Groundwater Potential Mapping and Recharge Estimation of Halabja Area, NE of Iraq
A thesis Submitted to the Council of the Faculty of Science and Science Education School of Science at the University of Sulaimani in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geology
By
Lanja Farooq Rauf Ali B.Sc. Geology (2007), University of Sulaimani
Supervised by
Dr. DIARY A. M. AL-MANMI Assistant Professor
Xermanan, 2714
August, 2014
ﺽ َﻭﺃَ َ ﻧﺯ َﻝ ﺃَﻣﱠﻥْ َﺧﻠَ َﻕ ﺍﻟ ﱠﺳ َﻣ َﺎﻭﺍ ِ ﺕ َﻭﺍﻷَﺭْ َ ﻟَ ُﻛ ْﻡ ِﻣﻥْ ﺍﻟ ﱠﺳ َﻣﺎ ِء َﻣﺎ ًء َﻓﺄ َ ْﻧ َﺑ ْﺗ َﻧﺎ ِﺑ ِﻪ َﺣﺩَ ﺍﺋ َِﻕ َﺫ َ ﺎﻥ ﻟَ ُﻛ ْﻡ ﺃَﻥْ ُﺗ ْﻧ ِﺑ ُﺗﻭﺍ َﺷ َﺟ َﺭ َﻫﺎ ﺍﺕ َﺑﻬ َْﺟ ٍﺔ َﻣﺎ َﻛ َ ﻭﻥ)(60ﺃَﻣﱠﻥْ ﷲ َﺑ ْﻝ ُﻫ ْﻡ َﻗ ْﻭ ٌﻡ َﻳﻌْ ِﺩﻟُ َ ﺃ ِءﻟَ ٌﻪ َﻣ َﻊ ﱠ ِ ﺽ َﻗ َﺭﺍﺭً ﺍ َﻭ َﺟ َﻌ َﻝ ِﺧﻼَﻟَ َﻬﺎ َﺟ َﻌ َﻝ ﺍﻷَﺭْ َ ﺃَ ْﻧ َﻬﺎﺭً ﺍ َﻭ َﺟ َﻌ َﻝ ﻟَ َﻬﺎ َﺭ َﻭﺍﺳِ َﻲ َﻭ َﺟ َﻌ َﻝ َﺑﻳ َْﻥ ﷲ َﺑ ْﻝ ﺃَ ْﻛ َﺛﺭُ ُﻫ ْﻡ ْﻥ َﺣﺎ ِﺟ ًﺯﺍ ﺃ ِءﻟَ ٌﻪ َﻣ َﻊ ﱠ ِ ْﺍﻟ َﺑﺣْ َﺭﻳ ِ ُﻭﻥ)(61 ﻻَ َﻳﻌْ ﻠَﻣ َ
Dedication To the memory of 5000 innocent civilians, who perished in March 16, 1988 in Halabja. To my parents, Farooq and Nukhsha, who have always been my nearest that I found them with me whenever I needed. It is their unconditional love that motivates me to set higher targets. To my wonderful husband, Ranj, Who has been a rock of stability in my life and provided me with a strong love shield that always surrounds me and never lets me down. To my adorable daughter, Leah, who completed my life. Lanja
Acknowledgements It’s been a long road, but here I am at the end, but there are so many people to whom thanks I extend! First and foremost, is a well-deserved and the deepest appreciation to my supervisor Dr. Diary A. Mohammed, head of the geology department, who has the attitude and the substance of a genius: he continually and convincingly conveyed a spirit of adventure in regard to research, and an excitement in regard of teaching, I gratitude his useful comments, remarks, motivation, fruitful suggestions, multiple efforts, and engagement through this journey. Without his guidance and persistent help this thesis would not have been possible. I am grateful to the University of Sulaimani, the dean of the School of Science, and Geology department for their support and all the teachers who taught me during my courses of study. Special gratitude to the guidance and support received from Prof. Salahaddin S. Ali the president of Sulaimani University. My acknowledgement goes to Prof. Kamal Haji Karim, Dr. Azad O. Ibrahim, and Dr. Salim H. Al-Hakari, who helped and answered any question without hesitation. I would like to show my greatest appreciation to Dr. Alaa M. Atiaa, from Basra University. Without his encouragement and guidance in “groundwater potential mapping” this project would not have materialized. Furthermore I would also like to acknowledge with appreciation the role of the staff of Sulaimani groundwater directorate for providing me with data. A special gratitude I give to Mr. Arsalan A. Al-Jaf, who introduced me to remote sensing and its linkage with GIS, and who supported me with data, he has willingly shared his precious time helping me with maps specially geomorphology and LU/LC maps. I can’t say thank you enough for his tremendous support and help. I would like to express my gratitude to Sulaimani irrigation directorate/ watershed management’s department, especially Mr. Ari I. Amin for providing reports and information about the surface water in the area of interest. Special thanks go to the directorates of Darbanikhan Dam, Sulaimani and Bakrajo meteorological stations for providing climate information of the area of interest. Many thanks to Sulaimani
Environment Directorate/ Chemical Laboratory Department, especially the head of the laboratory Mrs. Ikhlas A. Brakhas, for analyzing water samples for hydrochemical analyses. Also, I like to thank Miss Hamida A. Karim, Mrs. Hawar Mustafa, and Mr.Ismail Ibrahim, who helped in my field works. Aspecial thanks goes to Mr. Rebar Aziz, who helped me to assemble the parts and gave suggestion about the task “Pumping test”. Many thanks go to Mr. Ardalan A. Faraj and Mr. Peshawa Mahmod and Yassin Ahmad, for their effort in guiding and helping in achieving the goal. My great thanks go to Mr. Omed Mustafa, whose help was vital for the success of this study. I am grateful for the help of Dr. Kamal Hama Karim from the Faculty of agriculture for clarifying and providing some references. I would like to appreciate all generous citizens from Halabja city, who helped me and made me fill comfortable during the study process. Last but not least a massive appreciation to my lovely husband, Ranj, for being such a useful field assist, his encourage, understanding, and support to get this work completed. Finally many thanks to the ones who gave me their help and I forgot to mention them.
