed coffee to their consumers or employees. (Talbot 35) Such firms – a diverse group including restaurants, cafes, and hotels – range in size from local restaurants to multinational cafe retailers. As presented in Figure 2.4 the retailers are at the end of the commodity chain, eventually setting the final prices, advertising and tailoring their products to consumers according to profit incentives. Singapore is predominantly a consuming nation that imports coffee Arabica and coffee Robusta beans from adjacent producing nations, mainly Indonesia, Papua New Guinea and Vietnam. (“Singapore’s Quarterly Import of Coffee.” International Enterprise Singapore.) Ranked as one of the most open economies in the world, (“The Global Enabling Trade Report.” World Economic Forum.) Singapore’s economy highly benefits from an abundance of foreign MNCs who bring capital, technology, management know-how and access to world export markets. (“Free Market System.” Singapore Ministry of Trade.) Such multinational roasters take form of an oligopoly – roasters Nestle Singapore Pte Ltd. and Boncafe International Pte Ltd. alone take more than 40% of the off-trade value share of coffee sales. (“Coffee In Singapore.” Euromonitor International.) Likewise, foreign franchise cafe retailers such as Starbucks, The Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf, and Illy form competitive oligopoly in the coffee Arabica retail market1 – the consistent pricing throughout product observation shown in Figure 2.9 can be attributed to the price rigidity that such multinational non-collusive oligopoly retailers prefer maintaining to avoid losing profit.

Please see Appendix 5.1.2 Estimated Market Share of Coffee Arabica Cafe Retailers

1

Arabica Coffee \ Date Observed (Prices in SGD)

Extended Essays 2013/2014 43

Starbucks Illy Starbucks Americano Americano Espresso

Illy Espresso

Giant Nescafe Alta Rica (200g) (Latin American)

Giant Boncafe Colombiana (200g) (Latin American, Bright)

Giant Boncafe Espresso (200g) (African & South American)

Cold Storage Boncafe Espresso (200g) (African & South American)

13-Jan-05

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Jan-09

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Feb-02

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Feb-16

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Mar-02

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Mar-06

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Apr-06

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Apr-20

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-May-04 4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-May-18

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Jun-01

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Jun-15

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Jul-06

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

13-Jul-20

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

13-Aug-03

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

13-Aug-17

4.20

3.80

3.50

3.50

11.35

8.45

8.45

8.85

Figure 2.9 Observation of Pricing for Various Coffee Arabica Retail Products

Large oligopolistic retailers may use their abnormal profits to achieve significant or increased returns to scale, where increase in all factors of production yields greater increase in output as long-run average costs decrease. (Blink et al. 86) Firms may reap economies of scale, where average production costs decrease as firm varies all its inputs to increase output (Tragakes 544) – via bulk purchase, specialization of capital equipment and labour, development of transport, financial and promotional economies that reduce firms’ product transportation and advertising costs, and increase capabilities to earn financial loans respectively as they increase in size (Blink et al. 87) When they eventually produce at the lowest possible average total cost (Tragakes 551) such firms may attain productive

efficiency, producing (Qoligo- Qpc) more unit output at a lower unit cost Poligo compared to a perfectly competitive market (Blink et al. 108) as illustrated in Figure 2.8. Such abnormal profits may enable firms to build higher barriers to entry and at production scales only attainable with high quantity and quality of factors of production.

Figure 2.8 Coffee Retailer Firm in Oligopoly Reaping Economies of Scale

44 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Non-price competition within such oligopolies involve product differentiation for gaining brand loyalty – achieved by large expenditures on advertisement and marketing (Blink et al. 132) aimed at gaining price inelastic demands which could yield more revenue in the long run when prices increase. Hence such retailers may actively use their abnormal profits to engage in product differentiation, research and development and various promotions2 – increasing dynamic efficiency, as growing quality and quantity of products broadens consumer choice in a market over time. (Riley, “Economic Efficiency.”) Consequently the cost of roasted coffee comprises a less proportion of the firms’ production costs, reducing the impact of volatile coffee commodity prices on the price fluctuations of retail coffee prices.

2.4 The Coffee Market in Singapore II: The Local Retailers 2.4.1 Local kopitiam Cafe Retailers However, the presence of dominant MNC retailers does not indicate the Singapore coffee market has high barriers to entry collectively. Singaporean consumers have a strong cultural preference for ‘Straits Asian’ coffee, where kopitiam retailers tailor traditional recipes using coffee Robusta beans roasted in palm-oil margarine, or served with sugar and evaporated milk. (“Straits Coffee Culture.” OWL.) The Singapore kopitiam market can be categorised as monopolistic competition where numerous small firms produce slightly differentiated products. (Blink et al. 121) Many local brands (Hawker centres, the cafe franchise Ya Kun Kaya Toast, Killiney Kopitiam, Oldtown White Coffee, and Toast Box, and roasters such as OWL International Pte Ltd) hold smaller shares within the Singapore coffee market, enabling producers to easily enter the kopitiam market when conditions are favourable. 2

Please see Appendix 5.2.2 Differentiation Strategies of Multinational Cafe Retailers

Coffee \ Date (Prices in SGD)

13-May-04 13-May-18 13-Jun-01 13-Jun-15 13-Jul-06 13-Jul-20 13-Aug-03 13-Aug-17

OWL Kopitiam Roast Kopi-C

4.55

4.55

4.55

4.55

N/A

N/A

4.55

4.55

OWL Kopitiam Roast Kopi-O Gao

4.75

4.75

4.75

4.75

N/A

N/A

4.75

4.75

Ya Kun Kaya Toast Kopi-C

1.4

1.4

1.4

1.4

N/A

N/A

1.5

1.5

Ya Kun Kaya Toast Kopi-O

1.7

1.7

1.7

1.7

N/A

N/A

1.8

1.8

Figure 2.10 Observation of Pricing for Various Coffee Robusta Retail Products

As products are slightly differentiated, each producer may hold some degree of brand loyalty that gives independence in pricing its goods. Yet since many competitors provide similar substitutes, each firm in the kopitiam market would be relative ‘pricetakers’ more susceptible to production cost changes. Moreover, due to relatively lower prices compared to coffee Arabica products of multinational roasters and retailers, such local coffee may be relatively inferior goods that increase in demand when consumers’ income falls and vice versa. (Tragakes 546) Between June and August Ya Kun Kaya Toast increased prices of Kopi-C and Kopi-O products (see Figure 2.10) – which substantiates the monopolistic competition in kopitiam markets, Ya Kun Kaya being one of the many ‘price-taker’ firms3 affected by rising production costs presumably due to Robusta beans price increase by approximately 4.87% between June and July (see Figure 1.) Since monopolistic competition does not pressure firms to spend extensively in product differentiation and advertising, coffee beans prices may compose a larger part of the firms’ production costs. Therefore coffee price changes may have lead to a more than Please see Appendix 5.1.3 ‘Price Leadership’ in the kopitiam Market

3

proportionate production costs increase to local kopitiam firms in monopolistic competition (see Figure 2.10) than multinational oligopolistic firms. 2.4.2 Local Supermarket Retailers Meanwhile OWL Kopitiam product prices remain unchanged (see Figure 2.10) despite rising coffee Robusta bean costs; Figure 2.9 shows stable pricing by the supermarket retailers Giant and Cold Storage of their Nescafe and Boncafe retail coffee products likewise. This may be attributed more to the pricing strategies of Singapore supermarket chains that stock and sell most of OWL’s products, as well as many other products from international and local suppliers. Final retailers of the Singapore coffee market include grocery supermarkets such as Cold Storage and Fairprice, and hypermarkets such as Giant – very large retail stores that offer various products by combining department stores with grocery supermarkets. (Brick et al. “Hypermarket.”) Although such grocery retailers are only 10% of all retailers in the market they take 80% of the market share (Kong, “Singapore Retail … Report.”) – therefore they also form an oligopoly, with each supermarket retailer having more market power and freedom over price determination. As aforementioned the mutually interdependent oligopolistic



supermarket retailers (both collusive or competitive) will mainly engaging in non-price competition4 (such as unique packaging, advertising, sales promotion, delivery service of their products) to develop brand loyalty and make the demands for their goods more price inelastic. Therefore the supermarket retailers’ rigid pricing for their coffee products will prevail over volatile commodity price changes.

3. Conclusion 3.1 Answering the Research Question In response to the question, “To what extent do world coffee bean commodity prices affect retail coffee product prices in the Singapore market?” I have deduced that the effect of commodity price on retail coffee product price is inversely proportional to each supplier’s market power. Although perfect competition in the coffee production leaves producers to supply at volatile market prices, stakeholders who purchase coffee in form of ‘Coffee C Future Contracts’ would be unaffected by such price changes. The firms’ price determination abilities increase across the commodity chain as they hold more dominance in respective markets. The coffee roasters purchasing from exporters and importers exist in oligopsony – they stabilise supplying prices to retailers in Singapore, and reduce the effect of volatile green coffee prices on product prices further across the commodity chain. Multinational cafe and supermarket retailers in Singapore form oligopolies, maintaining price rigidity since they have more freedom over price determination. Due to large product differentiation expenditures, coffee prices comprise smaller proportions of total production costs – hence world coffee price increase does not affect the pricing of multinational retailers in Singapore. 4

Please see Appendix 5.2.1 Supermarket and Hypermarket Retailers

But for smaller kopitiam retailers who hold less market power in monopolistic competition, coffee prices comprise larger portions of production costs. Therefore their retail prices are more subject to commodity price increase – as observed in increased coffee Robusta product prices of retailer Ya Kun Kaya Toast in response to world coffee Robusta price increase. Such observations indicate that throughout my period of observation the impact of commodity price changes on retail products eventually was inversely proportional to the retailers’ market power.

3.2 Limitations and Unanswered Questions The most significant limitation is that I only collected prices over a limited portion of the market for a limited period of time. The sixth months I have spent collecting certain coffee Arabica retail product prices and the three months I have spent collecting coffee Robusta retail product prices could have been insufficient, in comparison to a more extended observation of more products. In addition, my deduction may have been more precise should I had been able to note which period in July had seen price changes for coffee Robusta retail products. I also noted that Giant and Fairprice were offering the same product (Boncafe Espresso 200g, African & South American coffee Arabica) at different prices, and both did not change their prices throughout my observation. Should I be given more time, I would like to investigate further why Cold Storage did not match its prices as cheaply as that of Giant - whether this is part of a price war yet to have begun, or part of Giant’s economies of scale. Furthermore, on August 3rd 2013 I observed that Giant at VivoCity was offering promotions for Nestle and Nescafe coffee Arabica products.5 If I was given an extended time for observation, I would have been able to see how this

5

Please see Appendix 5.2.1 Supermarket and Hypermarket Retailers

Extended Essays 2013/2014 45

affected the behaviour and pricing of other hypermarket competitors within the oligopolistic market - such as Cold Storage and Fairprice.

4. Bibliography Blink, Jocelyn, and Ian Dorton. IB Economics. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011. Print. Brick, and Mortar. “Hypermarket.” Investopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Aug. 2013. . Bussing-Burks, Marie. Starbucks. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2009. N. pag. Print. Chan, Yvonne. “S’poreans Drinking More Coffee.” Channelnewsasia.com. N.p., 15 Mar. 2013. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. . Coffee In Singapore. Abstract. Report. Euromonitor International, June 2012. Web. 13 July 2013. . “Coffee Prices Fall, but Not at Starbucks.” Market Watch. The Wall Street Journal, 08 Nov. 2012. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. . “Coffee Roasters.” Tropical Commodity Coalition. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 July 2013. . “Free Market System.” Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore. N.p., 5 July 2005. Web. 3 Aug. 2013. . Glanville, Alan, and Jacob Glanville. Economics from a Global Perspective: A Text Book for Use with the IB Diploma Economics Programme. Dolton: Glanville, 2011. Print

46 Extended Essays 2013/2014

The Global Enabling Trade Report. Report. World Economic Forum, 2010.Web. 3 Aug. 2013. . Haeger, Jason. “Processing and Roasting.” BaristaGuide.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. . “ICO Indicator Prices.” International Coffee Organization. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. . Keat, Leong Wee. “That Cup of Coffee is Going to Cost You More.” Channelnewsasia. com. N.p., 16 Dec. 2010. Web. 08 Aug. 2013. Kong, Bernard. Singapore Retail Food Sector Report. Report. no. SN0002. N.p.: USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, n.d. Global Agricultural Information Network, 25 Mar. 2010. Web. 5 Aug. 2013. .

Singapore’s Quarterly Import of Coffee Arabica WIB Or Robusta OIB Not Decaffeinated Not Roasted. Report. no. CR20130815-0002. Singapore: Statlink, 2012. International Enterprise Singapore. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. “The Story Of Coffee.” International Coffee Organization. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. . “Straits Coffee Culture.” OWL International Pte Ltd., n.d. Web. 03 Aug. 2013. . Talbot, John M. “Theoretical and Methodological Grounds for the Analysis.” Grounds for Agreement: The Political Economy of the Coffee Commodity Chain. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2004. 31-52. Print. Tragakes, Ellie. Economics for the IB Diploma. Cambridge UP, 2009. Print.

“Major Coffee Producers.” National Geographic. N.p., n.d. Web. 25 Mar. 2013. .

“Watchdog Slaps 160-million-euro Fine on Coffee Firms for Price Fixing.” Deutsche Welle. Ed. Ranty Islam. N.p., 21 Dec. 2009. Web. Aug. 2013.

Maley, Sean, and Jason Welker. Economics: Developed Specifically for the IB Diploma.

5. Appendix

Oxford: Pearson Education, 2011. Print. Pietersz, Graeme. “Oligopsony.” MoneyTerms. N.p., 2005. Web. 03 Aug. 2013. . Ponte, Stefano. The ‘Latte Revolution’? Regulation, Markets and Consumption in the Global Coffee Chain. Report. no. S0305750X(02)00032-3. Vol. 30. Great Britain: Elsevier Science, 2002. Elsevier.com, 2002. Web. Aug. 2013. Riley, Geoff. “Economic Efficiency.” Tutor2u. com. N.p., 23 Sept. 2012. Web. 14 Aug. 2013.

5.1 Market Share of Coffee in Singapore 5.1.1 Lack of Access to Necessary Statistics According to the Singapore Private Limited Company Guide set forth by Rivkin, Singapore’s leading business information portal, a Private Limited company in Singapore is “considered an independent legal entity separate from its owners — it can sue and be sued in its own name, and the company’s directors and shareholders

are not liable for the company’s debts […] Shares in a private company are usually transferred by private agreement between the seller and the buyer, as shares in a private company may not by law be offered to the general public.” Most firms are registered as Private Limited companies, and consequently I had limited access to any statistics regarding annual revenue and market share of different multinational roasters and retailers within Singapore. Therefore I could not include exact figures to substantiate why such multinational cafe retailers within the Singapore coffee market exist in oligopolistic competition. 5.1.2 Estimated Market Share of Coffee Arabica Cafe Retailers Due to lack of statistics, I have aimed to calculate the proportionate market share based on the number of franchise retail cafe outlets present across Singapore. The list of firms were obtained from the Singapore Coffee Association (SCA) and Franchising and Licensing Association (FLA) respectively, and the number of outlets were obtained from the online websites of each firm.

Figure 5.1 Estimated Percentage of Market Share for Coffee Arabica Franchise Cafes

The number of outlets do not necessarily represent the proportion of revenue that each firm holds in the market. For instance, Illy has not been included in Figure 5.1 because it does not have many retail cafes - however, it is a ‘premium brand’ that steady supplies firms and other supermarket retailers with its products. Nevertheless, Figure 5.1 still reflects the size and henceforth market power that each retailer



holds in the cafe industry - which has lead me to deduce that the multinational cafe brands exist in an oligopolistic market where a few firms such as Starbucks Coffee and Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf hold larger shares of the market compared to other firms.

5.2 Non-Price Competition 5.2.1 Supermarket and Hypermarket Retailers Product

Nescafe (Coffee Arabica)

Nestle (Coffee Arabica)

Caption

“VALUE BUY” FREE BUY S$20 NESCAFE PRODUCTS, FREE REDEEM TOSHIBA USB OPTICAL MOUSE REDEMPTION AT CUSTOMER SERVICE COUNTER! WHILE STOCK LAST!

“VALUE BUY” FREE: BUY $30 OF NESTLE PRODUCTS TO REDEEM FULL SET OF 5PCS GLASS BOWL WHILE STOCK LAST!

5.1.3 ‘Price Leadership’ in the kopitiam Market Throughout my essay I have assumed that the kopitiam market is that of monopolistic competition, where there are many restaurant and cafe retailers producing similar but slightly differentiated coffee Robusta beverages. However, at another stance the kopitiam market could also be regarded as an oligopolistic market where certain firms such as Ya Kun Kaya Toast, Toast Box and Killiney Kopitiam are more dominant in the market, holding more market power compared to other firms. If this oligopoly is non-collusive, then the price increase of Ya Kun Kaya toast coffee products will not affect the pricing of other firms. This can be explained by the ‘kinked demand’ for coffee presented earlier in Figure 2.7, where price elasticity changes above or below a certain point, and due to this inconsistency in price elasticity firms are reluctant to either raise or lower its price in fear of losing profit. However, if this oligopoly is tacitly collusive (given that the coffee retailers are not a cartel that colludes formally) the price changes of certain firms could be understood as the ‘price leadership’ that the more dominant firms hold over other firms in the market. By comparison, Ya Kun Kaya Toast has 37 outlets across Singapore, whereas Killiney Kopitiam only has 26 (Keat, “That Cup of Coffee …”) – indicating the stronger price leadership of the former in the market. Hence coffee price increase of the more dominant Ya Kun Kaya Toast may have lead to increase in prices for other kopitiam retailers follow suit.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 47

Figure 5.2 Advertisements of hypermarket Giant at Vivocity, observed on August 3rd 2013

Figure 5.2 exemplifies the retailer’s effort to gain brand loyalty by unique promotions associated with its coffee retail products, and therefore a more price inelastic demand that may yield them more sales revenue in the long run. Such promotions could also provide insight into the nature of oligopolistic competition - firms prefer nonprice competition to avoid reducing prices, lest the ‘price wars’ that follows suit leads to decrease in revenue for all of the firms in the industry. Such promotions trigger likewise promotions or services with coffee retail products offered by other competitors - hypermarkets such as Carrefour, Fairprice Xtra, Sheng Siong, and supermarkets such as Fairprice and Cold Storage. (Kong, “Singapore Retail … Report.”) Although I have been unable to note likewise promotions throughout the period of my observations, if there were likewise promotions that followed suit it would have provided insight into the non-collusive, competitive nature of the oligopoly of supermarket and hypermarket retailers in Singapore. 5.2.2 Differentiation Strategies of Multinational Cafe Retailers Multinational cafe retailers in Singapore engage in various product differentiation strategies and research and development,

in order to gain a price inelastic demand that grants stable demand and in turn a potentially increased revenue from price increase. (Please also see Appendix 5.2.3 Consumer Brand Loyalty.) Note that the information regarding differentiation strategies have been limited to the most dominant firms in the oligopoly: Starbucks Singapore and Coffee Bean & Tea Leaf Singapore. (CBTL) Starbucks Coffee issues membership ‘Starbucks Card’ to consumers, providing them with auxiliary promotions such as free brewed-coffee refills and a free beverage per a pound of whole bean purchases. (Bussing-Burks 52-53) Likewise, CBTL issues membership ‘The Coffee Bean Card’ that provides its consumers with ‘BEANS’ points that can be accumulated and used for rewards unique to the brand. Other differentiation strategies include unique logo and packaging, and various product options. Each retailers invest extensively in advertising, mainly using logos characteristic of the firm and its brand value. Differentiation could also be achieved with packaging: Starbucks has successfully developed names for size options of its beverages, (Short size for 8 fluid ounces, Tall size for 12 fluid ounces, Grande size for 16 fluid ounces, and Venti size for 24 fluid ounces) giving its products a unique value. (Bussing-Burks 54) Each retailer has also develop unique products to increase its brand loyalty amongst consumers: CBTL has developed Ice Blended® Drink products, while Starbucks offers signature Frappuccino® Blended Beverages. Both firms extensively use Social Networking Services to advertise their events within the local community, and launch new promotions and products. CBTL had launched a new product only offered throughout its 50th Anniversary promotions, Anniversary Tea, at an exclusive price of 0.50 Singapore Dollars. Likewise, on the first and second week of July 2013 Starbucks Singapore had distributed

48 Extended Essays 2013/2014

samples of its new White Chocolate Pudding Frappuccino at Orchard Road. Both events had been announced over the Facebook ‘pages’ of each retailer. 5.2.3 Consumer Brand Loyalty According to my survey conducted throughout June 2013 on an opportunity sample of High School students and staff in school, 22% of the respondents replied that their consumption would be unaffected by price changes of any range. Based on further analysis of which products that the respondents were loyal to as shown in Figure 5.3, the multinational retailers had the highest ‘brand loyalty’ - multinational cafe brands and wholesale coffee mix products each taking 29% of consumption.

Figure 5.3 Retail Coffee Consumption of ‘Totally Loyal’ Respondents

Although this is an opportunity sample that does not represent coffee consumption of the whole Singapore population, it still reflects how the oligopolistic market structure affects firms’ behaviour nevertheless. As aforementioned, both collusive and non-collusive oligopolies hold ‘price rigidity’ in which they prefer to maintain prices regardless of changes in production costs. The former does so in order to maintain their abnormal profits (please refer to Figure 2.6) while the latter prefers to engage in non-price competition to avoid price wars. Both have high expenditures on advertising and product differentiation to decrease price elasticity and therefore gain more revenue in the long run. This in turn reduces the proportion of roasted coffee bean costs in

the total production costs for the firms, hence reducing the impact of coffee bean costs on the final retail price determination of each firm. Therefore results from Figure 5.3 may also provide insight into why the retail prices of multinational coffee brands in Singapore had remained stable throughout my observation.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 49

GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

ABSTRACTS GEOGRAPHY

BLAKEMORE, ALISHA

LOW, HUI YEN

To what extent can Singapore’s Central Business District (CBD) be clearly delimited? I created two transects: One from Orchard Rd to Raffles Place (4.5km) and another from Raffles Place to Orchard Rd (4.7km). Both of these transects are following the direction of the traffic, from one starting point to the other. I collected my primary data and took pictures at every 300 paces, as it would make my data a more reliable source. I also created a table of indicators to enable myself to collect reliable and valid quantitative data.

The issue of land shortage is a matter that is becoming increasingly important as Singapore continues to flourish demographically and economically. Land is a finite resource and with a population that is expected to double, finding the best solution to overcome the problem is important. Thus, the aim of this research is to investigate: “How sustainable are Singapore’s solutions to land shortage?”

In addition to aid the explanation of my method, I drew out the transects (shown on figure 1, 2 and 3 in the appendices) and used qualitative impressions on the maps to show my journeys. Furthermore, I continued to research for secondary data where I found land values and traffic going into and out of the CBD, which would help justify my answer. To conclude, I discovered that Singapore has just one spread out CBD and that Raffles Place and Orchard Road are just sectors which belong to this CBD. Singapore is made up of different sectors for different indicator. For example, it contains separated areas allocated for certain features of a city (Entertainment-Clarke quay, BusinessRaffles place, Commercial—Orchard Road etc…)

In order to find out the potential solutions and the solutions that are already implemented, I had to collate of first hand information from the Singapore National Library and official government sites such as the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA). Other resources such as maps published on government sites, were used to show the future of Singapore in the case of land use allocation and the provision of green spaces. On the other hand, secondary resources were found through news articles published online (Appendix 2). These mentioned the possible solutions that could be implemented and also the on going research the government is still in the process of carrying out to overcome land shortage. With reference to the other model sustainable cities used such as Curitiba and Dongtan, it was concluded that Singapore will be able to overcome land shortage if sustainable solutions are taken into action and effectively implemented. Their solutions will not only have to be effective in the short-run but also in the long run in order to attain sustainability.

50 Extended Essays 2013/2014

NAKAMURA, TATSURO

ROSS, BRENNA

TSE, GORDON

This essay examines:

The extent to which global warming’s consequences will have on Australia’s wheat production is an important topic to discuss as Australia’s wheat production is important for the economic, environmental and social aspects of Australia and global warming has seen to become an inevitable change that will continue to occur for many decades time.

The research question is:

“To what extent do land values in Tokyo conform to the distance decay model?” I focused on this research question because I wanted to see how a large city like Tokyo managed its area by looking at land prices. To obtain an answer for this question, I gained the basic knowledge of multi nuclei model and distance decay model, and connected with the land price. I used the website that was published by the government, which showed the land price of Tokyo, and plotted a graph to see how it changes with the distance. Then, I focused on which factors actually affect the land price. I researched on what factor makes people want to live in Tokyo, and I picked the top three factors, distance to the nearest station, commute time to CBD, and distance to the nearest metropolitan park. Then I made a graph to figure out if it really corresponds or not. After that, I researched about the benefit of having a shop in CBD by counting the numbers of customer in three different locations, CBD, suburb but near the station, and suburb and far from the station. I found several things, like as the distance from CBD increases, land price also increases, the distance to the nearest station and commute time to CBD plays a huge role in determining the land price, but the distance to the nearest metropolitan park does not, and that CBD attracts the most customers by far, then suburb but near the station, and lastly, suburb and far from the station. I also found out what kind of tactics the restaurant uses to attract the maximum number of customers like the counter seats in restaurants near the CBD, and the playgrounds in the restaurants around the suburb.

It is hypothesized that global warming will have a huge impact on the wheat production in Australia by the year 2050 and that it will impact the social, economical and environmental aspects all negatively. In this extended essay evidence of global warming’s impacts on Australia’s wheat production by the year of 2050 will be identified. The majority of the information gathered to carry out this essay has been taken from Australian Governmental Sites where weather trends and predictions are uploaded under the site of the Bureau of Meteorology. Western Australia (WA) and New South Wales (NSW) will be focused on, as they are the leading states who producer wheat in Australia and how the consequences that global warming has impacted them will be discussed. Rainfall, drought and natural disasters are three of the many consequences that global warming may bring to Australia. Despite the negative impacts of global warming a few good affects, like increase in rainfall in Western Australia, in certain cases, may be seen as a benefit from global warming which is something that was not hypothesized.

To what extent can Singapore sustain its water support needs? Singapore being an island itself has limited freshwater sources, limited catchment areas and also a dense population.  Any country despise having to be totally reliant on another country, Singapore aims to become self-sufficient in terms of water removing the political issues it is having with Malaysia, since Singapore’s current main supply of water is from them. For this essay, research from different sources will be used in order to answer the question. All of the sources are mainly secondary since there were no interviews made during the research. For my secondary source, it includes searching information on the Internet in government websites; reading books published regarding Singapore’s history on water conservation and projects regarding Singapore water needs, the Four National Taps and the costs of water, whether or not can Singaporeans sustain and support their water needs. In the essay, it might seems rather one sided and might even sound like a Singapore propaganda, however when researching for the information, there were no information or ideas that were found as if either Singapore’s program was brilliant that it had no flaws or else the government made sure that the information are kept the way it is wanted to be perceived. In conclusion, the Four National Taps would be a success in addressing Singapore’s water resource needs because of huge investments and time spent towards the research and development of NEWater and Desalinated water. With these progresses and successes, the majority of Singapore’s water supply will be able to supply both of these taps even if the national tap linking the political agreement between Singapore and Malaysia is broken. Concluding that Singapore can self sustain its water source transforming a nonrenewable resource to a renewable one.



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GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

ABSTRACTS HISTORY

BARRETO-INMAN, KASHASA NIKITA This essay accounts for the significance of the Rosa Parks incident in the success of the civil rights movement. Parks was an African American woman who stood up for her rights by refusing to give up her seat in the coloured section of a bus to a Caucasian passenger after all the seats in the noncoloured section had been occupied. Her actions galvanized a movement that resulted in the Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Browder Vs. Gayle case, finally ending in the desegregation of public transport. In order to reach a conclusion, detailed research on the events that occurred from 1952 to 1964 like, Claudette Colvin event, The Browder Vs Gayle case, the Brown vs. The Board of Education case, the Little Rock Nine, Sit-ins, the Children’s Crusade in Birmingham and the March on Washington have been discussed and evaluated in terms of their significance in this essay. Events that occurred after 1964 were not considered because the success of the civil rights movement has been defined as the passing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964. This investigation makes use of a range of primary and secondary sources such as Rosa Parks’s autobiography “My Story” and Erinn Banting’s monograph “African American History Civil Rights Movement”. However the Rosa Parks incident alone did not result in the passing of the Civil Rights Act. A combination of events that occurred between 1952 and 1964 led to the success of the American civil rights movement, perhaps the most effective being the Children’s Crusade in Birmingham which greatly influenced President Kennedy to call for legislation that would end segregation and ban discrimination, thereby creating the Civil Rights Act. The main conclusion is that the Rosa Parks incident was a significant longterm contributing factor that motivated the African American community to stand up for their rights.

CAVELAARS, STEIN This essay will attempt to answer the following research question: Why did Hannibal not advance to conquer Rome after the Battle of Cannae in 216 BCE? This battle between the Romans and the Carthaginians was part of the larger setting of the Second Punic War (218-201 BCE), which saw Hannibal invading the Italian peninsula through the North. The utter defeat of the Roman army at Cannae can be representative of the City’s weakest position since the start of her expansion in Italy in the 3rd century BCE. It is therefore interesting to look at why Hannibal did not grasp this opportunity of Roman weakness to march on Rome directly after the battle. We are not concerned with the question Why did Hannibal lose the Second Punic War?, as this involves a much wider scope of factors not limited to Hannibal’s next moves just after the Battle of Cannae (and answering such a question would certainly not be appropriate for a 4000 word essay). Also, we are focussing on the period of the few days after the battle, thus are not investigating any attempts to march on Rome Hannibal made later in his campaign. In short, this essay analyses Hannibal’s strategy, the complications that marching on Rome would have given, the logistical limitations the Carthaginian army endured, and how these factors contributed to Hannibal’s decision not to directly engage Rome. The conclusion of this essay is that the decision can be attributed to a combination of fear for Rome’s defensive potential and the severe logistical limitations that the Carthaginian army endured, which made a swift attack impossible and the element of surprise unattainable.

52 Extended Essays 2013/2014

CSELOTEI, ISTVAN

DAHNIYATI, NATHANIA

DEPPING, VALENTIN

Mao Zedong was one of most powerful men of the XXth century, as indicated by Andy Warhol’s series of paintings shown on the cover of this investigation. His extensive power was realized through his personality cult, whose size surpassed all others that ever existed. Thus, Mao’s cult is a defining historical aspect of him, hence the decision to explore as the scope of this investigation: To what extent and how was the cult of Mao Zedong strengthened as a result of the Cultural Revolution?

Whether fashion is art has always been one of the most debatable topics in art and fashion industry. One designer that had successfully shown the crossover between fashion and art is Lee Alexander McQueen, one of UK’s most famous designers who is known for his unique theatrical runway shows and the heavy influence of nature in his work.

A close analysis of National Socialist Film Propaganda during the Third Reich.

Following a short introduction, this essay describes challenges that historians encounter when researching such topic, most importantly language barriers and lack of sources due to: Mao’s relatively recent rule, the Cultural Revolution (CR) being banned in China, and the absence of material specifically about the cult. In order to produce a valid comparison, this investigation examines and contrasts the main characteristics of Mao’s cult before, during, and after the CR. Afterwards, the first section analyzes the cult’s maturation, organized by the time periods between the major ‘turning points’ in its early development, namely: between Yan’an and the Secret Speech, during the Liberalization Period, and after the Hundred Flowers Campaign. The subsequent section deals with the cult during the CR by providing a brief historical background to the Revolution, analyzing the cult’s importance, and reviewing factors that contributed to the amplification of the cult. Next, the essay offers an insight on the current condition of Mao’s cult. The essay concludes that Mao’s cult culminated during the CR. While in the Revolution’s premature years it vastly strengthened, by the early ‘70s it was gradually curbed. Methods and strategies that facilitated the strengthening of the cult were: its historical roots, omnipresence, ritualization, presence in culture, Mao’s representations, its religious semblance, ease of spreading and Mao’s indifference.

This essay aims to investigate how Alexander McQueen as a designer and an artist create a work of art in a form of garments by adding elements of nature on his creation. In order to investigate this, the artistic quality of Alexander McQueen’s work will be observed including the setting of the runway show and the inspiration behind some of his famous collections. His garments will be evaluated in an artistic manner using the principals of art and design to prove that fashion is also art. At the end of this essay, we will know how fashion can also be seen as a work of art and how nature has influenced them by looking at different ways on how it was portrayed by Alexander McQueen.

Abstract This essay gives a close analysis of the purpose of National Socialist Film Propaganda during the third reich. In order to consolidate one’s power apart from the use of force, propaganda is a crucial element. The Nazi state used various tools in order to disseminate the National Socialist ideology. Goebbels managed to make effective use of the german movie industry in order to instill hope and political ideas into people while soothing the public concerning the current affairs throughout the Nazi regime. The study of Nazi Film Propaganda draws upon primary sources including movies like “Jüd Süß” and “Olympiade” depicting overt anti-semitism and nationalism respectively, while secondary sources like “Propaganda and the German Cinema” from Welch, David or a Masters Thesis discussing the effectiveness of Nazi propaganda as a whole during WWII. The purpose of national socialist movies will be analyzed systematically beginning from Nationalism to Anti-semitism to Control and finally Militarism within the theme of Escapism. The essay will show that Goebbels, the propaganda minister, managed to successfully disguise political propaganda in order to sustain the Dictatorship and hence the Nazi state even though it can not be proven due to the strict control of reviews and people’s public opinion. Also the public might have accepted and enjoyed the medium and the movies itself while rejecting it’s message and hence it’s underlying axioms. This meant that even the ticket sales or movie attendance could not be used as an indication for the successfulness in disseminating the above mentioned themes.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 53

HEGNER, JOHANNES

IYER, RITIKAA

KAJAMAA, NORA

In the early 20th century advancements were made in technological and social terms with regards to strategic bombardment begging the question “to what extent did strategic bombardment affect the lives of civilians in Europe in World War One compared to World War Two?” Before the invention of aerial vehicles fighting a war against civilians seemed simply illogical. However as these new inventions came in through the door, the unscarred civilian left through another.

The Standard Oil Company was slandered in the media as a being a monopolistic monster, one that does not care for anything other than domination and profit. The president of the company, John Davidson Rockefeller, had also been accused of practicing ruthless, illegal business practices, to force his competitors to leave the oil industry. Others, admired Rockefeller as a successful entrepreneur with the ability to manipulate situations to his advantage and attain efficiency allowing him to reduce costs, thereby driving competition out of the market. The question evaluated in the essay: Rockefeller, a monopolistic monster or an entrepreneurial genius?

The Vietnam War, unlike most preceding wars, was fought in the eye of the media. Therefore the assumption is that the media undoubtedly played a significant part during the war and had large effects on reaction of the public for specific events. Thus, it would be interesting to see to what extent did the U.S. media coverage shown in the United States on the Vietnam War alter the United States Military action in Vietnam from 1963 to 1975?

In this investigation both World Wars will be assessed for the change in daily life, the morale scene and the destruction that was caused relating to the civilian population residing in Europe. Countries outside Europe, notably Japan, will not be included in this investigation and neither will military personnel. Further impacts of strategic military war operations, such as invasion forces, will not be introduced into this investigation, as these relate to impact of war on civilians as opposed to the impact of strategic bombardment on civilians. Secondary sources are used when addressing this socio-military nature of this investigation. To Destroy a City by H. Knell offers insight to the broader spectrum of social and cultural changes across Europe, while the famous artwork Guernica by Picasso brings to light the short-term social impacts, together forging a deeper and more holistic understanding of the situation. When examining the investigation it is notable that the First World War is witness to an unprecedented event that shocked humanity, while the Second World War may vouch for an unimaginable increase in technology that allowed for a more powerful war to take place. Although these two factors may invoke a tiebreaker the increase in scale of strategic bombardment through technology simply outweighs the shock of an unprecedented event concluding that World War Two that had the greater impact upon the civilian population.

This is evaluated by primarily focusing on Rockefeller’s childhood influence and his personality, his business decisions in creating his empire and his contributions to society, but not necessarily his relationship with other tycoons such as J.P Morgan or the reasons for the end of his empire. The conclusion reached is that John Rockefeller was not a monopolistic monster as he had the shrewdness and determination that made him a successful businessman. He was an excellent negotiator that he used to his advantage when dealing with railroads, banks and investors. His business practices, although harsh and anti-competitive were not at the time illegal and was considered to be common practice. Although he was ruthless in his rise to power, he was just as efficient in contributing to society, as he had great charitable contributions, he provided jobs and he sold his product at low rates allowing a range of social classes to utilize them.

In response to the question, this essay will examine different events during the Vietnam Was, in this case the Buddhist Crisis, the Tet Offensive and the Kent State Shooting. In relation to these events, to see the extent to which the media affected U.S. military policy, the American public’s opinion both before and after, the media coverage and the resulting effects on the U.S. military policy will be analysed. This analysis will give insight in the matter to what extent did media play a role in governmental decisionmaking in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s, which will be relatable to the current affairs today. In conclusion, the media played a significant part during the Vietnam War. Even though it did not directly affect the U.S. military policy, it did create a response from the American public, which did cause there to be a change in the American military policy in Vietnam.

54 Extended Essays 2013/2014

KIM, SOPHIE

LAU, SUE-ANN

NAZAR, RAZA

After 35 years of Japanese colonial rule came to an end, the Korean peninsula underwent even more turmoil due to the emergence of two superpowers: the US and the Soviet Union. Under the Potsdam Agreement, they intruded in Korean affairs and artificially divided the peninsula. Five years later, the Korean War was instigated by the North Koreans and caught the South Koreans unaware. At the end of this civil war, the peninsula was then divided under an armistice signed and continued lying on a current issue. Although there were five years of gap between the war and an annexation, long colonial rule forms the source to occurrence. This investigation will examine: To what extent did the end of Japanese imperialism in 1945 in Korea directly lead to the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950?

This extended essay focuses on the influence of specific historical events in China’s recent organisation bans, specifically in its dealings with the ban of the Falun Gong in 1999. Tiananmen Square Movement has long become a byword for Chinese oppression but to what extent is this true? Consequently, this essay poses the question: To what extent was the Tiananmen Square Movement in 1989 the most significant historical event that caused the ban on the Falun Gong in China in 1999?

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power at a time in Pakistan where the country was in need of desperate reforms to steer the economy in the right direction after the loss of the East Pakistan market. Nationalisation was a very controversial policy that was adopted and had mixed results for the economy.

In order to answer this question, connections between political, economic, and social and cultural impacts on Korea during the annexation and the Korean War will be examined. How the emergence of Japan created a political turmoil and led uprising amongst Korean society and how much economic growth brought a modernization, will be questioned and discussed here to determine the cause of the Korean War. Numerous primary and secondary sources, including grandfather’s interview, are provided to support a flow of the investigation. The conclusion reached is that Japanese imperialism has a most crucial link to the outbreak of the Korean War compared to any remaining factors.  The abrupt emergence of the Japanese activated violence and created political turmoil, an attempt to modernize economic demolished the society and promoted massive numbers of machineries, and Koreans’ desperate need to find their identity and nationalism, all resulted in the increasing occurrence of veiled riots and contributed to the Korean War.

The scope of this essay is restricted to major historical events that happened in China’s modern history, from 1919 to 1999. As such, events prior to 1919 such as the Boxer rebellion of 1899-1901 and the Xinhai rebellion of 1911-1912 will not be assessed in this essay. In order to examine the research question, primary and secondary sources dealing with conditions and events before the ban, and during the ban will be used. The investigation undertaken leads to the conclusion that the Tiananmen Square Movement was indeed the most significant historical event that led to the ban of the Falun Gong in China in 1999. This is due to the grandiose scale of the Falun Gong movement, which was similar to that of the Tiananmen Square Movement ten years before. The investigation undertakes the stance that the politburo identified the similarities between the two movements not as coincidences, but as that the Falun Gong movement was another threat to the stability of the politburo and social status of China, at a period where they were in the midst of re-establishing their superiority as a politburo.

This essay will investigate: To what extent did Bhutto and the Pakistan People’s Party’s (PPP) nationalisation of industries and businesses achieve their aims for economic improvement in the 1970s? The scope of my investigation looks at the period of time of Bhutto’s rule (1971–1978) and observing as to whether or not Bhutto and the PPP achieved what they aimed for economic improvement. This was investigated by looking at economic data across these years through the use of many measures including but not limited to: GDP per Capita, GDP growth rate, inflation rate and volume of output of nationalised industries. The investigation was carried out with the help of a wide range of sources consisting of historians that: are Pakistani, not Pakistani, supporters of Bhutto’s programme and critics of Bhutto’s programme. I was lucky enough to be able to conduct an interview with the finance minister of Pakistan during the time of nationalisation: Dr Mubashir Hasan, whose input greatly enhanced the investigation. The conclusion reached is that Bhutto and the PPP achieved their aims to a limited extent only, as although nationalisation reversed the makeup of the public and private sector as intended—the hampered private sector investment along with a series of events that happened outside the control of the government led to great economic troubles. Poor government planning also was a crucial factor in the failure to bring the industries in the economy into more productively efficient grounds.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 55

PERUSHEVA, DARIA

RAO, PRANATI

STAUFFER, CHARLES

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), the world’s largest socialist state consisting of fifteen republics and established in December 1922, after nearly 70 years of Communist rule was finally heading towards its inevitable dissolution in December 1991.

Cambodia, prior to the rise of the Khmer Rouge, had endured years of political instability under the imperial rule of France and the Cambodian Royal Family. Therefore, the Khmer Rouge appealed to the citizens as it appeared as a nationalist people’s party. Initially, the Khmer Rouge relied on the Vietnamese Communists; however growing tension between the two regimes caused the party to retreat into isolationism. This led to stronger ties with the Chinese Communist Party during the climax of Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution. It was during this time that much of the party’s policies were created. Hence, this essay focuses on the question, “To what extent did Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution influence Pol Pot’s policies in Cambodia between 1975 and 1979?”

After World War Two ended and the Japanese military junta surrendered the 2nd of September 1945, various problems arose for the Allies to tackle such as the remoulding of a militarily controlled state into a state that was ideally democratic and liberal. General MacArthur, the head of the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP), was appointed to this task. To the surprise of many, the Americans approached the Occupation more as a reconstructive task than a punitive mission. The aims of this this reconstructive task was to liberalise, democratise, demilitarise and modernise Japan. However, to what extent did the changes that took place during the occupation of Japan enable a favourable climate for the making of modern Japan?

The purpose of this investigation lies in answering the following question: What were the factors that accounted for the collapse of the Soviet Union in the years between 1985 and 1991? To answer the above question, this investigation is going to focus on Gorbachev’s Era, the time period from 1985 to 1991, during which Mikhail Gorbachev served as a General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and analyze how the events of this time period eventually lead to the dissolution of the USSR. This essay will focus on and analyze the role of USSR’s economy, living and working conditions and the leadership of the ruling Communist Party as well as the effects of the growth of nationalist movements in the Soviet Republics, the dissidents movement and the pressure form the West on the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. This essay does not seek to determine which factors were the most important in accounting for the collapse, rather it presents an analysis of how each one of the above factors undermined the final steps taken by Gorbachev to preserve the Union. On the basis of evidence presented in this essay the conclusion reached states that the factors analyzed in this essay were the principle causes of the collapse of the Soviet Union marked by it’s dissolution in December 1991.

The scope of this investigation examines the influence of The Cultural Revolution on Pol Pot’s policies. Firstly, the similarities and differences between Mao Zedong’s policies during the Cultural Revolution and Pol Pot’s in Cambodia are examined. Secondly, factors that allowed such influence to occur such as: early influence, exposure to the Cultural Revolution and acknowledgements by Cambodian and Chinese officials will be analyzed. Finally, counter evidence is presented through exploring the influence of Vietnamese interference, US bombings and Mao Zedong’s Great Leap Forward. The scope of this investigation will not examine relations between USA and China or France and Cambodia. This investigation concludes that Mao Zedong’s Cultural Revolution was the most significant influence on Pol Pot’s policies in Cambodia. Without the strong diplomatic relations between China and The Khmer Rouge, the party would be dependent on the Vietnamese communists for defense against US bombings. In addition, Pol Pot’s exposure to Mao’s works and to the successes of the Cultural Revolution influenced his policies significantly. This is reinforced by acknowledgments of party leaders and the striking similarity in policies.

To answer this question, different areas within the sphere of domestic policies will be examined. More specifically, we can target the social, political and the economic reforms in order to analyse the extent to which the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (referred to as the SCAP in this investigation) managed to successfully contribute to the making of modern Japan. To look at this answer we will also have to evaluate a lot of the main objectives of the SCAP, that were in fact quite controversial and shocking for the Japanese at that time, as well as the collaboration of the American Mission, the SCAP and Japanese officials. Any factors subsequent to the occupation of Japan (1945 to 1952) will not be considered in this investigation. The conclusion reached was that most of the reforms and policies, such as the land reforms, implemented during the occupation contributed to a great extent towards the enabling of a favourable climate for the making of modern Japan. Nevertheless, actions such as the danchi system were deemed as a failure part of social policies changes.

56 Extended Essays 2013/2014

SPARKS, DYLAN The objective of this nascent field of study is to examine the role and contribution made by the English-language newspapers in the downfall of the Apartheid regime which ruled South Africa between 1948 and 1994. Firstly, this essay will present and acknowledge more widely recognised factors that contributed to the ending of Apartheid, such as international sanctions, internal uprisings, the rise of black trade unionism and the work of religious institutions, as well as introducing the notion of a ‘constellation of factors’ which led to political change in South Africa. In addition, the Apartheid system and the restrictive laws imposed on South Africans will be assessed to determine how the regime sought to contain rebellion and resistance. The focus of this essay will be from 1948 through to 1994, the time period historians refer to as the Apartheid Era. However, particular emphasis will be placed on the 1970s and 1980s since this was the period when black resistance increased. The role of the English-language newspapers will be examined within this context, and this essay will argue they were the key

TOH, VERENA channel of communication for the airing to the general public of black grievances as well as responding to situations such as forced removals, the Soweto student uprisings of June 1976, the death of Steven Biko and the Muldergate scandal. Given the evolving stages of this field, the methodology of this essay will involve primary research through interviewing key journalists and politicians, in addition to in-depth research of current Historiography and perspectives.

The 1960s was a decade of evolution. Several major fashion changes (i.e. the invention of the mini-skirt, women wearing trousers and the hippie era) and social developments (i.e. human space travel, feminism, drug culture and antiwar movements) all occurred during this time. Therefor, this essay will look into the research question: “To what extent did fashion reflect social changes in the 1960s?”

In conclusion the role the English-language newspapers played in keeping a voice of dissent alive during Apartheid is irrefutable. However, the role of the English-language newspapers alone cannot account for the end of Apartheid. The English-language newspapers provided the critical link between the population and current events: brining new perspectives to the political debate, and keeping South Africans informed of government brutality.  The verdict of this essay is that it was the coming together of ‘a constellation of factors’ that resulted in the end of the Apartheid regime; without any one of the factors discussed, the system may have lasted significantly longer.

This essay investigates several of the major fashion and social changes that occurred during the sixties. The first section of the essay introduces French philosopher Lipovetsky, whose theory that fashion is a break from tradition is completely relevant to what is being argued in this essay, which is that the changes in fashion defied established practices and hence reflected several social rebellions. This essay then looks into the fashion changes and social developments mentioned in the first paragraph. Using the facts and research found from various sources, this essay draws links between the changes and displays how fashion reflected society throughout the decade. In addition to showing these changes that were taking place in the Western world (especially the United States of America), the essay will look into how that contrasts with communist Soviet Union, as well as explore how their fashion trends similarly reflected their society. The conclusion of this essay sums up the general idea that fashion in the 1960s strongly reflected the social changes that were occurring at the same time. While social change was mostly associated with the Western world during the decade, there is a sense that fashion is a form of expression of any society. Even though some connections between fashion and society may not seem as direct or obvious, the investigation proves that they remain present, specifically in the 1960s.



VARSHNEYA, ADITI This essay investigates the question “how important was bread in causing the French Revolution?” To do this, a wide range of primary and secondary sources was consulted, including government records, articles by food historians, and a variety of books from different time periods that cover the changing historiographies on the origins of the revolution. The essay first discusses the traditionally cited causes of the French Revolution—France’s social structure, the influence of the Enlightenment, and the financial crisis—and then goes on to examine the importance of bread in French society, and the way the scarcity and high price of this necessary commodity led to the Revolution. The primary conclusion reached in this investigation is that bread was a very important cause of the French Revolution that should not be discounted, as it was a final straw that drew the Third Estate together and turned the tide against the monarchy.

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58 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

SELECTED HISTORY WHY WERE SINGAPORE’S EUGENIC FAMILY POLICIES INTRODUCED IN 1983 AND HOW SUCCESSFUL WERE THEY?

JANSEN, SEBASTIAAN This investigation assesses the reasons for the introduction of the Singaporean eugenic family policies of 1983 and their success from the government’s point of view. The policies of 1983 consisted of the sterilisation scheme, the graduate moms scheme and the Social Development Unit. The policies were a major change from previous ones, since they marked the beginning of a pro-natalist government approach to family planning. This essay will be divided into two main sections. The first section will assess the reasons for the introduction of the policies, and will look at the drivers related to race issues and economic growth in extensive detail. The second section will assess the successes and failures of the different policies introduced in the mid 1980’s. Success in the context of this essay means that it was able to achieve what the policies were introduced for, in the eyes of the government. The essay will limit itself only to the policies of the eugenics era in the interest of essay length, and not the revised policies introduced in 1987 as part of the non-eugenic pro-natalist era. The policies were not successful mainly due to their extremeness, anti-feminist attitude and its interference on family life. The 1985 elections in Singapore marked big losses for the ruling People’s Action Party (PAP) and this was most likely due to the unpopular eugenic policies. Feminist groups were set up to counter the government’s policies. By 1987 all policies except the SDU were reversed and replaced by fairer pro-natalist policies to counter the low birthrate of Singapore.

Introduction On the 14th of August 1983 Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew announced in his National Day rally speech a major family policy change, a change focused on increasing the number of births rather than decreasing. This was due to a very clear drop in the birth rate. However, the policies had a

eugenic flair with them, giving advantages to highly-educated women, along with strongly discouraging low-educated women to have children using large cash incentives and creating certain disadvantages for children of low educated women. Along with this the government created its own dating agency, the Social Development Unit (SDU) to encourage marriages between highly-educated Singaporeans. The policies generally proved unsuccessful as all but one of the policies introduced in 1983 were reversed by 1987 (The exception being the Social Development Unit, which exists until today, albeit under a different name). This essay will be divided into two main sections. The first section will assess the reasons for the introduction of the policies, and will look at the drivers related to race issues and economic growth in extensive detail. The second section will assess the successes and failures of the different policies introduced in the mid 1980’s. Success in the context of this essay means that it was able to achieve what the policies were introduced for, in the eyes of the government. The essay will limit itself only to the policies of the eugenics era in the interest of essay length, and not the revised policies introduced in 1987 as part of the non-eugenic pro-natalist era.

Singapore’s policies and its focus on economic growth Singapore is a country that at the time of its independence in 1965 was, economically speaking, a completely insignificant country. In about 15 years it developed into one of the major Asian economic powerhouses. The main reason for this is arguably the way that the Singaporean government was willing to make significant sacrifices for economic growth. It allowed many foreigners, both foreign talents (FT’s) and unskilled foreign workers to come in. It also largely suppressed opposition using censorship and Lee’s so called ‘Asian values’ (less political freedom, more government interference to ensure for the benefit of economic growth



and stability) (Barr 34) to ensure that the current political party, the PAP1, could plan for long periods of time without the threat of being removed after elections. All in all, most Singaporean government policies were introduced to ensure that economic growth was sustained over long term, and to ensure that Singapore was both a safe and stable place to do business. Sometimes this may have made Singapore lose the ‘human factor’ of the introduced policy. Even policies related to demographic planning had very clear economic reasons for introduction, and it was no different with the eugenic policies of 1983. The policies of 1983 consisted of the sterilization scheme, the graduate moms scheme and the Social Development Unit.

Reasons for introduction of the eugenic policies “If we continue to reproduce ourselves in this lop-sided way, we will be unable to maintain our present standards. Levels of competence will decline. Our economy will falter; administration will suffer; and society will decline. For how can we avoid lowering performance when for every two graduates, in twenty-five years time there will be one graduate, and for every two uneducated workers there will be three?” – Lee Kuan Yew in ‘The education of women and patterns of procreation’, 1983. (Barr 123)

As presented in Lee Kuan Yew’s article ‘The education of women and patterns of procreation’ Lee felt there was a danger of creating a lower educated population due to the lack of graduates reproducing. Lee felt Singapore would greatly suffer under this and that ‘society would decline’. Lee strongly believed in a link between IQ and genetics and felt that because Singapore had limited natural resources it greatly relied on the

The People’s Action Party (PAP) is the main political party of Singapore. Led by Mr. Lee Kuan Yew, the centre-right-wing party has essentially had full control over the government since the independence of Singapore in 1965.

1

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intelligence and capabilities of its citizens (Palen 5) for its economic development. Ironically enough, Lee Kuan Yew, according to John Palen, misinterpreted internationally renowned psychologist H.J. Eynseck by stating that 80 percent of intelligence was genetically inherited while 20 percent came from nurture, while Eynseck claimed that 80 percent of variance in IQ was determined by genetics2. He also publicly stated that the Singaporean policies were a misapplication of his ideas (Palen 6). “To interfere with the genetic process is fraught with difficulties. There is the regression – where a very dull parent might have a bright child and vice versa… It would be quite wrong to decide the fate of a child by the intelligence of the parent.”– H.J. Eynseck (Palen 6)

Lee Kuan Yew made it no secret that he believed that not all people were born equal, and he has repeatedly stated it in interviews, speeches and articles (Han, Ibrahim and et al 185). It seems logical that this belief played a very large role in the introduction of the policies, considering Lee’s influential role in the PAP and him being Prime Minister at the time.

Race and its effects on the eugenic era Singapore is a highly multicultural and multiracial country, with the population consisting of 74% Chinese, around 14% Malay and 9% Indians, with the rest being mostly Westerners The Chinese were generally the highest educated, and the Malays had at the time a lowest education level of all the races. In the early years of independence, distrust among the different races was a big issue, reaching a high during

2

Variance meaning that there is no direct link between someone being intelligent and their children being intelligent, but rather that 20 % could still be changed by nurture while 80 % was ‘randomly’ determined by nature.

the 1969 race riots3. The Singaporean government hit down hard on these riots and has ever since tried very hard to promote harmony among the different races, by forcing them to live together in Housing Development Board (HDB)4 flats using race quotas and by creating special community clubs to get citizens from different races to interact. One can argue that the policies of 1983 were introduced due to an increasing imbalance in the racial buildup of Singapore’s population that threatened the economic prosperity of Singapore. This can be supported by a statement made by Lee Kuan Yew in 1989 in his National Day Speech where he claimed keeping the racial balance in Singapore equal was necessary to prevent a “shift in the economy, both the economic performance and the political backdrop that makes that economic performance possible” (“Entry of Hongkongers”). In 1984 the Chinese in Singapore had the lowest birth rate of all Singaporeans, namely 1.6 per woman, compared to 1.9 for the Indians and 2.1 for the Malays (Wong 9). There may have been a fear that there was going to be a racial balance shift in Singapore, where the balance between the different races had been fairly stable throughout the years. Considering that at the time the Chinese were the highest educated race in Singapore (Wong 9), it is possible that the policies were introduced to encourage mostly the Chinese to produce more children while discouraging Malays and Indians to have more offspring. There have been voices from both inside and outside of Singapore that claim that Lee Kuan Yew is a ‘Chinese supremacist’

The 1969 race riots were triggered after unrest between the Chinese and the Malays in Malaysia over the social and economic conditions of the Malays, and this spilled over in Singapore, leaving 4 dead and 80 wounded after 6 days of conflict.

3

HDB: Housing Development Board, the public housing organization of the government, which provides for the housing of approximately 85 % of all Singaporeans.

4

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(Nair)(Barr 186), and that this can be seen as a reason for the introduction of the controversial population policies of 1983. Michael D. Barr, a lead researcher on Lee Kuan Yew argues that Lee strongly believed that the Chinese were at the top of the Asian ‘racial hierarchy’ with the Indians being in the middle and the Malays at the bottom (Barr 187). Given that there were more government policies that excluded or disadvantaged Malays, whether it be because Lee Kuan Yew may have believed they were inferior to the other races in Singapore or because of other reasons, it would come to no surprise if the eugenic policies were indeed aimed at limiting the number of Malays, Singapore has mandatory national service for every Singaporean male citizen or secondgeneration permanent resident, lasting two years. Interestingly enough Malays have traditionally been mostly excluded from joining the army, navy or air force, which are largely dominated by the Chinese and the Indians, and the Malays have mostly been sent to serve in the civil service (Li 109). The main reason for this, according to Lee Kuan Yew, was that the loyalty of the Malays was doubted since they would be fighting for a largely Chinese-dominated government (Lee 31) against possibly a Malay-dominated government, with Singapore having strained relations with both Indonesia and Malaysia at the time. Lee Kuan Yew makes it no secret that he believed that there was a link between race and IQ. In 1997 he stated to his biographers that “the bell curve is a fact of life. The blacks on average score 85 percent on IQ and it is accurate, nothing to do with culture. The whites score on average 100. Asians score more… the Bell Curve authors put it at least 10 points higher. These are realities that if you do not accept, will lead to frustration because you will be spending money on wrong assumptions and the result cannot follow” (Barr 188). It is however important to note that Lee Kuan Yew has never admitted to proposing

the new populations policies due to the threat of racial imbalance or his belief that the Chinese were superior, and therefor we cannot draw a full conclusion as to whether this belief had a significant impact on the introduction of the policies.

The sterilization scheme In the mid-1960’s the Singaporean government realized that the birth rate of the nation had to go down tremendously, considering that the population of Singapore had grown by 80.8% between 1957 and 1970 (Wong 5). In 1965 the Singapore government started allowing voluntary sterilizations (Trocki 154). In June 1984 an extremely controversial policy was introduced. Low-educated women (no O-level achieved5) would get a S$ 10,000 bonus added to their CPF-account6 if they got sterilized after their second child was born. Another requirement was that the combined family income was less than S$ 1,500 a month and that the individual income of either parent was less than S$ 750 a month (Wong 9). Putting S$ 10,000 into context, the price of an HDB 3-bedroom apartment in a New Town7 at the time was

HDB apartment costs in 1980, with new prices in brackets (“Prices of HDB flats up by 20 pc.”)

about 16,400 S$ “Prices of HDB flats up by 20 pc.”). The S$ 10,000 grant could also be used to buy an HDB apartment under certain conditions. Considering that the income limit for the sterilization scheme was set at S$ 1,500 a month, it seemed logical that for many Singaporean low-educated women this offer was seen as extremely generous, and thus many women would take up the offer. However, the opposite of what the policy planned to achieve happened. Between 1983 and 1987 there was a clear decrease in the number of female sterilizations, from 5,571 to 3,524 (Saw 206). According to John Palen, who did research on the topic in Singapore at the time, only 56 couples signed up for the S$ 10,000 dollar incentive by July 1985 (Palen 9). According to Mr. Saw, the reason for the lack of success in the sterilization scheme was due the fact that most couples “did not consider the quantum of cash large enough” (Saw 214). However, it seems far more likely that there is another reason that led to the failure of the sterilization policy. Singapore is a country where government interference in many aspects of its citizen’s lives is very normal. Lee Kuan Yew perfectly describes this in an anecdote from 1987: “I say without the slightest remorse, that we wouldn’t be here, we would not have made economic progress, if we had not intervened on very personal matters – who your neighbour is, how you live, the noise you make, how you spit, or what language you use. We decide what is right. Never mind what the people think.” (“Government’s hard-nosed approach defended.”)

5

O-Levels are the Singaporean equivalent of GCSE’s, usually acquired at the age of 16. CPF: Central Provident Fund, the Singaporean retirement fund that can also be used to pay for healthcare.

6

A New Town was a development area away from the city where mostly new HDB flats were built. The HDB’s in New Towns were cheaper due to their distance from the city.

7

Indeed Singapore has intervened in a lot of aspects of its people’s lives. However, interfering in family planning by strongly encouraging sterilization may have been too much for Singaporeans to accept. Also the threat of full repayment plus interest if the subject were to give birth to another child (Wong 9) may have discouraged women to accept the S$ 10,000 incentive.



The Social Development Unit (SDU) While low-educated women were largely discouraged to have children, the opposite was applied to highly-educated women. As part of the eugenic policies, the Singaporean government set up its very own dating organization to connect graduates with each other. The Social Development Unit (SDU) was set up in 1984 with the idea in mind that if the SDU would be able to link up graduates with each other, they would marry and have children, and would be smarter which would benefit Singapore. The Singapore government was worried about the large number of single graduate women who could potentially have smart children (Saw 213). According to Lee Kuan Yew, another problem was that too many graduate men would marry non-graduate women. He blamed this on cultural prejudice8 that prevailed with the Chinese, and even more so with the Indians and the Malays (Lee 162). The SDU organized workshops, parties, outings and overseas trips for graduates (Saw 214) so that they could get in contact with each other. Because of the sensitive nature of its activities (a government interfering in the dating life of its citizens) the organization kept a relatively low profile by only approaching graduates and by not reporting its activities in the media (Saw 213). When its activities were first made public in 1985, the SDU was widely ridiculed by both Singaporeans and foreign press. In Singapore the organization earned the nickname ‘Single, Desperate and Ugly’. Initially the SDU was not a great success. In the first year of its existence it spent nearly S$ 300,000 on its matchmaking activities, and yet it only produced two marriages (“When the House sat and talked of love …”). However, the number of marriages coming out of the SDU activities gradually increased, and it reached to around 1,000

marriages a year on average at the end of the first decade of its existence (Wong 1) With its success, the initial skepticism slowly disappeared, possibly because of increased acceptance of the Singaporean population over the role of the government in dating affairs (Social Development Unit 2). However, the success of the SDU most likely made people more contempt with its existence. An important enabler for the SDU to become so successful was that many activities were subsidized. It would seem tempting for many people to go on a cruise for S$ 80. Another reason is the extensive positive media attention that the SDU got through Singapore’s government controlled newspapers. In 1985, when the activities of the SDU were made public, a series of articles was published in The Straits Times (most widely read newspaper in Singapore at the time) about all the positive aspects of the SDU (“The Straits Times says: A necessary catalyst.”). One aspect where the SDU was criticized on however was that it was only available for university graduates, which was considered very elitist. In reaction to this criticism the government created to Social Development Services (SDS) in 1985. This organization was aimed at non-graduate singles, which, according to the government, initially did not need help in finding a partner because “non-graduates seem to get along very well finding their own partners” (“When the House sat and talked of love …”)9. It seems fairly clear that the SDU was set up with eugenic ideas in mind. With the strong belief that intelligence was inherited, connecting two highly-educated people (who would usually be intelligent) to ultimately produce children was most likely done to ensure that the human intelligence level of Singapore’s working population

It is interesting to note that only in 2009 the two units were merged into one larger organization, the Social Development Network (SDN).

8

Lee felt that these cultures expected of men to marry a woman of a lower education level.

8

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would be maintained at a high level. However, this has never been confirmed by the Singapore government as the reason for the creation for the SDU.

The graduate moms scheme Another large policy change as part of the 1983 eugenic measures of the Singapore government was changes in the system for primary school admissions in Singapore. There was an increased demand for primary schools with higher quality of education and with a history of sending children to elite secondary schools in Singapore, and thus eventually good universities. This system led to waiting lists for admissions for these better primary schools. Singapore had already a system in place, introduced in the 1970’s as part of its anti-natalist policies, that children of parents with two children and where one parent got sterilized under the age of 40 were given priority entrance, as well as children who were only child. Children who were the fourth child or any subsequent child were given the lowest preference (Saw 211). January 1984 saw a change in this policy. To encourage graduate moms to have more children the children of women with “an acceptable university degree or approved professional school qualifications” and who had three or more children were given priority primary school entrance (Palen 7). The original anti-natalist policies stayed in place as well. Interestingly enough, the scheme was not used extensively and ‘only’ 157 children were given priority because of the education of their mother (Palen 7). Another aspect of the graduate moms scheme were tax advantages for highly educated women with three or more children. For the first child, highly educated women could receive 5% of their annual income that would usually be taken away as tax. For the second child this was 10% and for the third 15%. This was on top of the already existing child reliefs of S$ 750 for the first two children, and S$ 500 for the third child, which any woman could claim (Saw

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212). This policy was introduced in addition to an existing pro-natalist policy that would give 5% returns of salary for the first three children of a highly-educated mom, which was put in place to stimulate this group to keep their jobs while raising children. The graduate moms scheme was highly unpopular in Singapore, even among graduate moms. According to Mr. Palen, a researcher in Singapore at the time, he never heard any female student at the National University of Singapore say anything positive about the scheme (Palen 8). The reason for this dissatisfaction was, according to John Palen, because the scheme implied that graduate women should be mothers instead of focusing on their career. Feminists strongly felt they were being discriminated against because of the contradiction in the graduate moms scheme (they were encouraged and then discouraged to work) and because of Lee Kuan Yew’s attitude to women working while having kids. Lee strongly felt women could not be employed in a full time job and have children; “Equal employment opportunities, yes, but we shouldn’t get our women into jobs where they cannot, at the same time, be mothers… You just can’t be doing a full-time heavy job like that of a doctor or an engineer and run a home and bring up children. It’s tough.” (“National Day rally speech”). The scheme triggered the creation of AWARE, now the largest women’s rights group in Singapore (“About”, AWARE Singapore). Non-graduate mothers were also highly dissatisfied with the scheme; feeling that it was elitist and unfairly advantaging higher educated women. This dissatisfaction from both groups was clearly felt in the 1984 General Elections in Singapore, where the ruling PAP won ‘only’ 64.8 % of the votes, a massive drop from 77.7 % in the previous elections of 1980. 1984 marked the first year that opposition members (one from the Workers Party, one from the Singapore Democratic Party) were voted into the Parliament (consisting of 79 members). Independent opinion polling is not allowed

in Singapore, but it seems that indeed the unpopular graduate moms scheme and had a big effect on the elections. At the time, unemployment was low at 3% (“World Development Indicators”), and economic growth was still at ±10% a year between 1980 and 1984 (Chueng 35), so these factors had little effect on the elections. No other controversial policies that could have had an effect on the popularity of the PAP were introduced in this period. After the criticism towards the graduate mom scheme and the 1984 elections, the Singaporean government reversed the policies in March 1985. Dr. Tony Tan, the education minister at the time, announced the official reasons for the discontinuation of the scheme in The Straits Times: “The crucial issue is whether graduate mothers will be induced to have more children simply because this will give them priority in registering their children for Primary One or pre-primary. The response from graduate mothers would indicate that this premise is unlikely to be true. In view of the anxiety and resentment which the priority scheme has aroused in Singaporeans, both graduate and non-graduate, and as the scheme is not likely in my view to produce the desired results, I see no reason for continuing with the scheme.” – Dr. Tony Tan (“Graduate mum scheme to go.”)

Conclusion Overall it is clear that the Singaporean eugenic policies were introduced mainly to ensure that economic growth would continue in Singapore due to the highquality citizens the policies were believed to produce. Race may have played a role in the introduction of the policies, but this cannot be fully proven, and can only be hinted at due to the fact that at the time the Chinese were the highest educated race compared to the Malays being the lowest educated, while the Chinese had the lowest birth rate out of all races in Singapore and the Malays the highest. There has historically been some

discontent with the Malays in Singapore, but, again, there is no absolute clear link between the eugenic policies and racial issues in Singapore. The eugenic policies of 1983 were ultimately unsuccessful mainly because of their extremeness. The sterilization incentive may have been seen as too extreme, even by Singapore standards. The graduate moms scheme was also seen as fairly extreme and anti-feminist, which also triggered the founding of the first major women’s rights group in Singapore. The general elections of 1984 made it very clear to the Singapore government that they were taking the wrong path, and was the trigger that made them decide to reverse the policies. The only truly successful policy introduced as part of the eugenics era in Singapore was the Social Development Unit, which was able to create many successful marriages through its dating services. The clearest evidence for its success is the fact that the SDU still exists today.

Appendix Notes on sources: It should be noted that a large number of sources are newspaper articles. The reason for this is that in Singapore the media is fully controlled by the state, meaning that anything published is most likely the opinion of the government or what the government wanted to convey to its citizens. For that reason newspaper articles are extremely useful in this context to comprehend the official position of the government.

Eugenic policies in modern Singapore: It would seem that all eugenic policies were reversed by 1987 because of their controversial background. However, this is not completely the case. Even today certain eugenic policies exist. In Singapore abortions are legal, but women who wish to undergo an abortion have to go through mandatory



counseling first. There is however one interesting twist to this. Women who do not have a secondary school diploma do not need to go through counseling and can receive the abortion immediately (Lin). This policy sparked a wave of protest in Singapore, especially at women’s group AWARE, who stated that the policies “reek of eugenicist logic, indicating that while Singapore’s government exhorts its citizens to get hitched and have babies, they are really only interested in babies from specific demographics” (“AWARE Singapore”, 11 Apr 2013). More evidence of a eugenic policy still existing is present in the way that Singapore tries to separate foreign unskilled workers from Singaporeans as much as possible. In Singapore, a foreign worker, male or female, is not allowed to marry a Singaporean, unless special permission from the government is granted (Ong).

Works Cited: Print: Barr, Michael D. Lee Kuan Yew The Beliefs behind the Man. 2nd. ed. Kuala Lumpur: New Asian Library, 2012. Print. Chueng, Paul. Singapore. Ministry of Trade & Industry. Income Approach to Gross Domestic Product. Singapore: Department of Statistics, 1998. Web. Han, Fook Kwang, Zuraida Ibrahim, et al. Lee Kuan Yew Hard Truths to Keep Singapore Going. 1st ed. Singapore: Straits Times Press, 2011. Print. Lee, Kuan Yew. From Third World to First The Singapore Story: 1965-2000. 1st ed. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish, 2000. Print. Li, Tania. Malays in Singapore: culture, economy, and ideology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989. 109. Web. Palen, John. “Fertility and Eugenics: Singapore’s Population Policies.” Population Research and Policy Review. 5.1 (1986): 3-14. Print.

Saw, Swee-Hock. The population of Singapore. 2nd ed. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1999. Print. Trocki, Carl A. Singapore: Wealth, Power and the culture of Control. 1st ed. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print. Social Development Unit. When Boy Meets Girl. Singapore: Social Development Unit, 2002. Print.

Non-print:

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“Dr Tan confident romance will bloom.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 7 Mar 1985, 1. Print. “When the House sat and talked of love …” The Straits Times [Singapore] 7 Mar 1985, 12. Print. “The Straits Times says: A necessary catalyst.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 14 Mar 1985, 16. Print. “Graduate mum scheme to go.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 26 Mar 1985, 1. Print.

Lee, Kuan Yew. “National Day Rally Speech.” National Day. National Theatre, Singapore. 14 Aug 1983. Speech.

“Government’s hard-nosed approach defended.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 20 Apr 1987, 15. Print.

Lin, Melissa. “Having had two abortions as teenager, Jennifer Heng now helps others heal.” Straits Times[Singapore] 26 Mar 2013, n. pag. Web. 1 Jul. 2013.

“Entry of Hongkongers won’t upset racial mix.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 21 Aug 1989, 17. Print.

Nair, Gopalan. “Singapore Island suffers without Rule of Law.” Singapore Dissident. N.p., 8 Apr 2013. Web. 9 May 2013.

Ong, Andrea. “Foreign workers in unapproved marriages.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 10 Mar 2011, Web. 24 Jul. 2013.

“About.” AWARE Singapore. AWARE, 21 Jun 2013. Web. 30 Jun 2013. .

Wong, Tessa. “SDU’s role as Cupid comes to an end.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 18 Nov 2006, 1. Print.

“Abortion counselling: Criteria might change.” AWARE Singapore. 11 Apr 2013: n. page. Web. 1 Jul. 2013. <:http://www.aware. org.sg/2013/04/parliament-review-criteriafor-abortion-counselling/>. “Interview with Mr. Walter Cronkite, Special Correspondent of CBS News at the Istana, Singapore.” The Papers of Lee Kuan Yew: Speeches, Interviews and Dialogues. Vol. 9: 1981-1987. Singapore: Gale Asia, 2012. 637-642. Gale Virtual Reference Library. Web. 7 May 2013. “Unemployment, total (% of total labor force).” World Development Indicators. The World Bank. Web. 5 Aug 2013.

Newspapers: “Prices of HDB flats up by 20 pc.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 24 Jun 1980, 1. Print. “The Things PM Says.” The Straits Times [Singapore] 15 Aug 1983, 11. Print.

64 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

SELECTED HUMAN RIGHTS

GUAN, KATHLEEN WENYUN

1. Introduction

This IB Extended Essay is about the pressing human rights issue of female trafficking in Yunnan, China. As the Chinese government’s implementation of the one-child policy in 1979 has been often attributed as a factor of this issue, this paper addresses the question: “To what extent can the prevalence of female trafficking in China’s Yunnan province be attributed to the implementation of the one-child policy?” The essay aims to comparatively explore and evaluate other key factors attributed to female trafficking in Yunnan, in addition to the one-child policy. Among these are socio-cultural norms, geography, and globalization. An in-depth analysis of Yunnan’s ethnic minorities and matriarchal societies is also made. Factors of female trafficking present specifically in other parts of China or the world are not considered in this essay.

1.1

The research question was investigated by consulting a range of relevant and diverse resources, including journals, ethnographies, literature, government reports, NGO reports, and personal interviews, which were critically scrutinized to gain a thorough understanding of the topic. The essay concluded that the one-child policy, along with other factors, cannot be held solely responsible for the prevalence of female trafficking in Yunnan, although there is a definite correlation present. The essay also concluded that poverty should instead be held most (but not completely) accountable for high female trafficking rates in Yunnan. Poverty in Yunnan impoverishes people to such a degrading point that inevitably, negative patriarchal norms often persist, and positive egalitarian principles often recede; hence forming a basis upon which trafficking of women under the one-child policy occurs.

Introduction to the human rights issue of female trafficking

Discrimination against women is neither an exclusive nor contemporary phenomenon. The patriarchal nature of major civilizations and societies since the beginning of time has created a world in which women are commonly marginalized; suppressed socially, politically, and economically; and sexually exploited. Despite modern efforts towards female empowerment and other, similar initiatives, a plethora of issues linked with the discrimination of women continue to exist. Among these is the widespread human rights issue of female trafficking. Human trafficking, defined as “the recruitment (…) of persons, by means (…) of coercion, (…) abuse of power (…) to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation” (General Assembly of the United Nations), is widely deemed by different actors, such as governments and international organizations, as “not only a criminal justice issue, but also a human rights issue” (Obokata 327). Trafficking violates person’s freedom, dignity1, security, and freedom to choose employment, 2 among many other human rights, whilst also simultaneously reinforcing a long-established gender discrimination against women. Due to globalization and growth of the sex industry, the widespread practice of human trafficking has received increased international attention since the late 20th century. Globally, female trafficking was first discussed by the League of Nations in 1921 (Liu 33). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations also indirectly

1

Article 1 of the UDHR states: “All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.”

2

Article 23 of the UDHR states: Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.



addressed this issue and is now commonly seen as an important reference for human rights. Notable human rights instruments against trafficking also include: • the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others 1949, 3 and the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) 1979,4 which obligate states to prohibit trafficking of human beings through national legislation, • the Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Women and Children for Prostitution 2002,5 and • the ASEAN Declaration against Trafficking in Persons Particularly Women and Children 2004. Nevertheless, an effective human rights framework to deal with trafficking has not been fully developed to-date. International human rights principles and guidelines6 “are not legally binding and do not fully articulate human rights obligations” and consequently, discourse on trafficking remains inadequate (Obokata 327). Human trafficking continues Article 1 of the Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others states: The Parties to the present Convention agree to punish any person who, to gratify the passions of another: (1) Procures, entices or leads away, for purposes of prostitution, another person, even with the consent of that person; (2) Exploits the prostitution of another person, even with the consent of that person.

3

4

Article 6 of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women enshrines upon signatory states the obligation to take: Appropriate measures, including legislation, to suppress all forms of trafficking in women and forced prostitution are also not regarded as gender discrimination. This adopted by states belonging to the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

5

For example, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights’ adoption of the Recommended Principles and Guidelines on Human Rights and Human Trafficking.

6

to be the fastest growing, financial lucrative illegal activity in the world, with more than two thirds of victims being women subject to sexual exploitation (Samarasinghe 11), a crime that has been long regarded as a violation of human rights.

1.2 Introduction to China and Yunnan Province in the context of female trafficking The People’s Republic of China is a major “source, transit, and destination country” (“China”) for female trafficking, which has existed in China for over 2000 years. Despite thirty years of “purported abolition” under Mao Zedong’s rule, female trafficking in China has seen a revival since 1978, when the country began to experience a move towards industrialization and urbanization after economic reforms and adoption of an open door policy (Liu 1). Trafficking has increased rapidly since. Women from neighbouring Asian countries, as well as other continents, are reportedly trafficked to China for commercial sexual exploitation, though the majority of trafficking occurs internally among China’s internal migrant population (estimated to be over 150 million) (“China”). Current statistics indicate China is hosting 250,000 human trafficking victims from both international and internal sources (Zheng). The government of China “does not fully comply with minimum standards” and reputedly makes little effort towards the eradication of trafficking. Hence, after nine consecutive years of being placed on the Tier 2 Watch List of the annual United States Department of State’s Trafficking in Persons Report, China was downgraded to Tier 3, the lowest ranking, in 2013 (United States, Department of State 129).7 Yunnan, with an estimated number of over a thousand children and women trafficked annually, is one of the worst areas affected by trafficking in China (Yunnan Province

See Appendix section 1 for visual diagram.

7

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Women’s Federation 4). It is a unique province, being largely mountainous, sharing borders with Tibet, Burma, Laos, and three provinces of China, and home to the highest number of ethnic minorities in China.8 Among its 45.9 million residents, nonHan ethnic minorities account for 33.37% of the total population of the province. It is also one of the poorest areas in the country. Yunnan is considered a significant “political and economic hub of the Mekong sub-region,” allowing many occurrences of felonious activities such as cross-border and internal drug and human trafficking each year (Zhao 172).

1.3 Introduction to research question In this essay, key factors that contribute to the prevalence of female trafficking in China will be explored and analysed. Among these is the Chinese government’s implementation of the one-child policy. Launched in 1979, China’s one-child policy was instigated as to mitigate social and economic difficulties. It has since been called “one of the most troubling social policies of modern times” (Greenhalgh 1). Although it has controlled population growth with relative success in China, the one-child policy has been criticized by various spokespeople for its violation of human rights, the most obvious being the freedom to found one’s own family and life. The policy launch was greatly “out of touch with Chinese reality” (Greenhalgh 1), with China being a society in which, especially in rural areas, having two or more children (preferably sons) is crucial for a family to survive due to agricultural labour needs. China is currently facing a severe crisis and gender gap with a ratio of 120 boys to 100 girls, the highest in the world (Greenhalgh 1). This gender gap is telling of the traditional preference of males and discrimination against women in patriarchal China. Efforts to comply with the one-child policy in China have resulted

See Appendix sections 2 and 3 for annotated maps.

8

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in a long list of terrors, among them the trafficking of women—a human rights crime rife in Yunnan. Therefore, this essay will be addressing this pertinent issue through the research question: “To what extent can the prevalence of female trafficking in China’s Yunnan province be attributed to the implementation of the one-child policy?”

2. Factors of female trafficking in Yunnan Because human rights can only be violated by states, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights only enshrines obligations on the state (Freeman 128). Likewise, under international law, it is primarily the duty of the state to prohibit human trafficking, as well as address the causes and consequences of trafficking, through national legislation (Obokata 333). Nevertheless, international human rights principles and guidelines are not legally binding and consequently, female trafficking continues to be prevalent in China’s Yunnan province and beyond. Though on paper it has made efforts towards eradicating female trafficking, in practice, the Chinese state has made little effort towards this cause and has hence allowed for the persistence of causes affecting human rights violations in relation to female trafficking.9

2.1 The one-child policy The one-child policy was initiated in 1979 and has since created enormous conflict between the Chinese government and its people, particularly those living in rural provinces such as Yunnan. Within its first decade of implementation, extremely skewed sex ratios as high as 126:100—ones that can only be a result of some form of sex selection, such as the neglect of female newborns—were widely reported in rural

9

See Appendix section 5 for list of key legal instruments, agreements and guidelines which relate to anti-trafficking in China.

areas (Mann 63). These ratios suggest that 24 million men will be unable to find wives by 2020 (“Matchmaking in Modern China”). Presently in Yunnan, there is a skewed sex ratio of 108:100 (Horton).10 The government’s implementation of the one-child policy has hence not only failed to empower women; it has caused skewed sex ratios, exacerbated by families striving to have their sons carry on the descent line. Since the implementation of the policy, females, particularly those from rural areas, have been kidnapped and trafficked in the underground marriage market to be married off to excess men (Mann 64). Compliance with the policy goes both ways; families often abandon or sell their girls as brides to traffickers to ensure the guarantee of a coveted male child.” The age range of trafficked females is 12 to 50 (Tiefenbrun 733). The policy’s causation of skewed sex ratios has therefore created pressing nuptiality complications for males (Mann 63). Families often strategize for a bride for their son by resorting to the purchase of agents who locate easily-swindled and vulnerable women in poor parts of China— Yunnan province in particular—and act as intermediaries between bride-to-bes and the families (Mann 56). This is often done through coercion and abuse of powe—a clear trafficking and human rights offence.11 Hence, trafficking of females has been greatly aggravated due to the prolonged

See Appendix section 4 for sex ratios for specific ethnic groups in Yunnan province.

10

11

Article 3, paragraph (a) of the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons defines Trafficking in Persons as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.

one-child policy. Not only has the Chinese government failed to achieve its original aims of equal social and economic rehabilitation; it has failed to protect the most vulnerable people in its society—poor, young women—and exposed them to further discrimination and exploitation. The supremacy of the Chinese government and its implementation of the one-child policy have resulted in the ineffectiveness of laws that only “theoretically protect women and female children in China” (Tiefenbrun 733). Even so, one cannot assume that the onechild policy is solely responsible for the female trafficking in Yunnan and/or other provinces in China. The traditional male preference paradigm has existed since the beginning of Chinese civilization, and the one-child policy should instead be looked upon as a stimulus in a deeply patriarchal society. What arises here is the issue of cultural relativism, in which human rights are dependent on the regional norms of Chinese society. Seemingly, socio-cultural norms and traditions have continually been a form of justification and catalyst for human rights abuses of women, such as trafficking, in China.

2.2 Socio-cultural norms and traditions Figure 1:

When a son is born, Let him sleep on the bed, Clothe him with fine clothes, And give him jade to play with. How lordly his cry is! May he grow up to wear crimson And be the lord of the clan and the tribe. When a daughter is born, Let her sleep on the ground, Wrap her in common wrappings, And give her broken tiles for playthings. May she have no faults, no merits of her own, May she well attend to food and wine, And bring no discredit to her parents.



Figure 1 contains a Song from The Book of Songs (800–600 B.C.): one of the oldest and most seminal works of Chinese poetry, believed to have been compiled by Confucius. It reveals the traditionally and deeply patriarchal nature of Chinese society that continues to resonate today. In China’s feudal tradition men have frequently subjected women to subordination. Confucianism’s Three Obediences and Four Virtues go as far as dictating basic moral principles specifically for women, instructing them to obey their “father as a daughter,” “husband as a wife,” and “sons in widowhood”—hence subjecting women to lifelong subservience and effectively, discrimination. A young woman, especially one who was newly married and had not yet produced a son, had the lowest status in society (Shi 89). Classical Chinese texts are enshrined with beliefs about marriage and the family, and many former government policies backed up the superiority of men by stigmatizing unmarried men (Mann 54). For women, marriage also meant having social identity, but desperate measures were often made. For parents of “limited means,” it was not uncommon for them to sell their daughter as a concubine to a well-off family, making “the necessary compromise between marriage and servitude” (Mann 54). In times of stress, such as the Taiping Rebellion in the mid-19th century, parents notably put female infants to death to ensure the rearing of a son who could carry on the patrilineal family line (Mann 50). During this time, female infants and young girls were often at risk of sale and kidnapping, and unsuspecting women whose work exposed them to outsiders were susceptible to sexual abuse or rape. Desperate husbands could even rent, pawn, or sell their wives in extreme cases of threat of survival (Mann 58). It is hence clear that women in Chinese society were historically viewed as nothing but mere commodities for their sexual and reproductive services.

burdens, as they are unable to carry on the patrilineal family line or contribute to physical labour. Due to customs, daughters also cost their parents money in the form of a dowry upon marriage, and moved in with their husband and cared for his family instead; thus a daughter getting married meant the loss of labour, and females in a family were seen as “temporary family members” (Liu 157). In extreme cases, even today selling one’s body continues to be seen as “particularly filial” for a woman, as it signals that she has “paid her debt to her parents more completely than other young women” (Mann 64). Parents effectually evade the burden of dowry fees and reversely, gain financially when their daughter returns with money from her ‘work.’ These traditions, along with many other socio-cultural norms in Chinese society, have resulted in the common practice of selling and trafficking of young women, particularly in Yunnan, a rural province in which people’s lives and mindsets remain very conservative. Though in the 20th century women were treated better under Mao Zedong, who promoted gender equality and famously said, “women hold up half the sky” (Kristof 208), in truth, not even Mao’s notoriously authoritarian rule was able to wholly alter patriarchal China. Female trafficking, fuelled by a conscious and conventional discrimination against women, continues to occur rampantly in both rural and urban areas of China. Notwithstanding, if we were to look specifically at Yunnan, the most ethnically diverse province in China, we may see a different picture.12 Female trafficking rates in Yunnan are among the highest in the country, but traditional patriarchal norms may not be blame. Ethnic minorities making up 38% of the province are scattered greatly across the province (Yunnan Province Women’s Federation 4). Interestingly, many of these ethnic minorities share a common

Additionally, females in Chinese society have traditionally been considered as economic

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trait in their customs and traditions: women are perceived to be either equal or superior to men. For example, the Lahu people—with 720,000 living in Yunnan—have a culture shaped by gender equality. Labour allocation revolves around the principle of gender unity, along with determination of social leadership and other daily aspects. Men and women are seen as equal individuals and members of community (Ma 7). On another hand, the Moso people see females as superior to men because of their birth-giving ability. Women are considered to be “not only mentally stronger, but also physically more capable, if not always more powerful, than men.” Happiness in Moso culture revolves around living harmoniously with one’s matrilineal kin (Shih 147). Similarly, the Naxi minority does not have a concept of marriage in their culture—men are simply used for their ability to help women reproduce, and in a family there is only a mother, not a father. Women alone have the economic authority and right of inheritance (Cai 22). Additionally, ethnic minorities also enjoy preferential treatment in family planning due to affirmative action, including the choice to have more than one child. They hence evade the pressures of the one-child policy (Bhalla and Luo 60).13 So if in Yunnan, pressures to comply with the one-child policy for a great majority of the people do not exist, and women are supposedly favoured rather discriminated against, why is female trafficking, a widespread crime that sees no obvious exclusion of females from ethnic minorities, still so rampant?

2.3 Poverty Poverty is cited frequently by actors such as the United Nations as a main cause of female trafficking. Poverty is an issue of human rights, affecting economic, social,

See Appendix section 4 for fertility rate figures for different ethnic groups in Yunnan.

13

See Appendix section 3 for annotated map.

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and cultural rights and rights to liberty and security. Though there is no single common factor for the practice of female trafficking in Yunnan, China, or beyond, a common motivator for those tempted to enter the illicit trafficking world certainly exists—money (Liu 151). According to the Congressional Executive Commission on China, 90% of China’s internal trafficking cases involve women and children trafficked from poor to wealthier provinces.

advantageous gender. Women are economically burdensome; upon marrying they cost their parents dowry and also stop supporting their parents financially due to traditional customs (Mann 65). Departing from these recognitions, it is unsurprising that men are preferred to women from an economic standpoint. Patriarchal paradigms make it possible for poor families to justify their selling of their young girls into trafficking.

The concept of poverty is not ancient to Yunnan. A 2006 report in the Yunnan Daily stated that the province had a population of over seven million people living in poverty, with annual incomes below $142 (USD), and 2.57 million living in extreme poverty, with annual incomes less than $114 (Ma 64). Though China has seen colossal economic growth in the past two decades, with the economy growing at an average rate of 10% per year from 1990-2004, economic development in China has been uneven and attributed to a broader gap between the rich and the poor (Liu 147). Ethnic minorities in China, which constitute much of Yunnan’s population, are also generally believed to be poorer than the Han majority for various reasons. A study by Gustafsson and Sai analyzing temporary and persistent rural poverty among ethnic minority and Han majority revealed that minority poverty rates in rural areas of China were higher than those of Han Chinese (Bhalla and Luo 16).

Additionally, although the ethnic minorities previously discussed follow principles in which women are viewed as equal or superior to men, they undoubtedly live in a patriarchal country in which desperate measures—i.e. the trafficking of their women—can be made in desperate times of financial need. Trafficking is also “often migration gone terribly wrong” (Feingold). ‘To become wives of the Han’ is a saying of the Lahu minority in Yunnan, referring to their unmarried and sometimes married women who wish to or already have resettled in rural areas of other predominantly Han Chinese provinces—eg. the more prosperous Zhejiang—to become wives of Han peasants as an avenue of empowerment and contribution to “the perpetuation of patriarchal families” (Ma 134). Migration is a way for financially burdened women, particularly those from ethnic minorities, to experience social mobility while simultaneously contributing to the family income (Ma 136). Attempts to migrate often enlist in the help of a middle-person, whom can often abuse his or her power and coerce young women into trafficking. Prominent Chinese criminal groups, such as the She Tou, specialize in the exploitation of women through trafficking. (Liu 73)

Reiterating aforementioned points, one can see how poverty comes very much into play when the one-child policy and sociocultural traditions are key factors of female trafficking in Yunnan and beyond. The onechild policy has created skewed sex ratios due to pressures to comply with the policy, and it is the most vulnerable females from poor areas like Yunnan who are trafficked in the underground marriage market to be married off to excess men (Liu 34). On the reverse, the policy has compelled many families to abandon or sell their girls to ensure the guarantee of a coveted male child—the more socially and economically

2.3.1 Geography and the isolation of minorities Yunnan province is unique for its geographic characteristics, which can ne attributed to its high level of poverty. Several counties in Yunnan, including Lan, Cangyuan, Ximeng,

and Menglian, suffer from the “so-called state-class” poverty (Ma 165). In these counties located in the border regions of southwestern Yunnan, one finds several isolated ethnic groups—with mountainous areas occupied by Lahu Bulang, Aini, and Wa ethnic groups, and the Dai ethnic minority living in the river basin. Together, these groups form a population of over a million, with most, if not all, living in poverty. For example, 60.8% of people Lan county belong to the population group in China with low annual income, and a remaining 38.2% belong to the population group with extremely low income (Ma 165). The Miao minority, nearly 9 million in total population with many located in Yunnan, are “mountain dwellers formerly engaged in self-sufficient economy based on farming” and one of the poorest ethnic groups in China (Bhalla and Luo 42). The geography of Yunnan has created a situation in which the high minority population is isolated from the fast-developing and modernizing China, compelling them to live a life based mostly on agricultural survival. Though living a life of segregation is customary for many minorities (Bhalla and Luo 42), unarguably the geography they are surrounded by constrains them to a life in which survival and financial security is severely limited. Hence, as earlier mentioned, migration is a common practice for minority women desiring a way out of matriarchal responsibilities and financial security, and in many unfortunate cases ends in trafficking. The lack of education available in the rural, secluded parts of Yunnan also results in women not having the necessary formal education for profitable jobs, hence their turn to domestic and sex work (Ma 189). A large number of illiterate and impoverished women, easily targeted for trafficking, thus exist.

2.3.2 Globalization In the late 20th century, China began to experience a move towards globalization after the adoption of an open door policy (Liu 1). This increased wage disparities



between rural and urban areas, and led to greater gender inequality. The government began to develop its tourism by targeting its border regions, among them the impoverished Yunnan, where development projects were previously tried but failed. With its luscious geography and ethnic diversity, many foreign investors saw Yunnan as an “Asian growth zone” (Davis 30) and the province soon became a major tourist area for locals and foreigners alike. In 2004 tourism revenues amounted to $2.1 billion (USD) and accounted for 12.6% of the provincial GDP in Yunnan (Chinatour International). Places such as Manting Road, a sex district in southern Yunnan, soon emerged, attracting unmarried and married male tourists hearing of ethnic women’s “sexual openness” and forming the foundation of the local economy (Davis 44). Consequently, internal and cross-border trafficking has increased greatly. Globalization in Southeast Asia has encouraged many women to migrate for economic stability, and again, these women are vulnerable and often subject to coercion into the trafficking trade, whether to do sex work or become a bride to one of China’s excess men.

3. Conclusion A wide range of relevant resources were consulted during this essay’s process of research, helping me gain a deep understanding of the different human rights theories behind and contexts in which female trafficking in China takes place. Various substantial print sources, such as ethnographies, literature, and journals, were useful in their presentation of different perspectives and hence allowed for deeper understanding of human rights. Secondary objective resources and reports released by non-governmental organizations were also referred to. Sources that may contain possible bias, such as governmental reports and personal interviews, were evaluated critically. An additional but necessary point is that trafficking is a phenomenon

extremely clandestine in nature, and accurate statistics and literature on regarding this issue’s prevalence in China is limited. Some information in this essay, especially figures, should hence be taken with a grain of salt. Nevertheless, the sources consulted provided a credible background to the female trafficking sphere in China’s Yunnan province and beyond, and led to the following conclusions: This essay’s research question of focus was the extent to which the Chinese government’s implementation of the one-child policy can be accounted for the prevalence of female trafficking in Yunnan province. In spite of this, this essay has deduced that there can be no one single cause for female trafficking in Yunnan and/ or beyond. The one-child policy is indeed a major factor of female trafficking in rural China, correlating extensively with skewed sex ratios that lead to the female trafficking for marriage and reinforcing traditional high regard for men over women. From this statement, we can also see that pre-existing socio-cultural norms and traditions are also equally, if not more, to blame for the incidence of female trafficking in China. Notwithstanding, research revealed the egalitarian and matriarchal natures of the many ethnic minorities that constitute the ethnically diverse Yunnan, hence contradicting the idea that patriarchal norms are completely responsible for female trafficking in the province. This essay thus concludes that it is, rather, poverty that should be held most accountable for the prevalence of trafficking in China’s Yunnan province. Traditional discrimination against women, which the one-child policy is responsible for stimulating, arises very much from the economic burdens they pose in poor families. The widespread action of females coming from matriarchal societies migrating into patriarchal, Han Chinese families as an avenue of social and financial empowerment was also discussed in this essay. Migration in China, both cross-border and internal,

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is attributed to the desire for a financial stability, and it is often through ostensibly trustworthy middle-persons in which vulnerable women are then trafficked. Like the existence of patriarchal ideals, the onechild policy is merely an incentive for female trafficking, fuelled by extreme poverty, to occur. On the basis of the evidence, it is critical for the Chinese government to take major responsibility in entitling its female citizens to their human rights bound by international law, by resolving the deeply ingrained societal practices and desperate measures made that allow the trafficking of women to continue.

Appendix 1. “A Fascinating Map of the Worst Countries for Modern Slavery”

Source: The Atlantic, June 2013

2 Map of Yunnan Province, China

Source: HiSupplier.com Online

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3. Map of Yunnan Province, China showing ethnic group settlements.

(COMMIT) Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation Against Trafficking in Persons in the Greater Mekong Sub-region (2004) • The China National Plan of Action against Trafficking in Women and Children (NPA)

Works Cited Bhalla, A.S., and Dan Luo. Poverty and Exclusion of Minorities in China and India. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013. Print. Cai, Hua. A Society Without Fathers Or Husbands: The Na of China. Trans. Asti Hustvedt. New York: Zone, 2001. Print. Source: Johomaps.com 2013

4. Sex ratio and fertility rate figures for various ethnic groups in Yunnan in 1990’s Ethnic group

Sex ratio at birth

Total fertility rate

Han

110.4

2.3

Dai

106.3

2.5

Yi

108.6

2.6

Bai

101.3

2.7

Hui

112.6

3.1

Zhang

111.4

3.1

Hani

110.6

3.4

Miao

106.5

3.5

Source: Demographic and Social Characteristics of Nationalities in Yunnan Province, China: Cultural Diversity and Development Indicators by Barbara A. Anderson

5. Some key legal instruments, agreements, etc. relating to trafficking in China • Joint Implementation plans of the 29 InterMinisterial Office Against Human Trafficking (IMOAT) members • Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative Against Trafficking

“China.” Humantrafficking.org: A Web Resource for Combating Human Trafficking. Academy for Educational Development, n.d. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . Davis, Sara L. M. Song and Silence: Ethnic Revival on China’s Southwest Border. New York: Columbia UP, 2005. Print. Feingold, David A. “Think Again: Human Trafficking.” Foreign Policy. Foreign Policy Group, 30 Aug. 2005. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . Freeman, Michael. Human Rights an Interdisciplinary Approach (Key Concepts). New York: Polity, 2002. Print. General Assembly of the United Nations. “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights.” United Nations. UN, n.d. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . “What Is Human Trafficking?” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. UNODC, 15 Nov. 200. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . Greenhalgh, Susan. Just One Child: Science and Policy in Deng’s China. Berkeley: U of California P, 2008. Print.

Horton, Chris. “Yunnan Census Results Released.” Go Kunming. Go Kunming, May 2011. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. . Kristof, Nicholas D., and Sheryl WuDunn. Half the Sky: Turning Oppression into Opportunity for Women Worldwide. New York: Random, 2009. Print. Liu, Min. Migration, Prostitution, and Human Trafficking: The Voice of Chinese Women. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction, 2011. Print. Ma, Jianxiong. The Lahu Minority in Southwest China: A Response to Ethnic Marginalization on the Frontier. New York: Routledge, 2013. Print. Mann, Susan L. Gender and Sexuality in Modern Chinese History. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2011. Print. “Matchmaking in Modern China” [“http:// www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p01g5ckz”]. BBC. BBC, 12 Sept. 2013. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. . Obokata, Tom. “A Human Rights Framework to Address the Trafficking of Human Beings in the Greater Mekong Sub-region.” The Trade in Human Beings for Sex in Southeast Asia. Ed. Pierre Le Roux, Jean Beffie, and Gilles Beullier. N.p.: White Lotus, 2010. 32742. Print. Olga, Khazan. “A Fascinating Map of the Worst Countries for Modern Slavery.” Infographic. The Atlantic. Atlantic Monthly Group, 20 June 2013. Web. 17 Sept. 2013. . Samarasinghe, Vidyamali. Female Sex Trafficking in Asia: The Resilience of Patriarchy in a Changing World. N.p.: Routledge, 2007. Print. Shi, Lihong. “‘The Wife is the Boss’: SexRatio Imbalance and Young Women’s Empowerment in Rural Northeast China.”



Women and Gender in Contemporary Chinese Societies: Beyond Han Patriarchy. Ed. Shanshan Du and Ya-chen Chen. Lanham: Lexington, 2011. N. pag. Print. Shih, Chuan-kang. Quest for Harmony: The Moso Traditions of Sexual Union and Family Life. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2010. Print. Tiefenbrun, Susan, and Christie J. Edwards. “Gendercide and the Cultural Context of Sex Trafficking in China.” Fordham International Law Journal 32.3 (2008): 731-80. Print. United States. Department of State. The Trafficking in Persons (TIP) 2013. U.S. Department of State. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . Yunnan Province Women’s Federation. Yunnan Province, China: Situation of Trafficking in Children and Women: A Rapid Assessment. N.p.: ILO-IPEC, 2002. The Mekong Sub-Regional Project to Combat Trafficking in Children and Women. International Labour Organization. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. . Zhao, Jie. “Developing Yunnan’s Rural and Ethnic Minority Women: A Development Practitioner’s Self-Reflections.” Women, Gender and Rural Development in China. Ed. Tamara Jacka and Sally Sargeson. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2011. 172-90. Print. Zheng, Tiantian. “China: Sex Work and Human Trafficking (Part 1).” Fair Observer. Fair Observer, 19 Aug. 2013. Web. 27 Oct. 2013. .

Bibliography Donnelly, Jack. International Human Rights. 3rd ed. Boulder: Westview, 2003. Print. Fong, Vanessa L. Only Hope: Coming of Age under China’s One-Child Policy. Stanford: Stanford UP, 2004. Print. Hall, Andrew Thomas. “China’s One Child

Policy and Male Surplus as a Source of Demand for Sex Trafficking to China.” Diss. U of Arizona, 2010. Print. IPEC Task Team of Yunnan Provincial Statistics Bureau. Analysis Report of the Baseline Survey for the TICW Project Phase II in Yunnan Province. Bangkok: International Labour Office, 2005. Print. ILO Mekong Sub-regional Project to Combat Trafficking in Children and Women. Kent, Ann. China, the United Nations, and Human Rights: The Limits of Compliance. Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 1999. Print. Ko, Dorothy, and Wang Zheng, eds. Translating Feminisms in China. Malden: Blackwell, 2007. Print. Liu, Jiayin, and Shiwei William Guan. Personal interview. 14 Aug. 2013. Lofstedt, Petra, Shusheng Luo, and Annika Johansson. “Abortion Patterns and Reported Sex Ratios at Birth in Rural Yunnan, China.” Reproductive Health Matters 12.24 (2005): 86-95. JSTOR. Web. 15

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GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

ABSTRACTS PSYCHOLOGY

ANANTHARAMAN, AASHIKA

CHUA, SAMANTHA

Depression is a serious psychological disorder that has been recently increasing around the world. The two most common methods of treatment for this disorder in the western world are Cognitive Behavior Therapy and medication in the form of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors. The purpose of this investigation is to compare the two methods to assess whether one is more effective and suitable than the other, or whether they work best in combination.

This essay investigates the question:

Studies and experiments comparing the methods or assessing them individually have been explained and analyzed in order to come up with what the most suitable way of treating the disorder would be. The pros and cons of each method were displayed in different studies, and these different studies and Meta studies were compared to each other to assess the difference in results and therefore showed the grey area when determining the reliability of one piece of research over another with an opposing point of view. It was found that SSRI’s contain many risks and side effects and may only relieve the patient from symptoms rather than the cause. However, cognitive behavior therapy alone often doesn’t suffice in curing major depression, as the patient being depressed would be too undetermined to practice techniques taught in the therapy. It was therefore concluded that the two methods are likely to work best in unison; the medication in moderation to increase the motivation levels of the patient so that he or she may be more willing to practice and benefit fully from the therapy.

To what extent does Facebook affect adolescent self-esteem? The essay first briefly explores the phenomenon of Facebook and the definition of adolescence. This is then followed by views on self-esteem development during adolescence. The investigation then progresses into focusing on various studies, which explore the relationship between Facebook and self-esteem, touching on various theories relating to self-esteem in online social media. These theories include Objective Self Awareness theory, Selective Self Presentation and the idea of social comparison by users of Facebook. Most studies found that the Objective Self Awareness theory did not have an affect on self-esteem, as it was not demonstrated during Facebook use. Selective Self Presentation, on the other hand, demonstrated a positive effect on self-esteem through the use of Facebook. Additionally, the idea of social comparison while using Facebook was found to have a negative effect on self-esteem. The studies mentioned in the essay focus on a range of variables such as how Facebook is used (focusing on oneself versus comparing oneself to others) and the amount of time spent on Facebook. The conclusion drawn from the exploration throughout the essay is that there is a significant relationship, both a positive and a negative relationship, between Facebook and self-esteem. However, due to the difficultly establishing cause and effect, the conclusion may be affected by bidirectional ambiguity. It was therefore concluded that there is correlation between the ways Facebook is used and whether there is a positive or negative relationship.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 73

DANNE, JILL

FARUQ, AMIRA

HALASAN, VANESSA GEORGIA

Violence is a big part of our society today and it ranges from a shove, to murder. But what is aggravating this? We not only see violence on the street and on the news these days, but we watch violent movies and television series. However in the past decade, playing video games has been getting more and more popular, especially in children and teenagers. Every year we hear that there are shootings, and research is done trying to explain why these crimes are commited. However to what extent does violence in media and video games affect behavior and aggression in boys?