List of abbreviations AET AHP AI AIA AOI APWL AWC CFA CKFA CMB CN DEM d-excess dSW GMWL HMWL IC IQS JKA Kc LU/LC m.a.s.l mJ mol N.D. NTU pCO 2 P eff PET RO SAR SCS SI SLAP SM SRTM SSP SW TAT TM USGS VSMOW WHO Δ μS
Actual Evapotranspiration Analytic Hierarchy Process Aridity Index Alluvium Intergranular Aquifer Area of Interest Accumulated Potential Water Loss Available Water Capacity Cretaceous Fissured Aquifer Cretaceous Karstic Fissured Aquifer Chloride Mass Balance Curve Number Digital Elevation Model Deuterium-excess Change in Soil Water Global Meteoric Water Line Halabja Meteoric Water Line Ion Chromatography Iraqi drinking Water Standard Jurassic Karstic Aquifer Crop Coefficient Land Use/Land Cover meter above sea level Milli Joule Mole Not Detected Nephelometric Turbidity Unit Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide Effective Rainfall Potential Evapotranspiration Runoff Sodium Adsorption Ratio Soil Conservation Service Saturation Index Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation soil moisture Shuttle Radar Topography Mission Soluble Sodium Percentage Soil Water Content Tanjero Aquitard Thematic mapper United States Geological Survey Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water World Health Organization Delta Micro Siemens
Abstract The area of interest is located in the northeastern part of Iraq; in the Eastern part of the Kurdistan Region extends between the latitude (3887000 m and 3901000 m) to the north and longitude (578700 m and 601324 m) to the east, covering an area of interest is about 314.6 km2. The climate in Halabja is typified by rainy cold winter and hot weather in the summer with temperature ranging from 7.3 °C to 35.17 °C. Approximately 90% of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April. The average annual rainfall for the period (2002-2012) is 698.1 mm, average annual relative humidity is 42.6 %, average temperature is 21.2 °C, average annual wind speed is 1.4 m/sec, and annual pan evaporation is 2333.21 mm. According to Mehta’s simple water balance model the groundwater recharge is 154.3 mm which is 22.1 % of the total rainfall and according to soil conservation service method the total runoff is 163.46 mm which is 23.41 % of the total rainfall. The classical and refined chloride mass balance methods for groundwater recharge estimation demonstrate that net recharge for main groundwater Alluvium intergranular aquifer in the area of interest is 150.64 mm and 158.74 mm, respectively. There are several aquifers in the area of interest like Jurassic karstic, Cretaceous karstic fissured, and Alluvium intergranular aquifer. The groundwater flow direction is from southeast to northwest. Aquifer tests performed in (3) wells which penetrated the Alluvium intergranular aquifer. The results of these tests indicate hydraulic conductivity value ranges (0.21-1.19 m/day) and transmissivity parameter also increases from south to north, indication capability of aquifer to transmit water in this direction. The groundwater potential analysis of the area of interest using principle analytic hierarchy process, and GIS; reveals three distinct zones representing high, moderate, and low groundwater potentiality in the area of interest. The hydrochemical study of the wells and the springs showed that the water is colorless, odorless, characterized by low value of total dissolved salts, predominant ions are calcium and bicarbonate, and the chemical type of water is calcium bicarbonate.
I
The water in the area of interest is suitable for drinking purposes except for W6 which has a very high phosphate 4.1 mg/l; also suitable for livestock, poultry, and agricultural, construction and some types of industries. From the equilibrium speciation based on (WATEQE4F) computer program it can be seen that most of the samples are under saturated with respect to calcite, aragonite, dolomite, gypsum, anhydrite, and magnisite. From the environmental isotopes analysis (2H and 18O); all water samples fall between the global meteoric water line (GMWL) and Halabja meteoric water line (HMWL) which indicate these have been under condition of about 50% humidity and the vapor is strongly depleted. The precipitation samples plot well above the GMWL. The mechanism of recharge is direct recharge.