In 1983, the number of rearrests in 15 states in America was 62%, this already high value consistently increased for an entire decade. (Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS)) The increasing recidivism rate presents an urgent need to address failure of prisons in their approach.

This paper investigated the research question: To what extent is academic stress a determinant of suicidal behaviour among Korean adolescents?

To answer this question, research has been done on violence in media and video games. They show that they affect behavior and aggression in boys through many factors such as classical conditioning, rewarding, and creating neural pathways in the brain. Children who play violent video games become more aggressive and hostile to those around them. Many violent crimes and tragedies have hit schools for example the Columbine shooting, can be linked to teenagers who have been exposed to violence, and have been playing violent video games. However the other side of the argument is that video games and violence in media is not directly linked to children playing violent video games. Some even argue that violent video games are good for children as they improve vision, and handeye coordination. In conclusion, children should not be exposed to violent media, especially video games, as video games are interactive and the player is committing the act. There is proof that violent video games do make children aggressive, however long term effects are not 100% determined.

This essay will introduce the differences in punitive and rehabilitative prisons to question which ones approaches can better address recidivism rates. To do so, theories of why recidivism occurs and the contributing static factors of age, gender and race are explored along with the dynamic factors of educational attainment level, sentence duration, prison security and occupational opportunities. Within each, the approaches of prisons that best minimize the possibility of recidivating are identified. The researches of Chen and Shapiro, Drago et. Al are explained and evaluated, showing that high-security, typically punitive prisons, tend to increase recidivism rate. Lovell et. Al supports these findings, and adds that the aid in amalgamation back to society as rehabilitative prisons strive towards reduce recidivism. The positive benefits of education is explored in Steurer et. Al’s study, in which they show how inprison education programs can help decrease recidivism. Due to the great impacts of changes in prison polices, it is apparent that further research is required into this field before definitive conclusions and changes can be made. However, this paper argues that with the available findings, it seems that greater rehabilitative policies are required to achieve the lowest recidivism rate.

The extent to which academic stress is a determinant of suicidal behaviour among Korean adolescents was evaluated using published research and through understanding important cultural traditions. Researchers such as Teoro et al (2001), and Juon et al. (1994), conducted studies where the results suggest that academic stress, to a great extent, is a determinant of suicidal behaviour among Korean adolescents. However the Korea Institute for Health and Social Affairs’ conducted an opposing study in 1989 with results that suggest the biggest determinant of suicidal behaviour among Korean adolescents are the following sociodemographic factors: mother’s employment, and their parents marital instability, and the following psychological distress factors: hostility, depression, and anxiety. In addition, the majority of Korean educators stand strong in their view that it is not the Korean education system that causes stress, but rather it is the result of an individual’s lack of ability and skill in timemanagement. In conclusion, this paper cannot conclusively answer the question of the extent to which academic stress is a determinant of suicidal behaviour among Korean adolescent. However, as it uncovers the different risk factors of suicidal behaviour in Korean culture, it provides us with important guidelines and deeper insights into understanding suicidal behaviour.

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HUNTINGTON, SANNA

MOTIANI, MANVI

This essay investigates the research question: “To what extent are biological etiologies a sufficient explanation for schizophrenia?” Schizophrenia is a longterm, life altering brain disorder faced by approximately 24 million people worldwide which causes its victims to interpret reality abnormally. Treatments such as antipsychotic medication and therapy have provided relief, however a cure does not yet exist. This is partially due to the hindrance placed on medical advancements by the lack of understanding of its etiologies.

(Bradbury and Miller, 1985) and the finding that schizophrenia is significantly more prevalent in developing countries. (Jablensky et al, 1992) Combined environmental and biological causation was demonstrated by the discovery that certain environmental exposure to influenza has the ability to cause schizophrenic like biological abnormalities in the brain (Brown et al., 2004). Lastly, a degenerative explanation was investigated proposing that preexisting biological abnormalities are present at birth and lie dormant until stimulated.

It was necessary to start by investigating biological abnormalities linked to schizophrenia such as abnormalities in brain structure, faults in neurotransmission, and abnormalities in genetic inheritance, providing evidence that the heritability of schizophrenia is as high as 80 percent (Cardno and Gottesman, 2000), however the reliability of interpretations of brain scans and the ethical implications of genetic research arose. Alternative environmental factors were additionally examined, demonstrated by the finding that children born during the winter or spring in the northern hemisphere are 5 to 8 percent more like to develop schizophrenia

In conclusion factors such as abnormalities in brain structure, neurotransmission, and genetic inheritance, and season of birth, geography, influenza and exposure to trauma were all found to impact the onset of schizophrenia, suggesting that in the majority of cases, the cause of schizophrenia is the result of a combination of both biological and environmental factors, supporting the diathesis stress explanation.

Risk-taking is highly prevalent amongst adolescents. According to the National Vital Statistics System, Mortality, 48% of deaths in teenagers are unintentional injuries. To reduce this number, ensuring adolescents avoid as many accidental risks as possible becomes essential. To do this, the primary reasons for risk-taking must be considered. The scope of this investigation will explore the reasons for risk-taking under two broad categories: Biological and Nonbiological reasons. Under biological reasons, explanations for risk-taking related to brain structure, enzymes, evolution and puberty will be discussed by principally consulting the findings of Casey et al., Ernst et al., and Van Leijenhorst et al. Under non-biological reasons, explanations for risk-taking related to culture, peer influence and identity formation will be discussed by referring to findings of Bradford Brown, Laurence Steinberg and others. These are supported with relevant studies and theories. The Science of Adolescent Risk-Taking: Workshop Report is consulted for a summarized version of the biological and non-biological reasons, and pertinent academic journals are consulted for detailed accounts by the researchers themselves. In the evaluation section, the strengths and weaknesses of attributing risktaking to either biological or non-biological causes are debated and assessed. The conclusion states that holding either one of biological or non-biological grounds responsible for risk-taking will be fundamentally reductionist. Much of the empirical evidence collected lacks ecological validity and thus may not be valid in real life situations. A great number of empirical evidence, obtained from studies on humans, exists for the non-biological arguments. When compared to the larger proportion of theories for the biological arguments. Thus, it is concluded that though largely influenced by biological phenomena, non-biological phenomena cannot be ignored when attempting to explain the complex process of heightened risk-taking in adolescents.



PAUL, AURELIA

ROCHA ROCHA, JOSE

The purpose of this essay is to investigate the research question “Is adult neurogenesis responsible for the success of treatments for major depressive disorder?” (Neurogenesis is the creation of new neurons in the brain) This is a very relevant psychological question as major depressive disorder is the most prevalent mood disorder and affects millions of people worldwide.

The Essential Father: To What Extent Does Father’s Absence Compromise the Healthy Psychological Development of the Child?

Firstly, a brief explanation of the process of neurogenesis is given. Following on from this, the essay explores the history of the field. It is outlined that although it was first thought that adult mammalian neurogenesis did not occur, there was a turnaround in thinking, and the reasons for this are given. The essay then goes on to discuss the relationship between neurogenesis and mood disorders, in particular, major depressive disorder. Several studies in animals are examined. After this, treatment for major depressive disorder is described, with a focus on selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The link between SSRIs and neurogenesis is then explained, and questions such as “Is decreased neurogenesis the main biological cause of depression?” are asked. Next, alternative theories that explain the success of SSRIs are looked at, specifically the monoamine hypothesis, and it is argued that the neurogenesis hypothesis provides a more accurate explanation. The question “Is neurogenesis the main biological cause of depression?” is then answered using evidence from a study conducted by Barbara Vollmayr and FA Venn. Finally, the limitations of the experiments cited and the medical applications for the new knowledge acquired are discussed. I have concluded that I support the view that  neurogenesis causes depression, and this is why antidepressants work, because they cause neurogenesis. However, I also note that it is entirely possible that this theory will be disproved, as the proof for the neurogenesis hypothesis is by no means definitive.

One out of three children in America lives in biological father absent homes. Father’ absence has been related to poor psychological adjustment of the child as well as cognitive, social, and emotional problems. However, it has been suggested that it is not the lack of a father per se that undermines a child’s healthy development but rather indirect factors such as financial struggle and stigmatisation. With regards to psychological development, to what extent does the father’s absence compromise the healthy development of the child? This essay firstly explores the biological substrate of paternal behaviour. Evolutionary psychology, through parental investment theory, avails fatherhood by highlighting the evolutionary advantage presented by inclusion of the father into the familiar system. Additionally, physiological and neural differentiation of men and women during parenting suggests that there exists a complementary contribution

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that benefits the infant. Nevertheless, the high intra-species and cross-cultural variability documented overrides the biological substrate, suggesting effective adaptation of infants to bioecological factors. Secondly, father- child interactions are explored through Attachment Theory. Unlike mothers, paternal sensitivity is not related to the strength of the attachment. Recent studies have found that only fathers contribute as a ‘secure base of exploration’, where the child faces new challenges in his presence, developing a sense of confidence and self-worth. Finally, fatherless family systems are examined to contrast the child’s development with that in traditional families. Accordingly, father’s presence is neither related to gender development nor psychological adjustment. It is concluded that fathers’ contributions to child’s development are important; however, there is not enough evidence to claim these are indispensable for a healthy psychological development of the child.

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Extended Essays 2013/2014

SANCHEZ CHICO, ANA

SANCHO, DIEGO

ZAMBRANO, MIGUEL ANGEL

This essay investigates the research question: To what extent is the human being capable of altruism?

The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines the term ‘serial killer’ as a person who has committed more than 3 murders at different times of his life. To fit into this category, the killer requires a period of time between the murder called an emotional cooling-off period. Serial killers exist all around the world, however the majority are centered around western countries such as the US which has a total of 2088 serial killers (Aamodt, 2013). The concern raises from the mystery: how can a normal citizen turn into a serial killer? Are you born a serial killer or are you made? In this essay it will be investigated to what extent can biological factors be held responsible for the crimes of a serial killer?

The current research paper intends to respond to the question of how are the similarities in personality traits of monozygotic twins explained by heritable factors. The reason why monozygotic twins are the best mean to investigate the current topic, remains in their 100% shared DNA— in comparison of dizygotic twins who share only 50% -, which leads to assumptions of any difference being explained by environmental factors. Amongst many personality inventories or models, the BigFive Factors was the chosen one to measure personality traits because of being the most comprehensive model to assess them, developed after analysis and observations of the most recurrent factors in former models. (Goldberg, Lewis)

Different scientists and psychologists have developed diverse theories and models arriving at different conclusions regarding the existence of altruism. Four of the most important theories were categorized according to whether they defend a selfish explanation of the human behavior such as Trivers’, Cialdini’s and Piliavin’s models or if they criticize this approach, providing explanations for the existence of truly altruistic acts, Batson’s theory. The diverse theories and their limitations are analyzed and evaluated and an explanation of the different interpretations is provided with a necessity of distinguishing between evolutionary altruism, psychological altruism and egoism. The Reciprocal Altruism theory seems to define evolutionary rather than psychological altruism, interpreting the individual from a biological perspective. Furthermore, the Negative State Relief and the Arousal Cost-Reward Model appear to interpret the human being from an economic perspective in which the behavior is driven to maximize benefits and minimize costs. For the sake of clarity in this paper, their definition of altruism is named “selfish altruism” since it defends a selfish perspective and differs from Batson’s definition. In contrast, the Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis defines the conditions needed for an act to be truly altruistic providing a cognitive interpretation of the human being in which motives and ultimate goals are considered. Its definition of altruism in this paper is called “thoughtful altruism”. The conclusion is that human beings could indeed act altruistically but under a specific definition of altruism and interpretation of the human being. Therefore, it is important to understand these varied concepts as they play a major role when conducting different psychological research and might influence the subsequent conclusions.

Firstly this investigation will examine the role of biological factors, including genetics, difference brain structures and the lack of empathy in the killers. And finally alternative explanations will be acknowledged with examples including abusive childhoods, and other environmental factors can affect the person in order to become a serial killer. It is concluded that there is no only one actual explanation to how or why a person becomes a serial killer, however there are some interesting field in which more investigation could be done in order to be closer to find an explanation to how serial killers are created.

In order to try to achieve the purposes of this essay, and present different approaches to the argument, it was decided to divide it into two sections: “Similarities explained as genetic influences in several studies” (e.g. Shane et. al) and “Differences explained by environmental factors” (e.g. Veselka). As a conclusion, it was observed that even though the heritability correlation in most of the studies was significantly high— Veselka showed similarity in traits results twice as higher in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins-, the methodology of data collection (self-report questionnaires, in the majority of them) does not provide the necessary reliability in order to draw definite conclusions.



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GROUP 3– INDIVIDUALS AND SOCIETIES

SELECTED PSYCHOLOGY TO WHAT EXTENT DOES SOCIAL SUPPORT AFFECT THE SUCCESS RATE OF ALCOHOL TREATMENT PROGRAMS?

ONG, SU HAN

Introduction

Alcoholism and alcohol abuse have increasingly caused damage to many lives and individuals over the last few decades. The impact of this substance misuse has prompted researchers to construct various alcohol treatment programs, each with slightly varying approaches. There are three broad categories: biological, cognitive, and socially based approaches. This essay explores the components and success rates of various popular treatment programs and identifies the extent to which social support affects patients’ consequent abstinence to answer the following question: to what extent does social support affect the success rate of alcohol treatment programs?

From 2001 to 2005, 80,374 people in the United States died of alcohol-related causes. Thousands of lives have been affected and many more completely wrecked with an estimated 2,374,084 years of potential life eradicated through misuse (CDC ARDI Report). Alcohol abuse and alcoholism have found a place in our society and are becoming increasingly prominent as the years go by—a phenomenon that is taking place on a global scale. In the United Kingdom (Appendix A) alcohol consumption has steadily risen, and although it has dipped in recent years, the mortality rates remain high. Similarly, in Australia, consumption has not changed since 1994, remaining at a dangerous level (Appendix B). As of 2011, the average person aged 15 and above consumes 6.13 litres of alcohol each year (“Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health” pg. 4), with many resulting in declining health or death.

While many treatment programs enjoy relatively high success rates, social support has been shown to have a positive correlation with many therapies. Naltrexone and Disulfiram patients are more likely to sustain their drug routines; Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) and Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) patients benefit from additional motivation and selfefficacy; and Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT) programs use a supportive social network as a direct influence to their clients. Various studies from a wide range of researchers are all reviewed and correlated to find that having a supportive network will often increase the chances and duration of a patient continuing their abstinence. Further studies also offer insight about why this support seems crucial for a fully comprehensive program. Many patients find that positive networking can enhance both their motivation and self-efficacy, qualities that seem to have direct influence over a patient’s will to be abstinent. These studies thus suggest that social support plays a large role in the success rates of alcohol treatment programs, and that positive and encouraging networks are likely to increase the duration of a patient’s abstinence from alcohol.

Despite the relief, social acceptance or euphoria many claim to experience, there are serious consequences associated with the abuse of alcohol; yet despite being educated on such dangers and statistics, a shocking percentage of America’s population continue this over-consumption. Every year, 599,000 college students aged 18 to 24 are unintentionally injured due to alcohol influence, and 97,000 are subjected to sexual assault or date rape (“College Drinking”). This temptation lies in varying areas depending on both the personality and situation a given person may be found: many adolescents, for example, seek the sensory enhancement found while under the influence of alcohol, while others may use its depressive elements with a coping motive. (Lausanne) Criminal acts further escalate under the influence of alcohol, making it a direct factor contributing to statistics in illegal activity. In 1996, nearly 2 of 5.3 million convicts in the United States committed crimes under alcohol influence. As of 1998, 3 million

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violent crimes were committed annually under influence of alcohol, and two thirds of domestic violence were caused by substance abuse (Greenfeld). In addition to this, many accidents on the road due to drivers driving under influence (DUI) could also have been prevented through appropriate conduct. 32% of accidents resulting in death have involved either intoxicated drivers or pedestrians, suggesting that one third of fatal crashes could have been prevented if not for alcohol misuse. (Greenfeld) Alcohol also poses a very large threat to the drinking individual, and has long been linked to a multitude of health problems that often accumulate and manifest over time. It is the third largest risk factor for many diseases worldwide and severely compromises both social and biological health of the patient (“Alcohol”). Alcohol consumption raises the levels of triglycerides in the body (Mukamal and Rimm), thus increasing the likelihood of coronary heart disease, and has also been found to hold a directly proportional relationship with cancer. Perhaps most prominent is the effect of alcohol on the liver, where cirrhosis and other chronic liver diseases are strongly influenced by alcohol intake. (“Alcoholic Liver Disease..”) The liver is responsible for the breakdown of all toxic material in the body and receives the majority of the ethanol present in ingested alcohol. Through the ethanol is metabolised, it creates potentially dangerous by-products such as acetaldehyde. Under moderate conditions, the body is able to detoxify and purge itself of these toxins; however, when too much alcohol is consumed, the liver— and consequently the entire body—can be damaged. (Maher) Misuse of alcohol can be defined by a variety of ‘disorders’ that are all characterized by differing drinking patterns. According to the World Health Organisation, alcohol dependence or alcoholism is characterized by “… phenomena that develop after repeated alcohol use … that typically include a strong desire to consume, difficulties in controlling its use, persisting

in its use despite harmful consequences, a higher priority given to alcohol use… increased tolerance, and sometimes a physical withdrawal state,” (“Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health” pg.21) while alcohol abuse is less severe. Due to the qualitative nature of symptoms, diagnosis of alcoholism and alcohol abuse can be subjective and depend on the medical practitioner; the most common test for alcoholism is the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) (see Appendix C): a self-administered survey asking the patient about their alcohol use frequency. As is with most questionnaires, self reported data can be inaccurate and of questionable validity, and many chronic alcoholics may be unwilling to admit to their substance abuse and avoid seeking help. Herein lies the main problem in diagnosing alcoholism or alcohol abuse: by not admitting to their problem, it can be hard to both identify and resolve the issue. (Mary-Anne Enoch and Goldman)

alcohol and maintain their treatment program (Mutschler et al.). Although not the only outstanding factor in the success of rehabilitation programs, almost all treatments must incorporate the use of a community to strengthen the patients’ resolve to reach a favourable outcome. This research paper will examine the extent to which social support affects the success rate of alcohol treatment programs.

Many treatment programs have been offered to support those who suffer from alcoholism or alcohol abuse. These can be categorised into three broad categories: biologically based programs, cognition-based programs, and socially based programs. As their respective names suggest, each category encompasses a different approach to the same problem. While biologically based programs primarily employ the use of drugs and address the physical addiction to the substance, cognitive programs believe in the concept of ‘mind over matter’—by first concentrating on the underlying emotional problems, the physical reliance can be resolved. Socially based programs, on the other hand, rely on social support and the patient’s network of friends and family who are willing to help. While specific programs have found more success than others, there is often still heavy debate over the most effective approach to alcoholism. Certain patterns in success rates, however, can be found: social support, for example, plays an important role in encouraging patients to continue their abstinence of

Disulfiram

Biological Treatments One sector of rehabilitation programs rely primarily on drugs as remedies. The foundation of these programs is the belief that alcoholism is first and foremost a physical addiction: by manipulating the human body and either inhibiting or releasing hormones, we can reduce and even eradicate the need for alcohol. Two main medications are often prescribed: disulfiram and naltrexone (Williams).

Disulfiram, or bis(diethylthiocarbamoyl) disulfide, is a tablet used for aversion therapy. It inhibits the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase to prevent oxidization of alcohol’s acetaldehyde byproduct and causes levels of acetaldehyde in the blood to increase rapidly, subsequently resulting in an intense reaction whenever the user consumes alcoholic substances. (Broderick and Clark). The idea behind this is similar to that of classical conditioning: humans can be trained to react to certain stimuli by pairing something that has an automatic physiological reaction with something that initially does not, resulting in a conditioned response to the second stimuli (Fredholm). Aversion therapy builds on this theory and essentially ‘trains’ the patient to not consume alcohol by subjecting them to discomfort when they do. After several unpleasant episodes, typically four sessions of intense vomiting, the patient will ideally have been conditioned to avoid alcohol and the unpleasant aftermath.



Aversion therapy is very controversial, but positive correlations have been found between supervision and success rates: in comparison to groups without supervision and without the use of disulfiram, supervised groups consistently had reduced consumption and longer periods of abstinence (Brewer, Meyers, and Johnsen). In a study by Azrin et. al, 43 patients were randomly assigned one of three treatments, given five sessions on their programmes, and then interviewed and checked six months later. The three treatment programmes were: ‘traditional’ (individually responsible), ‘disulfiram assurance’ (clients and significant others both received training), and ‘behavioural therapy and disulfiram assurance’ (both behavioural therapy and disulfiram assurance were given). At the 6 month follow up, it was shown that those who received behavioural therapy were most successful in abstaining from alcohol, while those in the traditional programme were least successful. This implies that the social support of a significant other has a strong influence over whether the client continues taking disulfiram, and consequently their decisions in continuing their abstinence. However, it should also be noted that it was the combination of behavioural therapy, social support, and disulfiram that was the optimum treatment, suggesting that a mixture of all three approaches to alcoholism is the most effective.

Naltrexone Naltrexone is an opioid receptor antagonist: it reduces the craving for alcohol by blocking the typical pleasure senses caused by drinking, although its exact mechanisms are unknown. (Rounsaville, O’Malley, and O’Connor) By removing the satisfaction induced by alcohol and blocking the chemicals in the brain that react to environmental cues (Rodgers), pharmacotherapies like Naltrexone also remove incentive for the alcoholic to resume drinking. Through this method, Naltrexone is often also prescribed for heroin and other opiate addictions. In most cases, however,

it is recommended for them to be used only “as part of a more comprehensive treatment program involving medical, social, and psychological support,’ (DoHA 2007) possibly because patients must be psychologically primed and willing to take it regularly. For Naltrexone to be effective, the patient must be highly motivated, and social support has been shown to improve alcohol abstinence significantly (Tucker and Ritter). An important part of using this drug is that constant compliance to strict regimes is imperative to attain abstinence. Thus, it has been suggested that family support could boost adherence to drug schedules. A study by Dr G. K. Hulse and M. R. Basso on 300 heroin users taking naltrexone showed that the vigilance of supervision over the first 6-week period of treatment affected the status of the patient after 6 months. Those who had less supervision (3-4 days a week) were more likely to have continued taking heroin, while those who had more (6-7 days a week) were either continuing naltrexone faithfully, or were already drug-free. Although this study was originally on heroin, the importance of an attentive support frame can still be derived from its results, as it can boost both the motivation and compliance of the patient. In another study, 65 opiate-dependent individuals were treated with naltrexone and standard counselling/psychotherapy, with 25 of these individuals also receiving Multiple Family Therapy (MFT). (Anton et al.) MFT is a form of social support where multiple families come together, including the patient, to encourage the patients to continue abstaining from alcohol (Howe). Results of the study showed that those who were subject to both naltrexone and MFT continued the program and naltrexone regime longer. This suggests that support from other families can help a patient commit to their drug regime, and that social support from family members can strengthen the treatment program considerably.

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Cognitive Treatments For those who would rather avoid the use of heavy medication, cognition-based recovery programs focus on the emotional state and thought patterns of the patient instead of treating alcoholism as a disease. This sector contains programs that are based on the idea that thoughts and feelings affect our physiological state, which leads to different approaches to counselling. The two main cognition-based treatments that will be focused on are CognitiveBehavioural Therapy (CBT) and Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET).

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) does not technically exist as a single program, but is a wide umbrella term for a collection of therapies with similar approaches that follow the Cognitive Model of Emotional Response (“What Is Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy?”). This means that all CBT-inspired programs aim to change the way the patient thinks, replacing negative thoughts with more positive ones, and believing that this will subsequently alter the patient’s actions and/or behaviour. Studies have suggested that this theory holds validity, namely Schwartz’s study in 1997 that showed how psychological counseling can alter brain chemistry. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) patients were guided to substitute healthy thoughts for unhealthy thoughts whenever an obsessive urge emerged. After ten weeks of counselling, neuroimaging revealed that there were changes in their brain chemistry, in the area suspected to be linked with the disorder. Cognitive therapy, then, can influence patients not only in a psychological manner, but also in a visible physiological aspect as well. Although CBT is often applied to various disorders, alcoholism is often treated with a form of therapy called CognitiveBehavioural Coping Skills Training (CBST). CBST is a form of cognitive counselling where the patient is trained to improve their skills in coping with various issues in life,

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mostly stemming from what is identified as the antecedent. For example, if a patient turned to alcohol every time he was angry, the treatment would focus on coping with anger in an alternative, safe manner. Studies conducted as early as the 1970’s have shown that patients with alcoholism fare better in reducing their consumption when treated with CBST compared to those who aren’t (Chaney et al. 1978), presumably because they have learnt to face their daily issues and can continue applying this method in the following years of their life. CBST can also be used in conjunction with various other alcohol treatment methods; for example, it is often used as a supporting measure for those who are taking Naltrexone, or in conjunction with social support systems like Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). A foundation for CBST is often built on interpersonal and intrapersonal factors, and therefore a well-rounded treatment program involving both social and cognitive treatments is crucial. (Range and Marlatt) The ability to build a good social support network is often included as a ‘skill’ to be trained in, as “support from others often makes people feel more confident about their ability to cope with problems.” (Kadden) By enhancing social skills and creating a network to support the patient, the patient can gather help from his friends or family and employ the use of his newfound coping skills. However, this may not always be possible at later stages of an alcoholic’s life, where the influence of alcohol has damaged relationships beyond repair and alienated the patient. In cases like these where reconciliation is impossible, new networks can be created to still ensure social support.

Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET) is a brief approach to reducing alcohol consumption through encouragement and motivation. It strives to increase awareness of the negative consequences of excessive

drinking, and boosts the commitment a patient may have to their abstinence. In its early stages, it often includes Motivational Interviewing (MI), where an interviewer does not pass judgement or pressure the patient, and simply emphasises the need to understand the effects of drug misuse. MI is specifically tailored to increase the commitment of a patient and motivate them to seriously consider abstaining from alcohol. Those who have been through it have been shown to increase thoughtfulness, personal control and responsibility, as well as show less resistance throughout the subsequent treatment (Caan). Although MET focuses on the motivation and commitment of the patient in question, it often also uses a supporting network for further encouragement. This supporting network can come from a multitude of areas, including family, friends, and significant others. Often, these people will affect the mindset of the patient in significant ways. For example, in a study carried out by Manuel, Houck, and Moyers, patients were sat in MET sessions with a significant other and coded using a behavioural coding system. This coding system measured the language shared between the significant other and the patient, and found that certain categories of language/words could predict future drinking, while others may discourage the patient (Manuel, Houck, and Moyers) The quality of support given by each significant other can influence the likelihood of the patient resuming their drinking habits; therefore, to maximise the effectiveness of MET, it seems vital to have a favourable supportive network. The support given by family members also seems to be an essential part of a fully comprehensive alcohol treatment program. Studies have shown that familybased therapy, when used in conjunction with other therapies, can boost the effectiveness and abstinence of the patient considerably. In a study on substanceabusing adolescents, four conditions were tested: family-based therapy, individual CBT

(including MET), combined family therapy and individual CBT, and group intervention (informative sessions on substance abuse). At seven months, all conditions except individual CBT showed significant reduction in substance abuse. Moreover, at this stage, combined family therapy plus CBT was shown to be more effective than individual CBT. Individual CBT’s ineffectiveness may be caused by various difficulties; for example, altering the thought patterns of a patient may prove problematic without a network to encourage him or her. Alternatively, being unable to express their thoughts may also result in a decrease of self-efficacy and determination. This exhibits how support from the family can alter the overall improvement of the patient, and how important a supportive network may be.

Social Treatments Beyond drugs and cognitive counselling, the last major sector of alcohol treatment programs focuses on the patient’s interactions with society and building a supportive network. Peer pressure is often found as a catalyst for alcoholism, especially in new environments (e.g. freshmen in college) (Palmeri) and, according to the social identity theory, may stem from a desire to improve self image. The social identity theory, first proposed by Tajfel and Turner (Hornsey), suggests that groups we feel we are a part of are an important piece of our social identity and provide us with positive self esteem and self image. Therefore, peer pressure is likely to cause students to join their friends drinking in order to feel accepted and worthy. Support groups and associated treatment programs focus on reworking negative influences, like alcoholic friends, and finding encouragement for dealing with social situations.

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is by far the most well-known support network for alcoholism, but also one of the most controversial—while some may call it one



of the most effective and user friendly resources (Humphrey, 2003), others may quite blatantly disagree. According to their website, AA is “a fellowship of men and women who share their experience, strength and hope with each other that they may solve their common problem and help others to recover from alcoholism.” (“Alcoholics Anonymous”) Joining the group does not require any fee or religious faith; their focus is simply on staying abstinent, and helping others achieve the same outcome. The group also focuses on keeping the identity of their members anonymous, and does not force the patient to come to a session regularly to keep it voluntary. One of the main criticisms that AA has been faced with is that it is ‘too spiritual’, as it follows a 12-step program to recovery. These 12 steps include admitting powerlessness over alcohol, and accepting that “a power greater than ourselves could restore us to sanity.” (“12-Step Substance Abuse Recovery Programs”) These steps, however, are not compulsory for members to follow, and the spiritual aspect of the group may also help members in different ways. A study by John F. Kelly on 1,500 recovering alcoholics attending AA meetings shows how meeting attendance improved not only spirituality, but also a myriad of other important aspects in the patient that resulted in further abstinence, including: changing social networks, enhancing coping skills, increasing motivation and general well-being. (T., Buddy) Because attendance is not required or recorded, studies on the effectiveness of AA are decidedly skewed and few in number. There are, however, studies that show a correlation between the attendance to AA meetings and the abstinence of a patient. After 6 months of being discharged, followup data was collected on 900 patients. 73% of those who regularly attended AA meetings had retained their abstinence, compared to 33% of those who didn’t regularly attend. (Hoffmann, Harrison, and Belille) It is suggested through this data that there is a

correlation between the attendance of AA meetings, and the continued abstinence of a patient. Similarly, a study by Best et. al also found that attending AA meetings regularly correlated with better abstinence rates when compared to minimal or no attendance at all. (Best et. al) A social support network like Alcoholics Anonymous may be effective without other treatment programs, but it also works very effectively as a support treatment for other programs. Finney et. al’s study showed that patients who received some sort of formal treatment as well as attended AA meetings fared better than those who only attended AA meetings, or only received treatment. This support network factor from the Alcoholics Anonymous meetings may have helped the patient remain motivated to continue their treatment and abstinence faithfully. Because they are given the opportunity to both express frustrations and receive encouragement, patients may find it easier to alter their internal thought patterns (cognitive therapies) or continue taking their prescribed drugs when surrounded by positivity and understanding.

Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT) While Alcoholics Anonymous focuses primarily on a network of other abstaining patients, Community Reinforcement and Family Training (CRAFT) focuses on training the patient’s family to encourage their loved one to abstain from alcohol. CRAFT is non-confrontational; instead of demanding an alcoholic to seek treatment, it teaches the family to support them instead. Many family programs in alcohol treatment clinics refer families to AA or other similar support groups, most of which teach families that they are helpless. In contrast, CRAFT spreads the message that family and friends can in fact help, and so directly target the social support of the patient and use their influence to help them. (“CRAFT—An Alternative to Alcohol & Drug Intervention”).

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Although the aim of CRAFT is not to force the alcoholic into treatment, the rate of engagement of the patient in treatment programs is often quite high. When compared to families who have been referred to AA, or Al-Anon groups, those who follow CRAFT have consistently shown to be more effective. In a comparison between CRAFT, Al-Anon (AA), and the Johnson Intervention (a method where the family directly confronts the alcoholic and threatens them with consequences), CRAFT succeeded in engaging a significantly higher number of problem drinkers when compared to the other two methods. While only 13% of the AA condition engaged, and 23% of the Johnson intervention, 64% of CRAFT participants agreed to seek treatment for their problems. (Miller et. al) This notable influence of the support network suggests that patients who have a supportive family and more positive reinforcement are more likely to engage in treatment, while those who have been threatened by the Johnson Intervention are not.

Conclusion All three approaches to alcohol treatment programs have been met with success, but to greatly varying degrees. Although most programs have been seen to help the patient, a well-rounded and comprehensive program has consistently met with the most effective results. Social support seems to play a large factor in the programs that result in the most abstinence; often, a supporting network will help the patients continue their treatment programs and remain committed to remaining abstinent. While studies in the biological aspect have shown significant others influencing patients to continue their drug regime, cognitivebased studies see family and friends as a source of positive support and motivation, and socially-based studies show results of a network further supporting other treatment programs. Additional studies have compared various methods and found results supporting this—

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for example, Project MATCH aimed to find ways to match people with their best suited treatment. (“Project MATCH”) It compared three kinds of treatment: 12-step Facilitation Therapy (similar to AA), CognitiveBehavioural Therapy (CBT), and Motivational Enhancement Therapy (MET); and although the actual study focused on matching treatments with patients, results also pointed at newer discoveries. In the study, each of the 806 patients was randomly assigned and rated on specific qualities. Three years later there was a follow-up. Of the 21 qualities that were rated, there were two that strongly predicted the patients’ abstinence—their readiness to change, and their self-efficacy. (Toft) These results offer insight to the reason why social support is such an important part of an effective treatment program; while other aspects may influence the body, a network of friends and family will influence a patient’s motivation to change, and their belief in their own abilities to do so. Affiliation with a social support network, like AA, work well in unison with other programs because of their tendency to increase and maintain both these essential qualities. (Morgenstern et al.) Although not always substantially effective by itself as a treatment, social support greatly enhances both drug-based and cognitive therapies when used in conjunction with them correctly, and seems to play a decidedly large role in the success rate of all alcohol treatment programs. Further research could compare the social support given by AA members and the support of family and friends, or delve into the possible reconciliation methods between patients alienated from prior relationships.

Appendices

Appendix C: Sample Audit Test

Appendix A: Alcohol Consumption and Mortality in the UK

Figure 3: Sample AUDIT Test

Figure 1: Graph of Per Capita Alcohol Consumption and Alcohol-related Mortalities in the UK

Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) Please circle the answer that is correct for you. 1. How often do you have a drink containing alcohol? • Never • Monthly or less • Two to four times a month

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week

2. How many drinks containing alcohol do you have on a typical day when you are drinking? • 1 or 2 • 3 or 4 • 5 or 6

Source: (Morris)

Appendix B: Per Capita Consumption of Beer, Wine, and Spirits, and Total Consumption in the United States from 1960 to 1998 Figure 2: Per Capita Consumption of Beer, Wine, Spirits and Total Alcohol Consumption in the United States from 1960 to 1998

• 7 to 9 • 10 or more

3. How often do you have six or more drinks on one occasion? • Never • Less than monthly • Monthly

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week

4. How often during the last year have you found that you were not able to stop drinking once you had started? • Never • Less than monthly • Monthly

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week

5. How often during the last year have you failed to do what was normally expected from you because of drinking? • Never • Less than monthly • Monthly

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week

6. How often during the last year have you needed a first drink in the morning to get yourself going after a heavy drinking session?

Source: (Greenfield and Kerr)

• Never • Less than monthly • Monthly

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week

7. How often during the last year have you had a feeling of guilt or remorse after drinking? • Never • Less than monthly • Monthly

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week

8. How often during the last year have you been unable to remember what happened the night before because you had been drinking? • Never • Less than monthly • Monthly

• Two to three times per week • Four or more times per week



9. Have you or someone else been injured as a result of your drinking? • No • Yes, but not in the last year

• Yes, during the last year

10. Has a relative or friend, or a doctor or other health worker, been concerned about your drinking or suggested you cut down? • No • Yes, but not in the last year

• Yes, during the last year

Source: (NIAAA Publications)

References “12-Step Substance Abuse Recovery Programs.” Recovery.org. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. “Alcohol.” World Health Organization: WHO. Feb. 2011. Web. 8 May 2013. “Alcoholic Liver Disease—Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment of Alcoholic Liver Disease.” The New York Times. 4 Nov. 2010. Web. 8 May 2013. “Alcoholics Anonymous.” Alcoholics Anonymous. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. Anton, Raymond F. et al. “Multiple Family Therapy and Naltrexone in the Treatment of Opiate Dependence.” Science Direct. Sept. 1981. Web. 11 Aug. 2013. Azrin, N.H. et al. “Alcoholism Treatment by Disulfiram and Community Reinforcement Therapy.” Robert J. Meyers, Ph.D. 1982. Web. 16 June 2013. Best, D. et al. “Is attendance at alcoholics anonymous meetings after inpatient treatment related to improved outcomes? A 6-month follow-up study.” Journal of Alcohol and Alcoholism, 38, 421-426. Brewer, Colin, Robert J. Meyers, and Jon Johnsen. “Does Disulfiram Help to Prevent Relapse in Alcohol Abuse.pdf.” Robert J. Meyers, Ph.D. 2000. Web. 14 May 2013. Broderick, Eric B., and H. Westley Clark. “Incorporating Alcohol Pharmacotherapies Into Medical Practice: Chapter 3 – Disulfiram.” National Center for Biotechnology Information: NCBI. Web. 14 May 2013.

Caan, Woody, and Belleroche J. De. Drink, Drugs and Dependence: From Science to Clinical Practice. London: Routledge, 2002. Print. “CDC–ARDI–Report–Alcohol-Attributable Deaths, US, By Sex, Excessive Use.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Web. 4 May 2013. Chaney, EF., O’Leary, M.R, and Marlatt, G.A. Skill training with alcoholics. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Print. “College Drinking.” National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Web. 5 May 2013. “CRAFT – An Alternative to Alcohol & Drug Intervention.” Practical Recovery. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. DoHA 2007, Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA). National pharmacotherapy policy for people dependent on opioids 2007. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia. Enoch, Mary-Anne, and David Goldman. “Problem Drinking and Alcoholism: Diagnosis and Treatment.” American Academy of Family Physicians. 1 Feb. 2002. Web. 8 May 2013. Finney, J.W. et al. (2000). Long-term outcomes of alcohol use disorders: Comparing untreated individuals with those in alcoholics anonymous and formal treatment. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 529-548. Fredholm, Lotta. “Pavlov’s Dog.” Nobelprize. org. 15 May 2001. Web. 14 May 2013. Freeman, David. “Health Risks of Alcohol: 12 Health Problems Associated with Chronic Heavy Drinking.” WebMD. Web. 8 May 2013. Fuller, RK et al. “Disulfiram Treatment of Alcoholism. A Veterans Administration Cooperative Study.” National Center for Biotechnology Information: NCBI. 19 Sept. 1986. Web. 14 May 2013. “Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health.” World Health Organization: WHO. 2011. Web. 5 May 2013.

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Greenfeld, Lawrence A. “Alcohol and Crime.” U.S. Department of Justice. 28 Apr. 1998. Web. 5 May 2013. Greenfield, Thomas K., and William C Kerr. “Tracking Alcohol Consumption Over Time.” National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Dec. 2003. Web. 5 May 2013. Hoffmann, NG, PA Harrison, and CA Belille. “Alcoholics Anonymous after Treatment: Attendance and Abstinence.” National Center for Biotechnology Information: NCBI. Apr. 1983. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. Hornsey, Matthew J. “Social Identity Theory and Self-categorization Theory: A Historical Review.” University of Queensland. Web. 8 May 2013. Howe, John. “Multiple-Family Therapy.” Multiple Family Group Therapy. 1994. Web. 11 Aug. 2013. Hulse, G. K., and M. R. Basso. “The Association Between Naltrexone Compliance and Daily Supervision.” Wiley Online LIbrary. 29 May 2009. Web. 11 Aug. 2013. Humphreys, K. (2003). Circles of recovery: Self-help organizations for alcoholism. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Print. Kadden, Ronald M. “Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Substance Dependence.” Behavioral Health Recovery Management. 2002. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. Lausanne, Emmanuel Kuntsche. “Tell Me … Why Do You Drink?: A Study of Drinking Motives in Adolescence.” Swiss Institute for the Prevention of Alcohol and Drug Problems. 2007. Web. 8 May 2013. Longeabaugh, Richard, and Jon Morgenstern. “Cognitive-Behavioral Coping-Skills Therapy for Alcohol Dependence.” NIAAA: National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. 1999. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. Maher, Jacquelyn J. “Exploring Alcohol’s Effects on Liver Function.” National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Web. 8 May 2013.

84 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Manuel, JK, JM Houck, and TB Moyers. “The Impact of Significant Others in Motivational Enhancement Therapy: Findings from Project MATCH.” SafetyLit. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. Miller, W.R, Meyers, R.J., and Tonigan, J. (1999). Engaging the unmotivated in treatment for alcohol problems: A comparison of three strategies for intervention through family members. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 67, 688-697. Morgenstern, J et al. “Affiliation with Alcoholics Anonymous after Treatment.” National Center for Biotechnology Information: NCBI. October1997. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Morris, James. “Falls in Alcohol Consumption but Longer Term Trend and Impact Not Clear – Alcohol Policy UK.” Alcohol Policy UK. 27 Oct. 2009. Web. 5 May 2013. Mukamal, Kenneth J., and Eric B. Rimm. “Alcohol’s Effects on the Risk for Coronary Heart Disease.” National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Web. 8 May 2013. Mutschler, J. et al. “Functional Social Support Within a M … [Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2013].” US National Library of Medicine: National Institutes of Health. Jan. 2013. Web. 8 May 2013. “Naltrexone Research.” Naltrexone Research. 16 Mar. 2010. Web. 17 June 2013. “NIAAA Publications.” NIAAA Publications. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, n.d. Web. 12 Sept. 2013. Palmeri, Josephine M. “Peer Pressure and Alcohol Use Amongst College Students.” NYU Steinhardt: Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development. Web. 8 May 2013. “Project MATCH.” University of Connecticut Health Center. 1993. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Range, Bernard P., and G. Alan Marlatt. “Cognitive-behavioural Therapy for Alcohol

and Drug Use Disorders.” SciELO Brazil: Scientific Electronic Library Online. 2008. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. Rodgers, Carly. “How Is Naltrexone Used to Treat Alcoholism?” Helium: Where Knowledge Rules. 27 June 2008. Web. 11 Aug. 2013. Rounsaville, B.J., S. O’Malley, and P. O’Connor. “NIAAA Publications: Naltrexone FAQs.” NIAAA: National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. Web. 17 June 2013. T., Buddy. “Study Shows How A.A. Is Effective.” About.com. 13 Jan. 2011. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. Toft, Doug. “Recent Research Offers Compelling Support for the Effectiveness of Twelve Step-based Treatment.” Hazelden. 2000. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Tucker, Thamizan K., and Alison J. Ritter. “Naltrexone in the Treatment of Heroin Dependence.” Wiley Online Library. 29 May 2009. Web. 11 Aug. 2013. Waldron, HB, N Slesnick, and JL Brody. “Family Based Therapy Plus Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) Was Better Than CBT Alone or Family Therapy Alone for Reducing Adolescent Drug Abuse.” Evidencebased Mental Health: BMJ. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. “What Is Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy?” NACBT Online Headquarters; National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists. 5 Apr. 2005. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. Williams, Steven H. “Medications for Treating Alcohol Dependence.” American Academy of Family Physicians. 1 Nov. 2005. Web. 14 May 2013.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 85

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

ABSTRACTS BIOLOGY

AHMED, ZAHRA Research question: How effective are the antimicrobial properties of Asian natural ingredients, used for cooking, compared to the active ingredient, benzoyl peroxide, found in many topical acne medications, on Micrococcus Luteus, measured by the zone of inhibition? Acne vulgaris is a common skin condition around the world. They appear as small bumps under the skin, often in the form of whiteheads, black heads or papules, which is a red bump. The particular bacterium that grows on the dermis and causes acne vulgaris is called Propionibacterium Granulosum. This is a gram positive, anaerobic bacterium and is a normal constituent of the skin to keep away other harmful bacteria, but when excessive amounts of this grows on the skin due to excess sebum and dead skin cells, it alters the composition of oil in the skin and causes irritation, which then leads to acne vulgaris. (“What Causes Acne”). There are different ways to treat acne, one of which is the topical method, putting something on top of the skin, around the area in which the acne vulgaris is occurring. What we use topically are medication found at over-the-counter drug stores, or more traditionally to Indian culture, herbs and

other natural ingredients used for cooking. In this essay, the antimicrobial effect of natural cooking ingredients, such as Indian mustard oil, neem oil and turmeric will be investigated against the antimicrobial effects of the common active ingredient in overthe-counter medications, benzoyl peroxide. This will be done using the aseptic method on agar plates of Micrococcus Luteus, the bacteria used in place of Propionibacterium Granulosum. The zones of inhibition would be measured. As expected, the results of the experiment showed that the natural ingredients of cooking were not as effective in fighting bacteria as benzoyl peroxide, but the zones of inhibition of turmeric showed no significant statistical difference with the zones of inhibition of benzoyl peroxide 5%. This shows that although it may not be as effective, natural ingredients can still make for a good alternative.

86 Extended Essays 2013/2014

ANAND, ANGELENE SHREYA

AWALA, AMALIA

CHEAH, LILYANNE

The experiment was carried out to show how does an increase in concentrations (%) of ‘Ghari’ detergent in a fixed volume of 20 cm3 of water affect the percentage difference in shoot growth of Brassica nigra (Black mustard) seeds after 6 days. The experiment simulated the pollution from detergents found in the Ganges and its effect on the agriculture located alongside the river.

The research question to this Extended Essay is “Which is the most effective natural preservative between vegetable oil, sugar, salt, vinegar and honey as observed on their inhibition zone on the Bacterium Escherichia coli?” this essay will explore experiments and results done from these natural preservatives over a period of time on the bacterium E.coli.

Plants that are red in color are generally known to grow in areas of low light intensity. The red coloring comes mostly from accessory pigments, which absorb wavelengths of light that are not readily absorbed by chlorophyll in high amounts. Unlike chlorophyll, accessory pigments do not directly photosynthesize. Instead, they direct the harnessed light energy to the chlorophyll, which then converts this energy into a food source for the plant.

The experiment was carried out by first placing 1.50g of cotton in petri dishes and then adding different concentrations of Ghari solution to each one. Next, 8 Brassica nigra (Black mustard) seeds were placed evenly in each petri dish, these were left for 6 days to grow. After 6 days the seeds were collected and measured for the percentage difference in length before and after 6 days, this was carried out in each of the 14 trials. The experiment showed that with an increase in concentration of the detergent solution, there was a decrease in percentage difference of the growth of the shoots. Even though currently, in comparison to other pollutants found in the river, the percent of detergent pollution is low, the results show that if the amount of detergent does increase even a little, there would be a detrimental impact on the plants due to the toxic chemical found in the detergents.

This was investigated using the Kirby-Bauer method. The natural preservatives were made into concentrations of 1:1 ratios with water to standardize all of them, expect vegetable oil because of its hydrophobic properties. Filter paper disks were then soaked in these solutions and placed accurately on bacteria treated agar plates over a period of 48 hours. Each preservative had a total of 20 trials and a control trial was also carried out to compare the results to. Results were collected and analyzed after a period of 48 hours. The average of each preservative was taken to increase accuracy of results. From that a Bar graph was formed using standard deviation error bars. Results found that vinegar had the highest average zone of inhibition with 2.23+/-0.5cm and sugar the least with 0.65+/-0.5cm. Honey did not have a zone of inhibition thus its average was 0.00+/-0.5cm. The control as expected had not caused an inhibition zone on the bacterium as well. Further data analysis was done using the T test and it was found that the differences between the results were significant and not due to chance. This Extended Essay concluded that vinegar was the most effective and best natural preservative amongst the preservatives that were investigated on, followed by Vegetable oil, salt, sugar and honey was the least effective natural preservative.

The scope of this study covers the plant species Solenostemon scutellarioides, a common houseplant that grows indoors or in shaded areas. The objective of the experiment was to investigate whether the distance between the leaf and the apex of its stem affected the concentration of red accessory pigments in the leaf. This was to see if shade or low light intensity influences the concentration of red pigments in the leaves. In the experiment, the pigments from the leaf were extracted and the absorbencies of the solutions were measured using a colorimeter. The absorbency of the pigment extract relates directly to the concentration of red accessory pigments present in the leaves. It was found that there was a correlation between the distance from the leaf and the apex of its stem and the absorbency of the pigment extract. As distance increased and amount of light the leaf received decreased, the absorbency and therefore the concentration of red accessory pigments increased. Overall, the fit of the data to a positive linear regression and the calculation of the correlation coefficient showed that the relationship between the two variables was moderately significant, supporting the hypothesis that as the distance between the leaf and the apex of its stem increased, the concentration of red pigmentation in the leaves also increased.



CHEW, RYAN

DIONG, SOPHIE GERALDINE

The essay investigates the concentrations that different brands of domestic antibacterial soaps become more effective at inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli under experimental conditions.

Even though 60% of the world’s population lives in Asia1 where rice is a staple, the nutritional importance of its rinsed water is often overlooked. Traditionally, in Asia, rice is rinsed thoroughly in water before being drained causing wastage of water, when freshwater sources are fast depleting. In fact in 1995, the World Bank Vice President even said that ‘the wars of the next century will be fought over water.’2 Hence, the ability to reduce waste while increasing yield is a problem faced by today’s world. This essay will therefore examine the research question, Does using different types of water used to wash different grains improve the average height of the plant, and width of the leaves of the Vigna radiata compared to using distilled or tap water?

Performing an experiment in the field of microbiology on the effect of both different brands of anti-bacterial soaps and different concentrations of soaps in solution on the inhibition of Escherichia coli growth. Conducting research through the disc-agar diffusion method, wherein filter-paper discs infused in anti-bacterial soaps at varying concentration solutions are placed on agar plates cultivated with a bacterial lawn of Escherichia coli are allowed to slowly diffuse into the agar. This results in the formation of a zone of inhibition, a clear area surround the filter-paper disc where no bacteria can survive, which can be measured in order to quantify the effect of the anti-bacterial soap solution. A two-way Analysis of Variance test (ANOVA) is then used to statistically calculate the efficacy of the brands of anti-bacterial soaps and the efficacy of the varying concentrations of soaps. The results of the experiment show that, different brands of domestic anti-bacterial soap do not have a greater effectiveness over each other, however, the concentration of soap in solution affects the inhibition of bacterial growth, yet, not at a level significant enough to prevent antibiotic resistance from developing. Furthermore, the variance test indicates that there is no significant difference between the sets of data. Therefore, domestic anti-bacterial soaps are not effective at inhibiting the growth of Escherichia coli under experimental conditions.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 87

average length of stem and width of leaves of the plants of the Vigna radiata, a plant that grows easily. The length and width are good indicators of growth and health of the plant. The amount of nutrients present in the solutions was obtained using an EC meter in the second experiment. It helps provide evidence for the trends shown in experiment 1. In conclusion, the long-grained brown rice water gave the highest yield as it contained the most amounts of nutrients. This was followed by tap water which contained a few essential minerals, then distilled water and, finally, by the long-grained and shortgrained white rice because the excess starch present in the washed water of these rice caused exosmosis3 in the Vigna radiata.

First, the 3 most popular types of rice consumed were determined through a survey. Then, I conducted an experiment wherein grain-washed water, distilled water or tap water were used to determine the effect of the different solutions on the

Brandon, John J. “7 Billion and Counting.” In Asia, The Asia Foundation. N.p., 2 Nov. 2011. Web. 15 Aug. 2013.

1

2

Clark, Josh. “Exactly What Happens If We Run out of Water?” HowStuffWorks. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 Aug. 2013.

Exosmosis: osmosis toward the outside of a cell

3

“Exosmosis.” Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. 15 Aug. 2013.

88 Extended Essays 2013/2014

EGHAN, DAVID CLAUDE

LIAN, JIA WEI

LIM, ZI XIN

This experiment investigates the effects of initial soil temperature on the average and hence percentage of Kale seeds that germinate after 120 hours. The research question is: “what will be the effect of pretreating soil with different temperature (100C, 150C, 200C, 25oC, 30oC, 350C, 400C, 450C and 500C) on the percentage (measured in %) of Kale seeds that germinate after 120 hours?”

An organism’s locomotory movement in response to light is known as phototaxis. (Martin) The moth is one of the many nocturnal insects that display positive phototaxis to light (Pollick) and they are classified under the class Insecta in the second largest order Lepidoptera. The general term Lepidoptera is used in relation to both moths and butterflies, as there is no specific classification given separately to both of the two different sub-orders. Most Lepidopterans use two non-standard divisions, Rhopalocera and Heterocera in an effort to create a distinction between butterflies and moths. (“Comparison of Butterflies and Moths”) To avoid confusion, I shall thus use the nomenclature Heterocera in reference to moths. I conducted an experiment to investigate the research question: how varying the wavelength of light affect the number of Lepidoptera (Heterocera) attracted over a time period of eight hours?

Isothiocyanate is a major chemical compound found in the Brassicaceae family, which includes the wasabi plant and the horseradish plant1. Japanese believe that by grating the wasabi rhizomes and eating the paste along with raw fish, bacteria would be eradicated.

In the experiment, the sandy loam soil is pretreated with temperatures of 100C, 150C, 200C, 25oC, 30oC, 350C, 400C, 450C and 500C. 2400 Kale seeds are used in total, with 300 seeds per temperature and 60 seeds per trial. The seeds are sown in the pretreated soils in beakers and the setup is left in the laboratory at the same location for 120 hours and from that, the average and hence the percentage of Kale seeds that germinate with each temperature is obtained and compared to see which produced the highest percentage of germination. From the data obtained from the experiment, it could be concluded that increasing the initial soil temperature for the germination of Kale seeds above 100C significantly reduces the percentage of Kale seeds that germinate in 120 hours (despite a few anomalous results). It was therefore deduced from the data obtained from the experiment that with an increase in the general temperature of the world, there would soon be the time where growing unmodified Chinese kale seeds will be difficult in a lot of areas where the temperature increase is most severe, and this could affect the survival of the unmodified species.

To attract and capture the moths with them being unharmed involved me constructing my own moth traps based on effective designs used by lepidopterists. The wavelengths of the light were then varied using light bulbs that had different coloured filters and these were measured using a spectrophotometer. Five light traps were set up, 5 meters away from one another, and turned on from 11pm at night till 7am the next morning. The catch would be then inspected at 7am and the number of Heterocera caught was recorded. It was observed from this experiment that Heterocera were highly attracted to the blue coloured light bulb because it had the lowest average wavelength of 474.2 nm. This is because the lowest wavelength was closest to the UV region to which Heterocera is known to be attracted to. However, the cause of this attraction could not be determined.

The objective of this experiment would be to find out what concentrations of test solutions made from both commercially available wasabi powder and fresh wasabi paste would be most effective in inhibiting bacteria growth, or even if it is even effective at all. Hence the research question is: How does different concentrations of test solutions made from both commercially available wasabi powder and fresh wasabi paste affect the growth of the bacterium Escherichia coli cultivated in a sterile agar plate at 37 °C for 48 hours? Data was collected by measuring the zone of inhibition in the agar plates that contained both filter paper discs or lumps soaked in both different concentrations of horseradish solutions and wasabi solutions prepared. 2 graphs is then plotted to see the relationship between the percentage of horseradish solution and the zone of inhibition, and the relationship between the percentage of wasabi solution and the zone of inhibition. It was indicated that 76% concentration horseradish solution is most effective in inhibiting bacterial growth compared to the concentrations 19%, 38%, and 57%; while 70% concentration wasabi solution is the maximum tolerance threshold of Escherichia coli compared to 0%, 25%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75% and 100% wasabi solutions.



MENESTROT GONZALEZOREJAS, CLARA This essay investigates the question: is color preference in twins between the ages of 10 to 18 genetically or environmentally affected? To answer this question the difference between dizygotic twins, commonly referred to as fraternal twins, and monozygotic twins, commonly referred to as identical twins needs to be understood. Monozygotic twins have 100% same DNA, whereas fraternal twins are genetically no more similar than siblings as they develop from two different eggs, fertilized by two different sperms. If color preference were genetically affected, the color preferences in monozygotic twins would be the same, and if not then they would be completely different. I contacted twin societies, schools, parenting groups and I was able to obtain 20 pairs of twins (10 pairs of monozygotic and 10 pairs of dizygotic twins). I met with them to keep some variables controlled and I asked them each individually amongst other questions to rank the seven color samples from most aesthetically pleasing to least aesthetically pleasing. Prior to the experiment each color was given a number, which allowed me to obtain a rank of color preference for each individual twin. This rank was then processed using the Spearman’s rank correlation co-efficient, which allowed the data that I collected to become more significant. According to my results I can conclude that color preference is environmentally affected. However, the limited size of my sample and the large standard deviation in my results reduces the reliability of my conclusion. Furthermore, my results although reinforced by a study on color preference in humans are not fully supported seeing as no other scientific study on twins related to color preference has been undertaken.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 89

MOK, TIMOTHY Mouthwash products are known to kill bacteria in the mouth, and keep plaque from building up. It targets gram positive and gram negative bacteria by using four main active ingredients: menthol, thymol, methyl salicylate and eucalyptol. In combination, these 4 chemicals create an antiseptic effect, inhibiting the growth of microorganisms in the mouth. This experiment compared Listerine Cool Mint (LCM) to some of its ingredients—both active and non-active— in the effectiveness of killing germs. The active ingredients were menthol and eucalyptus. The non-active ingredient was alcohol. Escherichia Coli was the model used to represent the everyday germs that accumulate in our mouths. The main objective of the research was: How does the Listerine Cool Mint product compare to ethanol, eucalyptol and menthol in its effectiveness in killing the gram negative bacteria Escherichia Coli—a model used to represent bacteria in the mouth— under laboratory conditions?

oil, pure peppermint oil, and the exact concentrations of each of those ingredients found in the LCM product. Quantitative data was collected, so comparisons can be made. The results gathered imply that LCM is still better in killing bacteria than its counterpart ingredients individually, however, it was not the best. Pure eucalyptus oil was shown to be best, pure peppermint oil was next and then LCM. Statistics show that there was no significant difference between LCM and Eucalyptus in right concentration (i.r.c) and LCM and Menthol i.r.c. This does not conclusively prove that LCM is better nor if it’s same, because gram negative bacteria was only tested, and human mouths do not exclusively carry gram negative bacteria.

During the experiment process peppermint oil was used as a substitute for menthol1, eucalyptus oil for eucalyptus2 3, and ethanol for alcohol. 6 independent variables were set up: LCM product, pure eucalyptus

“Peppermint Essential Oil Profile, Benefits and Uses.”

1

“Eucalyptus oil (E. globulus Labillardiere, E. fructicetorum F. Von Mueller, E. smithii R.T. Baker).”

2

“1.8-Cineole (Eucalyptol) – China 1.8-Cineole, Eucalyptol.”

3

90 Extended Essays 2013/2014

PATEL, NIKITA

STERCKX, MIRA

To study the differences between Ayurveda and the conventional treatment of disease, the research question was extrapolated as “Do the aqueous extracts of the Ayurvedic herb Curcuma longa inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli and do they show similar antimicrobial effects with that of the antibiotic, Tetracycline?”

Research title:

The bacterial cultures were inoculated in a nutrient broth prior to introducing the bacteria to the Petri dishes using micropipettes. The aqueous extracts of Curcuma longa were prepared by pulverizing the fresh rhizomes in a blender before filtering the viscous liquid through a filter paper. The filtrate was heated until a thick paste was formed and serially diluted to make different concentrations of the extract, in which the filter discs were soaked. The filter discs were dispensed onto the spread of bacteria in each Petri dish, along with the Tetracycline antibiotic discs. The agar plates were incubated for twenty-four hours at 37°C and the zone of inhibition around each filter disc were measured with a ruler. The data collected was analyzed using a two-tailed t-test at the fourteenth degree of freedom. The comparison of the t-values between the turmeric extracts and control resulted in a greater value than the table value at the fourteenth degree of freedom. The hypothesis was accepted that extracts of turmeric inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli. The comparison of the t-values between the turmeric extracts and Tetracycline resulted in a greater value than the table value at the fourteenth degree of freedom. The hypothesis was accepted that there is a significant difference in the antimicrobial activity between the turmeric extracts and Tetracycline. The study indicates that the aqueous extracts of Curcuma longa inhibit the growth of Escherichia coli. However, the effect size was small in comparison to that of Tetracycline.

The effectiveness of branded mouthwash compared to Traditional methods

Research question: Is branded mouthwash more effective compared to more Traditional Methods such as ethanol, vinegar, ammonia and salt water against the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia Coli as a model for Fusobacterium found in the mouth Mouthwash is one of the biggest products in promoting oral hygiene, but with so many products on the market it can be hard to distinguish which work and which don’t. Before mouthwashes were commercialized, traditional mouthwashes also existed which also were said to fulfill the goal of reducing bacteria in the mouth. This essay will focus on which commercial mouthwash and which traditional mouthwash is the best at inhibiting the bacteria Escherichia Coli, and in doing so will discover if traditional or commercial mouthwash is more effective. The aseptic technique was used as a method in doing the experiment for this extended essay. The zone of inhibition will measure which mouthwash is the

best at inhibiting bacteria. Disks with 9 different mouthwashes will be tested on the agar plates and then left to incubate for 48 hours. By taking the average of each zone of inhibition and grouping them into commercial vs. traditional mouthwashes, I was able to answer my research question. After this, the t-test was used to determine that there was a significant difference in the commercial and traditional mouthwash efficiency. I concluded that out of the traditional mouthwashes, apple cider vinegar was the most effective, out of the commercial mouthwashes, listerine was the most effective but apple cider vinegar was more effective than listerine so the traditional was more effective than the commercial. However, apple cider vinegar has an acidic pH that can damage tooth enamel, and listerine contains alcohol which studies have shown to cause oral cancer. Even though they are the best mouthwashes, they also have harmful effects, which means there is a compromise to effectiveness and health.



SATRYO, EUGENE

VIJAYVARGIYA, HERSH

Ants are a common household pest which are commonly killed by the means of pesticide. The pesticides used are usually dangerous poisons, which can hurt other living beings inside the household. With common pesticides such as poison, which is dangerous to others and the environment, are used to eliminate household pests, in this case, ants, this Extended Essay proposes an alternative in the form of repelling ants from households using d-Limonene which are extracted from citrus peels. D-Limonene works by masking the pheromone trail which are laid down by ants to guide other ants to the site where they found the food. D-Limonene is a environmentally safe pesticide but it’s pesticidal properties will not be discussed. Instead by repelling them away using d-Limonene, it can benefit the environment as ants are benefit the environment by increasing soil quality and acting as a predator to other common pests.

Research question—How does increasing the number of ripe Gala apples (Malus domestica) stored with an unripe Cavendish banana (Musa acuminata), affect the increase in the sucrose content of the banana over a period of seven days?

My research question is “How does d-Limonene from different citrus fruits prevent ants from entering a region close to a glucose source in 20 minutes?” by varying citrus oils from four different citruses and evaluating it’s effectiveness in repelling ants from households by masking the pheromone trail. Implications of using such an alternative to using common pesticidal poisons will also be discussed. Experiment will be done by applying the oil extracted from the citrus peels around a foraging site created by the experimenter to simulate the effectiveness of d-Limonene from different citruses. The amount of ants in said foraging site is then compared with each other to find the optimal citrus to be used in repelling ants. Data shows that oil from the Navel orange is the most effective in repelling ants. This is maybe due to the high d-Limonene content in the peel.

This extended essay was designed to investigate how the ripening of a banana can be accelerated in households, by storing it with ripe ethylene- inducing apples, to accelerate the increase in the sucrose content of the banana. The methodology of this experiment involved storing an unripe Cavendish banana with ripe Gala apples in sealed containers (plastic bags), in a non-ventilated environment (closed cabinet), for seven days. The bananas were stored with up to four apples, including a control test where no apples were stored with the banana. Both initial and final extracts (banana fruit samples) were taken from the banana. These extracts were blended using a kitchen blender and then the sucrose content of the extracts was measured using a refractometer. All raw data was then processed to calculate the increase in sucrose content of the banana. Finally, with the average increase in sucrose content when each number of apples was stored with the banana, the Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient for the relationship between the two variables was calculated as +0.947. The strong positive correlation effectively supported the findings of this experiment, which were as follows; Increasing the number of ripe Gala apples stored with an unripe Cavendish banana results in a greater average increase in the sucrose content of the banana, over a period of seven days. Hence, consumers who wish to reduce the storage of life of their bananas are encouraged to store them with ripe apples, as the apples induce ethylene gas which accelerates both ripening and the increase in sucrose content, particularly by stimulating amylase production.

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92 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

SELECTED BIOLOGY DO NORWEGIAN HOME REMEDIES POSSESS ANTIBACTERIAL EFFECTS AGAINST THE BACTERIA MICROCOCCUS LUTEUS IN COMPARISON TO MODERN ANTIBIOTICS?

LUNDEVALL, KATHERINE

Introduction

This essay investigates the use of natural home remedies as a possible medicinal treatment for Streptococcal Pharyngitis in comparison to modern antibiotics. As more strains of bacteria become antibiotic resistant, the need for a substitute for antibiotic treatment increases. This is an investigation as to whether the active ingredients of home remedies (remedies using naturally grown fruits and herbs to inhibit bacterial growth) can be used as an alternative to antibiotics in the treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis infections. To answer my research question: “Do Norwegian home remedies possess antibacterial effects against the bacteria Micrococcus luteus in comparison to modern antibiotics?”

Topic: An investigation of the antibacterial effect of Norwegian home remedies in comparison to modern antibiotics.

In order to establish whether natural remedies possessed antibacterial properties in comparison to antibiotics such as Amoxicillin, I used the disk diffusion method to test 5 natural remedies and the antibiotic Amoxicillin. Micrococcus luteus was used as a model for the pathogenic Streptococcus Pyogenes. Disks soaked in respective natural remedies or antibiotic, were placed on agar plates with a solution of bacteria and nutrient broth. After 48 hours incubation at 38˚C the inhibition zones were measured. The results showed that all the natural remedies exhibited zones of inhibition, of which Cinnamon had the largest, 43.1 ± 10.2 mm (Stdev). Cinnamon was 90% as effective as Amoxicillin, 47.8 ± 6.4 mm (Stdev), more than 75% as effective. Leading me to conclude, in answer to my research question “Do Norwegian home remedies possess antibacterial effects against the bacteria Micrococcus luteus in comparison to modern antibiotics?” that natural remedies such as Cinnamon do possess antibacterial effects against Micrococcus luteus in comparison to the antibiotic Amoxicillin.

RQ: “Do Norwegian home remedies possess antibacterial effects against the bacteria Micrococcus luteus in comparison to modern antibiotics?” Statement of approach: Using the disk diffusion method, the inhibition zones of Norwegian home remedies - Cinnamon, Apple Cider Vinegar, Honey, and Lemon - and the antibiotic Amoxicillin were measured. An analysis of the data was carried out to compare the effectiveness of the Norwegian home remedies in inhibiting the bacterial growth of Micrococcus luteus, with that of Amoxicillin, to conclude whether Norwegian home remedies could be used as a natural alternative or preventative medical treatment for Streptococcal Pharyngitis. Medicine is arguably one of the most important fields of human research, and is constantly changing, shaped by its roots in tradition, folklore and science. As modern medicine has evolved, so has the bacterial response, giving antibiotic resistance the potential to be one of the largest threats to human health. The continued overuse of antibiotics risks a return to the pre-antibiotic era, with no treatment for bacterial infections. Before antibiotics, people relied on home remedies to combat infections such as the common “Sore throat”. This is an investigation focused on the use of Norwegian home medicines for treatment of bacterial infections, in comparison to the modern antibiotic treatment of “Sore throats”.

Streptococcal Pharyngitis (“Sore throat”) Streptococcal pharyngitis is a bacterial infection of the throat characterized by a body temperature greater than 38˚C and a severe sore throat (Choby, 383). There are an estimated 616 million cases of



pharyngitis worldwide every year (Carapetis et al. 1). Though the disease can be caused by fusobacterium necrophorum, a gram negative bacteria, or bacteria from Nongroup A beta hemolytic streptococci groups C and G it is most commonly caused by Group A Beta hemolytic bacteria (Hayes and Williamson.1557), specifically the bacteria Streptococcus pyogenes, from Group A Streptococcus, GAS (“WHO | Bacterial Infections, Group A Streptococcus”) as seen in Fig 1.

Fig1. A High Magnification Transmission Electron Micrograph of a Tantalum and Tungsten Surface Replica of a Critical Point Dried Streptococcus Pyogenes Positioned at the Terminus of a Chain of Cells. (Fazio, Maria)

Fig2. Micrograph of Streptococcus Pyogenes Chains (Fazio, Maria)

Streptococcus pyogenes is a non-spore forming, non-motile cocci, present in chains, as seen in Fig2. (Todar,1). It is highly pathogenic and can cause a range of diseases from Impetigo to Necrotizing Fasciitis (Leboffe, Pierce, and Leboffe, 161). It

is beta hemolytic meaning it can break down red blood cells, producing a clear area on a blood agar plate (Lerner and Lerner, 80) and requires an “enriched medium containing blood in order to grow” (Todar, 1)

Structure of S.pyogenes Streptococcus pyogenes is a gram-positive bacteria. Gram staining is a method of cell identification focused on the cell walls ability to retain crystal violet and safranin dyes after a discolouring rinse. Bacteria like S.pyogenes, with a thicker layer of peptidoglycan in their cell wall, as seen in Fig3, retain crystal violet dye and appear blue in colour, despite a discolouring wash and safranin. They are therefore classified as gram positive.

Fig3. Structure of gram-positive/negative cell walls (Oxford Designers & Illustrators. 554)

Bacteria with a thinner layer of peptidoglycan, as seen on the right, do not retain the blue colour but retain the safranin and appear red. They are gram negative (Bruckner). The capsule of S.pyogenes is composed of hyaluronic acid causing it to be only weakly antigenic as it’s antigenic markers are “masked” by this layer. The host body is unable to detect the antigens and label the bacteria as pathogenic. The chemical composition of the hyaluronic acid is similar to the human bodies connective tissue so the pathogen can evade detection and phagocytosis. (Todar, 1-2)

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with some affecting a narrow spectrum of bacteria and others combating a broad range of pathogens. Most antibiotics work by disrupting one of the growth processes of the bacteria such as the formation of its cell wall during cell division (Clegg. 591).

Antibiotic treatment of S.pyogenes. Bacterial Streptococcal Pharyngitis is usually treated using antibiotics such as Penicillin, Amoxicillin, Ampicillin or certain macrolides (Choby, 383, 386). However Amoxicillin is the most commonly prescribed antibiotic for Streptococcal Pharyngitis, in Europe (Bonsignori, Chiappini, and De Martino.1). Penicillin has been found to have similar effects on Streptococcal Pharyngitis infections (Choby, 383), however “Amoxicillin penetrates more easily from the bacterial cell surface to the peptidoglycan structure than penicillin G” which explains why amoxicillin works on a broader spectrum of bacteria (Boeren et al.1). For this reason, and the similarity of effectiveness of the two drugs, I will therefore use Amoxicillin as an exemplar of modern antibiotic treatment of S.Pyogenes infections.

Amoxicillin Amoxicillin, C16H19N3O5S•3H2O is a broad spectrum antibiotic which is effective against various gram-negative and positive bacteria. (“Amoxil (Amoxicillin) Drug Information”) It is a Beta lactam antibiotic (Calderwood, Hooper, and Bloom), meaning that it belongs to a group of antibiotics which all have a beta lactam ring, as highlighted in Fig4.

Antibiotics What are Antibiotics and how do they work? Antibiotics are substances used to combat bacterial infections within the body. They are selectively toxic to pathogenic bacteria,

Fig4. Core structure of Penicillin-based beta lactam antibiotics (Core structure of Beta lactam antibiotics – Penicillin)

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Beta lactam antibiotics such as Amoxicillin inhibit the bacteria’s ability to form the peptidoglycan layer of the cell wall, which in gram-positive bacteria - such as S.Pyogenes, forms the outer, vital, layer of the cell wall. Amoxicillin inactivates “Penicillin Binding Proteins”, enzymes from the cell membrane that form peptidoglycan (Calderwood, Hooper, and Bloom). This causes disruption of cell wall synthesis, leaving the cell vulnerable to destruction through water uptake by osmosis, antibodies or being engulfed by phagocytic macrophages. (Clegg. 591)

Norwegian home remedies Before the common use of antibiotics, historically in Norway, natural home remedies were used to inhibit pathogenic bacterial growth. (In this respect “Natural home remedy” refers to remedies containing ingredients naturally grown rather than chemically synthesized). Many people still rely on these remedies as a substitute for antibiotic treatment. The World Health Organisation estimates that “In some Asian and African countries, 80% of the population depend on traditional medicine for primary health care”(“WHO | Traditional Medicine”) and in Norway 50.5% of hospitals offer alternative medicine (Salomonsen, Skovgaard, Cour, Nyborg, Launsø, Fønnebø. 3) These remedies rely on specific chemicals present in naturally grown fruits and herbs to inhibit the growth of bacteria. These chemicals are often the source of new medicines, such as “antimalarial drugs … developed from … Artemisia annua L”, a chinese plant (“WHO | Traditional Medicine”). In order to establish whether the active chemical ingredients of “Norwegian home remedies…possess antibacterial effects” in the treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis I will investigate and compare the inhibitory ability of 5 natural remedies; Lemon, Manuka Honey, Lemon & Manuka Honey, Apple Cider Vinegar and Cinnamon on bacterial growth of Streptococcus Pyogenes.

Micrococcus luteus Due to the highly pathogenic nature of Streptococcus pyogenes however and its ability to give rise to a host of diseases ranging from pharyngitis to impetigo, I will instead use the non pathogenic, Micrococcus luteus as a model for S.pyogenes in my investigation of the inhibitory abilities of natural remedies. Both bacteria are gram positive and bacitracin susceptible (Leboffe, Pierce, and Leboffe, 58-59).

Natural remedies The five natural remedies were all identified as common treatments for “Sore throats”, chosen based on their availability as food products in the home.

Lemon To gargle hot water and lemon is a commonly used natural remedy. The Citrus fruit Citrus Limon (Gjerstad, 50) is often used to prevent bacterial infections. The juice extracted from lemons contains citric acid, which in research has been shown to display antibacterial properties against both “periodontally diseased roof surfaces” (Daly. 1) and “7 Vibrio species” of Cholera causing bacteria (Tomotake et al.1). The latter study suggests that the antibacterial properties of citric acid are due to its low pH and undissociated structure, as seen in Fig5.

Fig5. Structure of Citric Acid (Citric_Acid_Structure)

Manuka Honey Manuka Honey, from Leptospermum Scoparium trees in New Zealand is also a commonly used home remedy for Strep throat. It is normal for people to gargle honey and hot water, occasionally with lemon, at the onset of a throat infection. Manuka honey is a type of honey containing

a compound called methylglyoxal (MG) which is a natural antibacterial chemical. This active ingredient, MG, and the acidic nature of manuka honey, pH 3-4, (Neumayer. 19, 30) are the two main causes of its antibacterial behaviour. Studies showed MG to be effective in the inhibition of MRSA (in vitro)(Kilty et al.1) and Staphylococcus Aureus (Mandal.M, 157). The amount and quality of the MG in the honey is measured using a grading system called UMF. A UMF rating of 10+ is usually considered antibacterial. The manuka honey in my investigation is 16 UMF+.

Honey and Lemon As well as the previously separately stated benefits of both lemon and honey, a mix of both is also normally used for sore throats. Both remedies are quite acidic with pH levels of 2-4. The combined acidic properties of both, increase the antibacterial nature of the remedy as most bacteria grow at pH 7.2 - 7.6 and struggle to survive in less than pH 4 (Cultivation of Bacteria, Laboratory Training for Field Epidemiologists. 9).

Cinnamon The bark of several Cinnamomum plants can be used to harvest Cinnamon, a plant commonly used in medical treatment due to its antibacterial properties. These properties are derived from its active ingredient, the chemical cinnamaldehyde (“CASSIA CINNAMON: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions and Warnings”). Several studies show that oils extracted from cinnamon are effective in inhibiting the growth of the bacteria Streptococcus Pyogenes (MPH. 19) (Sfeir et al. 2-8). Additional research has even found Cinnamon to be effective in inhibiting the growth of Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (Mandal, Saha, and Pal, 322-323).

Apple Cider Vinegar One natural remedy is to gargle Apple Cider Vinegar during throat infections. Apple cider vinegar contains acetic acid



(CH3COOH), the low pH (2.4 - 3.4) (“Acids - pH Values”) of which causes the antibacterial properties of apple cider vinegar. The apple cider vinegar used in this investigation had 5% acidity. Studies show acetic acid to be effective in inhibiting the growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (however it is a gram negative bacteria (Hedberg and Miller, 854-855) unlike Streptococcus Pyogenes).

Experiment Method The purpose of my investigation is to certify whether these “natural” remedies possess antibacterial properties comparable with antibiotics, to thereby justify whether they can be seen as a suitable alternative. I will use the disk diffusion method to test the natural remedies for any antibacterial properties, as it provides a quantifiable measure of the inhibitory ability of the tested remedy, unlike alternate methods, such as the broth dilution method where bacterial broth is diluted with the tested remedy until no bacterial growth is visible. I will use disks soaked in the tested remedy rather than the well diffusion method, where holes are bored into the agar and filled with remedy, due to the risk of fluid leaking under the agar layer and interfering with the zones of inhibition.

Hypothesis & Criteria In conformance with research journals on the antibacterial activity of honey I deduced that to confirm that “Norwegian home remedies … possess antibacterial effects in comparison to antibiotics”, the natural remedies require inhibition zones within 10% that of Amoxicillin (Irish, 3). However due to the preliminary nature of my experiment, the unsterile nature of the laboratory and the high likelihood of contamination during aseptic technique, I have lowered this criteria from 90% as large as Amoxicillin to 75%. My hypothesis is that the natural remedies will be more than 75% as effective as Amoxicillin.

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Topic Relevance The increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria present in hospitals and our inability to combat them, my Norwegian families use of natural medicine in favour of antibiotics and news coverage of conflicts between modern and “natural” medicines in the treatment of bacterial infections sparked an interest for me in this topic.

Materials Equipment Where possible all equipment was sterilized in an autoclave. - Indicates standard volume/ size Equipment

Size/ Volume

Quantity

Bacterial Culture of Micrococcus luteus

1 agar plate

1

Bunsen Burner

-

1

Heat Proof mat

-

1

Tissue

-

as needed

Measuring cylinder

25ml

6

Test tube with screwable lid

20ml

1

Inoculation loop

-

1

Ethanol Spray

-

1

Parafilm/ Masking tape

-

1 roll

Marker

-

1

Incubator

at 37˚C

1

Knife

-

1

Beaker

25ml

7

Mass Balance

to 2d.p

1

Glass rod

-

4

Stopwatch

to 1 second

1

Tweezers

-

8

Filter paper circles

5mm circles

280

Agar plate

8.8cm diameter

70

Micro Pipette

50uL

1

Equipment

Size/ Volume

Quantity

Micropipette Tips

50uL

70

Spreader

-

70

Ruler

to ½mm

1

Thermometer

to 1˚C

1

Chemicals Chemical

Amount (g)

Amoxicillin 500mg

10

16+ UMF Manuka Honey

10

Organic Ground Cinnamon

10

Distilled water

200

Juice of Organic Lemons

200

Apple Cider Vinegar

100

Standard Conditions Standard Conditions

Maintained by:

Temperature

Room temperature was set at 23˚C and air conditioning used to retain this temperature.

Contamination Prevention

• Surfaces were disinfected prior, with ethanol spray. • Experiment was carried out beside a lit bunsen burner to reduce contamination from surrounding air. • When opening screw top lids, the bottle top was passed through the flame before/during/after opening to remove bacteria collected there. (Referred to as the ‘flaming’ process)

Methodology Bacterial Broth

1. Record room temperature using thermometer. 2. Spray ethanol to disinfect work area. Dry with tissue. 3. Prepare a bunsen burner (safety flame) on a heatproof mat. 4. Using the measuring cylinder measure 15ml of nutrient broth into a screw toplid test tube. 5. Using an inoculation loop scrape the

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surface of the the agar plate containing the bacterial culture of Micrococcus luteus, until a small amount has been collected. Quickly seal the bacterial culture agar plate with tape and open the test tube of nutrient broth. Using the inoculation loop, stir the collected bacteria into the nutrient broth and quickly re seal the cap. Dispose of the inoculation loop and repeat the flaming process. 6. Label the test tube of bacterial broth and place in an incubator at 37˚C for 2 hours.

Natural Remedies & Amoxicillin • Lemon • Honey • Lemon and Honey • Apple cider vinegar • Cinnamon • Amoxicillin 7. Cut the lemon, and squeeze out juice into a measuring cylinder. Measure 10 ml of juice into two individual 25 ml beakers. Seal both using parafilm. Set aside one for the lemon and honey remedy 8. Using a 25 ml beaker and a mass balance measure 1 gram of manuka honey. Using a measuring cylinder, measure 10 ml of distilled water into the beaker. Stir with glass rod til honey dissolves. Seal using parafilm. 9. Place one of the sealed lemon juice beakers on the mass balance. Remove seal and zero the balance. Measure 1 gram of Manuka honey into the beaker. Stir using glass rod til honey dissolves. Reseal using parafilm. 10. Using a measuring cylinder measure 10 ml of apple cider vinegar into a 25 ml beaker, seal using parafilm. 11. U sing a 25 ml beaker on a mass balance, measure 1 gram of loose Amoxicillin (powder, by opening capsules). Using a measuring cylinder measure 10 ml

of distilled water into the beaker. Stir using glass rod, till dissolved. Seal using parafilm.

Diagrams

12. Repeat step 11 using Cinnamon. 13. Using tweezers place 40 sterilized filter paper circles into each beaker. Using a stopwatch ensure they soak in solution for 30 minutes. 14. Set aside 40 filter papers in a 25 ml beaker for the Control.

Plating Bacteria 15. Prepare an agar plate, lid down. Using a marker pen, divide the plate into four sections by drawing a cross across the base. 16. Remove the test tube of bacterial broth from incubator. (After 2 hours incubation period) 17. Using a micropipette and fresh tip, pipette 50 uL of nutrient broth onto the agar plate. Using a sterilized spreader spread the broth evenly across the plate. Replace lid, dispose of spreader and micropipette tip. 18. Using sterilized tweezers place one disc (soaked in lemon solution) in each marked quadrant of the plate. Pass tweezers through the flame. Tap each disc onto the plate using tweezers. Seal the agar plate using parafilm. Place into incubator for 48 hours at 37˚C. 19. Repeat steps 14 to 17 until all the discs soaked in lemon have been plated.

Results: *Raw Data in Appendix A

20. Repeat steps 14 to 19 using each variation, including the control.

Collecting Results 21. After 48 hours remove the plates from incubator. 22. Using a ½ mm ruler, record the largest diameter of the zones of inhibition (Area surrounding discs where microbial growth is absent). Fig6. Bar chart comparing the mean size of inhibition zone diameters (± 0.5 mm) of natural remedies tested on Micrococcus luteus. *Error bars show standard deviation (mm)



Variation of remedy

Mean size of inhibition Standard zone deviation diameter (± (mm) 0.5 mm)

Control

0.8

1.9

Honey

4.1

5.9

Cinnamon

43.1

10.2

Lemon & Honey

24.5

11.2

Lemon

42.1

8.1

Apple Cider Vinegar

29.2

12.8

Amoxicillin

47.8

6.5

Table1. The mean size of inhibition zone diameters (± 0.5 mm) and standard deviations (mm) of natural remedies tested on Micrococcus luteus.

zone of inhibition, 43.1 ± 10.2 mm (Stdev) and Manuka Honey displayed the smallest, 4.1 ± 5.9 mm (Stdev). Although Cinnamon was the most effective, Lemon was very similar, and a t-test giving a value of 0.623 (> 0.05, 5% significance) showed no significant difference between them. The average inhibition zone created with Amoxicillin was 47.8 ± 6.4 mm (Stdev), confirmed to be greater than Cinnamon through a t-test giving a resulting critical value of 0.0195 (< 0.05, 5% significance). Amoxicillin was the most effective method of inhibiting bacteria growth of Micrococcus luteus as it had the largest mean inhibition zone size. A follow up experiment investigating a mixture of both Lemon and Cinnamon, the two most effective natural remedies, was carried out, however a suspected lack of bacterial culture growth led the results to be deemed insufficient. The results are found in appendix C.

Discussion Analysis of Results

Summary of Results

The results show Amoxicillin to be the most effective inhibitor of growth of Micrococcus Luteus, better than any of the natural remedies. Cinnamon was the most effective natural remedy, closely followed by Lemon. A significant difference between the average inhibition zones of Cinnamon, and Amoxicillin was confirmed through a t-test, with a resulting critical value of 0.0195 (< 0.05, 5% significance). Cinnamon was 90% as effective as Amoxicillin in the inhibition of bacterial growth. The 10% difference between their mean inhibition zone sizes means that Amoxicillin was 10% more effective than Cinnamon in inhibiting the growth of M.luteus. My results match that of a french study that performing a similar comparison of the inhibition zones of Cinnamon oil and amoxicillin using the disk diffusion method (Sfeir et al. 8).

All the natural remedies tested displayed bacterial inhibition zones, of which Cinnamon displayed the largest average

This means that Cinnamon met my criteria of being more than 75% as effective as the antibiotic treatment. The results of my

Fig7. Bar chart comparing the mean size of inhibition zone diameters (± 0.5 mm) of Lemon, Cinnamon and Amoxicillin, tested on Micrococcus luteus. *Error bars show standard deviation (mm)

Variation of remedy

Mean size of inhibition Standard zone deviation diameter (± (mm) 0.5 mm)

Lemon

42.1

8.1

Cinnamon

43.1

10.2

Amoxicillin

47.8

6.4

Table2. The mean size of inhibition zone diameters (± 0.5 mm) and standard deviation (mm) of Lemon, Cinnamon and Amoxicillin tested on Micrococcus luteus.

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experiment show that the Natural remedy Cinnamon does possess antibacterial effects against the bacteria Micrococcus luteus in comparison to the Amoxicillin.

Additional factors However, there are additional factors to apprehend in the consideration of natural remedies as an alternative to antibiotic treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis, including; immunity, relapses, side effects and antibiotic resistance.

Immunity Although antibiotic treatment is the more effective inhibitor it is known to decrease immunity in patients by destroying good bacteria, “flora”, in the intestines that suppress fungal growth. Increased amounts of this fungus may cause “ailments such as ear infections, itchy skin, intestinal gas, bloated abdomen, migraine headaches and fibromyalgia”. Contrastingly, natural medicines such as Lemon and Cinnamon contain high levels of vitamins; such as vitamin A, B, C, E and K some of which are shown to increase antibody response and white blood cell activity (Udall. 6,9,22,25).

Side effects Amoxicillin can also cause many side effects including; sores, fever, rash, blistering, bleeding or Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (Davis). Natural Remedies, for example Cinnamon, cause minimal side effects, eg. thin blood, but usually only occur when normal dosage (6 grams daily for 6 weeks) is exceeded (Herbs at a Glance – Cinnamon.1).

Relapses Unlike Natural medicines, treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis with antibiotics is shown to cause an increased relapse rate. Studies found that 6% of Pharyngitis patients treated with Amoxicillin relapsed within 1 week, and 14% relapsed within 6-20 days (Casey et al. 1).

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Antibiotic Resistance The main issue with antibiotic treatment is the resulting prevalence of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance occurs when a population of bacteria, contains a few bacteria with naturally occurring mutations causing them to be resistant to the effects of antibiotics. Not all bacteria have the mutation but when the population is treated with antibiotics, bacteria lacking the mutation, which are vulnerable to antibiotics, are destroyed. This leaves the antibiotic resistant bacteria with less competition for food and space meaning they are more likely to multiply and become the majority of the bacterial population. (Clegg. 161,162) This means that the majority of the bacteria population are now antibiotic resistant. Increasing use of antibiotics has caused an increased number of antibiotic resistant strains. Bacteria are becoming resistant to increasingly potent antibiotics and many diseases risk becoming uncontrollable if they cease responding to any antibiotics. If a widespread disease became completely antibiotic resistant, it would be difficult to contain and cause many fatalities (“WHO | Antimicrobial Resistance”) Natural remedies are favourable in the treatment of S. Pharyngitis in this respect, as they do not create resistance to their treatment and are therefore a more sustainable solution. Amoxicillin has more side effects, an increased relapse rate, and lowers patient’s immunity - thereby decreasing their ability to recover from sickness. Most importantly, natural remedies do not contribute to antibiotic resistance. I would argue that the disadvantages of antibiotics outweigh the 10% difference in effectiveness and conclude that while further research is needed, Cinnamon does have the potential to be seen as an alternative to antibiotics in the inhibition or prevention of bacterial growth.

Limitations, Anomalies & Evaluation of method However, I cannot conclude for certain that natural remedies can be seen as an alternative to antibiotics for treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis. This is because, due to safety restrictions, my results reflect only the inhibitory effects on the nonpathogenic bacteria Micrococcus luteus. To yield more accurate results on the inhibitory effects of natural remedies on pathogenic bacteria, I would recommend carrying out the experiment using Streptococcus Pyogenes in a Biosafety Cabinet of Class II or above, (shown in table below), as Streptococcus Pyogenes is classified as a Biosafety Level 2 Bacteria (“Risk Group Classification for Infectious Agents”. 1). Biosafety Cabinet Class

For use with bacteria classified biosafety level:

Class I

1&2

Class II

2 &3

Class III

4

(“Selecting a Biological Safety Cabinet.”)

It would then be possible to conclude whether or not natural remedies are a suitable alternative to antibiotics for treating infections caused by Streptococcus Pyogenes.

the Natural remedies tested. Remedies that diffused slower through the agar than others, would display a smaller zone of inhibition, regardless of their antibacterial strength. This could potentially explain why Manuka Honey displayed a significantly smaller inhibition zone than other treatments tested. There were some anomalies in my data, two outliers recording 0mm, were removed from the recorded measurements of Cinnamon. Without the removal of this data, Lemon would have been the most effective natural remedy, which would have affected my conclusion as to which was the most effective natural remedy. The disk diffusion method is a better model for topical treatments, as the remedies were in constant contact with the bacteria throughout the 48 hour incubation period, which would not be true in vivo. The differences in application of the remedy from in vitro studies to in vivo, need to be considered when considering any treatment for Streptococcal Pharyngitis.

Conclusion

The use of a Biosafety Cabinet would also decrease the likelihood of any contamination during the experiment. This would minimise my errors which, as seen from the error bars showing standard deviation in Fig6. and Fig7., are substantial. The large error bars show the data is quite spread out from the mean. This decreases the accuracy of my results, as it displays inconsistency, with some trials producing smaller zones of inhibition than others. This is likely due to contamination during the aseptic technique, from the surrounding air, which would be minimised using a BSC.

The experiment showed Amoxicillin to be the most effective inhibitor of Micrococcus luteus growth, with a mean diameter size of inhibition of 47.8 ± 6.4 mm (Stdev). Cinnamon was the most effective natural remedy, 43.1 ± 10.2 mm (Stdev), and was 90% as effective as the antibiotic treatment. Cinnamon exceeded the criteria of being at least 75% as effective as the antibiotic treatment. Therefore in answer to my research question “Do Norwegian home remedies possess antibacterial effects against the bacteria Micrococcus luteus in comparison to modern antibiotics?” I conclude that natural remedies such as Cinnamon do possess antibacterial effects against Micrococcus luteus in comparison to Amoxicillin.

Another factor affecting my results was the possibility of, and inability to measure, differing diffusion rates of Amoxicillin and

Further investigations could be made using different natural remedies and antibiotics and other Streptococcal Pharyngitis



causing bacteria such as Group C & G beta hemolytic bacteria. It would be interesting to investigate the effectiveness of natural remedies on gram negative bacteria such as Fusobacterium necrophorum (Choby, 386) due to the structural differences between gram +/- bacteria and their differing antibiotic susceptibility (Norrby et al. 1,2). Research has also been done on the antibacterial properties of Cinnamon against antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. It would be interesting to investigate the inhibition of natural remedies on antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria.

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Cephalosporin Antibiotic Treatment.” Clinical pediatrics 47.6 (2008): 549–554. NCBI PubMed. Web. “CASSIA CINNAMON: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions and Warnings.” WebMD. 2009. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Choby, Beth A. “Diagnosis and Treatment of Streptococcal Pharyngitis - American Family Physician.” American Familly Physician (2009): n. pag. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Citric_Acid_Structure. Digital image. Citric Acid. Wikipedia, 6 Sept. 2005. PNG. Web. 2 Aug. 2013. Clegg, C. J. IB Diploma Biology. London: Hodder Murray, 2007. Print. Core structure of Beta lactam antibiotics Penicillins. 23 October 2007. SVG. Web. Cultivation of Bacteria, Laboratory Training for Field Epidemiologists. World Health Organisation. Print. Daly, C G. “Anti-bacterial Effect of Citric Acid Treatment of Periodontally Diseased Root Surfaces in Vitro.” Journal of clinical periodontology 9.5 (1982): 386–392. Print. Davis, Charles Patrick. “Side Effects of Amoxil (Amoxicillin) Drug Center - RxList.” RxList. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Fazio, Maria. A High Magnification Transmission Electron Micrograph (TEM) of a Tantalum and Tungsten Surface Replica of a Critical Point Dried Streptococcus Positioned at the Terminus of a Chain of Cells. Digital image. Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology. The Rockefeller University, n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. Fazio, Maria. Streptococcus Pyogenes Chains Micrograph. Digital image. Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology. The Rockefeller University, n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. Gjerstad, Aksel. Kjerringråd fra A til Å. Orion, 2003. Print. 14 Aug. 2013. Hayes, C S, and H Williamson Jr. “Management of Group A Beta-hemolytic

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Streptococcal Pharyngitis.” American family physician 63.8 (2001): 1557–1564. Print. Hedberg, Mary, and John K. Miller. “Effectiveness of Acetic Acid, Betadine, Amphyll, Polymyxin B, Colistin, and Gentamicin Against Pseudomonas Aeruginosa.” Applied Microbiology 18.5 (1969): 854–855. Print. Herbs at a Glance - Cinnamon. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2012. Print. Irish, Julie, Shona Blair, and Dee A. Carter. “The Antibacterial Activity of Honey Derived from Australian Flora.” PLoS ONE 6.3 (2011): n. pag. PubMed Central. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Kilty, Shaun J. et al. “Methylglyoxal: (active Agent of Manuka Honey) in Vitro Activity Against Bacterial Biofilms.” International Forum of Allergy & Rhinology 1.5 (2011): 348–350. Wiley Online Library. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Leboffe, Michael J, Burton E Pierce, and Michael J Leboffe. A Photographic Atlas for the 4th Edition Microbiology Laboratory. 4th Edition. Englewood, Colo.: Morton Pub. Co., 2011. Print. Lerner, Lee. K. Ed, and Brenda Wilmouth Lerner. “‘Blood Agar, Hemolysis, and Hemolytic Reactions’ World of Microbiology and Immunology.” eNotes. 2013. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Mandal, Shayamapda, Krishnendu Saha, and Nishith Kumar Pal. “In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Three Indian Spices Against Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus.” Oman Medical Journal 26.5 (2011): 319–323. PubMed Central. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. Mandal, Manisha Deb, and Shyamapada Mandal. “Honey: Its Medicinal Property and Antibacterial Activity.” Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine (2011): 157. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. MPH, Barbara Wexler. Cinnamon: Spices of

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Life (Woodland Health Series). Woodland Publishing, 2008. Print. Neumayer, Debbie. Honey: Raw, Manuka, Tupelo and More! Salt Lake City, Utah: Woodland Pub., 2012. Print. Norrby, Ragnar et al. The Bacterial Challenge: Time to React. European Medicines Agency, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2009. Print. Oxford Designers & Illustrators, Barking Dog Art. Gram positive and gram negative bacteria walls. 2007. C.J. Clegg Textbook. Print. “Risk Group Classification for Infectious Agents.” ABSA Risk Group Classification. American Biological Safety Asscociation, n.d. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. Salomonsen, Laila J., Lasse Skovgaard, Søren La Cour, Lisbeth Nyborg, Laila Launsø, and Vinjar Fønnebø. “Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine at Norwegian and Danish Hospitals.” BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. BMC, 18 Jan. 2011. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. “Selecting a Biological Safety Cabinet.” Biological Safety Cabinets Selection Guide. NUAIRE, 2013. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. Sfier, Julien, Corinne Lefrançois, Dominique Baudoux, Séverine Derbré, and Patricia Licznar. “In Vitro Antibacterial Activity of Essential Oils against Streptococcus Pyogenes.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013 (2013): n. pag. Print Todar, Kenneth. “Streptococcus Pyogenes and Streptococcal Disease.” Todar’s Online Textbook Of Bacteriology. Online Textbook. 2012 2008. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. Tomotake, Hiroyuki et al. “Antibacterial Activity of Citrus Fruit Juices Against Vibrio Species.” Journal of nutritional science and vitaminology 52.2 (2006): 157–160. CiNii. Web. 14 Aug. 2013.

Udall, Kate Gilbert. Nature’s Antibiotics (Woodland Health). Woodland Publishing, 1998. Print. “WHO | Antimicrobial Resistance.” WHO. May 2013. Web. 14 Aug. 2013. “WHO | Bacterial Infections, Group A Streptococcus.” WHO. Web. 13 Aug. 2013. “WHO | Traditional Medicine.” WHO. Dec. 2008. Web. 14 Aug. 2013.

Appendix Appendix A. Raw data – The diameters of zones of inhibition measured (± 0.5 mm) of discs soaked in natural remedies or antibiotic on an agar plate.



Appendix B. Images of agar plates containing disks soaked in Cinnamon and Lemon. Used in the follow up investigation

Appendix C. Results from follow up investigation. A mixture of the two most effective natural remedies, Lemon and Cinnamon, were tested.

Acknowledgements I would like to give thanks to my supervisor Natalie Binkin for her help and encouragement throughout this process and to the biology technicians Karen Tay and Shuli Zhuo, for providing me with equipment and occasional lab supervision for my experiment.

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102 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

ABSTRACTS CHEMISTRY

ALEX, SANJANA

BHATIA, AKANSHA

The research question is, ‘How does the oxalate content in guava vary according to its ripeness as quantified by its sugar content?’ Oxalate ions are commonly found in fruits and it is important to know about the affects oxalates ions has on the human body. Excess oxalate ions in combination with metal ions form insoluble oxalate salt compounds, especially when calcium and oxalate ions react together to form calcium oxalate. Calcium oxalate is the main component of kidney stones in a human body.

In Singapore swimming is a popular hobby due to its close proximity to the equator and hence warm weather. Thus, I became interested in pool safety and hygiene. In this experiment I investigated the research question, “How does the duration of ultraviolet light exposure affect the amount of free chlorine present in my school swimming pool?”

This essay seeks to find out the trend in oxalate content in guavas as the ripeness of the fruit increases and hence find the optimum stage for a person to consume a fruit. The oxalate ions were extracted by a hot extraction process, where the pulp was boiled with dilute sulfuric acid. The pulp was cooled down to about 30ºC and then filtered using a Buchner funnel. A few drops of the filtrate was used to test the sugar content. Fehling’s solution tests the presence of sugar by the formation of a red precipitate. The higher the sugar content in the filtrate, more the amount of red precipitate was formed. This method allowed relative comparisons to be made among the guava extracts based on ripeness. However the ripeness was quantified using a vernier colorimeter. The rest of the extracted pulp was used in the redox titration with the strong oxidizing agent potassium permanganate. The values obtained from the titration were used in the calculation of the content of oxalate acid in the different extracts taken. The results show a positive correlation between the amount of oxalate ions and ripeness. This means as the guava gets riper, the oxalate content also increases.

Free chlorine consists of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions and is responsible for disinfection in swimming pools. I used a colorimetric method to gather data for this experiment, as free chlorine in the presence of the indicator DPD oxalate (N, N-Diethyl-p-Phenylenediamine Oxalate) gives a magenta coloration. Firstly, I created a standard curve to measure the unknown chlorine concentrations from the pool. For this, I used potassium permanganate solution at various dilutions with DPD oxalate. Potassium permanganate solution is used as it is more stable than standard chlorine solution and gives equivalent chlorine concentrations. This resulted in a free chlorine concentration range from 3-0.6 mg/L, which includes the ideal range of free chlorine in pools, which is 1-1.5mg/L. Then I exposed samples of my school’s pool water to varying durations of UV light exposure using a UV lamp. These trials were carried for a time range of 0-60 minutes. After the duration of exposure, I added the indicator to each and placed these in the Vernier colorimeter and achieved 7 absorbance readings for each trial. I plotted each absorbance reading on the standard curve and used the corresponding concentration from the standard curve to get the free chlorine concentration. As the time period of UV exposure was increased the conclusion reached is uncertain although the graph has a decreasing gradient, however to reach a definitive conclusion more trials would be needed.



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MAHER, ALLISON

TEH, WEI KHENG

WU, MENGYUAN

How does the ripeness of a tomato, quantified by its percentage starch content, affect the concentration of antioxidants?

In this Extended Essay, I investigated the research question “Can the activation energy of commercially available glowsticks be determined in a school lab, and is there a relationship between the dyes used and the activation energy?” Activation Energy represents a measure of how much energy is required to initially start the reaction and for chemiluminescent reactions, can be derived from a graph of natural log of lux against the reciprocal of temperature—an Arrhenius Curve. The data gathering to form this curve constitutes the main experimental portion of this investigation. The glowsticks used have completely identical physical and chemical components apart from the dyes they contain; which cause the difference in color in each glowstick, and—I decided—must have caused a difference in activation energy. Chromophores are parts of a molecule that gives it color. The chromophores in each dye were compared against each other in an attempt to find a pattern relating to activation energy.

Polyphenols are major components in tea. It does not only endorse abundant health benefits, but also majorly influence the color, taste, and character of tea. It act as a natural acid-base indicator in tea. In this experiment I have investigated the research question: “How does the change in steeping time affect the amount of polyphenols content in Sencha (green tea)?”

Antioxidants play an essential role in the chemistry of living organisms by preventing dangerous chain reactions from occurring in the body. In this essay, the trend between the ripeness of tomatoes, quantified by the starch content, and the antioxidant concentration is investigated. The antioxidants and starch were extracted from ten different tomatoes at different stages of ripeness. The antioxidants were extracted from the tomatoes using both cyclohexane and water, and were filtered. Then the lipid-soluble and water-soluble antioxidants were reacted separately with ABTS+ free radical solution and the absorbance recorded. The TROLOX equivalency method was used to determine the antioxidant concentration by producing a calibration curve using ideal antioxidant TROLOX, which was also reacted with ABTS+. The starch from the tomatoes was extracted from the residue of the filtered antioxidant solutions, as starch is insoluble in both water and cyclohexane. The starch solutions were reacted with iodine solution and the absorbance recorded. The percentage starch content of the tomatoes was quantified using a starch calibration curve where the absorbance of known percentage starch solutions was recorded when reacted with iodine solution. The trends in the variation of lipid-soluble antioxidant concentration and water-soluble antioxidant concentration with ripeness were compared. Both showed an increase in concentration as the percentage starch content decreased at a rate that decreased. However, the trend in the lipid soluble was more pronounced with the trend continuing even after the tomatoes had started to over ripen. The water-soluble antioxidant concentration seemed to plateau and ever decrease at higher levels of ripeness. The data gives an indication of what state of ripeness tomatoes have the highest antioxidant concentration and are most healthy to eat.

39 glowsticks were cut open—13 each of blue, yellow and green color—their contents heated up in a water bath and their lux output and temperature measured as the contents cooled for up to 15 minutes, by using Vernier Temperature and Light Probes. An Arrhenius Curve was then plotted using the data, and activation energy was derived from it for the different glowsticks. Thus, the activation energy could be calculated, with an average Ea of 145kJ/mole for Blue, 145kJ/ mole for Green, and 127kJ/mole for Yellow. However, no clear correlation was found between the chromophores and the activation energy of the glowsticks, implying that either the difference in activation energy is not as a result of chromophores, but other chemical properties of the dye’s structure or that there is no significant difference in the activation energies of the glowsticks.