II
Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………... I Contents………………………………………………………………………………….. III List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………….. IX List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………. XI List of Plates……………………………………………………………………………...
XIV
List of Appendices………………………………………………...……………………... XV
Chapter one: Introduction 1.1
Preface.............................................................................................................
2
1.2
Location and topography……………………....................................................
2
1.3
Water sources.…...............................................................................................
5
1.4
Aims of the study............................................................................................
7
1.5
Previous works.......................................................................................................
8
1.6
Methodology........................................................................................................... 10 1.6.1 Data collection............................................................................................
10
1.6.2 Field Works. ............................................................................................... 11 1.6.3 Laboratory Works....................................................................................... 18 1.6.4 Software used.............................................................................................. 22 1.7
Tectonic framework...........................................................................................
22
1.8
Geological setting of the area of interest............................................................ 24 1.8.1
Jurassic rocks...........................................................................................
24
1.8.2
Qulqula Group...........................................................................................
24
1.8.3
Balambo Formation…............................................................................ 25
1.8.4 Kometan Formation...............................................................................
26
1.8.5
Shiranish Formation..............................................................................
26
1.8.6
Tanjero Formation.................................................................................
26
1.8.7
Kolosh Formation................................................................................... 27 III
1.8.8 Quaternary deposits...............................................................................
27
Structural features……………………................................................................
30
1.9.1
Anticlines...............................................................................................
31
1.9.2
Faults................................................................................................
31
1.9.3
Lineaments..............................................................................................
32
1.10 Geomorphology.................................................................................................
34
1.9
1.11 Soil..................................................................................................................... 36 1.12 Land use and Land cover..................................................................................... 39
Chapter two: Hydrology and Hydrogeology 2.1
Hydrology… … … . . ........................................................................................
41
2.2
Surface water resources……...........................................................................
41
2.2.1
Sirwan River...........................................................................................
41
2.2.2
Zmkan Stream.....................................................................................
41
2.2.3
Zalm Stream………………….................................................................
42
Climate.............................................................................................................
42
2.3.1
Climate elements.......................................................................................
43
1
Precipitation. ..........................................................................................
43
2
Temperature.............................................................................................