The relationship of indicator property of tea and polyphenols content is used in constructing the method to predict the amount of polyphenols content in tea. The volume of alkali used to reach endpoint limit pH was predicted to indicate the amount of polyphenols content due to change in bathochromic shift. Green tea was steeped for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12 minutes as independent variables. Three trials were done for each of the six steeping time point with constant specie (Sencha), concentration (2g/ 300mL), and initial steeping temperature (80 °C). The concentration of polyphenols in tea will be different due to steeping time, which is the dependent variable. The relative concentration was predicted from the volume of alkaline used for the green tea to reach its endpoint pH limit. 50mL of prepared sample was taken for each trial in which 25mL of standardized 0.100M HCl was added. It was then titrated against standardized solution of 0.100M NaOH until endpoint and volume of alkali required was noted. The volume versus the steeping time graph suggests an increase in polyphenols with an increase in steeping time until 10 minutes. The decrease in polyphenol content after 12 minutes of steeping time though it is clear that more data is required. If tea drinkers seek to maximize the polyphenols amount, a 10 minutes preparation is needed as shown in the experiment.

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GROUP 4–SCIENCES

SELECTED CHEMISTRY WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE MOISTURE CONTENT OF HONEY AND ITS OPTICAL ROTATION?

CHATTERJI, NUPUR Optically active substances can rotate the plane of polarized light. Honey, a combination of natural sugars, is optically active. The relative proportions of sugars give different types of honey their characteristic optical rotations. In the humid Singaporean climate, food tends to degrade with exposure to moisture. Interestingly, there seems to be a dearth of methods to measure moisture absorption by honey—this moisture can affect its taste, aroma and shelf life. Enantiomers present in honey have identical physical and chemical properties but display differences in optical activity. Varying water content in honey, due to moisture absorption, would affect the optical activity of the honey. This essay investigates the relationship between moisture content in honey and its optical rotation. Hence, the research question for this essay is “What is the relationship between the moisture content of honey and its optical rotation?” The optical rotation of the solutions was measured using a Phillip Harris B8R05155 Polarimeter. A constant 20.00 g mass of honey was used to make solutions of different concentrations—by adding varying volumes of water between 0.5cm3 and 5.0cm3, in 0.5cm3 increments, to the honey, solutions were prepared. The water emulated moisture content that the honey may have absorbed. By observing each solution under the polarimeter and recording the angle of optical rotation, data was collected. A graph plotting the volume of water added to the constant mass of honey against the observed angle of optical rotation helped to establish the final relationship. In conclusion, the results of the experiment reflect a negative linear relationship between the volume of water added to a constant mass of honey and the observed optical rotation and hence answer the

research question. It is further proposed that optical rotation could be used to measure moisture content in honey commercially, with further analysis.

1. Introduction Pure honey is a combination of natural sugars produced from nectar or honeydew (Primorac 515). It is estimated that honeybees need to collect nectar from two million flowers to be able to produce just one pound of honey—some bees need to travel almost 90,000 miles, three times around the globe, just to make this amount of honey (Chepulis 57). Honey is claimed to be an ideal substitute for sugar. With a population increasingly paranoid about weight-related issues, many people are turning to it as a natural sweeter and alternative to sugar. The fact that honey is a natural source makes it enticing because the chance of detrimental side effects occurring due to consumption greatly reduces. It has been reported that honey has many advantages over sugar: it is unrefined, does not irritate the tissues in the gut, is useful in kidney and liver disorders and even increases the consumer’s haemoglobin count (Paulien 192). An increasing focus on honey makes the topic important, and it is necessary to be aware of all storage requirements of honey as its consumption in households increases. I was curious to know if storing honey in humid conditions, like those in Singapore, had any effect on its taste, aroma or even shelf-life—I wanted to find out if there was a way to measure these changes. Some of the moisture in honey comes from its nectar source—this is known as the natural moisture and starts to form after its ripening stage. The moisture related conditions of the honey greatly depend on how it is stored after being extracted (White), making it highly susceptible to moisture in the Singaporean climate. It is important to monitor the amount of moisture in the honey because it directly



affects things like its keeping quality and granulation (White). The United States Department of Agriculture sets limits to the moisture content of extracted honey in order for them to qualify into certain categories. To qualify for Grade A and Grade B Standard honey, the honey’s moisture content must be less than 18.6%; for the Grade C category, the honey can contain up to 20% moisture (Honey). Currently, a method involving the refractive index of honey is used to determine its moisture content (Pridal 440). It is based on the theory that the refractive index of honey increases with higher solid content (Bogdanov 10). This method poses some problems because the honey itself has a ‘moisture gradient’—the moisture tends to accumulate at the bottom of the container and there is seemingly a lot less moisture at the surface. The user must stir the honey to acquire precise refractive index readings because it is imperative that the readings are highly accurate for the moisture content to be determined properly (Measuring). Apart from the method of refraction, I wanted to explore the possibility of another method to measure the impact that moisture has on honey. I chose to measure the optical rotation of the honey based on the fact that honey comprises enantiomers. Enantiomers are pairs of stereoisomers that are related to each other as nonsuperimposable mirror images, but have seemingly identical structures—a common example that makes it easier to visualize this, is the relationship between a right hand and a left hand (Pine 116-117). Enantiomers behave in virtually the same way when it comes to physical properties, except in the case of optical activity, as discovered by E.L Malus in 1808 (Polarimetry). This means that in varying moisture content, while other physical properties of the enantiomers in honey remain constant, there is a conjectured change in their optical activity. Therefore, it makes measuring the optical rotation an ideal way to measure the

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effect that moisture has on honey, and its enantiomers. My aim was to find the optical rotation of a constant mass of honey in varying volumes of water, to form a standard curve that could be used to determine the extent of impact that the moisture has had on the sample honey. If it were mandatory for the honey manufacturer to print, on the bottle label, the original value of the optical rotation of the honey, as it was being extracted from the hives, households or research and development departments of the honey industry would be able to check the condition of bottles of honey, with regard to deterioration due to moisture, by comparing the obtained optical rotation value to the original value during extraction. This led me to arrive at the research question: “What is the relationship between the moisture content of honey and its optical rotation?”

Fig. 2: Haworth Formula of Fructose

Fructose and glucose are structural isomers since they have identical molecular formulae but differ in the arrangement of atoms (Brown 375). In the Fischer projection formulae (Pine 125) of fructose and glucose (see Fig. 3 and Fig. 4) it can be seen that they are functional group isomers since they are part of different homologous series’ and contain different functional groups— glucose contains the aldehyde functional group, whereas fructose contains the ketone functional group. Aldehyde Group

1.a. Optical Activity in Honey Honey consists of more than 400 different substances including carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids and enzymes (Dimins). Honey solids consist mainly of simple sugars called monosaccharides and more than 95% of honey solids are carbohydrates (GarcíaAlvarez). The monosaccharides fructose and glucose, both with the chemical formula C6H12O6, are the most abundant in honey (Primorac 515). The closed ring structures, also known as Haworth formulae (Pine 742) of glucose and fructose are shown below (see Fig. 1 and Fig. 2).

Fig. 3: Fischer Projection of Glucose

Ketone Group

Fig. 4: Fischer Projection of Fructose

Fig. 1: Haworth Formula of Glucose

Fructose and glucose, major components of honey, are both chiral molecules and it is chirality that gives organic compounds the ability to rotate the plane of polarized

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light. Molecules are said to be chiral if their forms are mirror images of each other, but cannot be superimposed onto each other. Furthermore, chirality can be recognized by the presence of a tetrahedrally-bonded carbon atom that is connected to four different substituents—this is the chiral centre of the molecule. It is possible to calculate the maximum number of stereoisomers using the formula 2n where n is the number of chiral centers of the molecule. Not all stereoisomers are mirror images—the ones that are not mirror images are called diastereomers and possess different physical and chemical properties (Pine 116–120). From the diagrams, it can be deduced that glucose has 4 chiral centers and fructose has 3—so glucose will have 24 = 16 stereoisomers and fructose will have 23 = 8 stereoisomers (see Fig. 5 and Fig. 6).

each enantiomer present in the substance will dictate its final optical rotation. In the case of honey, the relative proportions of fructose and glucose would affect the final result of the observed optical rotation—for example honeydew honeys are lower in fructose content (García-Alvarez) and would display a different optical rotation. Fig. 7: Enantiomers of Glucose

Fig. 8: Enantiomers of Fructose

Fig. 5: Chiral Centres of Glucose highlighted in red

Fig. 6: Chiral Centres of Fructose highlighted in red

Pairs of chiral molecules, known as enantiomers, have different spatial sequences, or configurations (Pine 118). Since fructose and glucose are both chiral, their respective enantiomers will have opposite configurations (see Fig. 7 and Fig. 8). Enantiomers rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions but with equal magnitude (Pine 117).

Although chirality is a necessary prerequisite for optical activity, chiral compounds are not necessarily optically active. A chiral compound that is optically inactive is called racemic (Pine 117). Since pairs of enantiomers rotate the plane of light in opposite directions, but with the same magnitude, a 50:50 mixture of these two enantiomers will not display optical activity, as the rotation effects of each molecule will be cancelled out. Hence it will be called a racemic mixture (Hunt). A racemic mixture is designated as (±) or dl. It can hence be inferred that for optical rotation to be observed, there should be an excess of one enantiomer over the other. If a sample rotates the plane of polarized light in a clockwise direction it is called dextrorotatory (+)(d); if a sample rotates the plane of polarized light in a counterclockwise direction it is called levorotatory (-)(l) (Pine 117). It is important to note that enantiomers cannot spontaneously interconvert, or swap, with each other because it would require tremendous amounts of energy to break the sigma bonds between them (Nerz-Stormes). Hence it can be deduced that the original quantity of

This makes the method of measuring optical rotation to determine moisture content ideal, because it is an inherent physical property, similar to those like the melting point and solubility (To). Hence, the chosen method is viable and a possible alternative to the currently used refractometer method, if this investigation yields promising results. In addition, it has been suggested that optical activity can be used to determine the authenticity of food and the extent of its processing. Biological cells only produce one enantiomeric form and give a definite optical rotation, as one enantiomer is more abundant than the other. Hence it is deduced that racemic mixtures are usually processed artificially, because it is unnatural for equal proportions of the enantiomers to exist independently in nature (Brown 782). So, optical activity can be used to measure the moisture content in honey, and also determine its quality.

1.b. Moisture and Mutarotation in Honey Honey has the ability to absorb water because it is hygroscopic. The honey eventually reaches a moisture content equilibrium with the atmosphere it is stored in, but until it reaches that equilibrium, it continues to absorb moisture from the atmosphere (Sanford). The fructose content in the honey determines its hygroscopic features (Dimins)—the more fructose present, the easier it is for moisture to be absorbed by the honey from the surroundings. Rising moisture content in honey can have detrimental effects on its shelf life, as there is a higher chance for yeast fermentation to take place when the honey is put into storage. A moisture level of



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19% has been conjectured to ensure an ideal shelf life for the honey (Bogdanov 5).

l

With a method of measuring the moisture content of the honey, it may be possible in the future and with further analysis, to monitor the shelf life of honey based on the moisture content, using measurements of optical rotation, as proposed in the essay.

to : temperature of solution in degrees Celsius

However, when solutions of water and glucose are prepared, there is a change in optical rotatory power over time, by a process called mutarotation. The glucose undergoes a transformation from one enantiomer to another by forming an intermediate hydrated aldehyde (Nelson). Since glucose is a major constituent of honey, it is important to realize that mutarotation could occur in the honey as moisture content increases, and may impact the optical rotation measurements taken by this method.

1. c. Polarimetry and Optical Activity In order to observe and subsequently measure the rotation of plane-polarized light by organic compounds—in honey they are fructose and glucose—an instrument known as a polarimeter is used. Ordinary light consists of electromagnetic waves oscillating in an infinite number of planes, perpendicular to the direction of travel. If a light beam passes through a polarizing filter, only light waves oscillating in one plane pass through and the others are blocked out—this is known as planepolarized light (Brown 414). The polarimeter measures the degree and direction by which an optically active substance rotates the plane-polarized light. The device consists of a source of unpolarized light, two polarizing filters (the first in contact with the unpolarized light is called the polarizer, and the second one is called the analyzer), and a container to hold the optically active substance in between the filters (Marsden) (see Fig. 9).

Fig. 9: Polarimeter Set-Up

W. Stephen McNeil, “Chirality and Enantiomers.” Chirality and Enantiomers, The University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, 9 Aug, 2012. Web. 23 Jul, 2013. . If the optically active solution, for example honey, were not placed between the two polarizing filters, and the filters were positioned with their plane of polarization at 90o to each other, no light, or a minimal amount of light, would pass through. However, if the sample of the optically active substance, in this case honey, were placed between the two filters, a component of light would pass through, proving that the substance rotates the plane of light. Subsequently, the analyzer is rotated to return the set-up to minimum transmittance (ideally, no light will pass through)—this measurement is recorded as the observed optical rotation (Marsden). The amount that the plane-polarized light is rotated by the optically active solution depends on a few factors—frequency of light, temperature of the solution, concentration of the solution, path length through the solution and the number of asymmetrical molecules that the light encounters. Given these parameters, an expression to determine the specific rotation 100a t is used: [a]λ = cl (Appendix A). o

The components of the equation are as follows: to

[a]λ : specific rotation a

: observed rotation in degrees

c

: concentration in grams per 100cm3 of solution

: length of the path that the light has in solution in decimeters

: wavelength of light

λ

One of the parameters that determines the angle of rotation of the plane-polarized light is the concentration of the optically active solution. From the above equation it is evident that the observed rotation is proportional to the concentration of the solution (the specific rotation is a constant at a given temperature and wavelength of light (Appendix A)). to

[ a ]λ

=

to

100a cl

[a]λ cl = 100a c∝a

Hence, as the concentration of the solution will vary with changes in moisture content, a variation in the observed optical rotation will be seen. It is hence feasible that this method of measuring optical rotation could be used to investigate the variation in moisture content in different types of honey, with further analysis.

1.d. Hypothesis The aim of this essay is to answer the research question: “What is the relationship between the moisture content of honey and its optical rotation?” From the research, and the parameters that polarimetry depends on, I conjecture that as the honey solution becomes less concentrated, the plane-polarized light will rotate by a lesser degree. This is because, as the moisture content increases, the concentration of the honey (and its enantiomers) would decrease, and since it is the enantiomers in the honey that rotate the plane of light, the rotation would not remain as prevalent.

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a. Use the pipettes to measure the volume of water correctly b. Add the measured volume of water into the beaker with the 20.00g of honey c. Again, ensure that no water droplets are on the sides of the beaker, as this would create an anomaly 4. Swirl the mixture clockwise 10 times 5. Repeat steps 2-4, but instead of using 0.5cm3, pour in 1.0cm3, 1.5cm3, 2.0 cm3, 2.5cm3, 3.0cm3, 3.5cm3, 4.0cm3, 4.5cm3, 5.0cm3, of water into 9 other beakers of 20.00g of honey

Graph 1

It is important, however, to differentiate between the terms ‘observed rotation’, which refers to the reading from the polarimeter, and ‘specific rotation’, which is specific to the honey. If we consider the above theory in relation to the equation that is used to calculate the specific optical rotation of substances, I conjecture that the ‘observed rotation’ will decrease as the solution becomes more dilute.

• Yellow Acetate (to filter light) • Glass Tube (to hold the optically active substance) • Wires (2 pieces) • 6V Power Supply Unit (1 piece) • Thermometer (1 piece) (±0.5oC) Chemicals • Honey (Essential Waitrose Pure Clear Honey) (see Appendix B)

Based on the fact that the concentration is proportional to the observed rotation, if a graph relating the observed optical rotation, to the volume of water added to 20.00g of honey were drawn, I would expect to find a negative linear fit (see Graph 1).

2.b. Method

2. Investigation

2. Measure out 20.00 g of honey

2. a. Apparatus Equipment • 100ml beakers (10 pieces) • Pipette (2.00 cm3 ± 0.01; 2 pieces) • Spatulas (1 piece) • Mass Balance (2 decimal place; 1 piece) • Polarimeter (1 piece) (Philip Harris B8R05155 Polarimeter in Appendix A) (± 0.5o) • Polaroid Filters (including a rotatable analyzer)

• Distilled Water

1. Calibrate the instrument according to the manual provided by the manufacturer of the polarimeter (see Appendix A) a. Put a clean beaker on the balance b. ‘Tare’ the balance (should display 00.00g) c. Use the spatula to transfer honey into the beaker (try not to get any honey on the edges or sides of the beaker as this will hinder the measurement of the mass and also prove an anomaly when we add water, as some honey would not be dissolved in it) d. Make sure there are exactly 20.00g of honey in the beaker 3. Add 0.5 cm3 of water to the 20.00g of honey

6. Leave all the prepared solutions for at least 20 hours before conducting polarimetry; try to swirl the mixtures (clockwise 10 times) twice in the interim 7. Conduct polarimetry on EACH of the 10 honey and water solutions (conduct three repeats) a. Take the temperature of the solution using a thermometer (an acceptable leeway for the temperature is ±1.0oC) and record it b. Pour the honey and water mixture from the beaker into the glass tube of the polarimeter, up to the minimum required level of substance according to the manual of the polarimeter (see Appendix A) c. Leave it to settle for 1 minute, until none of the bubbles that were formed, remain d. Connect the wires from the power supply unit to the polarimeter and turn on the light e. Rotate the analyzer until there is minimal transmittance (ideally absolutely dark) f. Record the angle at which the light is completely blocked out 8. Draw a standard curve showing the relationship between the volume of water added to the 20.00g of honey and the average observed optical rotation of the solution



3. Results This is the raw data showing the readings taken from the polarimeter after it had been calibrated. The random uncertainty on each of these readings is due to the smallest divisions of the manual polarimeter—each division was of 1o hence the uncertainty is half this value, 0.5o. The same applies for the analog thermometer.

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Volume of water Observed Observed Observed added to 20.00 Temperature Temperature Temperature rotation rotation rotation o o grams of honey ± 0.5 ± 0.5 ± 0.5oC C C ± 0.5o ± 0.5o ± 0.5o 3 ± 0.01 cm 0.00

16.0

24.0

18.0

24.0

17.5

23.5

0.50

14.5

24.0

17.0

23.5

16.5

24.0

1.00

14.0

24.0

16.5

24.0

16.0

24.0

1.50

13.5

24.0

16.0

24.0

15.5

23.5

2.00

13.0

23.5

15.5

24.0

15.0

24.0

2.50

12.5

24.0

15.0

23.5

14.5

24.0

3.00

12.0

24.0

14.5

23.5

14.0

24.0

3.50

11.5

23.5

14.0

23.5

13.5

23.5

4.00

11.0

23.5

13.5

24.0

13.0

24.0

4.50

10.5

24.0

13.0

24.0

12.5

24.0

5.00

10.0

24.0

12.5

24.0

12.0

24.0

Table 1: Raw Data Table

Volume of water added to 20.00 grams of honey ± 0.01 cm3

Observed optical rotation ± 0.5o

Observed optical rotation ± 0.5o

Observed Average optical observed optical rotation rotation ± 0.5o o ± 0.5

0.00

16.0

18.0

17.5

17.2

0.50

14.5

17.0

16.5

16.0

1.00

14.0

16.5

16.0

15.5

1.50

13.5

16.0

15.5

15.0

2.00

13.0

15.5

15.0

14.5

2.50

12.5

15.0

14.5

14.0

3.00

12.0

14.5

14.0

13.5

3.50

11.5

14.0

13.5

13.0

4.00

11.0

13.5

13.0

12.5

4.50

10.5

13.0

12.5

12.0

5.00

10.0

12.5

12.0

11.5

Table 2: Calculated Data Table

The uncertainty in the volume of water added—0.01 cm3 —arises due to the uncertainty stated on the pipette that was used to measure out these volumes of water. The average observed rotation, is simply the mean of the trial readings obtained from the polarimeter. For example, in the case of 0.00 cm3 of water added, the average observed rotation was calculated as follows:

16.0 +18.0 +17.5 51.5 = = 17.166 ≈ 17.2 3 3

110 Extended Essays 2013/2014

should be tested straight from the source to create the proposed type of standard curve. Overall, it is necessary to collect more experimental data, not only for this particular type of honey, but for all types of commercially produced honey. This would provide more reliable data, and prove useful to consumers who use other types of honey.

4.b. Extended research If I were to conduct this research again, with more time, I would further investigate this topic with different types of honey, including honey from different sources. I could even explore other properties, apart from refractive index and optical rotation, which are affected by moisture, as further methods of moisture indication.

Graph 2

On graphing the volume of water added to 20.00 grams of honey against the average observed optical rotation, the graph above is obtained (see Graph 2).

4. Conclusion The research question of this essay is “What is the relationship between the moisture content of honey and its optical rotation?” and the results of the experiment allow for the opportunity to answer this question. If we compare the graph from the Results Section, to the graph in the Hypothesis, it is evident that the two are quite similar, and hence the trend of observed rotation is as expected, a negative linear one. As the volume of water added to the 20.00g of honey increased, and hence the concentration of honey (and its constituent optically active fructose and glucose contents) decreased, the observed optical rotation also decreased. If this experiment were conducted on further types of honey and with even smaller volumes of water, it could establish the measurement of observed optical rotation as a commercial method to determine moisture content (given that the optical

rotation values from the source are provided by the manufacturer).

4.a. Limitations of the experiment Due to the scope of this project, there are certain limitations that need to be addressed. I was only able to conduct the experiment on one type and brand of honey, Essential Waitrose Pure Clear Honey and it was assumed that the honey in this bottle was from the same source. Ideally, the experiment should be conducted on every type of commercially produced honey so that consumers are able to monitor the condition of the honey at home or in the research and development departments of the honey industry. It is important to take every type of honey into account because the source and even storage history of the honey can affect its moisture content. The honey used for this experiment was in a jar bought from a store in Singapore. Climatic humidity plus the age of the honey may have influenced the readings—as this information (of storage time and conditions) was unavailable, there was no way to accurately estimate the extent of influence of the climate and storage conditions on the honey. In an ideal situation, the honey

In addition, I could apply the theory of varying optical rotation, to other parameters. For this essay, I focused on moisture content and its effect on optical rotation; however, I could explore how yeast fermentation, dust and microbial content affect the optical rotation. Since the source of honey affects fructose and glucose content—mentioned before that honeydew honeys have lower fructose content (García-Alvarez)—and the relative proportions of the two constituents affect optical rotation, the method of measuring optical rotation could be used to determine the source of the honey with further research.

5. Evaluation Other issues that I encountered which could have possibly impacted my results are explained here. I had to leave the solutions of water and honey that I prepared, overnight for them to dissolve completely. However, the exact time that they were left for may not have been the same for each set of repeats. This may have meant that the polarimetry was carried out when the solutions were at different stages of mutarotation, causing



a systematic error in the data. Next time, I should conduct all the repeats simultaneously so that the timing is more accurate and the solutions are dissolved to the same extent, and have reached the same level of mutarotation. During the overnight period, the samples of honey may have been in varying temperatures. While the laboratories were open for use, the air conditioner was turned on, however when it was shut, the air conditioner was turned off. This may have caused some deviation in temperature during the dissolving time, however the crucial aspect would have been that they were at the same temperature when the polarimetry was to be conducted—they were within the leeway set in the Method. Conducting more repeats would minimize the impact of such random errors and simultaneously improve the reliability of the data. The manual polarimeter had 1-degree divisions that were very close together. This contributed to large random errors for each observed rotation reading, as it was difficult to estimate readings between two divisions. Having a digital polarimeter would reduce the chance of error by a large margin, and also improve the accuracy of the data— one such digital polarimeter is the P-2000 Series Digital Polarimeter produced by Jasco Analytic Instruments (JASCO). The intensity of the bulb in the polarimeter used for this experiment kept reducing—this was problematic since the bulb was the source of unpolarized light. To avoid this, next time a pre-determined leeway for the deviations in light intensity should be set and monitored at regular intervals. I had to re-create the solutions of honey and water repeatedly because if they were poured into the polarimetry tube and created bubbles, it was not possible to take readings. This used up a lot of time and may have been eliminated had I perfected a pipetting technique that avoided bubble formation.

6. Works Cited Bogdanov, Stefan. “Harmonized Methods of the International Honey Commission.” International Honey Commission (2009). PDF file. 18 July 2013. . Brown, Catrin, and Mike Ford. Chemistry: Developed specifically for the IB Diploma. Malaysia: Pearson Education Limited, 2009. Print. Chepulis, Lynne. Healing Honey: A Natural Remedy for Better Health and Wellness. Boca Raton: BrownWalker Press, 2008. 57. Web. 12 July 2013. .  Dimins, Fredijs, Peteris Kuka, and Ilze Cakste. “Content of Carbohydrates and Specific Rotation Angle of Honey.” Foodbalt (2008) Latvian University of Agriculture Faculty of Food Technology. PDF file. 22 July 2013. . García-Alvarez, M. et al. “Determination of Polarimetric Parameters of Honey by NearInfrared Transflectance Spectroscopy.” Asean Food JF0105438 (2001): n. pag. PDF file. 25 July 2013. . “Honey: A Reference Guide to Nature’s Sweetener.” National Honey Board (2005): 15. PDF file. 25 July 2013.  < http://www. honey.com/images/downloads/refguide. pdf>. Hunt, Ian. “Optical Purity.” Department of Chemistry. University of Calgary, n.d. Web. 18 July 2013. .

Extended Essays 2013/2014 111

JASCO. “P-2000 Series Digital Polarimeter.” Digital Polarimeter. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 July 2013. . Marsden, Steve. “Optical Activity in Compounds.” Chemistry Resources. N.p., 1 Aug. 1996. Web. 14 July 2013. . “Measuring Water in Honey Quality.” Global Water. Xylem Inc., n.d. Web. 17 July 2013. . Nelson, J.M., and Frank M. Beegle. “Mutarotation of Glucose and Fructose.” Journal of the American Chemical Society (1919): 559. Web. 23 July 2013. . Nerz-Stormes, Maryellen. “Chirality, Enantiomers and Optical Rotation.” Organic Chemistry Study Aids. Bryn Mawr College, n.d. Web. 19 July 2013. . Paulien, Gunther B.. “Special Foods.” The Divine Prescription and Science of Health and Healing. Brushton: TEACH Services, 1995. 186-192. Web. 14 July 2013. . Pine, Stanley H. et al. Organic Chemistry. Tokyo: McGraw-Hill International Book Company, 1982. Print. “Polarimetry.” UCLA Chemistry and Biochemistry. N.p., 31 Aug. 2011. Web. 18 July 2013. . Pridal, A, and L. Vorlová. “Honey and its Physical Parameters.” Czech Journal of Animal Science 47 (2002): 439-444. PDF file. 23 July 2013. .

112 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Primorac, Ljiljana et al. “Specific Rotation and Carbohydrate Profile of Croatian Unifloral Honeys.” Czech Journal of Food Sciences 29. No. 5: 515–519 (2011): n. pag. PDF file. 24 July 2013. < http://www. agriculturejournals.cz/publicFiles/48210. pdf>.

This manual was obtained from the equipment packaging.

Product Description • Waitrose Pure Clear Honey • Quality honeys, blended for a mild toffee taste Product Information Storage Store at room temperature

Sanford, Malcolm T. Moisture in Honey. Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences. Univeristy of Florida, n.d. Web. 17 July 2013..

Prepare and Use Perfect for spreading on toast, croissants and fresh crusty bread and for use in cooking, baking and desserts

“To determine the Specific Rotation of a Sugar using a Polarimeter.” Physical Sciences: IIIT Hyderabad Virtual Lab. Ministry of Human Resource Department under National Mission on Education through ICT., n.d. Web. 17 July 2013. .

Country of Packing United Kingdom. Manufacturer Produced in Waitrose Ltd Bracknell Berkshire RG12 8YA UK.

White, J. W., and Landis W. Doner. “Honey Composition and Properties.” Agriculture Handbook Number 335 (1980): n. pag. Beesource. Web. 17 July 2013. .

Package Type Jar. Recycling Information Glass.

7. Appendices

Other Information Non suitable for infants under 12 months.

7.a. Appendix A: Harris Polarimeter Equipment Notes

Nutrition Ingredients A blend of EC and non-EC honeys

For more information on the Harris Polarimeter used for this experiment visit .

Nutritional Data Nutrition

7.b. Appendix B: Information on the Honey used during the experiment “Pure Clear Honey Essential Waitrose.” Ocado. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 July 2013. .

Typical values

per 100g

Energy

1306kj

Energy

307kcal

Protein

0.4g

Carbohydrate

76.4g

of which sugars

76.4g

Fat

0g

of which saturates

0g

Fibre

0g

Sodium

0g



Extended Essays 2013/2014 113

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

ABSTRACT COMPUTER SCIENCE

PEREZ LOBATO, GUILLERMO ALEJANDRO Research question Universal Turing Machines (UTM), unbound-loop programming languages, certain cellular automatons (such as the game of life), lambda calculus, VonNeumann “stored-program computers”, Harvard architecture machines and many other systems have the same theoretical computational power: anything that can be computed or calculated inside one of them can be possibly calculated in any other, keeping in consideration the fact that the amount of memory available for these systems is always finite. Turing Machines are useful because they provide a precise definition of important concepts such as “algorithm” and “effective procedure”, used for analysis in many areas. They also provide a framework for exploring the limits of the calculations that can be computed and the time and memory efficiency of different algorithms. This paper attempts to tackle the question: “What features, such as those present in cellular automatons and electric circuits, make a substrate suitable for the construction of a Universal Turing Machine?” In this essay, the low-level workings of the substrates of electronics and the cellular automaton “Game of Life” have been explained, then demonstrating how can these systems form the pieces required to create a UTM and putting these pieces together in order to show how can a UTM be built. Comparing and contrasting the characteristics present in both systems, the core characteristics required for building a UTM have been found.

Conclusion I conclude that for universality to be possible, a substrate requires two characteristics: Permanence. The ability to create a consistent delayed output on cue in order to form memory. Ability to be recursive. The ability to have either logic gates that (indirectly) feed their output to themselves, or to have instructions that iteratively interact with the tape.

114 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

ABSTRACTS DESIGN TECHNOLOGY

KAHARSYAH, KIRKHA

LINDER, DAVID

The aim of this investigation is to determine how the Nintendo consoles changes in terms of software and ergonomic aspects impacted the users. When I purchased Nintendo DSi, I found out some flaws within the design of DSi such as difficult to grasp the concept of the function or buttons positioning which caused confusion. I decided to test Nintendo DSi with Nintendo 3DS, since they were the newest Nintendo Product in recent years.

To what extent do the ergonomic qualities of portable gaming devices differ between the current generation of the Nintendo (3DS) and Sony (PS VITA) models?

After choosing the two consoles I would investigate, six research areas were determined. The six areas I investigated were ease of use in terms of software navigation, holding and reaching anthropometric, layout and mapping of the buttons, light level emitted by the products with brightness set at 100%, decibel level produced by the products with volume set at 100%, and the general comfort of the products. The results from my investigations resulted that Nintendo 3DS has a better impact on users in terms of both software and ergonomic design. 3DS exceeded several areas compare to DSi. Nintendo 3DS in terms of ergonomics mainly were better on lighting and general comfort where I asked users to rate the comfort for both consoles on mapping and layout; Nintendo DSi has a better software navigation and therefore less memory burden. Both products are equal in terms of decibel level and anthropometric, so both are suitable to use. The conclusion of the investigation was that Nintendo 3DS was better than Nintendo DSi; therefore it shows a better impact on users over one generation of the console. An unresolved question arose was what’s the maximum anthropometric percentile range to use this product and also the maximum hours the consoles can be played. Furthermore, future study on a good position when holding consoles and long-term effects on human body needs to be conducted.

The aim of this essay is to test and evaluate how the two leading portable gaming devices, Nintendo 3DS and Sony PS VITA, differ in ergonomic and aesthetic strengths. Ergonomic features include shape, mapping, size, and weight of the devices. Other than the actual software of the devices, these are the major factors affecting usage. Having used the Vita, my personal opinion was that there were several ergonomic flaws with it, which made it uncomfortable to use. This led me to wonder if similar problems persisted in the other leading portable gaming consoles, such as the 3DS. To find which device had the most ergonomic design, I evaluated each device in six different areas, which were the compliance with the 1st percentile’s reach, the button sizes, the pressure needed to activate the buttons, optimal weight of device, ease of use, and overall aesthetics of the design. The tests showed that overall, the Vita had a better ergonomic design qualities than the 3DS. It outscored the 3DS in the ease of use for the 1st percentile, the precision of using the “active” buttons for the 99th percentile (the 3DS had better inactive buttons), and the comfort for both ranges. Both of the devices’ designs were appreciated as aesthetically pleasing, though the Vita’s sleek design gave a it lighter frame and a more professional look, while the 3DS’s second screen is an added bonus. From the investigation carried out and conclusion drawn up, I was able to create a new improved design, which built up from the Vita, with a second screen and improved grips for greater comfort. For the grips, I kept in mind the need for portability, and made them as discreet as possible to keep the sleek look of the Vita and add value to the user experience.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 115

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

SELECTED DESIGN TECHNOLOGY WHICH OF THE TWO CALCULATORS USED AT UWCSEA IS MORE ERGONOMICALLY FUNCTIONAL AND AESTHETICALLY APPEALING TO IB STUDENTS?

NAYAK, MEGHNA The aim of this investigation was to determine which of the 2 calculators used in my school was ergonomically and aesthetically ideal. I compared the TINspire CX and the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition calculators to see which is more suitable for use by IB students in my school in terms of ergonomics and aesthetics through use of anthropometric data, surveys, user trials, expert appraisals, performance tests and study of secondary resources. Points addressed were the shape, size and weight of the devices, the dimensions and mapping of their buttons, amount of force required to operate the devices’ buttons, readability of the screens, intuitiveness of button layout and input methods, effect on classroom performance and aesthetic qualities of each device. The TI-Nspire CX was found to be the superior calculator, although, overall, calculators were quite close. The TI-Nspire CX triumphed due to its superior ease of use, with dedicated alphabet keys, aesthetically appealing design, better quality screen and button layout for two-handed use. However, the overall size of the device and the dimensions of the buttons were not as suitable for members of the target market group as the design of the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition. Some questions were left partially unresolved, such as the effect of the designs on classroom performance. Other points which could have been addressed in this investigation included: Left and right handed capabilities of each calculator, single or double handed usage, efficacy of touchbased track pad compared to arrow buttons and a comparison of the materials used in the calculators and their effect on the ergonomics of each device.

Introduction In Grade 11, as part of the IB Diploma, we use calculators in many of our classes. Most students choose to use graphical display calculators, like those made by Texas Instruments. While a large number of people

use the TI-Nspire CX (recommended by our school), some students prefer calculators from the TI-84 series. Some students prefer to use TI-84 series devices over the TINspire CX in spite of the latter’s improved computing power because the former is more comfortable and intuitive to use. Upon looking more closely at the calculators, I found that they had significant differences in their shape, mapping of buttons, and other features, which would affect their usability. I thought that this would be an interesting topic to explore, because it is relevant to students like myself, and if I were to find any conclusive results, they could have a real life application in our choice of calculators.

Research question Which of the two calculators used at UWCSEA is more ergonomically functional and aesthetically appealing to IB students? In my research, I will compare the ease of use and comfort of two calculators, the TINspire CX and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition, and evaluate the results to see which product is more ergonomically suitable for UWCSEA students.

Plan of Action

• I will first obtain a sample of each calculator and identify their features, especially those that differ between the two. • I will then create an ideal specification for the calculators. • I will research the points in this specification with respect to each calculator. • I will rate the calculators on each point of the specification to according to how well they satisfy it. • I will attempt to draw a conclusion on which calculator is more suitable for UWCSEA students.

Scale The scale I will use to show how well the calculators satisfy each point of the specification is as follows

116 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Score

Legend

0

Does not satisfy the criterion at all

1

Somewhat satisfies the criterion

2

Satisfies the criterion well

3

Completely satisfies the criterion

On the Texas Instruments websiteiv there is a chart comparing the features of different calculator models they produce. The information about the Nspire and the TI-84 are as follows. Although this data does not pertain to the ergonomic qualities the calculators, it sheds light on what factors are taken into consideration when purchasing a device.

Calculators The two calculators I will compare are the TI-Nspire CX (released in 2011) and the TI-84 Plus Silver Edition (released in 2004)i. For the sake of brevity, they will be referred to as “Nspire” and “TI-84” respectively throughout this essay.

Figure 1: TI-Nspire CXii

The two have some similarities—they are both made by the same company, and broadly for the same target market groups (high school and college students, some professionals), but there are also a number of noticeable differences, a result of the 7 year gap between their releases. Some of the differences are:

Figure 2: TI-84 Plus Silver Editioniii

Nspire

TI-84

Shape

Streamlined

Bulky, rounded

Size

Wider and thinner

Narrower and thicker

Weight

Lighter

Heavier

Screen

Color display, better quality and size

Black and White display, poorer quality and size

Button Layout

Arrow keys in the center, enter button to the right, on button at top right, buttons arranged in straight lines

Arrow keys in a corner, enter button at bottom right, on button at bottom left, buttons arranged in curved lines

Button Shape

Flat

Concave and convex

Input Methods

Dedicated alphabet keys

2 steps for inputting alphabets

Aesthetics

Rectilinear, modern, contrasting colours

Curvilinear, not modern, mostly shades of grey

Number of Buttons

75 buttons

50 buttons

Texture of buttons

Plastic feel

Rubber feel



Extended Essays 2013/2014 117

User research

Expert opinion

To understand the context in which the calculators are used by members of the target market group, I conducted a survey among 10 students. I wanted to know how often and for what purposes they used their calculators, whether they were right handed or left handed, whether they used their device with one hand or two and how familiar they were with each calculator.

To understand the long term effect of the differences between the two calculators, I asked Mr. Stirrat, Head of Department of Mathematics at UWCSEA East, for his opinion. I have used information supplied by him along with the 10 participants’ views in several research points to compare “typical” user and expert opinions.

Only 1 of the 10 people surveyed was left handed, and 9 out of 10 people used both hands when operating their calculator. Everyone who was surveyed had some experience using the Nspire, but only 2 were familiar with the TI-84. I asked which classes they regularly use their calculator in. Everyone uses their calculator for mathematics, but I was surprised to see that it is used regularly in so many other classes. Since my survey was limited to 10 participants, it is possible that some subjects may not have been documented in the results of the survey, as the participants involved did not study them, for example, physics. I also asked the participants how many hours they used their calculators each week. The average of the 10 responses was 1.5 hours.

Mr Stirrat used the TI-84 for 7 years, and has been using the Nspire for 9 months.

118 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Ideal Specification In this section, I identified properties of an ideal calculator, and provided a reason for each point stated.

No.

Point

Justification

1

The calculator should be anthropometrically appropriate for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group to use.

The calculator should be comfortable to use for all members of the target market group

2

The size and placement of buttons should be usable for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group.

The calculator should be comfortable to use for all members of the target market group

3

To be user-friendly and have good affordance, the calculator should require an appropriate amount of pressure to activate the keys.

Keys and buttons should not be difficult to press, but they should not be so easily pressed that they are activated accidentally.

4

The calculator should have good visibility – Text and numbers on the screen should be clear and easy to read.

A clear and effective screen allows more efficient calculator use

5

The device should have effective mapping – Layout of keys and placement of important buttons should be efficient and logical.

The position of buttons affects the ease of use, speed and accuracy with which calculations can be performed

6

The calculator should have low memory burden – Input methods should be intuitive

A calculator should be simple to use, especially during stressful situations like during a test

7

The calculator’s design should not adversely affect the classroom performance of users

The device should not be detrimental to users in any way

8

The design should be aesthetically pleasing, and users should like the design

As a result of the aesthetic usability effect, products which are more aesthetically pleasing are perceived as being easier to use

Research Plan This section classifies and indicates the method of testing, variables and primary or secondary nature of each point mentioned in the Ideal Specification. No.

Point

Method of Testing

Primary/ Secondary

Variables

Performance Test, Survey and Literature Search

Primary and Secondary

Independent: The calculator will be changed between tests

Function 1.1

The calculator should be anthropometrically appropriate for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group (males and female, age 16 to 18) to use.

Dependent: The measurements of each calculator and users’ comfort Controlled: The calculators will be evaluated against the same criteria



1.2

Extended Essays 2013/2014 119

Primary and The size and placement of buttons Performance Test and Literature Search Secondary should be usable for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group.

Independent: The calculator used Dependent: The measurements of each calculator. Controlled: The calculators will be evaluated against the same criteria

Performance 2.1

An appropriate amount of pressure should be required to activate keys.

Performance Test, Survey and Literature Search

Primary and Secondary

Independent: The calculator used Dependent: The amount of force required to activate buttons Controlled: The calculators will be evaluated against the same criteria

2.2

Text and numbers on the screen should be clear and easy to read.

Survey and Performance Test

Primary

Independent: The calculator used Dependent: Users’ ease when reading from the screen Controlled: The same set of digits and alphabets will be used for the tests

User Requirements 3.1

3.2

Layout of keys and placement of important buttons should be efficient and logical.

Input methods should be intuitive

Survey, Performance Test, Literature Search, Expert Appraisal

Primary and Secondary

User Trial

Primary

Independent: The calculator used Dependent: Users’ and expert’s preferences Controlled: Buttons considered will be the same Independent: The calculator used Dependent: Time taken to perform each task Controlled: Tasks to be performed will be the same

3.3

The calculator’s design should not adversely affect users’ classroom performance

Expert Appraisal

Primary

Independent: The calculator used Dependent: Effect on classroom performance Controlled: Same questions asked to same participant

Form 4.1

The design should be aesthetically Survey, Literature appealing and users should like Search the design

Primary and Secondary

Independent: The calculator used Dependent: Users’ satisfaction with the aesthetics of the calculator Controlled: The users surveyed and the scale used will be the same

120 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Research

Man

Function

99 percentile large man

50 percentile average man

1 percentile small man

104 mm

94 mm

86 mm

99 percentile large woman

50 percentile average woman

1 percentile small woman

91 mm

84 mm

76 mm

1.1 The calculator should be anthropometrically appropriate for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group (males and female, age 16 to 18) to use. The size, shape and weight of the calculator must be appropriate for members of the target market group, to ensure that it is as comfortable and easy to use as possible. The calculators are likely to be designed for use by high school and university students. IB students at UWCSEA are approximately 16 to 18 years old, and their anthropometric measurements are likely to correspond to those of adults.

of these values. The Nspire and the TI-84 scored 3 and 4.2 respectively.

Woman

Nspire

Width 87.15 mm

TI-84

83.95 mm (Narrowest) 84.54 mm (Widest)

The Nspire had a uniform width, while he TI84 did not, so I measure it at the narrowest and widest points. I compared the data obtained to anthropometric datav to see if the width of each calculator is suitable for potential users, considering the width of their grip. The Nspire is approximately 3 mm wider than the TI-84. According to the data, the maximum width of objects that can be gripped by adults is as follows:

To determine the weight of each calculator, I used a digital weighing scale. The Nspire weighed 237.85 grams, while the TI-84 weighed 255.67 grams. A lighter device would be easier to use. Since the Nspire is 17.82 grams lighter than the TI-84, it has a marginal advantage in this respect.

Size Due to the way calculators are held (resting on a table surface or in one’s palm), I decided to consider only width. Using vernier calipers, I measured the width of each calculator.

Weight

Grip Data – Man

Grip Data – Woman

Both of the calculators are too wide to be comfortably held by 1 percentile small man and 1 percentile small woman. The Nspire is too wide even for 50 percentile average woman, while the TI-84 is bordering too large for the same category. Both of the calculators are quite wide, and this makes them uncomfortable for a large portion of the target market group to hold. The TI-84 is marginally better than the Nspire in this respect due to its narrower shape. Shape To see which shape and size of calculator was preferable to members of the target market group, I conducted a survey among 11th Grade students. After asking participants to perform a few basic tasks such as typing in an equation and a word (section 3.1) using each calculator, I asked them to rate each calculator on a scale of 1 to 5 of how comfortable they found its weight and shape. I then took the average

Weighing the Nspire

Weighing the TI-84

These results were surprising; I had anticipated that the lighter calculator would be considered more comfortable to hold, which was not the case. However, the difference was marginal, with the scores for the Nspire and TI-84 at 3.4 and 3.5 out of 5 respectively. It may also be noted that most of the participants assumed that the TI-84 was the heavier of the 2 calculators (although I did not document this)



Extended Essays 2013/2014 121

and easy to press. It is possible that this data is meant for a different type of push button, or in another context. Therefore, I had to identify a different source. Participants using calculators and filling out surveys

1.2 The size and placement of buttons should be usable for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group. Making sure that buttons can be easily and accurately pressed improves error tolerance. This factor can be evaluated by considering the size of buttons and the distance between them.

Instead, I used data on mobile phone keysvii. Although the requirements for mobile phone keypads and calculators keypads are different, it is likely that the requirements and recommendations for this data would be similar, as the two product are used in a similar manner. According to this data, all of the buttons except for the “smallest button” of the Nspire satisfy the recommended minimum width of keys in at least one dimension.

Height of Keys I used vernier calipers to measure the height/ depth of the number keys. Neither of the two calculators meet the minimum recommended for depth/ height of keys (2.5mm). The TI-Nspire cx and the TI-84 were 0.87mm and 0.48 mm too short respectively. TI-Nspire

TI-84

1.63 mm

2.02 mm

Size I conducted a performance test in which I measured the size of certain important keys on each calculator and compared them with recommended size of buttons.

Depth

To determine the minimum required button size, I used data from the Human No. Button Name Nspire 1

2

3

On button

Number Buttons

Enter Button

Engineering Defence Data Digestvi, complied for “use during system, equipment, or facility design and assessment”. However, I found that, according to this data, only two of the tested buttons would meet the minimum requirement for length when using one’s finger tip, and none could be used with the thumb, which is not the case, as in practice, most buttons are fairly comfortable

TI-84 Length: 9.41mm

Length: 9.59mm

Width: 5.71mm

Width: 7.24mm

Length: 9.41mm

Length: 10.45mm

Width: 5.62mm

Width: 7.45mm

Length: 14.53mm

Length: 9.12mm

Width: 5.68mm

Width: 10.47mm

Distance Between Keys

Using vernier calipers, I measured the distance between number keys on each calculator I chose to measure the distance between the number keys as they are the most used buttons on a calculator, and their placement is likely to have a significant effect on the calculator’s use. The minimum recommended horizontal distance between keys is 3.8mm. With horizontal gaps of 3.61mm, the Nspire fails this test. At the narrowest point, the TI-84 also fails, but as a result of the shape of its keys, the gap at the tapering end of the buttons measures 5.14 mm which is satisfactory. Data on

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recommended vertical gaps could not be obtained. It may be noted that the buttons on the TI-84 are either concave or convex, which affords pushing, while the buttons on the Nspire are flat. Distance

Nspire

TI-84

Horizontal 3.61 mm 3.05 mm to 5.14mm

It may be noted that the force is recorded as negative, because a push was being measured, rather than a pull.

4.18 mm 5.49mm to 8.71mm Nspire

Vertical

stopped applying force. There is likely to be significant human error involved in this experiment, so I performed each experiment multiple times, and took the average of the results. Using logger pro, I was able to track the amount of force used, and the data tables provided an accurate report of the maximum force applied.

Based on the recommended values for size and layout of keys, the Nspire was slightly too wide to be used comfortably, and both of the calculators had unsatisfactory button dimensions. Point

Nspire

TI-84

1.1

1

2

1.2

1

1

Pressure Sensitivity – Nspire

TI-84

Conclusion

Pressure Sensitivity – Nspire

Devices should not require an excessive amount of force to be used as this may lead to fatigue and, eventually, more severe complications such as carpal tunnel syndrome. On the other hand, they should not be too sensitive, as accidental button presses may be recorded, lowering the device’s error tolerance. To test the amount of force required to activate the buttons and keys on the two calculators, I used a force meter. I measured the amount of force required to activate certain important buttons, and used feedback on the screen to determine exactly when the button was activated, and then

Number Arrow Keys

1

2.00

2.89

3.55

2

2.23

2.99

4.41

3

2.36

2.39

3.91

4

2.56

2.69

3.78

5

2.23

2.92

4.31

Average

2.276N 2.776N

3.992N

1

1.30

2.96

2.00

2

1.24

2.76

2.10

3

1.40

3.09

2.23

4

1.27

2.76

1.96

5

1.47

2.96

2.00

Average

1.336N 2.906N

2.058N

In each instance, 10 readings were taken, but only the 5 most similar results were considered, to disregard anomalies that result from human error.

Performance 2.1 An appropriate amount of pressure should be required to activate keys.

Trial On Number

Example of graph of force required to activate buttons

The highlighted values in the table correspond to the part of the graph that is selected.

The following table indicates the average force that people form different age groups can apply with their index finger or their thumbviii. This data is ideal, because information on a narrow age range of 16 to 20 is provided (rather than having all adults grouped together).



Extended Essays 2013/2014 123

members of the target market group, while the TI-84 got 9 scores of 5, and only one score of 3, with a total of 48 out of 50. When asked, participants said that they preferred the TI-84 keys because they felt that the pressure required was less, and seemed to move with a short quick, rather than the Nspire, which felt harder to press.

Many users commented that they liked the concave/ convex shape of buttons on the TI-84, saying that it was much more comfortable than the flat Nspire keys.

2.2 Text and numbers on the screen should be clear and easy to read.

Hand anthropometric data – Force exerted by fingers

Each female in the target market group can exert a force of at least 53.6 N with her index finger, and 86.2 N with her thumb. Each male in the target market group can exert at least 60.9 N with his index finger and 113.9 N with his thumb. Since the maximum force required for activating the tested buttons is 3.992N and 2.906for the Nspire and TI-84 respectively, it may be said that the buttons on both calculators can be comfortable used by all members of the target market group. However, it is possible that the buttons are too sensitive, which may result in unintentionally pressing buttons, leading to errors. I decided to compare my results with data from a different source.

The next table is from Human Engineering Design Data Digest. According to this data, the required minimum and maximum resistance to operate a push button with a single finger are 2.8N and 11N respectively. In this case, only the Nspire’s Arrow button and TI-84’s number button. These are technical recommended values, and I thought I could supplement this information with practical, first hand data from users. I asked 10 people from the target market group to perform a few tasks (typing in an equation and a word) using each device. I then asked them to rate how comfortable they found the pressure and required sensitivity of the calculators on a scale of 1 to 5. The Nspire was not popular among

To see whether the text and numbers were clearly visible on each calculator, I conducted a survey. I typed the sentence “THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY DOG” (because it includes all the letters of the alphabet,) and the digits “0123456789”. I was able to type in lower case and uppercase on the Nspire, but on the TI-84, lowercase letters are not available by default, so I only used capitals. When asked if all of the characters were easy to read and distinguish on the Nspire, all 10 participants said yes. However, only 9 out of 10 people said that characters were distinguishable on the TI84, and the issue was that the “V” and the

124 Extended Essays 2013/2014

“U” look similar. Also, it may be noted that the Nspire allows users to change font size, screen brightness and contrast, while the TI-84 only allows users to change the level of contrast. There is also a significant difference in screen size. Using vernier calipers, I measured the length and width of each screen. The Nspire screen was larger in terms of length and width. The Nspire has a significantly larger screen and a color LCD display (240x320 pixels)ix, which is also of better quality than the TI84’s 8 line by 16 character display x.

Screen and Display – Nspire

Nspire

was clearer and of better quality than the TI-84’s screen. Point

Nspire

TI-84

2.1

2

3

2.2

3

2

User Requirements 3.1 Layout of keys and placement of important buttons should be efficient and logical. Poor mapping reduces efficiency and extends the amount of time taken to perform a task. The two calculators have very different layouts. The following images are from “Getting started with the TI-Nspire TM CX/ TI-Nspire CX CAS Handheld”xi and the “TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition Guidebook” xii respectively.

Screen and Display – T1-84

TI-84

Nspire

TI-84

Arrow keys in the middle

Arrow keys to the top right corner

On button located at the top right corner

On button located at the bottom left corner

Arrow keys joined, as a track pad

Arrow keys separated

Individual alphabet No dedicated keys below number alphabet buttons, users have to press keys the “Alpha” key, and then another button All buttons are Buttons are arranged arranged in straight in lines which curve lines upwards To determine which set of features is more suitable for the target market group, I conducted a survey. I asked participants to use each calculator for a few tasks, and then asked them which of the two they preferred for different aspects. I also asked our local expert Mr.Ken Stirrat, Head of Department of Mathematics at UWCSEA East for his opinion. These are the results.