44
3
Relative humidity..................................................................................
45
4
Wind Speed..............................................................................................
46
5
Sunshine duration....................................................................................
47
6
Evaporation from class (E) pan...........................................................
48
7
Solar Radiation.....................................................................................
49
2.4
Evapotranspiration..............................................................................................
50
2.5
Effective rainfall.............................................................................................
52
2.6
Water balance...................................................................................................
53
2.7
Water balance calculation methods....................................................................
54
2.7.1
Hydrometeorological approach.............................................................
54
2.7.2
The Mehta simple water balance model...............................................
54
2.3
IV
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.7.3
Equations..............................................................................................
55
2.7.4
Model input..........................................................................................
56
2.7.5
Running the soil water balance model...................................................
56
Estimation of the surface runoff …………………………………………………
58
2.8.1
Soil Conservation Service Method (SCS)..............................................
58
2.8.2
Runoff estimation..............................................................................
60
Estimation of recharge……................................................................................
61
2.9.1
Chloride Mass-Balance method............................................................
61
2.9.2
Estimation of CMB...............................................................................
64
2.9.3
Chloride Mass-Balance results.............................................................. 65
Hydrogeology........................................................................................................
67
2.10.1
Main local aquifers in the area of interest..............................................
68
2.10.1.1 1
Aquifer characteristics............................................................................ 69 Karstic aquifers..................................................................................... 69
2
Karstic, Fissured aquifers.....................................................................
70
3
Kolosh aquiclude..................................................................................
70
4
Fissured aquifer....................................................................................
71
5
TAT (Tanjero Aquitard)......................................................................
71
6
Intergranular aquifers............................................................................
72
2.11
Groundwater flow direction...................................................................................
73
2.12
Springs systems..................................................................................................... 75
2.13
Hydraulic properties of the Quaternary aquifer......................................................
75
2.13.1
Aquifer test analysis..............................................................................
76
2.13.2
Aquifer test evaluation............................................................................
76
2.13.3
Hydraulic characteristic...........................................................................
77 77
1
Hydraulic conductivity (K)......................................................................
2
Transmissivity (T).................................................................................... 77
3
Storativity (S)............................................................................................ 77
4
Specific yield (S y ).................................................................................... 78
V
Chapter three: Groundwater potential mapping 3.1
Introduction...........................................................................................................
81
3.2
Groundwater potential map procedure................................................................
82
3.3
Groundwater potential input factor maps..............................................................
86
3.3.1
Geological map...................................................................................... 86
3.3.2
Lineament density map.......................................................................... 87
3.3.3
Geomorphological map.........................................................................
88
3.3.4
Slope map..............................................................................................
89
3.3.5
Soil map................................................................................................. 90
3.3.6
LU/LC map............................................................................................
3.3.7
Drainage density map.......................................................................... 93
90
3.4
Analytic hierarchy process (AHP).........................................................................
95
3.5
Assign weight using AHP......................................................................................
96
3.6
GIS modeling and groundwater potential map......................................................
102
3.7
Verification of groundwater potential map.............................................................
105
Chapter four: Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis 4.1
Introduction.................................................................................................................
109
4.2
Errors of chemical analysis............................................................................................
109
4.2.1
Accuracy or systematic errors……………………………………..…………
109
4.2.2
Precision or random errors.............................................................................
110
4.3
General evaluation of the water analysis......................................................................... 111
4.4
Physical and chemical parameters of groundwater.................................................... 4.4.1 4.4.2
Color, Odor, and Taste......................................................................................... 113 Temperature (T°C)........................................................................................... 113
4.4.3
Hydrogen ion concentration (pH)......................................................................
113
4.4.4
Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Salt (TDS)….........................
113
4.4.5
4.5
113
Turbidity........................................................................................................... 114 Major cations… … . . .................................................................................................... 114 VI
4.5.1 4.5.2
4.6
Calcium (Ca2+)................................................................................................. 2+
Magnesium (Mg )......................................................................................... +
114 115
4.5.3
Sodium (Na )................................................................................................
115
4.5.4
Potassium (K+)................................................................................................