Length

Width

49.58 mm

66.03 mm

42.85 mm

Layout – Nspire

62.55 mm

Conclusion The force required to activate the buttons on each device was mostly suitable for both, and users found the TI-84’s buttons more comfortable. However the Nspire’s screen

Layout – TI-84

Some of the major differences in the layout are:

Key Alphabet On Button Arrow Key Trackpad Location Location Placement Keys

Point

User Opinion

Expert Opinion Centre (Nspire)

Top Right (Nspire)

Joined (Nspire) Dedicated Keys (Nspire) No preference



3.2 Input methods should be intuitive A good user interface is characterized by simplicity, intuitive logic and low memory burden. This may be measured, to a certain extent, by the speed at which tasks can be performed. While people indicated their preferences in the survey, I also conducted a timed test to see whether the difference in layouts had any effect on speed of calculator use and whether this made one calculator significantly more intuitive to use than the

the TI-84 than the Nspire with its dedicated alphabet keys). It must be noted that 3 participants were unsuccessful when using the TI-84, so the times of only 7 participants are included in the graph of average times. However, I will take into account the unsuccessful attempts when evaluating the calculators against the ideal specification. It is clear that in this case, the Nspire is much faster and easier to use, not only did it have a perfect success rate, but the average time taken was less than half of that used when users performed the task on the TI-84. 3.3 The calculator’s design should not adversely affect users’ classroom performance

other. For the first test, I asked participants to switch on each calculator and type the equation “(2+3-4)x9=” and produce an answer. I chose this as it included buttons for numbers, operations and brackets. There was a small difference, with people completing the task on the Nspire 0.82 seconds faster on average. The next task was typing the word “calculator”. On the Nspire, this would be straightforward, one would have to press the dedicated buttons for each alphabet. However, the buttons are much smaller and more difficult to press than those on the TI-84. The TI-84, on the other hand, would require the user to press ALPHA followed by a letter, and then repeat for each letter, or alternatively press 2ND, then ALPHA (which would activate alphabet lock)

To determine whether the differences in design of the 2 calculators had any effect on students’ performance during class, I asked Mr.Stirrat (HOD of Mathematics) who has been using these devices in his classes for several years. His response was that the TI-84 is more comfortable to use in the long run, but there are only minor differences in students’ performances, which reduce over time. He said that, as with any other technology, it takes time to learn how to use it. In fact, while he said that the Nspire was more comfortable, Mr.Stirrat also mentioned that 6 months prior, his answer would have been the opposite. He said that he has no preference regarding which calculator is better for UWCSEA students in terms of ergonomics, but the separated buttons of the TI-84 do improve speed, while the non-QWERTY buttons of the Nspire take some time to use. This point could have been addressed in more detail, and more information could have been obtained through secondary research and interviews of students to supplement the expert appraisal.

Conclusion followed by the letter buttons.(This leads to an increased memory burden while using

Users had a clear preference for the layout of the Nspire, except for its joined arrow keys. The Nspire also performed better in the user trials. The TI-84 was shown to be marginally

Extended Essays 2013/2014 125

superior in terms of classroom performance. Point

Nspire

TI-84

3.1

2

1

3.2

3

1

3.3

2

3

Form 4.1 The design should be aesthetically appealing and users should like the design According to the aesthetic usability effect xiii, a product which is more aesthetically pleasing is perceived as being easier to use than one which is not xiv.

I decided to find out which of the 2 calculators is more aesthetically pleasing, and therefore perceived as being easier to use. Since this is subjective I conducted a survey among 10 members of the target market group. I presented them with a sample of each calculator, and asked them to rate each calculator on a scale of 1 to 5, of how aesthetically appealing they found it. The Nspire had an average score of 3.6, while the TI-84 only got 2.5. Calculator

Amazon

eBay

TI Nspire

52

13

TI-84

84

17

People had quite a clear preference for the Nspire over the TI-84 during my survey. However, it may be noted that there is a variety of faceplates, cases and other accessories available for the TI-84 which allows users to customize them. While such cases are also available for the Nspire, there are not that many available, and the range is limited. This is seen through a search on

126 Extended Essays 2013/2014

popular retail websites like www.amazon. com

1

1

2

3

3 2.2 Text and numbers on the screen should be clear and easy to read.

2

1.2

and www.ebay.com, where I searched for “ti-84 silver edition case” and “ti nSpire cx case”. In both instances, the TI-84 yielded more results for customization than the Nspire.

The size and placement of buttons should be usable for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group.

Performance 2.1

Conclusion Users had a clear preference for the Nspire’s aesthetics, but the TI-84 has more options for customization. Point

Nspire

TI-84

4.1

3

2

Conclusion Research question: Which of the two calculators used at UWCSEA is more ergonomically functional and aesthetically appealing to IB students? To answer this question, I used the scores awarded to the 2 calculators for each point of the specification. These were the results. No. Point

Nspire TI-84

1.1

1 Size, shape and weight of the calculator should be appropriate for people from the 5th to the 95th percentile of the target market group to use.

2

I created an Adobe Illustrator drawing of an ideal calculator, based on performance tests, anthropometric data, user trials and expert opinions from research.

User Requirements Layout of keys and placement of important buttons should be efficient and logical.

2

1

3.2 Input methods should be intuitive

3

1

3.3 The calculator’s design should not adversely affect the classroom performance of users

2

3

3.1

Form 4.1

Function

An appropriate amount of pressure should be required to activate keys.

has anthropometrically more suitable dimensions, and more comfortable button sensitivity. However, the Nspire’s superior ease of use, clear screen, intuitiveness of operations and more aesthetically pleasing design are what caused it to receive a higher score. Yet it had some flaws, such as it’s size, and the way it was uncomfortable to grip. It performed poorly in anthropometric tests.

The design should be aesthetically pleasing, and users should like the design

TOTAL

3

17/24

2

15/24

The Nspire proves to be marginally superior to the TI-84, but superior nonetheless. Neither calculators scored a zero in any respect, and they both meet all of the criteria satisfactorily. The TI-84

Some questions are left unresolved in this paper, such as point 3.3, regarding classroom performance. Although I was able to obtain an expert’s opinion, I could have researched this point more in depth, by interviewing students who have used both calculators for extended periods. Other users, such s academics or university students, who have different requirements for the calculators could also have been tested. Another point which could have been addressed more thoroughly was 2.2, regarding the ease of reading from the screen. It should not have been limited to alphabets and numerals, as graphical display calculators include much more than that;



graphs, tables, etc. Left handed and right handed usability could have been evaluated, but I could not find enough left handed participants for a suitable experiment.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 127

Pressure Test Results Nspire On

TI-84 On

Nspire Number Keys

TI-84 Number Keys

Nspire Arrow Keys

TI-84 Arrow Key

There are some additional questions which could have been researched. As mentioned by Mr.Stirrat in his interview, the question of which calculator has more comfortable and suitable materials for gripping could have been looked into, although this is indirectly addressed in the survey of “Which calculator is more comfortable to hold?”. Another question is that of health and safety, whether extended use of either calculator would have any adverse effects. Points such as the efficacy of buttons vs touch responsive track pads could also have been investigated. More performance requirements, such as battery life, could also have been tested.

Appendix Questions and answers from interview with Mr.Stirrat (HOD of Mathematics at UWCSEA East and Local Calculator Expert)

128 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Script for Survey

Bibliography “Calculators.” Ticalc.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 July 2013. .

i

Figure 1 – TI-Nspire Cx. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 July 2013. .

x “TI-84 Plus Silver Edition Bid Specifications.” Texas Instruments. N.p., n.d. Web. 10 July 2013. .

ii

Figure 2 – TI-84 Plus Silver Edition. Digital image. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 July 2013. .

iii

“Which Calculator Is Right for Me?” Texas Instruments. N.p., n.d. Web. .

iv

Tilley, Alvin R. The Measure of Man and Woman: Human Factors in Design. New York: Wiley, 2002. Print. v

Survey Results

Group, Department of Defense Human Factors Design Technical Advisory – Human Engineering Design Data Digest, DOD. Web. vi

vii Berg, Klas, and Oscar Ljunggren. “Critical Dimensions and Usability Factors for Navigation Devices on Mobile Phones.” Thesis. Lund University, 2006. Web. 16 July 2013. . viii Kim, Yale. Applying Ergonomic Design Principles “Redesigning the Smartphone”. Cornell University Ergonomics Web. N.p., 2007. Web. 8 July 2013. .

“Features Summary – TI-Nspire Cx.” Texas Instruments. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 July 2013. .

ix

xi Getting Started with the TI-Nspire™ CX / TI-Nspire CX CAS Handheld. N.p.: n.p., n.d.Texas Instruments. Web. 27 July 2013. . xii TI-84 Plus and TI-84 Plus Silver Edition Guidebook. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Texas Instruments. Web. 27 July 2013.

Lidwell, William, Kritina Holden, and Jill Butler. Universal Principles of Design. Gloucester, MA: Rockport, 2003. Print. xiii

Tractinsky, A., A. S. Katz, and D. Ikar. “What Is Beautiful Is Usable.” Interacting With Computers (2000): n. pag. Web. 08 July 2013. .

xiv



Extended Essays 2013/2014 129

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

ABSTRACTS ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS AND SOCIETIES

BENHAM, KIRSTY Singapore has a limited recycling culture, despite the various initiatives of its National Environment Agency, which has been working towards increasing recycling rates since 2001 (Senior Manager Re: Enquiry). The question being examined is “To what extent are National Environment Agency (NEA) efforts effective in changing individual attitudes towards recycling in Singapore?” Recycling is increasingly important in transforming our society into a more sustainable one and in minimizing the environmental degradation caused by our consumerist lifestyles. There are two ways in which the NEA methods could increase recycling attitudes: indirectly by changing outlooks through education and directly by initiating habit through incentives and convenience. The investigation aimed to evaluate the extent to which NEA efforts were successful. It was comprised of a survey created for the investigation, and a few specific initiatives were examined. With the survey results, individual effort put into recycling was compared and correlated to the NEA initiatives. This was to see whether the initiatives were targeting the right groups, those who do not recycle, and successfully encouraging them to do so. Within the specific initiatives the reasons given to the importance of recycling were observed, particularly to see if they brought about an environmental appreciation.

The conclusion of the investigation was that the NEA was more successful in directly influencing behavior than in indirectly influencing behavior. The direct methods such as domestic collection and financial incentives targeted the groups who were less inclined to recycle and increased the likelihood of them doing so. However for the indirect method, education, it was seen that the younger individuals who should have been influenced, were not. There was very little educational focus on the reasons to recycle. The scope of NEA efforts seemed to be sufficient but there was limited emphasis on the question ‘Why recycle?’

130 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

ABSTRACTS PHYSICS

BALAJI, NAVANEETH

DANTAM, ADITYA

The purpose of this experiment was to explore the effect of tension on the frequency of drums. Since the modal frequencies of vibrating strings were studied as part of the Physics syllabus, I decided to explore this phenomenon in two dimensions using a drumhead. The question was—‘What is the effect of changing the tension of the drumhead(s) on open and closed drums?’

The research question, “How does AirResistance affect the optimum launch angle and maximum displacement of a projectile” is explored through an experimental approach.

Two drums were used. While the open drum only had one drumhead with the other side open, the closed drum had drumheads on both sides. The drums were setup on a stand and a microphone was connected to them to record the vibrational frequencies. The drums were struck and the frequencies of the sound produced were noted. Simultaneously, graphs of the frequency over time were also recorded. This was repeated at different tensions to observe a trend. From the experiment, it was found that as the tension increases, the frequency also increases. The relationship was linear in the case of one drumhead but exponential in the case of two. When the sound waves of single headed drums were compared to drums with two heads, it was found that the single headed drums had a much simpler sound with a few notable frequencies and followed the ideal membrane model while the drums with two heads had a much more complex sound with many different combination of frequencies. The frequencies of the sound produced by the single headed drums and double-headed drums had a ratio of 0.8+/- 0.1. Overall the experiment has shown that as the tension increases in the drumhead, the frequency of the sound also increases, but by different factors when two drumheads are used instead of one.

A table-tennis ball, weighing 0.007kg and having a diameter of 1.20cm, is launched at different angles to find differences in displacement. As the second part of the experiment, the ball is launched at different velocities as well to find differences in optimum launch angles depending on the drag force present. These experimental results are compared with three different models that predict the ball’s maximum displacement. The first model does not take into account the air resistance, the second model will take air resistance into account using Stokes’ Law, and the third model is similar to the second model, but uses the Drag Equation instead. Throughout this essay, only data collected at 10.850ms-1 will be used and analyzed as it is the highest velocity at which the data is collected, because it is easier to visualize the differences as it experiences more drag. After the experiment, I found that the Stokes’ Law model gave more accurate predictions, but the Drag Equation model’s predictions were more valid, as it predicted the decrease of the optimum launch angle. The results also showed a decrease in the optimum launch angle as the magnitude of drag increased. When the optimum launch angle and the drag force was compared, the drag equation, showed valid results as it showed the optimum launch angle in the absence of air resistance is close to 45°. Overall, this investigation showed that the optimum launch angle does, in fact, decrease when more air resistance is present.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 131

GUPTA, JAY

JALLOH, SULAIMAN

LEE, MINSEOK

This essay studies the reflectance of a mirror when it is heated in an attempt to answer the research question- “Investigating the relationship between the temperature of a mirror and its’ reflectance.”

This essay titling “How do the combined effects of light intensity and temperature increase affect the terminal potential difference of a Philip Harris PV cell,” aims to explore the rate of decrease of voltage output under an increase temperature and light intensity condition. Temperature and light intensity both have an effect on the voltage output of a PV cell under different climatic conditions and the optimum performance of the cell will depend on its placement in best conditions in order to yield maximum output.

This essay aims to investigate the rolling motion of annular cylinders, more specifically, the difference between the theoretical model and the reality. To execute the investigation, the thickness, effectively the size, and the linear velocities of the cylinders were chosen as independent and dependent variable, respectively.

The scope of this investigation is to, through experimental means and the usage of graphs, to investigate how the reflectance of light of a mirror changes when the mirror is subjected to a change in temperature. From the theory, it was hypothesized that the amount of light reflected will decrease with the increase in temperature. The experiment was carried out by initially mounting a laser on a retort stand with a constant angle of incidence. The angle of incidence was measured with the help of a protractor, ruler, length of string and an inclinometer. The laser was switched on and the light ray was incident on the mirror that was placed on the hot plate. A temperature probe was also placed on the mirror to measure the temperature of the mirror. The amount of light reflected off the mirror was measured by a photometer and thus, the experimental data was collected. This data was then processed and evaluated. The conclusion for the experiment shows that there is a negative trend between the reflectance of the mirror and the temperature. There were a number of difficulties associated with the experiment and many unforeseen errors that occurred. In essence, the basic conclusion is that with an increase in the temperature, the reflectance of the mirror decreases resulting in a negative correlation.

The initial aim of this essay was to investigate the effect of temperature on the voltage output of a PV cell. However, I found out that, there is an intertwined effect of temperature and light intensity on the voltage output of the cell. This intertwined effect is due to the increasing heating effect with increasing light intensity due to prolong exposure to a particular light source including the Sun. I started the research by carrying out an experiment to find the optimum light intensity that would yield the theoretical voltage output of the PV cell tested as stated by the manufacturer. At this light intensity value, I decided to investigate the temperature effect on the terminal voltage output of the cell by keeping the light intensity constant. Finally, I investigated the time taken for the PV cell to lose the voltage output due to temperature increase. The conclusion drawn from this research paper is that, the investigation clearly indicates a decrease in voltage output of 0.0410.001v for every 1⁰C rise in temperature for this Philip Harris PV cell under the conditions tested. In the process of experimenting, I found that, increase light intensity varies non-linearly with the terminal voltage output of the cell and maximum value of 0.450.01Vat 80001lux was produced.

The scope of this essay is to compare the theory and experimental results with respect to linear velocity, angular velocity and the energy ratio between kinetic, rotational and potential energy. A4 paper annular cylinders, sizes varied by having different number of turns for each cylinder, were rolled down a meter long wooden board with two different surfaces (smooth side/ felt-covered side). Vernier Motion Detector 2 with Vernier LabQuest was chosen, as it is an effective device to collect data for time, displacement, and velocity, and also for graphs involving those values. Coupled with the derived formulae for angular velocity and the energy ratio, this method allowed for effective treatment of the investigation, and it was found that linear velocities varied for each different thickness in a form of logarithmic graph, contradicting the theory, which suggests that they are constant regardless of the thickness. Theory-proposed angular velocity and the experimental result also showed a discrepancy that increases as the thickness of the cylinder increased. The original formula for ratio between kinetic energy and rotational energy with respect to potential energy proved that the theoretical ratio is 2:1, whereas the analysis of experimental value revealed a ratio of 1:1. Such deviance was proven to be solely due to slipping motion by further analysis of the data collected on two different sides of the incline. The result was found to be highly applicable as it deals with general motion of rotation, which can be found in sundry industries, such as an automobile industry.

132 Extended Essays 2013/2014

ONO, ALTO

PAROLIA, RAJ

PATNI, RAHUL

Electronically powered electromagnetic projectile launchers, EPEPLs for short, are being heavily researched for military uses and space exploration. The acceleration that can be provided by such systems are unparalleled by traditional propulsion methods.

The aim of this investigation is to find the relationship between the thrust generated by a single pitch propeller and the velocity of the airplane. An experimental model of the particular situation was designed, in which the velocity of air flowing into the propeller was changed using a simple table fan (this change is the same as changing the velocity of the aircraft) and the net thrust generated by the propeller was found.

This investigation is an attempt to find a relationship between the tension of a string and the coefficient of restitution (COR) (the square root of the ratio between drop height and rebound height) of a ball when dropped on this string. This question plays a significant role in tennis because the strings are the only component of the racquet that is in contact with the ball while tension plays a significant role in determining ‘power’ (rebound velocity of the ball when hit by the racquet can be used as a measure of power) of the shot.

This essay investigates the effects of the current applied to an electronically powered electromagnetic projectile launcher in order to try and answer the question How does the current applied to an electronically powered electromagnetic projectile launcher affect the maximum velocity of the projectile, the point at which the projectile reaches maximum velocity, and the efficiency of the launcher? Though a projectile can be fully propelled by an electromagnetic projectile launcher powered by a large amount of current, it is not safe for a school environment. The electronically powered electromagnetic projectile launcher used in this paper uses a strong eclipse magnet to strengthen to the magnetic fields created by the current flowing through the rails. The projectile was launched by rolling down a set of rails with the current varying from 2 amps to 5 amps depending on the trial. An ultrasonic motion detector recorded the position and the velocity of the projectile. The maximum velocities were then compared to theoretical values, showing that the experimental value was significantly lower at all intervals. However, as the theory suggested, the velocity of the projectile was proportional to the square root of the current. Furthermore, the distance from start at which maximum velocity was reached was recorded. After plotting these values against the current, there seemed to be no correlation between the two variables. Further investigation showed that the efficiency of the EPEPL increased as the current applied was increased.

Effective treatment of this data, using graphing softwares led to the conclusion that the propeller indeed behaved in accordance with the unified theory of propeller thrust, combination of the assumptions used in the simple momentum theory of propeller thrust and the Bernoulli’s equation regarding the idea of the rotating aerofoil theory of propeller thrust. The uncertainty was found keeping in mind the variables that could and could not be controlled and using appropriate graphing technologies, various suitable relationships were found. The result was found to be that the relationship between the thrust generated by the propeller and the velocity of the airplane was a quadratic relationship, i.e increase in the velocity of the airplane caused the thrust generated to decrease by the square of the increase in the velocity. The result found was also quite contextual as it was applicable to only the particular propeller that was used in the experiment and although most propeller will behave in accordance with the result, however at high velocities, with the propeller tip approaching the speed of sound, the propeller behaves differently and moreover in some propeller the pitch of the propeller can be changed. Nevertheless, the investigation and the results found can be used as a guide for further investigations in the field of propellers as the experiment designed can be used to test other propellers.

This investigation is a simplified version of a complex real life situation. A ball was dropped through a plastic tube (to improve accuracy) onto a single piece of string with a certain tension. The journey of the ball- from its drop to its final height- was recorded and the video was analyzed with Logger Pro to find the respective heights. Therefore, the value for the coefficient of restitution was determined. The tension was changed and the process was repeated. As hypothesized, this investigation showed that the square of the COR and the tension produced a linear relationship. The energy lost during the collision produced an inverse linear relationship with tension and the extension of the string from its rest position decreased as the tension increased. This investigation has also been compared to the existing relationship in tennis and their differences have been outlined. The significant factors that contribute to energy loss in both situations have also been compared- in the investigation, the major factor was string deformation, which is the result of comparison of actual stretch with the theoretical stretch of the string in the vertical direction, while in tennis the ball deformation is the main contributing factor to energy loss.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 133

GROUP 4–SCIENCES

SELECTED PHYSICS FROM A STANDING START, AT WHAT ANGLE OF A SAILING BOAT TO THE WIND IS FORWARD ACCELERATION MAXIMISED?

O’BRIEN, TRISTAN

1. Introduction

This essay investigates, “from a standing start, at what angle of a sailing boat to the wind is forward acceleration maximised”. The investigation only deals with aerodynamic[TO1] aspect of sailing, since it is at zero velocity, and does not try to determine the sail angle, but instead presumes they are set optimally. First the theory behind sailing was investigated, then experts were consulted and past research was sought after[TO2]. To supplement this, an experiment was carried out whereby a retort[TO3] stand[TO4] was converted into a sailing boat and mounted upon carts on parallel low-friction tracks. A fan was the wind source and by changing the angle of the tracks to the fan one also changes the angle of the boat to the wind. By connecting a force sensor to the retort stand, the forward force was measured. To produce “optimally” trimmed sails, when testing each angle of the boat to the wind, the sail was slowly pulled in and the highest force reading over this period was recorded. Nine repeats of angles between 60° and 200° were taken.

Acceleration is crucial in any sailing race. In the final seconds before the start, the aim is to accelerate the boat from an almost stationary position to as fast a possible to achieve an early lead. This is also critical when a boat has lost speed dramatically after rounding buoys. In order for this acceleration to occur, one must know the ideal position of the boat in relation to the wind. This leads to the research question, “From a standing start, at what angle of a sailing boat to the wind is forward acceleration maximised”. For reference, definitions of sailing related terms are in Appendix A.

Both the theory and the opinions of experts showed that maximum acceleration would occur when the boat was 180° from the wind. While no directly relevant past research was found, an NACA[TO5] report was processed[TO6], producing results with unreliable angle readings, but that clearly showed that once the force readings plateaued, they started to decrease shortly after. The experimental testing showed[TO7] force initially increasing as the angle increased from 60° to 140°, and then the force readings plateaued off until 200°, but with no subsequent decrease. From these different sources, it was concluded that from a standing start, a boat accelerates most when it is somewhere in the region of 140° to 200° from the wind, most likely at 180°.

1.1

Scope of Investigation

The question crucially only deals with a boat that has no initial velocity. This means that only the aerodynamic aspect of sailing will be investigated, as the hydrodynamics only comes into play with boat movement. This also means the wind relative to the boat is the same as the real wind, rather than it changing with the speed of the boat. Avoiding this “apparent wind” simplifies the theory and allows for practical experimentation. Because of this, all situations considered in this investigation are of an initially stationary boat, unless stated otherwise. Also, the question does not deal with the angle of sails, but rather presumes that the sail is trimmed optimally at specific angles of the boat to the wind. This “optimum” sail setting has implications on the experimental testing, which will be discussed later. Additionally, only a boat with a single sail will be considered, while racing boats can have up to three. 1.2

Method of Investigation

The investigation will first look at relevant theory to help answer the question, then opinions of experts in the field, followed by the processing and analysis of past research. In light of this, an experiment will be conducted to test claims found. The conclusion will be based on these four elements.

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1.3 Relevant Theory In it’s basic form, the physics of sailing is the study of how a sail changes the velocity of air particles (Wolfe). This can be explained through Diagram 1. As air particles with initial velocity “u” hit the sail their velocity deviates to “v”, which means there is a change in velocity “Δv”. For this to have occurred, the sail must exert a force “Fair” on them, which means an equal and opposite force must be exerted on the sail and the boat “Fboat” (Newton’s third law). This force on the boat can be broken down into forward “Fforward” and sideways “Fsideways” components. Through the boat design, the sideways component of the force is almost totally cancelled out by the resistive force exerted on the boat’s keel or centreboard by the water, leaving the forwards component to accelerate the boat. Since Newton’s Second Law states F=ma, we know that the angle where forwards force is maximised will also be the angle where forward acceleration is maximised. Therefore, one must investigate which angle of the boat to the wind has maximum forward force to answer the research question.

Diagram 1 - A Boat 45 Degrees to the Wind

To do this, additional diagrams were constructed to model the forward force with the boat at different angles to the wind. These were done for 45°, 90°, 135°, 180° and 225°. Each of them follow the same process as Diagram 1 to find the forward

force and have their sailed trimmed to what is generally considered an optimal level. These diagrams can be found in Appendix B. The forward force found from each of these are compared in Diagram 2, where it is evident that the forward force increases up until 180°, and then decreases. However, one must remember that this is the forward force per air particle, so the number of air particles hitting the sail will affect the actual forward force. But since at 180°, where the sail will be perpendicular to the wind, the surface area is maximised, the maximum possible particles will hit the sail at this angle. Therefore, it remains that at 180° from the wind (i.e. fully downwind) forward force, and therefore forward acceleration, will be maximised, according to this theory.

Diagram 2 - Comparison of the Relative Forward Force at Different Angles

The reason for this can be explained using an analogy. If one imagines the sail to be a wall, air particles hitting this wall will create a force. One would suspect that the maximum force occurs on the wall when it is perpendicular to the velocity of the particles, because it is very difficult for air particles to funnel away, unlike at other angles. This being the case, it follows that maximum force on a sailboat would occur when the sail is perpendicular to the wind. This would create a force traveling in the same direction as the wind. For a boat to take full advantage of this force, one would point the boat away from the wind, meaning is at 180° to the wind (i.e. fully downwind) forward force will be maximised. While both these approaches point to 180° being the optimum angle, one must recognise the effect of other, harder to predict forces. Primarily, an additional force is exerted on the sail due to the pressure differences on either side of it. However,

the direction of this force is almost identical to that investigated above, meaning that similar results would be produced. In addition, but to a lessor extent, a torque occurs around the mast due to the force from the sail. However, experienced sailors would be able to balance the boat to make the effect of the torque almost negligible. But however minor their effects, these two additional forces might invalidate the claim that 180° is the angle of maximum acceleration. To determine whether this would be the case, experts were consulted.

1.4 Expert Opinions Twelve experts in the field were approached, of which four responded to the research question. Their opinions broadly agreed that maximum acceleration occurs when the boat is 180° to the wind. Professor Bryon Anderson, a PhD physicist at the University of Kent and the author of the book, “The Physics of Sailing: Explained”, said that, “I am quite confident that the point of sail that will give maximum acceleration from a standing start is straight downwind” (Anderson). Burns Fallow, the head sail designer for “Team New Zealand” in the America’s Cup and whom made the scale-model sail used in this investigation’s experimentation, also adheres to this view (Fallow). This clearly adds weight to the claim that maximum acceleration is at 180°.

1.5 Past Research To further investigate these claims, past research was sought. After analysing archives and speaking to experts, it was concluded that no publicly available past research directly pertained to the research question. However, one piece of past research was found that could be processed to help answer it. A 1949 Technical Note from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) compares the lifting force coefficient (CL), the drag force coefficient (CD) and the sail’s angle from the wind (α). These terms help investigate other areas of



aerodynamics and do not pertain directly to this investigation, so they will not be carefully defined, but can be used to find the forward force. This is be done through Equation 1, which converts CD and CL into the forward force coefficient (CX), which was taken from C.A. Marchaj’s 1980 book, “The Aero-Hydrodynamics of Sailing” (Marchaj 543): Equation 1

While Marchaj does not prove Equation 1, a trigonometric proof can be found in Appendix C. Although Marchaj did not create Equation 1 to interpret this data, analysis of its roots shows it can apply just as well. If one assumes that (β-λ), the angle of the boat to the wind, is double α, the following equation is produced: Equation 2

This allows us to input data from the NACA research and compare CX with the boat’s angle to the wind. However, the above assumption is very loose that is told to help beginner sailors, meaning angles in these results will not be reliable. Full mathematical processing of the NACA report can be found in Appendix D. The results are seen in Graph 1.

Graph 1 - Processed NACA Data

As with the sailing theory, we can presume force is proportional to acceleration. These results show us there is a clear upward trend,

then a peak, and then a downward trend, implying there is only one point where force is maximised, and therefore acceleration, albeit with a minor dip at 140°. The NACA report does not explicitly process errors, but states, “successive force measurements showed considerable scatter in the vicinity of the maximum” (NACA 5). So while not very precise, the repeated measurements would hopefully bring the averages into line, meaning the forward force on the above diagram is reasonably accurate, at least in terms of the trends described above. However, as discussed above, the angle is very unreliable, due largely to the assumption. Therefore, the 130° to 150° maximum range is by no means accurate.

1.6 Summary Both the theory and experts in the field agree that forward acceleration maximises at 180° to the wind. The processed past research shows that there is definitely a maximum point in the acceleration. However, it does not back up the 180° claim, but its angle values were shown to be unreliable. Since there is no other past data found to back up the 180° claim, an experiment will be carried out to test it.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 135

fan was the same as the angle of the boat to the wind. A Venier force sensor was then placed on the track behind the boat, and was hooked onto the boat to measure the force. By doing this, only the forward force was measured as the sideways force was cancelled out by the track. Given that for each angle of the boat to the wind there is an optimum angle of the sail, each of these sail angles were tested to find the maximum force for specific boat angles. To do this, for each test the sail started off loose, and was slowly pulled in (tightened) until it was completely in. This is seen in Diagram 3. By graphing the force reading during this period, the maximum force for each boat angle was recorded. The sail angle was adjusted using the “mainsheet”, which was pulled perpendicular to the track so as not to alter the forward force reading. There was a risk that pulling in the sail would increase its interaction with air particles and the force will increase, known as pumping. This was minimised by pulling the sail in over 30 seconds.

2. Experiment 2.1 Concept The experiment centres around measuring the forward force that is produced at various angles of the boat to the wind. While there are several ways to do this, the one chosen is as follows. A model of a sailing boat was constructed using a retort stand, with its pole acting as a mast, with a wooden dowel attached as a boom. A scale-model sail made to sailing standards was then added with appropriate rope settings. This retort stand was attached to a cart, which was then put on a low-friction track. The track was then placed next to a fan, and the angle of the track to the breeze produced by the fan was adjusted. Because the boat could only move backwards and forwards on the track, the angle of the track to the

Diagram 3 - Angle of Sail Changing in Experiment

Preliminary testing found that a cart on a track was not steady enough to stop the retort stand from toppling over, so to resolve this, two perpendicular tracks were used with two carts each, with a thin sheet to wood connected to the carts. The retort stand was mounted on this wood. So the two tracks could be moved uniformly, they were attached to a larger piece of wood below. Preliminary testing also showed that at different moments the reading for force was extremely variable, spiking regularly. To resolve this, the force sensor was set to take

136 Extended Essays 2013/2014

100 readings per second and then calculate a rolling average of the last second. This produced steadier results. The angels tested were every 10° from 60° to 200°. This range was chosen because angles surrounding the 180° mark were crucial to being tested. Ideally, angles would have been tested beyond 200°, but the design made this very difficult as ropes twisted around the boom for these angles. Additionally, in reality a boat would never sail past 200° to the wind as its sail would swap sides. Repeats were limited to nine, due to laboratory time restraints.

2.3.2 Diagrams

Diagram 4 - Birds-eye View of the Whole Experiment

1. Set up the equipment as explained. 2. Set the tracks so they are 60° to the fan.

2.2.1 Independent • The angle of the boat to the wind, determined by changing the angle of the track to the wind as indicated on the printed protractor.

3. Let the mainsheet out completely so the sail can move freely. 4. Turn on the fan. 5. Zero the Vernier force sensor reading. 6. Turn on the recording of the Venier force sensor.

• Angle of the sail to the boat. This is different for each angle of the boat to the wind, but the force produced by the “optimally” set sail is found by changing the angle of the sail for each test and finding the maximum force.

Diagram 5 - Side View of the Boat

2.2.2 Controlled • The wind speed, controlled by keeping the fan the same distance away from the tracks and on the same power setting. • The sail settings. The outhaul, downhaul and kicker ropes will not be adjusted throughout the testing.

2.3 Equipment 2.3.1 List A detailed equipment list can be found in Appendix F.

In terms of the boat, the sail was designed with a “sock” to slide onto the mast. The boom was made out of wooden dowel, with a hook attaching its end to the mast. The boom was fastened to the sail using string. The outhaul, downhaul, kicker and mainsheet were all made using string. The downhaul and kicker were attached to the washer and tied off. The outhaul was attached to the end of the boom and tied off. The mainsheet, which was adjustable, went through a hook.

2.4 Method

2.2 Variables

2.2.2 Dependant • The forward force, measured by the force sensor’s rolling average.

with the computer.

7. Slowly pull the mainsheet in, at a perpendicular angle to the tracks, until the sail is fully pulled in, for 30 seconds.

2.3.3 Set Up

8. Stop recording the Vernier force sensor.

The set up is mainly as seen in Diagrams 4 and 5. Additional pictures can be found in Appendix E.

9. Turn off the fan. 10. Save the document of the force recordings.

Working through the diagrams, the “angle indicator” was made by printing an enlarged protractor. Holes were drilled in the base of the thick wooden board so the low-friction tracks’ feet could fit into place. The distance between these two tracks was fixed, and two carts were added onto each. Using nuts and bolts, these were fastened at the appropriate distance to the thin wooden board, so it would run smoothly across the tracks. The retort stand was attached to this board by drilling a whole in it and using a large nut and bolt. The force sensor was attached to the low-friction track using a fitting, which was built into the sensor. String attached the sensor to the retort stand. Wires connected the force sensor

11. R epeat steps 2 – 10 for every 10° from 60° to 200°. 12. Repeat steps 1 – 11 so repeats of every angle are taken nine times. 13. On each document, find the highest value of the one-second rolling average of the force, and record this value as the force.

2.5 Raw Data Raw date can be found in Appendix G.

2.6 Processed Data First the average value for each angle is taken. The error for each of these averages is calculated using the standard error, SE



(Standard Error), by finding the standard deviation, SD, and dividing it by the square root of the sample size. The standard deviation is found using Equation 3:

Equation 3

The standard error is found using Equation 4:

Extended Essays 2013/2014 137

Angle of the Average Boat to the Forward Wind (±3°) Force (N)

Standard Deviation of Forward Force (N)

Standard Error of Average of Forward Force (±N)

90

0.96

0.25

0.08

80

0.84

0.23

0.08

70

0.63

0.21

0.07

60

0.49

0.17

0.06

Table 1 - Processed Data

N.B. The three-degree error is taken from the qualitative raw data. Equation 4

This data is presented in Graph 2.

Given that the number of samples is 9, Equation 5 can be used:

Equation 5

For 200°, the standard deviation was calculated to be 0.17N. By dividing this by three we find the standard error to be 0.06N. This processing can be seen in Table 1 on the following page.

Angle of the Average Boat to the Forward Wind (±3°) Force (N)

Standard Deviation of Forward Force (N)

Standard Error of Average of Forward Force (±N)

200

0.17

0.06

1.68

190

1.67

0.25

0.08

180

1.58

0.20

0.07

170

1.64

0.13

0.04

160

1.56

0.14

0.05

150

1.62

0.18

0.06

140

1.61

0.17

0.06

130

1.52

0.27

0.09

120

1.46

0.24

0.08

110

1.23

0.19

0.06

100

1.11

0.17

0.06

Graph 2 - Processed Experimental Data

2.7 Discussion From the graph, an initial upward trend can be seen, followed by flattening of this trend into a plateau. The upward trend occurs from 60° to 140°, and the plateau from 140° to 200°. However, the graph in no way clearly shows the maximum, but it can still be very useful. In terms of error, error bars on the graph can be seen clearly. The horizontal error bars, which were taken from the upperbound estimate in the qualitative raw data due to angle indicating paper slipping, do not overlap, meaning the error was not big enough to invalidate the results. However, at points the vertical error bars do overlap. During the upward trend, the vertical error bars hardly overlap, upholding the reliability of this trend. However, when the graph plateaus off, the error bars clearly do

overlap. This adds to the argument that no maximum can be found, because it is within each angle’s margin of error for another angle to have a greater forward force than it. The reasons for these errors will be discussed later. The maximum obviously does not occur in upward trend between 60° and 140°. In the plateau, it is possible that the maximum lies anywhere in this region, as already discussed. However, for it to lie in this region, a decrease in the force as the angle continues to increase would have to be shown, and this is not the case because the final two data points have higher averages than all others. Ideally, further data points would have been tested to determine when, if ever, the forward force starts to decrease. Unfortunately, this was not possible because ropes got tangled around the retort stand when the angle was extended much further past 200°. Also, as already noted, in reality no boat would sail further than 200° as its sail would flip sides. But because of this, there is no way of telling if and when the forward force will start to decrease, meaning from this data alone it will not be possible to set a finite range on the angle of maximum force. However, if it can be shown definitively that the force decreases after it plateaus, then one can could conclude that the maximum angle will fall somewhere between 140° and 200°. In terms of the source of error in the experiment, the error in the angle has been identified in the qualitative data as the paper moving out of position, “Although taped down, the paper used to measure the angle sometimes slipped slightly. An upper-bound estimate of this would be three degrees at any time”. In terms of the force, it is harder to identify. It is possible that the fan not being centred on the sail completely, as alluded to in the raw qualitative data, is the main reason for this error, however there could be other reasons, such as the aerodynamic testing simply being variable.

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Another possible source of error, albeit systematic, is the sideways force of the boat pushing against the track causing friction, decreasing the force reading that is recorded. However, one would assume the high quality low-friction track in use would reduce this error significantly.

2.8 Evaluation The main limitation of the experiment was that angles beyond 200° could not be tested. In the initial design, it was thought than the forward force would have started to decrease by this point, but that was not the case. Due to the design, ropes started to tangle while testing beyond 200°, meaning this range could not be tested. While in reality a boat would not sail this far from the wind, for future tests the capability to test far beyond 200° should be incorporated. Another limitation was that only nine repeats were taken, due to only ten hours of testing under restricted laboratory time. This limited the possibility of further reducing the standard error of the force readings. While these were not large enough to be a problem, they were still as large as 10% at some points. The other major limitation in the testing was that occasionally the paper that indicated angles shifted slightly. This caused an error was given an upper bound estimate of three degrees, as specified in the qualitative data. This meant there was noticeable uncertainty in the angle readings. Paper was used because the experiment had to be reconstructed and deconstructed around laboratory timetables. However, in future tests, a hard plastic layer with angles could be clamped to the table to negate the need for paper.

3. Conclusion The experimental testing clearly showed that the angle of maximum forward acceleration is above 140°, and that forward acceleration remains almost constant between 140° and 200°, but not that it

started to decrease as the angle increased further. However, if one takes into account the processed NACA data, even though there was great uncertainty in its angle measurements, that showed the maximum forward acceleration started to decrease after a period of it being constant, then one can presume that this will also be the case for the experimental results. If so, one can deduce that experimental testing shows the angle of maximum acceleration will lie between 140° and 200°. In addition to this, we know that sailing theory and the opinions of experts both show the angle of maximum acceleration to be 180°. Therefore, it is reasonable to conclude that the angle of maximum acceleration lies somewhere between 140° and 200°, with evidence pointing to it being at 180°. 3.1 Implications of Conclusion The most significant implication is that the angle of maximum acceleration from a standing start, 180°, is different from the angle where a boat’s speed is maximised, generally around 90° depending on boat specification. This means that, almost counter-intuitively, a boats accelerating position is different to its final position. This also rebuffs some sailors claims that a boat will accelerate fastest at 90° to the wind. Also, if one believes that the angle of maximum acceleration is 180°, this has broad implications. Most profoundly, when a boat is stalled, acceleration will always increase as you turn your boat away from the wind. Even if a sailor does not go all the way to 180°, acceleration will increase when they “bear-away”. This means on the start line, where usually the boat is stalled, and when rounding buoys, it is beneficial to turn the boat away from the wind to the greatest extent possible. Another implication is that this conclusion would be true for all boats, from small dinghies to the huge America’s Cup boats. This is because no matter the sail shape, the way the wind acts on a 180° sail will always be the same, as seen in the earlier explained sailing theory.

3.2 Further Investigation Further tests are still needed to add weight to the conclusion this essay makes. In particular, further experimental tests, similar to the one in this investigation but with an expanded range of angles tested, would be desirable. In addition, the other recommendations in the evaluation should be implemented. Also, the testing only investigated one type of sail design. Just for certainty, it would be beneficial to also test other types of sails and also sails at full scale using wind tunnels. Seeing as this investigation focused only on the angle of the boat to the wind and presumed the sail was set optimally, further investigation into the angle of the sail to the boat would be useful. In addition, an investigation into how the optimum angle of acceleration changes as a boat increases its velocity would be useful, however this would be significantly more complex and hard to test.

Appendix A – Glossary of Sailing Related Terms Angles of the boat to the wind: • Upwind: When a boat sails as close to the direction of the wind as it can without stalling • Reach: When a boat sails at about perpendicular to the wind

• Broad reach: When a boat is sailing more than 90° from the wind • Downwind: When a boat sails directly away from the wind Parts of the boat: • The hull: The entire base of the boat • The mast: The long vertical pole the sail connects to • The boom: The horizontal pole the sail connects to • The kicker: A rope connected from the boom to the mast which prevents the boom from rising up



Extended Essays 2013/2014 139

Appendix C – Proof of Marchaj’s Equation

• The mainsheet: A rope connected from the boom to the hull that allows the angle of the sail be adjusted • The downhaul: A rope that flattens out the most forward part of the sail • The outhaul: A rope which decreases the amount of curve in the sail • The keel: A large mass positioned underneath a bot to stop it from tipping over and to negate the sideways component of its force due to its shape

Diagram B3 - A Boat 135 Degrees to the Wind Diagram C1 - Depiction of Forces action on a Boat

• The centreboard: A board that is under the boat in order to negate the sideways component of its force.

Diagram C1 is taken from C.A. Marchaj’s book “The Aero-Hydrodynamics of Sailing” (Marchaj 545). In it he claims to be able to prove the equation:

Actions while sailing: • To bear away: To change a boats direction so it sails further away from the wind. • To trim sails: To adjust the sails of the boat so they are in a position that will result in optimum acceleration and velocity.

Appendix B – Force Vector Diagrams of Sailing Boats

Diagram B4 - A Boat 180 Degrees to the Wind (N.B. v=0)

While Marchaj does not prove it (Marchaj 543), a suitable trigonometric proof will be shown. While this essay does not explore the concept of lift and drag in great detail, C.A. Marchaj uses a lifting force (L) and a drag force (D) to explore other areas of sailing. These two are perpendicular to each other. Marchaj uses the following symbols: • β-λ - The angle of the boat to the wind • L - The lifting force • D - The drag force • Fx - The forward component of the force

Diagram B1 - A Boat 45 Degrees to the Wind

Diagram B5 - A Boat 225 Degrees to the Wind

• Fy - The component of the force perpendicular to the boat • FT - The total force

• CL - The coefficient of the lifting force

• CD - The coefficient of the drag force

• C x - The coefficient of the forward force • Cy - The coefficient of the force perpendicular to the boat

Diagram B1 - A Boat 90 Degrees to the Wind

Diagram 2 - A Comparison of the Relative Forward Force at Different Angles

Marchaj’s diagram has been re-drawn in Diagram C2. The diagram has been shifted 45° and letters have been added to represent specific points. No right angle symbols have added, but these right angles are clear to see. Also, the angle β-λ is

140 Extended Essays 2013/2014

represented as θ for simplicity. The proof is as follows:

(since ab=hg) These terms can be replace with:

We know through trigonometric relationships that: (since ae=Fx, ad=Lsinθ and ab=Dcosθ) θ can be replaced with β-λ:

(since L=ah) Also we find that:

By looking at the force compared to a certain value, we find the equation in terms of coefficients:

Therefore, Marchaj’s equation has been proven true. (since D=ac)

(intersection of 2 sets of parallel lines, ac ΙΙ hf, ab ΙΙ hg)

(both angles are right angles) (opposite sides of a rectangle) (AAS)

(sides on two congruent triangles)

The processing can be seen in Table A1: α (°)

β-λ (°)

CL

CL sin(β-λ)

CD

CD CX cos(β-λ)

15

30

0.46

0.23

0.12

0.10

0.13

20

40

0.70

0.45

0.18

0.14

0.31

25

50

0.98

0.75

0.24 0.15

0.60

30

60

1.20

1.04

0.34 0.17

0.87

35

70

1.32

1.24

0.44 0.15

1.09

40

80

1.26

1.24

0.54 0.09

1.15

45

90

1.16

1.16

0.60 0.00

1.16

50

100

1.08

1.06

0.66 -0.11

1.18

55

110

1.04

0.98

0.78

-0.27

1.24

60

120

1.00

0.87

0.86 -0.43

1.30

65

130

0.92

0.70

0.98 -0.63

1.33

Appendix D - Processing of Past Research

70

140

0.82

0.53

1.02

-0.78

1.31

75

150

0.75

0.38

1.12

-0.97

1.34

The Data from the 1949 NACA Technical Note will be processed using Marchaj’s equation proved in Appendix C:

80

160

0.63

0.22

1.16

-1.09

1.31

85

170

0.56

0.10

1.20

-1.18

1.28

By assuming that (β-λ)=2α, we get the equation:

The input from the data is CL, CD, and α. The output is the forward force. The data has been taken from Graph D1, as replicated in Marchaj’s book (Marchaj 587):

90

180

0.42

0.00

1.24

-1.24

1.24

95

190

0.32

-0.06

1.26

-1.24

1.19

100 200

0.20

-0.07

1.28

-1.20

1.13

105 210

0.04

-0.02

1.30

-1.13

1.11

110

220

-0.04 0.03

1.32

-1.01

1.04

115

230

-0.18

0.14

1.30

-0.84

0.97

120

240

-0.34 0.29

1.30

-0.65

0.94

Table D1 - Processing of Past Data

These results can be seen in Graph D2:

Also: (opposite sides of a rectangle) So therefore:

By equating the base of the diagram we find that:

Graph D2 - Comparison of the Angle of the Boat to the Wind and the Forward Force from Past Data Graph D1 - Comparison of the Coefficient of the Lift Force, the Coefficient of the Drag Force and the Angle of the Sail to the Wind from the NACA Data

Graph D2 is the same as Graph 1 in the main body of the essay.



Appendix E - Photographs of Experimental Setup

Image E1 - The Thin Wood With One Cart Bolted to it

Angle of the Boat to the Wind (±0.5°)

Extended Essays 2013/2014 141

Forward Force on the Boat (±0.01N) Test 1

Test 2

Test 3

Test 4

Test 5

Test 6

Test 7

Test 8

Test 9

200.0

1.66

1.47

1.85

1.95

1.64

1.61

1.85

1.48

1.66

190.0

1.89

1.39

1.66

2.18

1.53

1.64

1.46

1.51

1.80

180.0

1.82

1.27

1.66

1.53

1.39

1.88

1.61

1.40

1.67

170.0

1.73

1.53

1.67

1.82

1.39

1.64

1.75

1.67

1.59

160.0

1.54

1.30

1.50

1.64

1.71

1.74

1.50

1.62

1.43

150.0

1.48

1.30

1.60

1.82

1.64

1.68

1.52

1.68

1.88

140.0

1.65

1.34

1.74

1.79

1.62

1.53

1.59

1.43

1.85

130.0

1.29

1.75

1.71

1.98

1.58

1.58

1.35

1.25

1.19

120.0

1.08

1.57

1.70

1.79

1.67

1.37

1.26

1.25

1.42

110.0

0.93

1.35

1.57

1.30

1.19

1.30

1.10

1.03

1.26

100.0

0.79

1.40

1.08

1.08

1.24

1.13

1.03

1.22

0.99

90.0

0.56

1.28

0.85

1.13

1.33

0.99

0.78

0.79

0.96

80.0

0.36

0.87

0.99

1.03

1.15

0.87

0.68

0.71

0.91

70.0

0.19

0.82

0.84

0.73

0.76

0.56

0.69

0.45

0.63

60.0

0.24

0.63

0.48

0.70

0.69

0.33

0.51

0.32

0.54

Table F1 - Raw Quantitative Data

Image E2 - The Sail and Boom on the Retort Stand

Appendix F - Equipment List • Retort stand (60 cm high)

• Computer with live graphing technology

• Mainsail (the shape of a Finn sail- 50 cm height - Made by Burns Fallow and North Sails NZ)

• A large, industrial size fan that can produce consistent wind speeds

• Dowel (1 cm thick, 30 cm long)

Appendix G - Raw Data

• Abundance of thin rope

Introduction:

• Large protractor drawn on paper • Plastic washer (to fit around retort stand pole) Image E3 - The Boat, Force Sensor, Carts and Tracks in Position for Testing

• Small metal hook (3 cm long) • Mid-sized metal hook (6 cm ling)

• The angle of the boat to the wind was found through a sheet that was drawn using a protractor reading to the nearest degree, meaning there is a minimum equipment error of ±0.5°.

• 16 nuts and bolts (right size to fit into top of carts)

• The force was measured using a rolling average of force sensor that measured to three decimal places. However, the final digit always varied so its raw uncertainty is ±0.01N.

• Large nut and bolt (right size to fit retort stand to thin board)

Quantitative:

• Thin wooden board (large enough to bridge gap between the tracks)

• Four carts (to fit on tracks) • Two low-friction tracks (1 meter long) Image E4 - The Configuration of Some Ropes

• Venier wires to computer

• Thick wooden board (to fit both tracks onto) • Venier force sensor (that measures down to 0.001N)

N.B. The individual force over time graphs that each of these readings were taken from can be downloaded from the following URL (Logger Pro Required): https://drive.google.com/a/gapps. uwcsea.edu.sg/#folders/0B6N1Cx1HOT 9NQjB5M1Y2d0EzcnM

142 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Qualitative: • Although taped down, the paper used to measure the angle sometimes slipped slightly. This seemed to be the most obvious source of error in the experimental set up. An upper-bound estimate of this error would be three degrees at any time. • The ropes permanently in place had slightly stretched during the testing. • In some tests the string from the force sensor to the boat was quite lax, meaning the boat would actually accelerate and then be stopped by the rope, causing a huge force reading. In such instances, the tests were repeated. • Sometimes, it felt as if the fan was not centred directly on the sail, but slightly off it.

Bibliography Books: Anderson, Bryon D. Physics of Sailing Explained: An Introduction. Dobbs Ferry, NY: Sheridan House, Inc., 2003. Print. Fossati, Fabio. Aero-hydrodynamics and the Performance of Sailing Yachts: The Science Behind Sailing Yachts and Their Design. London: A&C Black, 2009. Print. Marchaj, Czesław A. Aero-hydrodynamics of Sailing. Adlard Coles Nautical, 2000. Print.

E-mails: Anderson, Bryon D. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 22 Dec. 2012. E-mail. Fallow, Burns. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 22 Dec. 2012. E-mail. Fallow, Burns. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 25 Feb. 2013. E-mail. Fallow, Burns. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 28 Feb. 2013. E-mail. Fallow, Burns. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 29 Apr. 2013. E-mail.

Fallow, Burns. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 29 Apr. 2013. E-mail. Wolfe, Joe. RE: A Question About The Physics Of Sailing. 20 Dec. 2012. E-mail.

Films: Exploratorium Science at America’s Cup: “Sailing 101.” 2011. Film.

Government Reports: US National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, George B. McCullough and Donald E. Gault, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Technical Note 1923: Boundary-Layer Stalling Characteristics of the NACA 64A006 Aerofoil Section, 1949. Print.

Websites: Wolfe, Joe. “The Physics of Sailing.” The University Of New South Wales. 2002. Web. 22 Dec. 2012. URL: http://www.phys.unsw. edu.au/~jw/sailing.html “Standard Error” Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia 10 Aug. 2013. Web. 12 Aug. 2013. URL: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_error



Extended Essays 2013/2014 143

GROUP 5– MATHEMATICS

ABSTRACTS

ALVES PEREIRA, CARLOS

HARIVYASI, SAKSHAM

In this Extended Essay, the research question I am investigating is ‘How effective is the use of logarithms in modeling’. This investigation goes through the different uses of logarithms in modeling different variables, such as earthquakes and acidity. I first explored how logarithms work, and how they can be used for modeling.

This essay is about population modeling of world’s two biggest giants in terms of population, India and China. The significance of population modeling motivated me to explore the topic. I chose India and China because of their rapid population growth. I explained Thomas Malthus’s population theory and Malthusian’s population trap because they are the foundation of my essay. Thomas Malthus states that people are going to starve and die, as the food supply is not going to make up with the demand because of overpopulation.

I then collected data on different variables, which usually make use of logarithms, such as population and GDP. I attempted to make models for these variables, and depending on the correlation of the model, I would either decide whether a logarithm has been effective or not, depending on if it fits the pattern. Overall, to conclude the data, I took all the different models I made, and all the existing models, which I researched, to make a conclusion on if logarithms had been effective or not in the modeling of different variables. Overall, I found that logarithms were a very important discovery, as it made many mathematical models possible, and made them also more easy to either understand or graph, as using logarithms allowed data to be linearized, which is much more easy to analyze compared to other types of data, such as exponential data.

I explained logistic regression and point of inflexion that assisted me to find the parameters of logistic function and later on used it for regression analysis. I found the first and second derivatives of the sigmoid function and applied the derivatives in order to find the point of inflection on India and China’s population models. I collected the data for India and China’s population for the past 100 years from the website, Wolfram Alpha. I estimated their future population by using calculus and the sigmoid function and then I compared India and China’s population models and predicted when India’s population is going to overtake China’s population. I explained the reason behind China’s rapid fall in the population growth rate as a developed country and the reason behind India has not yet been successful in decreasing the population growth rate by a significant margin as a developing country. I also explained that if some serious concern is not shown regarding this problem of overpopulation by the Indian government then in the future it could become a major drawback for India in emerging as a developed nation. Then in the end I argued against Thomas Malthus’ Malthusian Trap by reasoning the concept of his population model with the assistance of Paul Ehrlich’s Population Bomb.

144 Extended Essays 2013/2014

KIM, MYUNG HOON

SWARUP, SAMEER

This essay is about finding the closed form solution of linear homogenous recurrence relations with constant coefficients.

The research question of this essay is to “apply the Taylor and Maclaurin Series to approximate and evaluate the error of approximation of transcendental functions, and show the applications of the Taylor and Maclaurin Series in Mathematics-intensive fields.”

The essay consists of five sections. The first part provides a brief introduction to what recurrence relationships are followed by an example of the Tower of Hanoi. The second section then moves on to examining second order recurrence relations; more specifically it focuses on the Fibonacci Numbers. I use the Fibonacci Numbers to demonstrate different methods of finding the closed form solution of the recurrence relation, and suggest the simplest method of finding such closed terms. In the third part of the essay I extend the knowledge to finding the closed term solution of the generalized form of second order recurrence relations, , using the characteristic equation. And moving on to the next section the essay looks at attempting to find the closed form solutions of third order recurrence relations and then onto higher order linear recurrence relations with constant coefficients. Finally to conclude the essay I will give a brief mention about the characteristics of such closed term solutions and then move on to talk about the difficulties faced due to the limitations of the basic premises of the characteristics equation.

The Taylor and Maclaurin series is the series expansion of an analytic function using the function’s infinite derivatives, with their expansion being centered on a real number (a), using the general formula: f (x) = f (a)+

f ʹ′(a) f ʹ′ʹ′(a) f ʹ′ʹ′ʹ′(a) f ( n ) (a) f ( n ) (a) ∞ (x − a)+ (x − a)2 + (x − a)3 ...+ (x − a)n = ∑(n=0) (x − a)n 1! 2! 3! n! n!

, where for a Maclaurin Series, a=0, making it a special form of the Taylor Series.

I show how the Taylor and Maclaurin Series can be applied to transcendental functions like sin(x) and ln(x), by computing the required number of derivatives and then substituting in the set value of (a) to find the terms in the expansion and the general (n-th) term of the series, to derive the summation of the Taylor Series. I then move on to using the Taylor and Maclaurin Series to approximate transcendental functions such as ln(1+x), where x=0.5 and cos(x), where x=π/8. I then use the Alternating Series Estimation Theorem and Lagrange Error Bound Theorem to compute the maximum possible error of my approximations, useful in the absence of a reference value. I also use both theorems to approximate functions to a specific number of decimal places, an application found in calculators.

I then move on to using examples to show the applications of the Taylor and Maclaurin Series, namely deriving other Taylor Series, approximating definite integrals, evaluating limits and deriving important theorems. I conclude off by discussing further applications of the Taylor and Maclaurin Series, and discuss the possibility of comparing Taylor and Maclaurin Series against other numerical methods, and how their approximations can be improved through series acceleration, and the possibility of evaluating the errors of approximations of transcendental functions by computational engines by understanding the numerical methods they use.



Extended Essays 2013/2014 145

GROUP 6– THE ARTS

ABSTRACTS

AGARWAL, ISHA

CHEN, SIYU

This study’s objective is to explore the advantages and disadvantages of two major yet different styles of photography: film and digital. Both are different, because digital photography is the more popular form in this age, yet film is unique and has its own advantages. Their contrasting nature is the reason behind the decision to evaluate the differences between the two, and in what circumstances should each one be used.

Edvard Munch, a prominent artist from the expressionism movement, altered the modern art history entire with his notable paintings such as but not limited to The Scream and Madonna. Reminiscing the first time I saw Edvard Munch’s The Scream, the way he has portrayed the figure is fascinating. The forceful visual impact had driven me dramatically into the dreamy mood that Munch established in his paintings. From previous reading, I found great interest in Munch because of his unusual life experiences. Munch suffered mental breakdowns and family tragedies, under which some of the most significant works were created. I was inspired to investigate on the way Munch’s state of mind impacts his works.

To evaluate this question, I decided to approach a series of experienced photographers in the art industry, including an acclaimed philosopher to gain professional opinions, as well as analyze the specifications regarding photography features in digital and film photographs. I also attempted to develop photographs so that I could experience the way in which film photography works and evaluate the contrast between digital means. I realized that it is a matter of personal preference, because each photographer has different intentions with their style of photography and it depends on whether they want a more grainy, old fashioned style evoking emotion using film, or digital where it is easier to access and share photographs. This means that although film photography is dying out slowly, there will always be a group of people with a predilection for the unique effect that film provides. From the research carried out, digital and film photography prove to be useful in separate situations regarding subject matter and photography styles. Film photography is better suited to more artistic and creative forms of photography, as well as landscape photography and candid photographs and still shots. Digital photography, on the other hand, is generally better suited to sports and wildlife photography, but is also dependent on the photographer’s purposes and intentions with the photograph.

The aim of the essay is to investigate the way Munch’s paintings express his state of mind. Since it is a visual art essay, the focus will be on the stylistic qualities and aesthetic qualities of Munch’s most significant works include The Sick Child, The Voice/Summer Night and The Scream. Due to limited resources, most of the information would be collected by literary research. From the research, I would be able to conclude that Munch’s paintings are related to his personal state of depression. Furthermore, the emotion that his painting carries is usually universal.

146 Extended Essays 2013/2014

LIM, PIN HAN

LEE, YEWON

MECHERI, FILIPPO

Having first-hand experience of doing street photography and then discovering Vivian Maier was truly inspiring for me. While further exploring this topic, I realised that there may be photographs that merely serve as a purpose to document, and are not considered art. Pursuing investigation on Vivian Maier’s photographs as a form of art or documentation, I arrived at the driving force of my essay, “Looking into Vivian Maier’s life and photographs during the 1950s–1970s, was street photography a form of art or documentation to her?”

The aim of the essay was to explore fashion designs of Coco Chanel, a French fashion designer and to investigate societal aspects incorporated in the design. On TV programs, newspaper, magazines and websites, Coco Chanel was praised, yet criticized, being spotlighted even after her death. As a person who feels passionate about fashion designs, her long-lasting “must-have-it” items made me wonder her motifs for creation.

Having lived out of Italy for the past 8 years, I can say that I have become a more international person and do not feel as connected to my heritage as I used to. As such, I wanted to explore one of the most discussed churches in the world in order to understand something that holds a tremendous value for my country. With my strong interests towards architecture and design, I felt that this cathedral would be a great subject due to its diverse background and history.

After giving an introduction to the essay, it is important to define some keywords in the question (namely “street photography”, “art”, and “documentation”) and establish various assumptions and limitations of the essay. Following that, I will give an introduction of Vivian Maier, and then provide contexts of her photographs. More importantly, the crux of the essay will be the analysis of her photographs. The four main themes of her photographs I have focused on are as follow: self-portraits, those she empathized with, children, and architecture and objects. For the purpose of this essay, I drew sources from the two books (“Vivian Maier: Out of the Shadows” and “Vivian Maier: Street Photographer”), interviews with Jeffrey Goldstein (her curator) and Richard Cahan (co-writer of “Vivian Maier: Out of the Shadows”), websites run by her two curators (Jeffrey Goldstein and John Maloof) and their respective teams, and other sites such as photography blogs. Concluding the essay, I deduced that Vivian Maier took street photography as a form of art, by her intentions and aesthetics of the photographs. However, inevitably, she documented life in her time and as she saw it. Doing that with much commitment, consistency, objectivity, and skill, Vivian Maier was undeniably an artist-in-silence, bringing the standards of street photography to a whole new level.

To further research the societal aspects in Coco Chanel’s fashion designs, I first examined her most celebrated fashion items that remain as her remarkable legacy as a starting point of the essay, simultaneously investigating the history of 20th century when the items were launched. Furthermore, I carefully studied Coco Chanel’s biography, as her legacies represent her perspectives of the 20th century society. Key analysis I made was exploring her purposes for launching particular items, such as little black dress, Chanel jacket, Chanel no.5, Sailor stripe shirt and Chanel bag. Recognition of her motifs successfully escorted me to develop my arguments. Through personal interviews with Former Communication Manager of CHANEL Korea and study of Coco Chanel’s biography from different sources, I was able to establish conclusion that Coco Chanel’s fashion designs function as “legacy of 1900s” with constitute of contemporary societal aspects. As she lived in the 20th century, purposes of launching her fashion items automatically reflect the societal aspects. However, interesting discovery has been made in this essay how she deliberately includes societal aspects into her fashion designs.

Different aspects have been used over the centuries to build a famous architectonical masterpiece firstly designed by: Arfolfo Di Cambio. Because of the numerous architects and designers that had to be involved in the construction of the cathedral, diversity found all over the cathedral. The scope of this investigation includes, personal visits to the cathedral “Santa Maria Del Fiore” and a tour with a qualified tour guide who has done extensive research on both the historical and aesthetic aspects of the cathedral. By the end of my research I will be able to analyze the different aspects such as: the buildings structural design, artists’ design as well as the way in which the cathedral was used by the general public. In conclusion, since the original architect died before the constructions were finished, multiple people took over bringing different ideas to the overall look of the cathedral. It can also be seen that the cathedral has been influenced by the residents of Florence and the time period that it was build in. The church has developed artistic and architectural features, which separate it from others, since it did not have a sole purpose as it was and still is a forum for both civic and religious meetings.



MENESTROT GONZALESOREJAS, MARGOT This essay answers the question: “To what extent does Otto Dix and Kathe Kollwitz’s war art differ in ideas and style, while belonging to the same movement and while having both endured World War I?” This was answered by looking at both these German expressionist artists, and their art separately, with the help of online research and analysis. The primary focus in this essay is put on their art itself as well as the events in their lives, which have in turn, affected the ideas behind their work. It will also focus on comparing their pieces, looking at the differences and similarities between them. This essay looks at the fact that personal experiences can in fact greatly affect the style and ideas behind an artist’s work. The conclusion to this question is that Kollwitz and Dix’s war art differed mostly in ideas rather than style. They both mostly used the same medium of printmaking, bringing out mood in their pieces through darkness and tone. However, the ideas behind their work, although both connected to the war, sometimes differed. Kathe Kollwitz focused more on the emotional struggles of war, primarily from a woman’s perspective. On the other hand, Otto Dix represented the suffering and fear of soldiers during World War I. This was shown in the way in which their work appeared. While Kollwitz kept her work more elegant and pleasant to the eye, Dix’s work is more gruesome and shocking. Despite these differences, they both portrayed different events and themes of war in an equally powerful and poignant way.

SANGHVI, POOJA The aim of this essay was to investigate whether there is ethics in art, i.e should paintings be considered ethical or unethical? The topic distinctly stands in the subject of visual arts as the topic question and main focus is about the nature and aesthetics of M.F Hussain’s nude Hindu God and Goddesses paintings. The numerous research questions were formulated in an attempt to best investigate the subject matter and title of essay: “To what extent should paintings be considered ethical or unethical with reference to M.F Hussain’s Hindu paintings?” To answer this question within the essay, I had to firstly clearly define what I thought ethics in art meant. Then apply these principles to demonstrate to what extent M.F Hussains paintings were ethical. Through personal consultations with individuals who know subject matter well such as distinguished artists and others who had knowledge and interest in paintings and an online survey sent to cross section of Indians. I was able to develop a comprehensive argument, which concluded that art is an expression and that there is no ethics in art.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 147

148 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 6– THE ARTS

SELECTED VISUAL ARTS HOW DID THE EVOLUTION OF GOTHIC TRACERY IN WESTERN EUROPE BETWEEN THE 12TH AND 16TH CENTURY AFFECT THE INTERNAL SPACES OF A CHURCH?

ANAND, ANIRUDH

The layout of a church

This extended essay answers the question “How did the evolution of Gothic tracery in Western Europe between the 12th and 16th Century affect the internal spaces of a church?” The essay aims to understand whether the changes in stylistic elements and design make Gothic spaces qualitatively different from others. It also aims to understand the changes in the design of Gothic tracery and analyse the impact of the changes on the internal spaces of a church from the churchgoer’s perspective.

All churches follow a set of rules concerning their architecture. Generally speaking, churches face East, toward the rising sun. The spaces within a church are segregated based on their significance and therefore have specific names. The diagram below illustrates how the spaces of a church are segregated. The names mentioned here are referred in the study.

The investigation answers the research question by analysing each stage of development of Gothic tracery, moving chronologically through the styles developed in different regions of Europe. The investigation is introduced by comparing the differences between the spatial effects of the Gothic style and that of the older Romanesque style, in order to illustrate the qualitative difference between the Gothic style and older styles. The stylistic elements of the four main stages of Gothic development are discussed in the investigation, starting with the Early European Gothic and moving on towards The Early English Gothic, Rayonnant or High European Gothic and finally the Late European Gothic style. The stylistic changes in the design of the church space between styles are highlighted to provide an insight into how the church space evolved over time from the light airy spaces of The Early European style to the more orderly English spaces and the dramatic Rayonnant and Late European styles. The evolution of the design within the church space is analysed from the churchgoer’s point of view at each stage of the investigation in order to answer the question. The investigation concludes that the evolution of tracery changed the churchgoer’s experience from a mundane one, to one of magic, grandeur and awe that continues to inspire people and architects to this day.

(Toman 18)

Introduction In general “space is not homogenous… some parts of space are qualitatively different from others” (Eliade 20). Certain spaces have more meaning and more significance to our lives than others. For example, our home is considered a very special place, because it provides security and comfort so we may relax and be ourselves. This is not true of public spaces, which we do not treat with the same level of care and respect. All humans feel the difference between sacred space and profane space. As the name implies, religious buildings create sacred spaces that are often unrivalled the



world over. But, a sacred space does not require a religious conscience to be realized. Nonreligious people can have sacred spaces in their lives simply through memory. An old classroom or playground can be experienced in the same sense as any other sacred space due to its sentimental value. However, all sacred spaces are consecrated in some manner, either emotionally or through religion. This gives all of us certain centres of being; areas that tie the surrounding milieu of spaces together and stop the world from becoming a meaningless, amorphous space. When one enters a place of worship, a feeling of sacredness and respect is immediately felt. “Every sacred space implies a hierophany, an interruption of the sacred that results in detaching a territory from the surrounding cosmic milieu and making it qualitatively different…” (Eliade 26). Even someone with no prior connection to Christianity can feel the sacredness of the space within a church upon entry. This is because the architecture of the space creates a response that immediately consecrates it as a sacred space. The way in which a space is consecrated can have a profound effect on the churchgoer, creating an environment focused on one thing or another. The sacredness that is found within spaces can often capture the churchgoer’s imagination and incite an emotional response that carries the space into another state of being, detached from the rest of the world. Gothic churches in particular have a strong emotional impact due to their stunning architecture. The breathtaking power of the Gothic style comes from its form and its ability to transform the church space into something more than a sanctuary for belief and faith. Churches that precede the style come nowhere close to creating the same kind of church environment, despite their prolonged evolution. The previous construction, derived from the Romans and thus called the Romanesque style, used the classical orders of architecture set down by the ancients, using supporting walls and rounded arches.

The inspiration for the Gothic pointed arch came from Islamic architecture observed by the Crusaders in the Middle East. Even there, the pointed arch has created extremely beautiful spaces that stand out as exotic and organic. Its arrival in Europe created spaces just as beautiful and striking as those in the most beautiful Islamic buildings. Upon its arrival in Europe, the pointed arch was integrated with the latest local techniques in building, namely rib vaulting. “Instead of relying on the solidity of a load bearing wall, a building’s weight could now rest on a skeleton of piers, shafts and ribs. This enabled wall thickness to be reduced and window openings enlarged.” (Draper xi-xii). Thus, the Gothic was born. Since its conception in 1120 until its death in the 16th Century, the Gothic style spread from its birthplace to the rest of Europe, It has left behind some incredibly powerful spaces that completely shifted the paradigm of churchgoing. Gothic architecture owes its ability to amaze to its beautiful window tracery and ceiling vaulting. Tracery is traditionally defined as “ornamental stone openwork, typically in the upper part of a Gothic window” (tracery). While tracery plays a large role in creating the space within a church, a large portion of the effect is thanks to the vaulting and the type of arches used. Therefore, in this study, the definition of tracery will be modified to ‘the shapes and designs used in the planning and construction of Gothic windows and churches’.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 149

more airy atmosphere. The Romanesque church is comparatively dark, and while it has more decoration, it does not evoke as strong a feeling of sacredness as the Gothic church. The example used below illustrates the comparative lack of grandeur in the Romanesque church. It depends more on its decorum to give it a sense of opulence and power, however the Gothic church is able to impress more without so much as a single extra moulding. In the example shown below, it is easy to imagine that the Romanesque building would not have had a feeling of sacredness were it not for the altar and the attention drawn to it by the surrounding decorum; the same space could very much have been a public hall without the altar area. Furthermore, while small clerestory windows provide the light in the Romanesque building, the height and the large windows of the Gothic style have a profound effect on the space. The Gothic space seems surreal, as if belonging to a higher world; decorum is not needed to consecrate the space as sacred. Much of the Gothic style devotes itself to creating an atmosphere of heavenliness and transcendence in spaces such as the one shown here.

European Early Gothic Tracery Much of the Gothic style of architecture draws upon techniques and designs that were already established with the Romanesque style. The transition between the two styles was certainly dramatic; the Gothic style bought into existence a style of building far more magnificent than its precedents. The difference can clearly be seen in Fig. 2.1. The Gothic church is larger and the windows allow much more light into the nave, creating a lighter and

Fig. 2.1.1 The Romanesque Basilica di San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Rome

Fig. 2.1.2 The Gothic Cathedral of Soissons, Picardy, France

150 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Most sources on the topic of the Gothic style begin with the construction of the Basilica of St. Denis, near Paris. This is widely regarded as the first Gothic building in the world, however renovations conducted later in its life have made it more akin to Early Gothic churches built later than those found in Picardy.

Fig. 2.2: The south transept of the Cathedral of St. Gervais-et-Protais in Soissons, Picardy. The red box highlights Romanesque elements of the construction.

Perhaps the best surviving example of the first age Gothic is the south transept of the Cathedral in Soissons. This portion of the church dates from the original renovation conducted on the Romanesque abbey that previously stood there (Cathedral of St. Gervais & St. Protais). It is in Soissons that we can see effects of the Gothic style of building come in to play. Fig. 2.2 illustrates how, the Gothic style evolved from the Romanesque. The south transept of Soissons Cathedral is in fact part of a renovated Romanesque abbey. Traces of the old style can still be found. For example, the narrow lancet arches and multiple levels suggest that there was originally a supporting wall there. The renovation in the Gothic style added the triforium and clerestory, creating a taller space with many more windows. The addition of light and height into the environment dramatically changes the space within the church, drawing attention to the altar and giving the space a sense of freedom and movement. Statues, paintings and other artwork are also bathed in light, giving them a glow that cannot be delivered

with artificial light. This creates a warm and welcoming space that allows the churchgoer to be immersed in his or her prayer or simply the joyful and light atmosphere created by the church. Despite the greatly improved lighting, the earliest Gothic buildings lacked window tracery, stained glass or the intricate designs found toward the latter part of the Gothic age. The lack of decorum creates a simple and plain environment, devoid of distraction that encourages the churchgoer to let go of the rest of the world and to find solace in their prayer or to simply enjoy the freedom of the space. Even though tracery did not come into play until later, stained glass soon started to play a role in the space, creating softly lit, mesmerising spaces. The effect of stained glass can be admired at the Basilica of St. Denis. It is clear from St. Denis that the mere presence of stained glass can completely alter the church space created at places such as Soissons. Stained glass allows the light into the church and gives it a similar sense of openness to clear window spaces. The effect of stained glass can immediately be noticed in early Gothic churches such as the Notre Dame de Paris and Saint Denis. Both buildings showcase their size and grandeur, although the stained glass provokes a different response from the churchgoer. The windows in early Gothic churches are large, with minimal tracery and therefore have large, clearly visible figures. Many of the scenes depicted can be rather graphic, when light passes through them; they give out a soft luminescence, as if glowing with divine light. This effect is compounded upon when bright, warm colours are used in the windows, so when the sun shines through them, they create beautiful diffused patterns on the floor of the church. Such stained glass can be breathtakingly beautiful, but they also create a more sombre, serious air within the church than clear glass windows.

Fig. 2.3.1: The nave of the Notre Dame de Paris (up) in comparison to the crossing of the Basilica of St. Denis (down). The stained glass in the Notre Dame is much darker than that used in the Basilica of St. Denis. Thus, the Notre Dame requires artificial lighting, even during daylight hours.

Fig. 2.3.2: Photo of the Basilica of St. Denis – (Saint Denis – La Basilique)

Yet, not all stained glass has the same effect. Some variants of stained glass are more opaque than others, and therefore allow less light in than less opaque variations. Stained glass can in fact have as much a lighting effect as clear glass. The stained glass used in churches such as Notre Dame de Paris and Saint Denis is slightly more opaque and although this does not prevent light from entering and lighting the church, it somewhat darkens the church and creates a closed environment. The stained glass aims to create a space for focused prayer and veneration rather than an open and welcoming environment as seen in the earliest Gothic buildings. Lighter stained glass can be found in churches such as the Notre Dame de Strasbourg. These variants of stained glass lend a similar effect to the church as having clear windows, although they have the added bonus of providing a



level of décor to the church and making it a warmer and more restful environment.

Fig. 2.4: An early form of tracery from the Basilica of St. Denis, Paris. Note the basic geometric shapes and entirely symmetrical design.

Word Wars. Despite the discrepancy, the cathedral maintains a uniform sense of sacredness and belonging. Once one reaches the transepts glazed in stained glass, the atmosphere slightly changes from an inviting space into a reserved and intimate one. The early churches of the Gothic form inspired the continuation of the style in France’s neighbours. Portugal, Spain and Germany had Gothic cathedrals under construction in 1178, 1205 and 1209 respectively. These churches followed the template set by the French at St. Denis, Soissons etc. Each nation added its own distinct touch differentiating it from the French archetype. The simplicity of the design, the tracery and layout of the churches have similar effects on the space. Simultaneously, it is possible to see the influences upon the design from the local culture. For example, the Portuguese Monastery of Alcobaça and the Spanish Cathedral of Léon draw influence from the Islamic architecture that was present in the region during their time.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 151

and held territory in Normandy and other parts of France, where the Gothic style was spreading fast through diplomatic channels (Toman 118) The unique distinguishing factor is the influence of the Anglo French conflicts. “The history of medieval England was deeply marked by centuries-old conflict with France. This rivalry is clearly reflected in the development of Gothic architecture: right from the beginning the English chose to follow an independent path” (Toman 118). It is clear that the Early French Gothic was the inspiration for the English Gothic, however few English Gothic churches conform to the stylistic features present in their counterparts across the channel. Cathedrals such as those in Wells and Lincoln clearly do not follow the French styles, as illustrated in the comparison between windows in Wells and Strasbourg, whose constructions both began in 1190 (see Fig. 1).

English Gothic Tracery Fig. 2.3.3: The nave of Notre Dame the Reims. This cathedral is an excellent illustration of the effect of stained glass. As can be seen, the transepts and choir have a much more sombre look.

The tracery used in the early period also focuses on creating an environment of solemn reflection. Early tracery uses simple geometric shapes with large gaps between stone elements, creating an illusion akin to a grille, separating the inner world from the outside and transporting the churchgoer to a different state of mind upon entry. The combination of early tracery and stained glass, regardless of opacity, often acts as a mental cue to the fact that the church is in fact not a part of general space but a closed sanctum meant for prayer. An excellent example of the dual function of early tracery is the Cathedral of Reims, which is glazed partly in clear glass and partly in opaque stained glass, due to damage during the

Throughout the Gothic age, the style spread from France to the rest of continental Europe and England, creating new substyles in every region. The spread of the Gothic form from Northern France to the rest of continental Europe “occurred partly through the movement of architects and master masons or sculptors to new building projects or, through widespread competition between bishops, monasteries, and other patrons” (Gothic Architecture). Tracery in England was influenced by Norman and Tudor architecture, thus creating the English Gothic style. For this reason, the European Gothic and the English Gothic are treated as separate styles. The emergence of the Gothic style in England occurred with the construction of Canterbury Cathedral in 1174. At the time, England was still under the rule of the descendants of William the conqueror

Fig. 3.1.1 and 3.1.2: The difference between tracery styles in Wells Cathedral (left) and Strasbourg Cathedral (right). (Lewis) (Rebuffet-Broadus)

Several specialists have documented the English Gothic’s evolution over time since the beginnings of the style at Canterbury in 1174. “There were three stylistic phases of [English] Gothic architecture, subsequently classified and named by the antiquarian Thomas Rickman, in 1817. They were Early English, Decorated and Perpendicular” (Draper xii). Early English churches are brightly lit and offer little or no decorum and absolutely no tracery. Churches like Canterbury and Salisbury are easily comparable to Early French Gothic churches. They are much larger and feature more elaborate floor plans, making the space

152 Extended Essays 2013/2014

more majestic and grand than their French counterparts. The reason for the discrepancy between European and English Gothic styles may lie in the differences between the church systems they use. The English Protestant Church has always followed a different tradition to that of the Catholic Church. “Catholicism says, “humanity must discover its unity and salvation” within a church.” (Russell). The Catholic Church places much more emphasis on maintaining the church in the image of God and glorifying him. Protestants believe that “all Christians can be saved, regardless of church membership” (Russell), so their churches use much less decoration. The Protestant Church also has more strict ideals and grants fewer concessions to its members than the Catholic Church, regarding the ascension to heaven, the rights and the responsibilities of the churchgoers. The style of tracery and the design of English Gothic churches reflect the ideology of the English church, creating and environment that is ordered, but still beautiful. While in a French Gothic church, one gets a sense of a relationship with God that is more than simple faith. The lattice patterns used in English tracery are more ordered and structured than French churches. This gives the space a more serious feel, somewhat like a library. The church space is tied together by the orderly and imposing nature of the tracery. Rather than consecrating the space as the home of God, the church in England is consecrated as a place to venerate and be faithful to God. Yet, the English Gothic can sometimes be bolder and more impressive than the French equivalent. The vaulting used in English Gothic churches is far more intricate and includes shapes from tracery in it, unlike the European styles. Even when plain ribs are used, they are constructed in complex, intertwining patterns that create grandeur and royalty that is unrivalled. Vaults such as those in King’s College Chapel in

Cambridge, Exeter Cathedral and Gloucester cathedral inspire awe with their intricacy and elegance but do not distract from the directive of being in the church. The grandeur and order projected by the English Gothic style create a different environment from other churches, although the intricacy and elegance of the designs used in their construction is similar to European churches

European High Gothic Tracery The evolution of the Gothic form in England was mirrored closely by the style on the continent. The European Gothic style followed a similar pattern in its own evolution, growing into more complex shapes that had a more profound effect on the space and the churchgoer. A notable exception to this pattern, however, is the Gothic style in Italy. Unlike much of the rest of Europe, the Italian Gothic did not adhere to the French formula for Gothic architecture. Italian Gothic churches are extremely simple, with minimal mouldings and no tracery. The Italian gothic generally follows a two-tone scheme, traditionally green and white, created with coloured stone or a combination of stone and plain painted walls. The few Gothic churches in Italy do not show a definite evolution, like the neighbouring countries. Their simple style and minimalistic approach creates a similar environment within the church as the earliest Gothic churches in France. Focus is placed partly on the rich art and paintings, giving them an aura of reserved grandeur, as if saying that God is powerful and beautiful, but humble and simple at the same time. The evolution of the Early Gothic style into the later Rayonnant and High Gothic styles is clearly visible in the lineage of churches that follow the pioneers in each region. However, the French Rayonnant style is exemplary of this evolution into a more complex form. “There is no precise point at which Rayonnant can be said to have begun… [Early Gothic] had developed gradually until it became a phenomenon that could be perceived… as something

distinctive.” (Toman 81). Amiens Cathedral has elements of both, Early Gothic and Rayonnant in its construction. When compared to a completely Early Gothic church, Amiens Cathedral clearly has features that identify it as different. For example, the arches are lancet arches as opposed to the equilateral arches found in most early gothic architecture. Furthermore, the window tracery, while still emulating the early style can be seen progressing to a more complex form with the use of trefoils and bar tracery rather than simple circles and plate tracery found in places like Chartres.

Fig. 3.1.1 & 3.1.2: The Window tracery in Amiens cathedral shows a clear relationship to both Early Gothic and Rayonnant styles. The shapes are more evolved and the tracery is more intricate, although it still uses similar shape layouts. The arches are also lancets rather than equilateral.

The Rayonnant style is first and foremost more intricate than the early style and creates a somewhat more sophisticated environment for the churchgoer. The more intricately formed and more complex forms used in the Rayonnant style not only inspire greater awe in the churchgoer, but also allow the building to create an almost completely different world on the interior. Mouldings and statuettes are much more common on mid-period Rayonnant churches, giving the churchgoer the sense that the cathedral is populated. In contrast, earlier styles with little or no decorum often feel empty and barren. However, the Rayonnant style’s main assets are its intricate window tracery and tall, lancet arches. Window tracery in the Rayonnant period saw a dramatic increase to their intricacy



and a change to the type of stonework used in them. It uses much more intricate designs that are much more organic than the early gothic style, although still composed of geometric shapes. When used with stained glass, the Rayonnant style enhances the luminescent effect of light passing through the glass. The stonework complements the bright colours by offering a relief around each piece of stained glass, such that each piece seems to be a part of a highly complicated jigsaw that assembles to create a final beautiful image. The organic nature of the shapes used in this form of tracery creates the impression that the window is shaped not by the hands of man, but the force of nature. The widows of Metz cathedral and Regensburg cathedral illustrate this effect beautifully by allowing light to shine in onto the altar and drawing the most attention to that part of the church. Thus, the Rayonnant style consecrates the space using its complexity to create the illusion of an otherworldly origin and existence.

Fig. 3.2.1 & 3.2.2: The cathedrals of Regensburg (up) and Metz (down) use the Rayonnant style to place emphasis on the altar, thus drawing attention to it. (Regensburg Cathedral) (Metz Cathedral)

Another trait commonly expressed in the Rayonnant style is the dramatic increase of the size of windows. While earlier Gothic churches use smaller windows in between piers to let in light through the clerestory, the edges of Rayonnant style windows tend to form part of the piers, holding the vaulting up. This not only lets in a larger amount of light, but also highlights the intricacy of their design and enhances the effect of otherworldliness caused by the tracery. Rayonnant tracery balances complexity and intricacy with elegance and grandeur to create a stunning final product capable of immediately captivating and mesmerising the churchgoer. Similarly, the so-called ‘sharpening’ of the arches from equilateral to lancet gives the church an upward movement that is not present in earlier churches. This is not only symbolic of the location of heaven and the direction in which God lies, but also inspires a sense of power, that the church somehow has dominion over the churchgoer and that the churchgoer must serve the church. Cathedrals such as Cologne and the tallest Gothic cathedral in the world, Beauvais, have an immense capacity to inspire awe, simply from their height and the commanding aura given by the lancet arches. In fact, the choice to use lancets at Beauvais was made to satisfy the demand that the Cathedral match the description of the Celestial City described in religious scripture. Lancets have an aura of power thanks to their slender and elegant figure contrasted to their awesome height in Rayonnant churches, consecrating the space with a form of ‘shock and awe’ that is not found elsewhere.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 153

stunning sensation of power. Few churches use the latest style of Gothic architecture, but those that do present spaces that are unforgettable in their elegance and their irrevocable power. The most notable evolution into the flamboyant period would be the evolution of tracery. Flamboyant tracery is just as intricate as Rayonnant tracery and English tracery of the same time, although its power comes from the flowing forms used in its design. The shapes used are reminiscent of the stereotypical image of ghosts, or of fire. In fact, it is sometimes referred to as flame tracery due to its resemblance to flames and the luminescent effect of the stained glass usually used within.

Fig. 4.1.1 and 4.1.2: Flamboyant style tracery from the Duomo of Milan (up) and the Abbatiale de St. Ouen (down) illustrate the organic forms used in late gothic tracery. Note that the majority of shapes are not symmetrical or regular, unlike early and high gothic styles.

Late Gothic Tracery & Conclusion Towards the end of the Gothic age, the style and finesse used in the design and construction dramatically increased, leading to the Flamboyant Gothic style. The new style is quite different, using flowing, organic forms to create surreal spaces and a

Some excellent examples of late Gothic tracery can be found in the Duomo of Milan and the Abbey of St. Ouen, in Rouen, Normandy. The interiors of these churches emulate a grand sense of royalty and power,

154 Extended Essays 2013/2014

balanced with elegance and delicacy lent to the space by the intricate forms used in the windows. The Abbey of St. Ouen clearly demonstrates the grandiose of the late Gothic style, lighting the interior brilliantly and dazzling the churchgoer with its height and complexity. The late Gothic tracery appeals to nature and God’s control over the world and glorifies his power through the organic beauty of the design. The space in a late Gothic church evolved a great deal from the simplicity of the first Gothic churches. The evolution of the Gothic style and its tracery completely changed the paradigm of going to church. The ever more complex and organic forms used on the continent and the orderly yet transcendent traceries of England have created a unique style, the likes of which do not exist elsewhere. Tracery changed the churchgoer’s experience from the mundane provided by the Romanesque to a magical and mystical one. Tracery and its evolution have helped transcend spaces around the church to inspire the sheer power of God and the importance of the church. Since its decline, the Gothic tracery has continued to inspire its successors, using ideas about lighting and structures even today. Ideas such as using decorations in modern windows and day lighting owe their origins to the Gothic tracery. Without them, the world would be a completely different place.

Works Cited

Annotated Bibliography (Zotero)

Bisson, Frédéric. Rosace Ouest de L’abbatiale Saint-Ouen. 2009. Flickr. Web. 6 Oct. 2013.

12 Simple Differences Between Catholics and Protestants

“Definition of Tracery.” Web. 11 May 2013. Draper, Mr Peter. The Formation of English Gothic: Architecture and Identity, 1150-1250. First Edition. Yale University Press, 2007. Print. Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and The Profane: The Nature of Religion. Trans. Willard R. Trask. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1987. Print. “Eupedia.” Eupedia. Web. 11 May 2013. “Gothic Architecture.” Athena Review. Web. 11 May 2013. Lewis, Sharon. Wells Cathedral - Stained Glass Window. Flickr. Web. 11 May 2013. “Metz Cathedral.” Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. Nolan, Clare. Cathedral Window. 2008. Flickr. Web. 6 Oct. 2013. Rebuffet-Broadus, Christina. “Better Than a Course in Architectural History: Visiting the Cathedral of Notre Dame de Strasbourg.” Examiner.com. 30 Aug. 2010. Web. 11 May 2013. Regensburg Cathedral at 12mm on Full Frame. 2011. Flickr. Web. 15 Aug. 2013.

Type

Web Page

Author

Wendy Thomas Russell

URL

http://wendythomasrussell.com/ catholics-protestants/

Accessed

Thu Aug 15 22:07:05 2013

Abstract

Twelve differences in ideology and practice between the Catholic and Portestant Churches.

Website Title

Wendy Thomas Russell

Date Added

Thu Aug 15 22:07:05 2013

Modified

Thu Aug 15 22:28:44 2013

Notes: • This website helped me give reasons for the differences between the continental European and English styles of Gothic tracery. There is information concerning the differences and similarities between the ideologies of both religions. Attachments • Snapshot

Better than a course in architectural history: visiting the cathedral of Notre Dame de Strasbourg Type

Web Page

Author

Christina Rebuffet-Broadus

URL

http://www.examiner.com/article/ better-than-a-course-architecturalhistory-visiting-the-cathedral-ofnotre-dame-de-strasbourg

Date

2010-08-30

Toman, Rolf. Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. 1st ed. hf ULLMANN, 2011. Print.

Accessed

Sat May 11 20:23:59 2013

Zelazo, Dan. Nave Inside Cologne Cathedral. 2010. Flickr. Web. 15 Aug. 2013.

Abstract

A travel guide to Strasbourg Cathedral, with details about the interior space and a photo of the windows, used in Fig. 1.2

Website Title

Examiner.com

Short Title

Better than a course in architectural history

Russell, Wendy Thomas. “12 Simple Differences Between Catholics and Protestants.” Wendy Thomas Russell. Web. 15 Aug. 2013. “Saint Denis - La Basilique.” Fotopedia. Web. 15 Aug. 2013.



Date Added

Sat May 11 20:23:59 2013

Modified

Sat May 11 20:34:49 2013

Notes: • This travel guide has some information concerning the internal spaces of Strasbourg Cathedral. The article does not include many relevant historical details, however it does have a picture that clearly shows the tracery style that was used in France at the time of its construction.

Extended Essays 2013/2014 155

Notes: • The official definition of Gothic window tracery. Attachments • Definition of tracery in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)

Eupedia Type

Web Page

URL

Attachments • Snapshot

http://www.eupedia.com/europe/ gothic_buildings.shtml

Rights

/disclaimer/index.shtml

Accessed

Sat May 11 20:24:27 2013

Cathedral Window

Language

en

Abstract

A list of all buildings built in the Gothic style between 1122 and 1601

Website Title

Eupedia

Date Added

Sat May 11 20:24:27 2013

Modified

Sat May 11 20:29:46 2013

Type

Artwork

Artist

Clare Nolan

URL

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ cn174/3012700608/

Date

2008-11-08

Accessed

Sun Oct 6 16:37:07 2013

Library Catalog

Flickr

Abstract

I liked the patterns

Date Added

Sun Oct 6 16:37:07 2013

Modified

Sun Oct 6 16:37:07 2013

Notes: • This is a photo of the flamboyant style tracery found on Milan Cathedral. Attachments • Cathedral Window

Definition of tracery Type

Web Page

URL

http://oxforddictionaries.com/ definition/english/tracery

Accessed

Sat May 11 20:24:22 2013

Abstract

This is the Oxford dictionary's official definition for tracery

Date Added

Sat May 11 20:24:22 2013

Modified

Sat May 11 20:28:34 2013

Modified

Sat May 11 20:31:31 2013

Notes: • This page goes into many of the details about the spread and evolutions of the Gothic forms. It includes very relevant historical details and is as such a very useful source. Attachments • Gothic Architecture

Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting Type

Book

Author

Rolf Toman

Edition

1

Publisher

hf ULLMANN

ISBN

3833160071

Date

2011-11-19

Library Catalog

Amazon.com

Abstract

A book with in depth details about the history of the Gothic style as a whole, with parts about architecture and art. The book incorporates chapters written by a variety of authors that each focus on a select area of the history of the Gothic style

Short Title

Gothic

Attachments • Snapshot

# of Pages

520

Date Added

Sat May 11 20:22:26 2013

Gothic Architecture

Modified

Sat May 11 20:42:37 2013

Notes: • This webpage is very useful in identifying the construction date of any Gothic building. The construction date is crucial to many aspects of the subject material. The introduction to the list is also useful, as it contains relevant historiography.

Type

Web Page

URL

http://www.athenapub. com/14gothic-architecture.htm

Accessed

Sat May 11 20:24:12 2013

Abstract

A webpage detailing the origins, development and influences of the Gothic style throughout its life. Also contains relevant historical information about the spread of the Gothic form and examples of its use.

Website Title

Athena Review

Date Added

Sat May 11 20:24:12 2013

Notes: • An extremely useful book that can be used to get the finest of details about the history of the Gothic style, its spread and the influences it may have had from other architectural styles. The information is highly relevant. It can be used to find several details that may not be found as easily elsewhere. The book is written by a wealth of authors and therefore has information that stems from a variety of previous sources. It is very unlikely to be biased or influenced by anything.

156 Extended Essays 2013/2014

Metz Cathedral Type

Web Page

URL

http://en.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ enwiki/1868524

Accessed

Thu Aug 15 22:39:50 2013

Abstract

For other uses of Metz, see Metz (disambiguation). Cathédrale Saint Étienne de Metz Sunset on the Cathédrale Saint Étienne de Metz Basic information Location 1 Place Jean Paul II, 57000 Metz, France

Website Title

Academic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias

Date Added

Thu Aug 15 22:39:50 2013

Modified

Thu Aug 15 22:39:50 2013

Notes: • Photo of the Rayonnant style crossing at the Cathedral of Metz, France Attachments • Snapshot

nave inside Cologne Cathedral Type

Artwork

Artist

Dan Zelazo

URL

http://www.flickr.com/ photos/1yen/4807322895/

Date

Regensburg Cathedral at 12mm on Full Frame Type

Artwork

URL

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ chrisk1982/6081897059/

Date

2011-08-22

Accessed

Thu Aug 15 22:37:58 2013

Library Catalog

Flickr

Date Added

Thu Aug 15 22:37:58 2013

Modified

Thu Aug 15 22:39:02 2013

Notes: • A photo of the Rayonnant style crossing of Regensburg Cathedral, Germany. Attachments • Regensburg Cathedral at 12mm on Full Frame

Rosace ouest de l’abbatiale SaintOuen

Saint Denis - La Basilique Type

Web Page

URL

http://www.fotopedia.com/items/ flickr-3581275119

Accessed

Thu Aug 15 22:07:00 2013

Website Title

Fotopedia

Date Added

Thu Aug 15 22:07:00 2013

Modified

Thu Aug 15 22:29:04 2013

Notes: • This is a photo of the crossing and four arms of the Basilica of St. Denis, near Paris, France Attachments • Snapshot

The Formation of English Gothic: Architecture and Identity, 11501250 Type

Book

Type

Artwork

Author

Mr Peter Draper

Artist

Frédéric Bisson

Edition

First Edition

URL

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ zigazou76/4098395463/

Publisher

Yale University Press

ISBN

0300120362

Date

2007-02-28

Library Catalog

Amazon.com

Abstract

A book about the origins and developments of the Gothic style in England. Has detailed analyses of the different phases of the style as well as its distinctions from the Gothic styles of Europe

Short Title

The Formation of English Gothic

# of Pages

288

Date Added

Sun Mar 24 12:08:10 2013

Modified

Sat May 11 20:40:19 2013

Date

2009-11-12

2010-07-19

Accessed

Sun Oct 6 11:48:04 2013

Accessed

Thu Aug 15 22:06:49 2013

Library Catalog

Flickr

Flickr

Library Catalog

Date Added

Thu Aug 15 22:06:49 2013

Abstract

Rosace ouest de l’abbatiale SaintOuen à Rouen

Modified

Thu Aug 15 22:28:58 2013

Date Added

Sun Oct 6 11:48:04 2013

Modified

Sun Oct 6 16:19:17 2013

Notes: • This is a photo of the choir and part of the north transept in the Cathedral of Cologne, Germany.

Notes: • This is the photo of the West Rose window in the Abbatiale of St. Ouen in Rouen.

Attachments • nave inside Cologne Cathedral

Attachments • Rosace ouest de l’abbatiale Saint-Ouen

Notes: • This book is very useful in finding any historiographical information about the English Gothic style and its phases. It can be used to find specific details that may



not be found easily elsewhere. The book is quite valuable as the English Gothic is a separate style and is useful in analyzing separately. However, it does not go into much significant detail about the Gothic style in Continental Europe Attachments • Amazon.com Link

The Sacred and The Profane: The Nature of Religion Type

Book

Author

Mircea Eliade

Translator

Willard R. Trask

Publisher

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

ISBN

015679201X

Date

1987-10-23

Library Catalog

Amazon.com

Abstract

A book written by a French author about spaces and the relationship between us and the spaces we are in. Includes several details about religious spaces and the human role within such areas.

Short Title

The Sacred and The Profane

# of Pages

256

Date Added

Tue Mar 26 19:02:37 2013

Modified

Sat May 11 20:40:27 2013

Notes: • This book is the key to understanding the effects of the spaces inside a church. Its dealings with specifically religious spaces are a huge aid in understanding the effects of the evolution of tracery and of new styles. Attachments • Amazon.com Link

Extended Essays 2013/2014 157

Wells Cathedral - Stained Glass window. Type

Artwork

Artist

Sharon Lewis

URL

http://www.flickr.com/photos/ clementslewis/6783084843/

Accessed

Sat May 11 20:23:53 2013

Library Catalog

Flickr

Date Added

Sat May 11 20:23:53 2013

Modified

Thu Aug 15 22:29:18 2013

Notes: • This is a photo of window tracery in Wells Cathedral, England

158 Extended Essays 2013/2014

GROUP 6– THE ARTS

SELECTED THEATRE ARE THERE ANY SIGNIFICANT SIMILARITIES AND/ OR DIFFERENCES IN THE WAY IN WHICH JACQUES LECOQ AND BALINESE TOPENG APPROACH MASK WORK?

VENKATESH, SHARANYA During the initial stages of my research, I reread Jacques LeCoq’s novel The Moving Body with specific focus on the mask training. After which, I used different perspectives and inputs of other published authors to further my understanding of the background and vision of LeCoq’s masks. Furthermore, since trance is a significant aspect of mask work, I referred to a chapter about masks in the book Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre. Living in Asia, I found it very useful to go to Bali and conduct interviews with Balinese performers, Rucina Ballinger and I Made Sidia and was able to see a Topeng rehearsal. Thus, I formulated the question Are there any significant similarities and/or differences in the way in which Jacques LeCoq and Balinese Topeng approach mask work? I have been helped by sources recommended by Mrs. Ballinger and self found sources to aid me in the investigative process of my Extended Essay and my personal understanding of the topic. Through this investigation, I felt that I would not find clear distinctions and similarities in the two practices. However, once I understood the fundamental mechanics of mask work, I began to see similarities and differences between the two practices. I found that the fundamental basics of mask work was similar but differences based on regional perceptions and perspectives are what created the divide between the two. Objectivity and trance are the requisite features of mask work regardless of the region, place or practioner. However, the purpose of the mask depends on region, place and practioner. In Topeng, the ritualistic and ceremonial beliefs are the essential purpose. While in LeCoq’s training, the purpose was to use the masks as a journey for the student to develop physicality and become sensitive to the movement of the body.

Introduction: What, Why and How? Jacques LeCoq was one of the first practitioners, in Western theatre, to use masks as a way of training his students to become modern performers. Highly intrigued by masks, he utilized them as a fundamental part of his training to allow students to explore the different dimensions of movement and, in the wider context, the different dimensions of life. (Bradby, 46) Similar to Jacques Copeau, LeCoq used five different masks; the Neutral Mask, the Larval mask, the Expressive mask, the Commedia Mask and the Red Nose Mask (Yarrow and Chamberlain 71), (See Appendix A) as part of his training. The neutral mask is the first mask that the student wears and investigates the physicality of his/her body. The second mask is the expressive mask or as said in French “le masque expressif”; a mask that has a persona or an expression. This mask is used by LeCoq to allow the actor to explore a specific expression through the means of his or her body. The third mask is the larval mask, which enables the students to explore the surroundings through the inspiration of shapes. The fourth mask, the Commedia mask was used by his performers to physicalize and vocalize the masks. The final mask is the Red Nose mask. LeCoq uses this final mask to bring back the neutrality of the Neutral Mask but at the same time reveal the true nature of the person behind this small little Red Nose Mask. LeCoq’s students mainly used mask work as a way to investigate and understand performance rather than use it in performance. Therefore, the wearer of the mask is called a student rather than an actor because the wearer is exploring and learning rather than performing. Hence, his mask work is a fundamental point through which students understand how to utilize the theory and his philosophies about theatre in physicalizing and vocalizing a character. While on the other side of the world, on the



island of Bali, the masks are traditionally used for ritualistic ceremonies. Since the 21st century, however, the use of masks for secular purposes has become more common. Topeng, translated to English, directly means, “to close or press against the face” (Slattum and Schraub 29). This particular dance-drama is used to commemorate the stories of the Kings of the past and portray their pertinence in the Balinese culture and society today. (See Appendix B) Within Topeng, there are two types of Topeng; Topeng Panca and Topeng Pajegan. Topeng Panca has five members, all of whom are men, who play the different roles in a Topeng performance. Each of the five members play one specific role; the Prime Minister, an Elderly man, the Dalem (King) and the Panasar (Kelihan and Ketut). (See Appendix C) There is Panasar Kelihan, the older brother, and Panasar Ketut, the younger brother. (Ballinger 29.07.11) Topeng acts as a way of passing on the knowledge of spirituality, beliefs, history and philosophy of the past Balinese kings, and connecting the current generations to their ancestors and pleasing them through performance. (Slattum and Schraub 29). A more ritualistic and ceremonial performance is called the Topeng Pajegan. It is a oneman show, in which the actor continuously changes 12 to 13 masks to tell the tale of Babad Dalem, the Chronicles of the King. One difference between the two types of Topeng is Sidhakarya mask. Translated to English, Sida- means to finish, -karya means work. (Dibia and Ballinger 65). Wearing this mask the performer concludes the temple ceremony by sprinkling yellow rice in different directions symbolizing spreading of wealth and prosperity to everyone. In Topeng, the mask is part of the performance rather than part of the actor training. Hence, the mask work in Topeng plays a secondary role in comparison to learning the stories of the Kings. Although, Jacques LeCoq’s mask work and Topeng work contrasts one another, similarities and differences within the two can be seen.

While adhering close to the question Are there any significant similarities and/ or differences in the way in which Jacques LeCoq and Balinese Topeng approach mask work? The essay will include aspects of 1) Objectivity 2) Trance vs Taksu 3) Making of the mask—Spiritual vs Secular Purpose. During the investigation of the similarities and differences between Jacques LeCoq’s usage of masks and the mask work in Topeng, an analysis of each of the techniques will be conducted. Specific examples of masks have utilized to further explain the use of masks in Topeng and Jacques LeCoq’s training. This topic was chosen because investigating mask work in two different parts of the world gives an insight as to how the use of mask has developed over time. As mask work brings about such complex and dynamic pieces, a comparative and contrastive analysis into the different ways in which masks are utilized depending on the regional ideologies would allow depth into the understanding of mask work. In addition, Jacques LeCoq use of mask was highly influenced by prominent figures in the West such as Antonin Artaud and Jacques Copeau; both used mask as the core of their teachings. (Murray 32-33). The Balinese theatre influenced Artaud and therefore creates a minute connection between the two practices being investigated in this essay. Therefore, this fueled and attracted further exploration as to whether or not there could be similarities and differences in the ways in which masks are used in the East and West.

Objectivity The word mask is derived from the French term masque, which means to cover the face. Essentially, using a mask means to hide the internal person and portray the character or the spirit of the mask on the face. In Ancient Greek times, the chorus would be the only performers who would wear the mask. The masks would be big, expressive and would either be cut at

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the upper lip or have a big opening at the mouth. The chorus played the role of the greater society and would only advise or help explain the situation to the audience. For example, in Oedipus the King, the chorus represents the views of the society rather than Oedipus’ and plays the role of advising societal opinions to Oedipus to influence his actions and decisions. (The Chorus in Oedipus the King, Shmoop) Therefore, making the chorus wear a mask and play the role of an impartial observer further explains how the mask brings about objectivity and to a certain extent anonymity. Objectivity means not to be influenced by personal feelings not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering. (New Oxford American Dictionary). In LeCoq’s mask work, the neutral mask’s basic qualities conforms to an objective role. Beginning with the neutral mask, the student has to inhabit the spirit of neutrality. Neutrality does not mean uniformity but it means to stay in the middle ground among the extremes of emotion and physicality. LeCoq used this mask as a significant reference point to gain the knowledge of the world around us. When the actors first wear the mask, they are first forced to make predictions and observations of the movement of the body, as nobody really knows how a Neutral Mask moves until they experience it for themselves. Voice projected through this mask not feasible as the voice is subdued as a result of the mask covering the entire face. At this point, LeCoq would introduce aspects such as nature, elements, animals, and different materials and possibly even color. As a result of these new experiences, the introduction of themes begins. The Neutral Mask enables the actor to understand the aspects of the outer world and use that as inspiration to create theatre. He felt that this idea of “tout bouge” meaning everything moves gives ample innovation to create something that is relevant to theatre and a theatrical situation. (Yarrow and Chamberlain 77) Thus, the neutral mask is clearly objective by nature, as it is not exposed to anything.

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According to his theory, the Neutral Mask does not have a past nor does it have a future, the spirit of the masks has just been born once the student wears the mask. Emilie Leclerc’s demonstration clearly portrays this as she observes, explores and reacts to her surroundings.

The unfamiliarity of her surroundings is clearly seen just by her expressive eyes; the only part of her face that is seen by the viewer. (See Figure 2) Observing every corner of the room and subtly reacting to every sound she hears, she begins to explore movement. The quick movement of her eyes and her head reaction to the sounds of an instrument shows the observation aspect of the neutral mask.

Figure 4- I Made Sidia performing with the Panasar Mask

Figure 1 – Emilie Leclerc beginning to discover the surroundings with the neutral mask Source: Youtube Channel: PDAcoquitlam, http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIq0IDqEZtk, accessed on September 24th, 2013

Figure 1 shows Emilie Leclerc perform with the neutral mask. Seeing that this demonstration is LeCoq’s work, the setting would most probably be connected to nature. She begins with miming opening a aperture; possibly moving two jungle leaves to reveal a forest. The nature of the Neutral Mask itself shows the need for exploration. In the demonstration, the mime of opening a door or curtain reveals a new setting or new place.

Figure 2 – Emilie Leclerc observing her surroundings using the neutral mask Source: Youtube Channel: PDAcoquitlam, http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIq0IDqEZtk, accessed on September 24th, 2013

in the performance that are half masks and therefore can speak. It can be observed that these two roles are similar to the chorus in Greek theatre. It is their responsibility to keep the storyline as well as make references to current day issues (Ballinger 29.07.13)

Source: Personal Photo

Figure 3 – Emilie Leclerc interacting with her surroundings Source: Youtube Channel: PDAcoquitlam, http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIq0IDqEZtk, accessed on September 24th, 2013

In Figure 3, she explores the movement in her entire body by miming something overwhelming being pushed on her as the sounds of an instrument become louder. Particular to this demonstration, loud instrumental music, possibly a gamelan, is used in congruence with her performance. Music can be seen as a character in this demonstration because she uses the music not only as a character but also to feed her observations or predictions of her surroundings. Unlike, LeCoq’s training where the mask is a primary object of actor training, in Topeng the mask is brought into place only during performance. However, the aspect of objectivity is still prominent. In Balinese Topeng, the mask is a character rather than an anonymous blank face. The Panasar, the Clown Servants, play the objective role in a Topeng performance. These are the only two masks; Panasar Kelihan and Panasar Cenikan,

For example, the conflict could be a Princess has been kidnapped. At the very beginning, Panasar Kelihan (Figure 4) enters into the space after the Dalem, Prime Minister and Old Man and begins to honor the work of the Dalem with facts. Hence, giving information about the setting, the place, the time, etc. The other brother, Panasar Ketut comes in after and introduces the issues revolving that particular era and current day. The brothers further discuss theses issues in a humorous way to entertain the audience but at the same time address the problems. (Ballinger 29.07.13) Throughout the performance, these two characters only play the secondary roles but objective. They can be classified as being narrators as they observe and inform the audience of the storyline of the play. A specific conflict such as a princess being kidnapped is revealed. Since the King’s mask is a full mask thus one Panasar is used to speak for the King when he comes on stage and discusses how to tackle the issue. When this takes place, the objectivity is still present because Panasar is only explaining the opinion of the King to the audience. The objective role that a mask delineates is seen in both; LeCoq’s work and in Topeng.



However, in LeCoq’s work the objectivity of the mask is used in the actor training to allow the student to become sensitive to physicality of the body and observant of his/ her surroundings. In Topeng, the objective role is portrayed through the two Panasar, similarly to how the chorus was used during Greek theatre.

Taksu vs Trance A very important aspect of mask work is portraying the character/spirit of the mask. The expressions, colors, features on the mask illustrate clear distinctive aspects of the mask. Simply observing the mask, the performer can gain knowledge of the character to be portrayed. However, for the performance to be effectively conveyed the wearer has to inhabited the energy the mask posses. This means to set aside the individual’s spirit and inhabit the spirit of the mask. The actor should be almost hypnotized by the spirit of the mask.

Figure 5 – I Made Sidia performing with the Dalem mask.1 Source: Personal Photo

Unlike Jacques LeCoq’s mask work, Topeng masks are usually not part of any journey that a student takes but the masks are characters. If looked at in the perspective of Jacques LeCoq’s vision, all the Topeng masks

Before wearing the mask I Made Sidia prayed to the masks and then work the mask to perform. He said he was praying for Taksu.

1

could be classified as expressive masks. While preparing for a performance the actor does not use the mask but he tries to inhabit the soul or spirit of the character he would portray. The reason why masks are not used in the preparation is because masks are thought to be highly sacred and hold very high importance in the Balinese history and culture. They are a representation of past characters (ancestors), which means the spiritual attachment to the masks of utmost importance. Balinese masks can be divided into 3 different categories. The first category is the wali masks. These are used to perform only in temple ceremonies. The second category is Bebali. This masks are known to be the masks that are used flexibly; for temple ceremonies and for normal public performances. The last category is the Bali Balihan masks. These are masks that are used solely for public performances and are the ones that do not posses much spiritual energy in comparison to the other two types of masks. (I Made Sidia 29.07.13). In Balinese Topeng, this energy is known as Taksu. It is perceived as something the performers receive from their ancestors in order for the rituals to go as planned. (Slattum and Schraub 32) The word Taksu means “a magical power to boost creativity and intellectuality, and a shrine within a family sanctuary that gives magical powers” (qtd. in Taksu—In and Beyond the Arts). According to the Balinese culture, Taksu is an heirloom that is passed down from older generations to newer generations as new performers in the family are taught about their heritage. (Dibia and Ballinger 11) In addition, Taksu can be also described as the charismatic spirit that the performer has. It could be referred to as the stage presence or even trance in a western perspective. There are various definitions, interpretations, and perspectives as to what Taksu is. However, Taksu is a connection to a spiritual being rather than a performer’s state of mind. Taksu is something extra that is hoped to be possessed by the performers during a performance. (Figure 5)

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In Topeng, the mask is considered to be highly sacred as it posses spiritual energy that can be manipulated into different ways. Therefore, when praying for Taksu, the actors pray that the mask has Tasku as well. In Topeng Panca, the energy of the Taksu might not be as powerful as what it would be in a ritualistic performance of Topeng Pajegan. Taksu is ultimately spiritual energy that is supposed to be channeled in the right and positive direction. Even though Taksu is all to do with the spiritual charisma, a mask can posses Taksu as well. (I Made Sidia 29.07.13) For example, in a Topeng performance, the Sidhakarya mask is known to be the most spiritually powerful masks and the one that has the most Taksu as it is used particularly during Topeng Pajegan, which is a ritualistic performance. While on the other side of the world, this spiritual charisma of Taksu is considered Trance. When the actor performs with a mask, he or she has to inhabit the spirit of the mask in order to arouse different emotions in the audience. The term is “trance states”. (Johnstone 140). The actor has to induce himself into the trance state that the spirit of the masks requires. In LeCoq’s work, the Commedia Mask has particular features to which the actor has to adhere by. Pantaloone, part of the stock characters in Commedia Dell’Arte, is portrayed with distinctive physical features. The performer is supposed to stick their neck out and body backwards similarly like a turkey. (Commedia Dell’Arte, University OF South Queensland,) This helps the actor physically to induce himself/herself into the character of the mask with the help of the body. This idea of trance means that the actor leaves himself/herself to the side when wearing the mask and somewhat changes the state of consciousness. (Johnstone 151).

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spirit and the spirit of the mask and the performance changes from “actoral to actual” (Hahlo and Reynolds 82).

Figure 6 – Emilie Leclerc performing with the Pantaloone mask Source: Youtube Channel: PDAcoquitlam, http:// www.youtube.com/watch?v=wcZRKbwthxM, accessed on September 24th, 2013

Figure 4 shows Emilie Leclerc portraying the role of Pantaloone, She not only vocalizes the character but also physicalizes her body to fit the character’s personality. She walks into the scene with her back bent, saying “Money, money, money.” It can clearly be seen that she has inhabited the spirit of the mask as she has completely separated herself from the character of Pantaloone. Another one of LeCoq’s mask, the Red Nose mask needs the actor to be in a trance like state. The Red Nose mask is used a representation of a clown. LeCoq uses mask to bring reveal the true nature of the person behind this small little Red Nose Mask. This mask does not hide the entire face rather it adds to the face of the person. Therefore, trance from the mask is still applicable because the student has to inhabit the trance of the clown he or she becomes as a result. In comparison, Taksu is a gift and can never be dangerous in anyway. (Ballinger 29.07.13) While on the other hand inducing trance from a mask can allow the actor to change completely and not even know who they are. However, one thing that performers have said to experience is that although they are looking at the situation in a more critical way, their feelings and senses are heightened. (Johnstone 153) As a result of this, sometimes the actor does not know where to draw the line within their own

Thus, it can be inferred that in both practices a certain level of trance state is required in order for the performance to be effectively conveyed. However, in Balinese Topeng, the term for the energy the person possess is called Taksu. Since the mask is a secondary object in the actor training and the stories are what need to be learned and adhered by, most of the Taksu comes primarily from within the person rather than the mask. Similarly in LeCoq’s work a certain level of trance comes from within the person. However, mostly the trance is induced by the philosophies, stories and principally from the spirit of the mask.

Making of the mask – Spiritual vs Secular purpose Making of the mask seems as though it is a very insignificant part of the entire mask work. However, the design, material and shape of the mask is what brings a character to it as well as create a spirit of the mask. As Balinese Topeng is ritualistic and ceremonial making the mask plays a significant role in the spirit of the mask. As a result of the animistic beliefs in the Balinese culture, the connection to spirituality and nature is predominant. As said by I Made Sidia, the carver/mask maker finds a good date and time for finding the right wood to make the mask. After that, offerings and permissions are made to the spiritual beings in order to allow the carvers to use the wood of the tree found. Once, the carver has found the inspiration to create the mask he uses meticulous actions to shape the mask using chisels. Thereafter, the carver softens out the mask in order for the wearer to be able to wear the mask and then paints the mask using traditional pigment formed from stones, animal bones, etc to create the paint for the mask. Multiple layers of the paint are applied to the mask and then dried in the sun after every single paint. The carver adds

the final touches of the physical features, the hair, mustache and eyebrows to make the mask more realistic. (Dibia and Ballinger 67) The final step of the entire process is to cleanse the mask. The carvers use their feet to hold the mask while sculpting, shaping and creating the mask and the feet symbolize impurity therefore, the masks are cleansed and then ready to be ritualized and used. (Ballinger 29.07.13) Unlike in Topeng, Jaques LeCoq’s masks are made very differently. The need to ritualize the mask is not required as ritual and culture is not a component of LeCoq’s training. However, the design and shape of the mask is very important for the students to conform to LeCoq’s philosophies of theatre. For example, the neutral mask has to have the essential element of equilibrium as it is used to find the middle ground between various extremes. In addition it is used for the beginnings of exploration of physicality in the body for the student. The difference in the making of the mask shows a contrast in the purpose of the mask in the East and West. In the East, the cultural aspect is the essential aspect of the mask work and is utilized right from the making of the mask to the mask in performance. However, even in LeCoq’s work the process of the making of the mask is important to the extent that every mask has a different design and shape in order for the student to explore their individual journey as an actor. However, they connect to the mask in a trance state rather than in a spiritual state where the individual person abides by the philosophies of Topeng. LeCoq’s students use the mask as an investigative object rather than a ritualistic need in performance.

Conclusion: To answer the question; Are there any significant similarities and/or differences in the way in which Jacques LeCoq and Balinese Topeng approach mask work?, there are significant similarities and differences between the use of mask in Topeng and by Jacques LeCoq.



Mask work always invites a certain level of objectivity. Both Topeng and LeCoq’s work portray objectivity. Specific examples of the use of Neutral Mask in performance and the role of the two Panasar have been used to further analyze objectivity in each practice. The difference between the ways in which the objectivity is portrayed is that, in Topeng the Panasar inform the audience about the storyline. While in LeCoq’s work, the objectivity is used to allow the student to break down physicality and explore the movement in their body. The essential part of mask work originates from trance. Both Topeng and LeCoq’s training include some element of Trance. Both styles need induction of the spirit of the mask in order for the performance to be effective. In LeCoq’s mask work, the students inhabit the philosophies and hence they inhabit the trance state of the mask. Similarly, in Topeng, the actor goes into the state of trance. However, in Topeng, this is called Taksu, which is spiritual charisma. However, the difference is that with Topeng the trance comes from within the person and the mask, while in LeCoq’s mask work the trance is highly induced by the mask. Furthermore, the actual creation of the mask differs as a result of the purpose of the mask. As Topeng manifests a ritualistic purpose, the mask goes through a spiritual journey of rituals and purification before begin used. While in Jacques LeCoq’s mask work the prototype is made and then generically re-made to be used by different performers. Although, LeCoq’s theory uses the masks as vital objects, in Topeng, the mask is also vital but it is a ritualistic need for the performance and religious ceremonies. In conclusion, mask work in the East and West are similar due to the fundamental aspects such as trance and objectivity. However, the purpose is the difference in the use of masks. Therefore, the basic mechanics of mask work are the same over all, however the additional layers of perceptions and perspectives create a contrast.

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Works Cited:

oedipus-the-king/the-chorus.html>

Written Sources:

“Commedia Dell’Arte.” University of South Queensland. N.p., N.p. Web. 24 June. 2013

Dibia, I. W., and Rucina Ballinger. Balinese Dance, Drama and Music: A Guide to the Performing Arts of Bali. Singapore: Periplus, 2004. Print. Dibia, I. W. Taksu: In and beyond Arts. Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia: Wayan Geria Foundation, 2012. Print. Hahlo, Richard, and Peter Reynolds. Dramatic Events: How to Run a Successful Workshop. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 2000. Print. Johnstone, Keith. Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre. New York: Theatre Arts Book, 1979. Print. Lecoq, Jacques, Jean-Gabriel Carasso, and Jean-Claude Lallias. The Moving Body: Teaching Creative Theatre. New York: Routledge, 2001. Print.

Stevenson, Angus, and Christine A. Lindberg. “Objectivity.” New Oxford American Dictionary. 3rd ed. 2010. Print. Youtube Channel: PDAcoquitlam. N.p. accessed on September 24th, 2013 Youtube Channel: PDAcoquitlam. N.p. accessed on September 24th, 2013 Pictures: I Made Sidia performing with the Panasar Mask. N.p. Photograph. Personal Photograph

Murray, Simon David. Jacques Lecoq. London: Routledge, 2003. Print.

I Made Sidia performing with the Dalem Mask. N.p. Photograph. Personal Photograph

Slattum, Judy, Paul Schraub, Hildred Geertz, and Judy Slattum. Balinese Masks: Spirits of an Ancient Drama. Singapore: Periplus, 2003. Print.

LeCoq’s Masks. N.p. Photograph. http:// www.theater-masks.com/

Wiles, David. Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. Print. Yarrow, Ralph, and Franc Chamberlain. Jacques Lecoq and the British Theatre. London: Routledge, 2002. Print. Online Sources: Dibia, I. W. “Topeng: A masked dance theatre of Bali” IMAOC N.p. 27 Nov. 2008. Web. 26 Sep 2013. Esslin, Martin. “Mask over Matter.” The Guardian. N.p., 23 Jan. 1999. Web. 14 Feb. 2013. . “The Chorus.” Shmoop. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Sept. 2013.
Topeng Masks. N.p. Photograph. Flickr.com http://www.flickr.com/photos/27663536@ N00/ Interviews: Ballinger, Rucina. Personal interview. 29 July 2013. Sidia, I. M. Personal interview. 29 July 2013.

Bibliography: De, Zoete Beryl, and Walter Spies. Dance and Drama in Bali,. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford UP, 1973. Print. Kam, Garrett. Ramayana in the Arts of Asia. Singapore: Select, 2000. Print. Martin, John. The Intercultural Performance Handbook. London: Routledge, 2004. Print. McBurney, Simon. Complicite: Plays. London: Methuen Drama, 2003. Print.

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McPhee, Colin. A House in Bali,. New York: J. Day, 1946. Print. Wiles, David. Greek Theatre Performance: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. Print.

Appendices Appendix A – LeCoq Masks

Neutral woman and Neutral Man

The Larval mask

The Commedia Mask – Pantalonne

Appendix B – The Story The main resource of Topeng stories is Balinese chronicles (babad) traditionally written on palm leaf manuscripts or lontar. The stories may depict, for example, the journey of the Javanese priests and noblemen to Bali from Java between the ninth and the seventeenth century; or the historical journey of Balinese ancestors took place later, the founding of many Hindu-Bali temples around the island; the inauguration of the local villages; the marriage of the local kings and their royal family members; and the role or emergence of clans in Bali. Among the most important literature containing Topeng stories are: Babad Dalem or the Chronicle of the Kings which tell of the glorified history of the ancestral heritage of the high cast on the island; Kidung Pamancangah which describes the family line of Balinese kings; Babad Blahbatuh, Babad Wug Gianyar, Babad Mengwi, to mention only a few. Whatever the story is about, there will always be scenes depicting present day people of Bali speaking about very contemporary issues and telling jokes despite the fact that the drama is set in the eighteenth century, or even earlier. Topeng stories are always heroic and didactic. They are heroic in that they tell of many great battles involving local kings, clan leaders, and other heroes. They are didactic since Topeng stories convey philosophical concepts, such as the duality (rwa bhineda) in life involving two conflicting forces: good (dharma) and evil (adharma). The stories usually end with the victory of the good side. Topeng stories integrate balanced elements of both serious drama and comedy making the performance neither too serious nor frivolous.

Appendix C – Topeng Masks.

Panasar

Dalem – The King

The Old Man – Topeng Tua

The Prime Minister

Sidhakarya An Expressive mask – Perrietta



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WORLD STUDIES

ABSTRACTS

AGARWAL, SHUBH

BHARGAVA, ANOKHI

The research paper examines arranged marriages in India and the consideration of religion as a factor for the basis of the marriage in the 2 most common religions in India i.e. Hinduism and Islam. The research question is “To what extent do religious factors play a role in arranged marriages in Hinduism and Islam in India?”

This essay discusses the change in sustained human development in the form of ‘happiness’ with changes in economic growth of a country. Specifically, this essay investigates the extent to which Singapore’s economic growth has occurred at the expense of societal happiness.

This research was chosen because the India is a country with a vast range of cultures, religions and traditions with a significant history of arranged marriages, the concept of which seems very vague to the youth of country. While writing this paper, research was done by analyzing statistics and looking at the religious, psychological and economical aspects of arranged marriages. The paper concludes that arranged marriages have been going on in India since many years and have their pros and cons. Religion is one of the factors, which are considered when choosing a life partner, but weightage should also be given to other factors. In the recent times, the youth have started to take independent decisions and even though they might seem liberal, the concept of religion is always still in the back of their minds.

The essay explores the relationship between potential reasons for unhappiness in Singapore and its high GDP, questioning its nature to be either that of correlation or causation. Singapore’s wealth status is determined using the traditional economic marker of productivity, measured by GDP and GDP per capita. The happiness of individuals in Singapore, as well as the level of happiness of the country as a whole is based on the findings of the Gallup world happiness poll of 2011, which follows a self-reporting measure. Although this does not accurately measure and depict absolute levels of happiness, it does work well with many ‘intuitively relevant variables’ such as physiological measures, health, social satisfaction and so on, which the research question is interested in. It provides a trustworthy guide for relative happiness, which is sufficient for this essay as trends amongst countries are studied as opposed to the pursuit of a measure of absolute happiness. After realizing the limitation of money as a source of happiness, a few conclusions can be drawn. At an individual level, an increase in income has marginally decreasing benefits and therefore marginally decreasing happiness. On a national level, people tend to return to a new ‘equilibrium’ of happiness, so an increase in GDP does not necessarily mean an increase in happiness. Potential inverse relationships were also found between an increase in GDP and the happiness of a country, as a result of the socio-economic issues of income disparity and relative poverty that relate to both wealth and happiness in Singapore.

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LOBO, CALVIN This extended essay examines a new energy source that’s making headlines in the energy industry for it’s unique drilling method & vast abundance. There are escalating worldwide demands for electrical power & transportation, much of which depend on fossil fuels. Not only energy demand, but at the same time humans are risking global climate due to extensive production of energy from fossil fuel to meet growing demands. Current fossil fuel consumption trends show that humans are expected to run out of oil by 20521. Afterwards, humans will turn their demands to gas as a potential source. This, however, can only buy an average of 8 years, but our demands are continuously growing, thereby reducing the number of years left. This extended essay focuses on a particular kind of natural gas, Shale Gas—the natural gas present within the Shale Rock formation. It’s retrieved using a combination of hydraulic fracturing and horizontal drilling. This extended essay focuses on the environmental and economic implications involved. To understand thoroughly whether it’s a ‘benefit or nightmare’ I’ve chosen to use a cost-benefit analysis to weight up the pros & cons and evaluates each. With regards to environmental implications, there are some primary issues involved, as the drilling technology has not been perfected. Water, the primary source of the drilling process, mixed with chemicals and sand doesn’t get completely retracted and mixes with the ground water. In addition, lack of efficiency has caused some of the gas (mainly methane) to spill and mix with the water resulting in it being flammable; a lot of this water is used for drinking and sanitary purposes.

Narotzky 2010 Oil Consumption Hits All-Time High | WorldWatch Institute. WorldWatch Institute. http://www.worldwatch.org/oilconsumption-hits-all-time-high, accessed April 29, 2013

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Economically, the development of Shale Gas has more benefits associated with it. The advancement of a new technology in a growing industry has produced large number of jobs. Additionally the increase in the supply of Shale Gas has resulted in reduced natural gas prices worldwide and the taxes paid by drilling companies in addition to expenditures like transportation, storage etc. result in governments benefitting and strengthening their economy through exportation and taxation.

MUSHAIKE, KUDAKWASHE This essay examines the question, ‘To what extent did the Zimbabwean government’s economic policy of maximum pricing on maize, toilet roll and soap lead to the 2008 Cholera outbreak in Chegutu’. The research closely covers a global disease, Cholera and looks at how an economic decision might have led to the crisis. An economic theory is used to explain the shortages of 3 basic commodities; maize, tissue paper and soap, that form the basket of goods in Zimbabwe and whose scarcity in 2008, I claim to have caused the Chegutu Cholera outbreak. These three commodities where handpicked because they have direct links to the well-being and health of most people in Zimbabwe. The data that was used in the investigation was derived primarily from the outbreak reports and minutes from stakeholder meetings, partly from interviews that I carried out in and around Chegutu and other secondary sources that were used to support some of the notions that are raised in the investigation. Through the research, I concluded that the economic decision that the government of Zimbabwe made faced with a state of Hyperinflation; to slash prices of maize, soap and tissue paper caused the Cholera outbreak. This is because the shortage of the maize, tissue paper and soap resulted in a fall in nutrition, sewer bursts arising from clogging of sewer reticulation systems and a fall in proper hygienic practices respectively, results of which where a faster and easier transport of the cholera bacteria resulting in the outbreak. I noted however that it was only to a lesser extent that the price control on these particular goods led to the outbreak since there were other fundamental reasons like, lack of clean water and the failure of the Chegutu municipality to pick up garbage prior to the crisis.



ROY, NEHA This essay investigates ‘To what extent do socio-economic factors in India affect its population, and thereby have an impact on its supply of rice to domestic and foreign markets currently and in the future?’ The scope for this essay is the various socio-economic problems that hinder the usage of contraceptives in India and how this affects the increasing demand for staple grains, such as rice in India and foreign markets. By calculating and predicting India’s and the world’s population, a relationship between the increase in overpopulation and increase in demand for rice is established. Various methods of government intervention to highlight why permanent sterilization is favored over other forms of contraceptives is analysed. The impact that government intervention has had on the use of contraceptives in India and its overpopulation is discussed. Using Math and Economics the future needs of India’s increasing population, and how it has a global effect on the supply of rice is focused upon. With an increase in population, the number of resources, such as food and water, available per person is reduced further, putting a strain on the basic needs of the local and world population The prejudice against contraception is critical to the increasing growth rate of India’s population. Government intervention may have a slight impact on the India’s population, however it cannot alter decades of culture infused into society. The government may need to look for alternative methods to control its population as overpopulation has a direct impact on the supply of rice on a local and global level. India is the second-largest exporter of rice, and its overpopulation has a global impact on food supplies.

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WORLD STUDIES

SELECTED WHAT FACTORS HAVE CONTRIBUTED TO THE CHANGE IN HIV/AIDS-RELATED STIGMA IN SOUTH AFRICA SINCE THE ONSET OF THE DISEASE IN THE COUNTRY?”

MUYANGA, AMUKELANI

Introduction

South Africa has the highest number of HIV/AIDS-infected individuals in the world with an estimated 5.6 million living with the disease. In a country so affected by the epidemic, any hindrances to lessening the impact of HIV/AIDS must be actively minimized. Stigma has been a barrier to public action. This paper aims to answer the research question: “What factors have contributed to the change in HIV/AIDSrelated stigma in South Africa since the onset of the disease in the country?”

Despite three decades of research and intervention, HIV/AIDS-related stigma has had weighty influence on the pandemic. The World Health Organization (WHO) cites fear of stigma and discrimination as “the main reason why people are reluctant to be tested, to disclose their HIV status or to take antiretroviral drugs” (World Health Organization, 49).

Stigma is a complex phenomenon that is the result of many different contextual factors coming into play, which is why an interdisciplinary approach was applied to the research. Biological information on the disease and individuals’ gaps in basic knowledge as well as initial misconceptions about HIV/AIDS and its origins is examined in the biology section of the paper. South Africa’s economic and political stance at the onset of AIDS and the disease’s low priority status then contributed to stigmatizing attitudes. The interconnectedness of these and other factors is examined in the psychology section of the paper. Individuals displaying HIV/AIDS-like symptoms were stigmatized as indulging in promiscuous behaviour on the basis of physical manifestations of infection. South Africa’s political state at the time was preoccupied with the struggle to maintain or overthrow apartheid and thus an attention vacuum was created in addressing HIV/AIDS. Stigmatizing behavior has lessened since the onset of HIV/AIDS and the results are evident in statistics such as increased testing rate. The change can be attributed to the initiative of many HIV/AIDS bodies, who helped remove the taboo status of speaking about HIV/AIDS and thus opened up a dialogue for education to occur. Education was found to be the driving force behind South Africa’s decline in HIV/AIDS-related stigma.

WHO’s hypothesis on the evolution of stigma was that “as HIV/AIDS will become a disease that can be both prevented and treated, attitudes will change, and denial, stigma and discrimination will rapidly be reduced.”  The researcher has found this to be the case in South Africa as attitude changes have helped defined the response of the country with the largest number of HIV-positive individuals in the world, to the disease. Stigma is a dynamic phenomenon and changes as contextual factors come into play, making it difficult to qualitatively measure over time. Perhaps due to this ambiguity in directly assessing stigma’s impact on HIV/AIDS, UNAIDS’s Executive Director reports that tackling stigma has been the bottom priority for many major HIV/AIDS bodies (Peter Piot, 2008). Stigma can be measured using specific psychometric methodology or more indirectly through indicators such as the country’s statistics i.e. the change in prevented mother-to-child transmissions. The latter of the above is tightly linked to the biology of the disease and its physical manifestations that make individuals in a society believe they can recognize an HIV-positive individual, which leads to stigma. The spread of the disease is greatly influenced by economic factors and South Africa’s place in the world, which directly affects individuals on the grassroots level. The complexity of stigma requires an interdisciplinary approach to avoid reductionism and offer a comprehensive analysis of its causes, effects and strategies



to address it. In this paper, the influences of biology and economics and politics on the psychological aspect of stigma are analyzed. This paper explores the interconnectedness of the biology of HIV/AIDS, South Africa’s economic and political standing at the onset of the disease in the country and its effect on HIV/AIDS-related stigma. This paper attempts to answer the research question: “What factors have contributed to the change in HIV/AIDS-related stigma in South Africa since the onset of the disease in the country?”, which is useful information in classifying countries on the borderline between developed and developing, called newly industrialized, which South Africa is a textbook example of.

Biology Nomenclature The term “immunodeficiency” (ID) was derived from the unusual cases of opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis accompanying the disease that were often a result of an immune system deficiency. It was soon established that AIDS could not be inherited via a mutated gene but rather gained during the course of someone’s life and thus “acquired (A)” was added to the name. Lastly, AIDS was defined as a syndrome (S) because the first people diagnosed each possessed a predictable collection of symptoms such as thrush, herpes and viral infections that were normally unproblematic for the immune system to suppress (Harden 6-7).

The History of the Zoonosis HIV/AIDS is a zoonosis because it is a disease caused by a microscopic pathogen transferred from another animal species to humans (FAO, WHO, OIE 5). In their original hosts, these pathogens are often harmless because the host’s immune system is equipped to control any potential harm they may cause. When the pathogen is transferred to another animal species like humans, however, it undergoes a genetic

mutation that makes it able to infect humans. HIV originally existed as simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) in chimpanzees and sooty mangaby monkeys. A genetic mutation in the SIV virus allowed it to transfer species into humans. HIV, like other viruses, is fundamentally a set of genetic instructions surrounded by a protective shell. The viral core consists of two single strands of ribonucleic acid (RNA) that carries the nine genes controlling how the virus infects its host cell and replicates. Inside the core are 2000 copies of the p24 viral protein (NIAID sec. 5). A coat of protein and lipids dotted with protrusions that fit into receptor molecules on the host cell surround the viral core (Harden 18-19). HIV debilitates the body’s immune system, making it vulnerable enough for infections it would ordinarily easily defeat to be deadly. The first humoral branch of the immune system consists of B-cells. When these cells encounter antigens from viruses, they consume the foreign particle and present a protein from the antigen to helper T cells from the cellular immune system branch. The helper T cell then proceeds to secrete chemicals called lymphokines that allow B-cells to multiply into antibody secreting plasma cells (Gorry et al. 94). Antibodies are proteins that attach themselves to invading particles and help identify and counteract foreign activity. T-cells also produce cells that directly destroy the virus. A crucial part of this process is when the T-cells initiate the production of memory B-cells, that “remember” the details of the invader and how to fight it. If the same virus’ antigen attempts to attack the body again, memory B-cells signal other B-cells to intensify antibody production to fight the viral infection. This is the basis of vaccines, which is to expose the body to a small, neutralized dose of a virus for the immune system to teach itself how to fight it off a full-blown virus (National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases 1).

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HIV is a retrovirus, meaning it utilizes a unique mechanism in which the RNA single-strand and reverse transcriptase, an enzyme, is released from the virus particle (viron) into the host cell. The host cell’s RNA polymerase-II enzyme facilitates the action of reverse transcriptase, which converts the RNA strand into a double-helixed DNA strand. The strand joins and blends in with the host cell’s DNA. The virus then relies almost entirely on the machinery of the host cell to express the viral DNA, called provirus (Thulasirajah par. 1). This DNA is then transcribed during the routine cellular transcription process into a messenger-RNA strand that acts as a blueprint to create long proteins that make up the HIV viron. The host cell’s RNA polymerase makes copies of HIV’s genetic material, which assemble to make new HIV virons (AIDS Info sec. 5).

HIV Transmission HIV resides in bodily fluids such as blood, semen and vaginal fluid and is transmitted through unprotected sex, intravenous drug and blood transfusion. HIV cannot be contracted through any form of physical contact that does not include the exchange of blood or other bodily fluids because that is where the disease is.

Treatment Within 2 weeks of infection, sufferers usually experience acute retroviral syndrome, often described as “the worst flue ever” (AIDS Info sec. 6), followed by a chronic, clinical latency stage, when the body is replicating the virus at low rates during which the virus can be transmitted to others. When the virus has attacked the immune system beyond repair and someone’s CD4-count falls below 200 cells per mm of blood, full blown AIDS is diagnosed and sufferers are susceptible to fatal opportunistic infections such as tuberculosis (Thulasirajah par. 6). Another common ailment accompanying HIV is wasting syndrome, where an individual loses 10% of total body weight rapidly. A widely held belief in the African

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culture is that full-figured represent health and fertility. Due to this, unexplained weight loss is quickly associated with ill-health thought to be brought on by a promiscuous lifestyle and HIV contraction. Another symptom, kaposi’s sarcoma (KS), is a type of cancer in which red/purple abnormal growths appear in usually visible places such as under the skin on the face, in the mouth and around the nose. The spread of KS is more rapid in HIV-positive individuals (National Institutes of Health par. 1) making KS something else to have to explain to community members. Increased susceptibility to opportunistic infection means HIV-positive individuals are sick more often, have increased absenteeism at work and at social gatherings and have reduced interactions with other members of society. Community members then speculate connect the symptoms and speculate HIV/AIDS contraction, leading to stigma when assumptions are unaddressed by the infected individual or his/her family.

not believe AIDS was caused by spirits. The 11% who believed AIDS was caused by spirits displayed significantly more misinformation on HIV/AIDS and more likely to have negative attitudes towards people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), stigmatize and endorse “social sanctions” against PLWHA. Judging from the nature of results, the survey appears to have been forced choice where participants could only choose one of 3 answers. The 68% who replied they did not think spirits caused HIV/AIDS might have had other, misguided beliefs about its causes- for example, that using the same lavatory as an infected individual will cause transmission- that would also lead to discrimination against PLWHA (Holzemer et al. 2). Only outlining the belief in spiritual causation of HIV/AIDS in the black South African township is slightly reductionist. What must be said about this study, however, is that it is a correlation and no cause-and-effect relationship has been established.

Misconceptions

Nevertheless the research provided valuable information about the central role education or lack thereof plays in stigmatization. People often made their own rationalizations and assumptions in attempts to understand this new and enigmatic disease.

At the onset of HIV/AIDS in the country, South Africans held many unanswered questions about where the disease originated from and how it is transmitted. As a result, the first reaction to the disease was confusion, which birthed a fear of the unknown although attitudes towards HIV/ AIDS varied widely. Delusions such as “you can get HIV through an apple or an orange or an injection or anything”, “a fat person didn’t have HIV” or “HIV can be transmitted just by looking at a person” existed (“HIV & AIDS Stigma and Discrimination”). Kalichman and Simnayi (2004) conducted a study with aims of correlating stigma with basic knowledge of HIV/AIDS in a black township in Cape Town, South Africa. Researchers surveyed 487 men and women (of a mean age of 23 years) about their beliefs on the cause of HIV/AIDS. 11% said they believed AIDS was caused by spirits, 21% said they were not sure whether AIDS was caused by spirits or not and 68% did

There are various other causes community members could attribute the physical symptoms seen in HIV/AIDS patients to and furthermore, all stigma cannot be attributed to lack of information on the fundamentals of the above expressed knowledge as education levels vary across contexts. It is thus reductionist to conclude that HIV/ AIDS-related stigma can be explained thoroughly on a society’s biological knowledge of the disease.

Economics and Politics The South African Context An estimated 5.6 million people are living with HIV/AIDS in South Africa. This is the largest amount in the world (Larry Towell par. 1).

Kauffman (2004) identified that the South African government’s response to HIV was delayed (Van Dyk 29). Van de Walt, Franchi and Stevens (2003), expounds that when HIV/AIDS was first discovered in the eighties, the Nationalist government was immovably concerned more with sustaining the apartheid system. Apartheid resistance movements, like the African National Congress, were focused on abolishing apartheid. This preoccupation formed an “attention vacuum” that enabled HIV/AIDS to burgeon unaddressed (Duncan et al. 208). Apartheid’s social engineering facilitated this burgeoning through migrant labour and systematic deprivation of resources to nonwhite racial groups; worst affecting the black majority. Niehaus and Jonsson (2005) as well as Van Breda (1998) conspired that the nationalist government purposefully let HIV thrive in the black population to maintain its power. South African leadership’s initial stance was a distressing one in retrospect. In 2000, when interviewed by Time magazine, then-president Thabo Mbeki reported that immune deficiency could not be solely attributed to a virus (Karon par. 1). Unfortunately, this denial of emerging evidence gave way to more fallacious deductions of HIV/AIDS and its rudiments. An effective combination therapy called highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) became available to PLWHA in developed countries in 1996. The newly discovered treatment decreased AIDS death rates by 84% over the next four years (“History of HIV/AIDS in South Africa” sec. 5). The treatment has proven that multiple drugs can convert HIV/AIDS into a chronic, manageable disorder like diabetes. Former South African Health Minister and chairperson of the African Union, Nkosazana Zuma delineated that most HIV infected individuals live in Africa, where treatments comprising of combinations of costly antiviral drugs are unrealizable. Treatment would cost South African HIV-positive



individuals between 9-67% of their gross domestic product (Russel). South Africa campaigned in an attempt to get western pharmaceutical companies to permit local businesses to produce the drugs themselves or import them from countries that would be selling at a low cost and manufacture generic copies of the drugs. Pharmaceutical companies replied that without protection over their patents, they had no incentive to continue research towards a cure. Ultimately, United States companies permitted both low cost importing and cheaper production within South Africa on condition that imported drugs carried intellectual property right protection. Unfortunately, even with this achievement, around that time, South did not posses healthcare systems capable of managing large-scale treatment programs. South Africa also boasts one of the world’s biggest HIV-treatment programs, which increased the country’s life expectancy by five years. The Health Systems Trust reported in 2012 that South Africa will need around US$5.3 billion more per annum to maintain its HIV/AIDS response (“History of HIV/AIDS in South Africa” par. 1). The financial impact of receiving treatment for HIV/AIDS infected patients fostered a socio-economic divide as poorer citizens were falling ill and dying in greater numbers than the more affluent members of society who could afford the treatment, lifestyle changes and had convenient access to high quality health care and counseling services, which was often inaccessible and of substandard quality for the lower class. This divide contributed to HIV/AIDS being thought of as the disease of the poor. An inability to cope with the physical, psychological and societal effects of HIV/ AIDS in the community indicated a lack of financial ability.

Psychology The Change in Stigmatizing Behaviour Alonzo and Reynolds (1995), define stigma as, “A powerful discrediting and tainting social label that radically changes the way individuals view themselves and are viewed as persons.” (Holzemer et al. 2)  Its presence in relation to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, naturally, has a major role in development in the fight against the disease and its damaging impact in South African communities. The decline in stigmatizing behaviour and attitudes in South Africa is encouraging. It has evolved from being an ignorance-induced sharp instrument puncturing the wheels of development to being identified as detrimental and counterproductive to the fight against HIV/ AIDS in the country. Stigma around HIV/AIDS exists because HIV/ AIDS is a life-threatening disease that evokes passionate reactions. The disease is linked to immoral behaviours such as prostitution, promiscuity and drug use, which are already stereotyped. Also, it is known that HIV/AIDS is mostly transmitted through sex, which has different moral labels in various societies that co-exist in any country. HIV contraction is regarded as being a result of irresponsible sexual behaviour that deserves judgment, no matter how subtle especially because of the increasingly available amount of information from diverse channels. Initially, it was regarded as a disease for prostitutes. The misinformation around HIV/AIDS meant many people delayed being tested and realized they were infected only in the disease’s final stages. Weiss et al. (1992) describe an insider’s view on stigma as emic, meaning interpretations within a culture determined by local belief and best described by a native. In this realm it is possible to see the dynamic nature of stigma specific to communities, ethnicities and belief systems. The outsider’s view on stigma is etic, meaning generalizations considered universally true that link

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cultural factors with those of interest to the researcher that cultural insiders might not consider relevant. The Royal Tropical Institute identified low value, exclusion and disadvantage as some of these universally true factors and explained that where any two of these overlap, stigma exists (Holzemer et al. 9). In small rural communities in Swaziland that are still organized traditionally, chiefs govern community meetings to discuss internal affairs where decision-making is through consensus. 15% of HIV+ participants in the Swaziland National Network of People Living with HIV and AIDS study reported how they were discredited and not allowed to voice their views in community meetings solely on the basis of their status (Whiteside et al. 23). The epidemic of fear, stigmatization and discrimination has destabilized the power of individuals and societies to protect themselves while supporting those infected. For example, neighbours stoned Gugu Dhlamini, a South African woman, to death in 1998 after she revealed her HIV status openly on World AIDS Day (“HIV & AIDS Stigma and Discrimination”). World Health Organization names fear of stigma as the biggest reason people delay or completely skip testing, status disclosure and treatment (“Towards universal access”). A widely held belief in both South Africa and Swaziland was that being tested for HIV meant the individual was involved in immoral acts that could lead to HIV contraction. In 2002, one of Swaziland’s largest companies proposed confidential HIV testing for workers, to which workers responded to by striking (“Swaziland: HIV stigma still a barrier”). Fear of testing prevents many citizens from knowing their status and taking measures to improve their quality of life. Those who do know often keep their status secret from others, even sexual partners, which increases the likeliness of spreading the disease. Most PLWHA who choose to keep their status a secret report that revealing their status

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would repel friends, family and potential romantic partners. This most significantly affects young people as almost 33% of women aged 25-29, and over 25% of men aged 30-34 in South Africa, are living with HIV (“South Africa HIV & AIDS Statistics” sec. 2). This fear extends to receiving treatment in individuals who have already taken the first step of testing. The Swaziland Network for People Living with HIV/AIDS conducted a survey (2011) that found that 45% of Swazis who know they are HIV+ refuse to collect ARV treatment from clinics out of fear being identified as infected. Untreated HIV progresses much faster in the body and the individual’s quality of life is drastically reduced. Antiretroviral HIV medication must be taken everyday for a lifetime at the prescribed time at least 95% of the time for the treatment to be effective (“History of HIV/AIDS in South Africa” par. 7) The commitment to taking a daily dosage is an omnipresent reminder of living with an incurable chronic illness. This results in depression in some cases which adds another layer to a complex matter of dealing with an individual’s illness and re-evaluating their lifestyle, image in their community as well as their generalized and stereotyped one in society (Van Dyk 48). A study established that individuals who reported experiencing “high” levels of stigmatization were more than four times as prone to poor access to care. This could have been because HIV/AIDS was synonymous with a death sentence before the lid was lifted on what the disease actually does to the body, what treatment is available and what progressive effects it can have in HIV/ AIDS-infected individuals’ lives. Varas-Diaz et al. (2005) cites isolation and job loss and problems accessing health care as some of stigma’s effects. United Nations Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon’s call to change amongst the efforts of AIDS organisations finally helped drive home the notion spray-painted on

the wall of a township in Soweto, South Africa that reads “Stigma is not a cure.” An annual international AIDS conference conducted in Durban, South Africa in 2000 titled “Break the Silence” inspired activists like Criselda Kananda to dedicate their lives to challenging silence-fed stigma. When Kananda was diagnosed with HIV, she quit her sales job to become an advocate for living healthily with HIV/AIDS. In 2003, she launched a radio show on popular South African radio station Kaya FM called “Positive Talk”. Young AIDS activist Nkosi Johnson was denied entry into South African school because he was HIV positive in 1997. His case shed light on how South Africa’s constitution condemns discrimination on the grounds of HIV status. As keynote speaker at the 13th International AIDS Conference, he also encouraged people to break the silence (“Children’s Nobel Prize for Nkosi Johnson”). As a 12 year old, he gave a human face to the disease, which garnered empathy from many. Due to his age, it was understood that he could not have acquired HIV/AIDS from promiscuous behaviour and thus could not be blamed for having the disease. The researcher imagines that Johnson’s activism helped perpetuate a paradigm shift in understanding how infected individuals’ stories vary and deserve individual consideration rather than being subjected to blanket generalizations applied to all those infected. Prothro and Melikian’s (1955) kernel-of-truth hypothesis states that all stereotypes are based on some truth- no matter how minorand those truths are merely exaggerated and generalized (Blanton et al. 519-530). An example the hypothesis is side effects of treatment and physical symptoms such as rapid weight loss. Matoti-Mvalo & Puoane, (2011) conducted a study in which images of bodies ranging from very thin to obese specifically crafted to model South African women’s bodies. 69.3% of the women associated the underweight figures with being infected with having HIV/AIDS (“HIV/

Aids stigma fuels obesity in SA”). Increased access to treatment has helped reduce stigma because it has proven that it is possible to live a fulfilling and relatively normal life while HIV-positive. It is reported, however, that treatment has reduced certain kinds of stigmatization but not others. A Tanzanian study showed that fear-based stigma has increased amidst the rise of treatment because people feel they can no longer differentiate between HIV+ and HIV negative individuals on the basis of who looks ill and thus, cannot protect themselves from the disease (“History of HIV/AIDS in South Africa” sec. 4).

Stigma and social media South Africa’s healthcare system has taken major leaps since launching the HIV counseling and testing (HCT) campaign in 2010. This program includes role-play and group discussion involving HIV-positive people to share their perspective on how stigma was negatively impacting their lives. Non-governmental organizations have also done their part, such as John Hopkins University which launched the Scrutinize! Campaign with the slogan “Flip HIV to HIVictory!” (“About Scrutinize”). The campaign encouraged people to scrutinize their lifestyle for opportunities for HIV/AIDS to enter their lives and eliminate them. South Africa’s Drum and YOU magazines with a combined circulation of over 120 000 a week (“Magazine Statistics”) have weekly HIV/AIDS update that informs people in an informal way using tidbits of information that are usually no more than 100 words long. The Art for Humanity campaign where artists from all around SA produced art works about how they viewed HIV/AIDS and its effect in their lives and community. Art created a conversation where everyone’s opinions and questions are valid. Soul City, Soul Buddyz and LoveLife are multi-media campaigns that each relate stories of living with HIV/AIDS from relatable viewpoints



through slogans such as “My friend with AIDS is still my friend.”  Centres around the country offer sexual health information, clinical services and skills development.

HIV/AIDS and awareness campaigns A 2008 survey found that awareness messages best influenced 15-24 year olds, and condom use increased to 33.8% (“History of HIV/AIDS in South Africa” sec. 7) The amount of people receiving ARV treatment swelled more than tenfold in 2005 and 2010, from 101,000 to 1.1-million (Holborn par. 9). In 2011, more than 95% of HIV+ pregnant women received treatment to prevent transmission to their child. South Africa is now close to reaching its target for reducing mother-to-child transmission, as the percentage of babies born HIVpositive has declined from 8% in 2008 to 2.7% in 2012, against a target of 2% by 2014 (Holborn par. 11). These encouraging statistics are indirect indicators of the positive effects of reduced stigma. According to Professor Harry Hausler, Chief Executive Officer of the TB/HIV Care Association in SA, HIV is now seen as a manageable, chronic disease like diabetes. Stigma is a complex phenomenon because no one factor can account for its existence completely. HIV/AIDS stigma cannot be understood outside context; communities differ in their approach to stigma. Campbell and Williams (1999) established that the biomedical approach (informing people of the medical facts on HIV/AIDS) to combat stigma is not impactful enough on its own. The study includes a case study of a young South African engineering student female who knew the basics about HIV/AIDS and how it is transmitted but still chose to have unprotected sex with her boyfriend because of how she thought dating men and women should behave. Such stereotypes are embedded in one’s cultural identity and override any technical biomedical knowledge in her decision-making about sex (Duncan et al. 103). Stigma and its components is merely a tributary amongst many others

like the social engineering of apartheid, culture, poverty and a community’s access to information resources that could help them prevent the spread of HIV that feed into the river of South Africa’s increasing HIV/AIDS rates. Because of all the other factors at play, a decrease in stigma will not directly result in a decrease of the pandemic. A decrease in stigma does, however, better enable the individual’s fight against HIV/ AIDS, which will play an increasingly significant role with time in slowing down the rate of infections and perhaps causing a decrease in infection rates.

Conclusion Stigma has evolved from being an unavoidable hindrance to growth rooted in ignorance to a process that is now frowned upon and associated with those who know very little. It is conceivable to go as far as to say those who stigmatize are themselves viewed in a negative and discrediting manner because stigmatizing suggests ignorance about HIV/AIDS. Furthermore, in an age where frequently updated information on the disease saturates most modes of media available, ignorance is frowned upon. The driving forces behind this relatively rapid evolution identified in this paper are: • Education on HIV/AIDS in language and media in layman’s terms that made it easier for South African citizens to identify with and understand the disease. • This in turn fueled a desire to learn more. Access to information is empowering and when people are empowered, more often than not, they seek ways to become even more empowered, which could manifest as acquiring more information and/or sharing that which they already know. This system is self-sustaining as well as collaborative therefore supportive and thus likely to succeed. • Removing discussing HIV/AID’s taboo and unintelligible status by sharing information in creative and innovative ways such as graffiti and other visual art, television shows, children’s cartoons,

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witty and funny television campaigns like “Scrutinize!” • An understanding of the destructive effect stigmatization was having on communities around the country already struggling to deal with the epidemic and an honest desire to see change even though punishment and judgment are assumed to be the best deterrent of unwanted behaviour. Education is, and always has been, primary force for the decrease in stigma because the only way people can know that change is necessary is if they know what it is they need to change. Following that, initiative must be taken to decide how and when that change will occur. A 2010 survey found signs of a connection between the amount of exposure a person has had to communication programs and whether the individual had been tested. However, most important is the knowledge of why that change is crucial. This insight comes in numerous forms such as schooling, experience and even passive observation of one’s surroundings. Regardless of mode, education is crucial.

References “About Scrutinize” Scrutinize!. John Hopkins Health and Education in South Africa, 2008. Web. 15 July 2013. Alta C Van Dyk. HIVAIDS Care & Counselling. 4th ed. South Africa: Pearson South Africa, 2008. Print. Alta van Dyk. HIV and AIDS: Education, Care and Counselling- A Multidisciplinary Approach. Fifth edition. Cape Town, South Africa. Pearson, 2012. Ban-Ki Moon op-ed. “The Stigma Factor.” The Washington Times, 6 August 2008. Print. Blanton et al. (2000). The effects of ingroup versus out-group social comparison on self-esteem in the context of a negative stereotype. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 519-530.

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“Children’s Nobel Prize for Nkosi Johnson” International AIDS Society. International AIDS Society, 15 April 2002. Web. 29 July 2012.

Loughborough University. “Newlyindustrialising countries” National, Digital Learning Resources. Higher Education Authority, 2012. Web. 26 October 2013.

“Swaziland: The Triumph Over Fear” IRIN Africa. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 6 February 2007. Web. 11 May 2013.

Deborah Konkle-Parker. “Community-level HIV stigma is a public health threat.” HIV Clinician 25.2 (2013): 7-9. Print.

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