115
4.5.5
Total Hardness..............................................................................................
115
Major anions................................................................................................................... 116 Bicarbonate (HCO32-) and Carbonate (CO324.6.1 116 )……............................................. 4.6.2
Sulfate (SO 4 2)...................................................................................................
116
Chloride (Cl-).................................................................................................. 117 Minor compounds............................. ............................................................................ 117 4.6.3
4.7
4.7.1
Nitrate (NO3 ).....................................................................................................
117
Phosphate (PO4 3-)............................................................................................... 118 Heavy metals.................................................................................................................... 118 4.7.2
4.8
4.9
4.8.1
Cadmium......................................................................................................
119
4.8.2
Chromium.........................................................................................................
119
4.8.3
Copper...............................................................................................................
4.8.4
119 Iron......................................... ............. ......................................................... 119
4.8.5
Lead...................................................................................................................
120
4.8.6
Nickel................................................................................................................
120
4.8.7
Zinc............................................... ...................................................................
120
Water classification..........................................................................................................
121
4.10 Groundwater quality evaluation......................................................................................... 123 4.10.1 Drinking water quality........................................................................................
123
4.10.2 Groundwater uses for livestock.......................................................................
126
4.10.3 Irrigation water quality.....................................................................................
127
1
Salinity..............................................................................................................
127
2
Sodium hazard...................................................................................................
127
3
Soluble sodium percentage................................................................................ 129 VII
4.10.4 Industrial water quality......................................... .............................................
130
4.11 Chemical equilibrium and saturation indices...................................................................
130
4.12 Relationship between Ionic Strength and TDS................................................................. 133 Relationship of pCO2 to state of
4.13
saturation......................................................................
134
4.14 Environmental isotopes analysis.................................................................................. 136 4.14.1 Introduction........................................................……………………….......... 136 4.14.2 Sampling and analysis.......................................................................................
138
4.14.3 The 2H and 18O composition of the springs and well..........................................
138
2
18
4.14.4 The H and O composition of precipitation...................................................... 139 4.14.5 Deuterium-oxygen-18 relationships..................................................................
140
4.14.6 Altitude effect…………………………………………………………………...
143
Chapter five: Conclusions and recommendations 5.1
Conclusions..................................................................................................................
145
5.2
Recommendations.........................................................................................................
147
References …............................................................................................................. 150 Appendices …............................................................................................................ 168
VIII
List of Tables Table No.
Table Title
Page No.
1.1
Name, coordinate, and characteristic of wells for aquifer test analysis………………….
1.2
Names and coordinates of selected wells and springs samples for hydrochemical analysis………………………………………………………………………………….
1.3
11
15
Coordinates of selected wells and springs samples used for chloride mass balance and Isotopes analysis…………………………………………………………………… 17
1.4
Hydrochemical parameters and methods of analysis in Sulaimani Environment Directorate…………………………………………………………………………….….
1.5
19
Hydrochemical parameters and methods of analysis in hydrogeology department of Technical University of Freiberg……………………………………………...………..... 19
2.1
Equation of the model (Mehta, et al., 2006)…………………………………...………... 56
2.2
Monthly soil water balance in the area of interest (Mehta, et al., 2006 method)…...… 57
2.3
Average monthly runoff in the area of interest……………………………………….….. 61
2.4
Depth of monthly rainfall and their chloride concentrations……………………….….
66
2.5
Hydraulic characteristic of aquifer test by AQTESOLV 4.5…………………………
78
3.1
Ranks and weights for factors and their influencing classes used for groundwater potential mapping………………………………………………………….……………..
3.2
85
The Pair-wire comparison of maps and normalized weights and consistency ratio……………………………………………………………………………………
IX
95
4.1
Accuracy of the hydrochemical analysis of water samples…………………....………… 110
4.2
Precision of the hydrochemical analysis of water samples……………………………. 111
4.3
Range and median values of hydrochemical parameters for water samples…………..
112
4.4
Classifications of water according to (TDS) content in (mg/l), (Drever, 1997)…………
114
4.5
Classification for water hardness, according to (Boyd, 2000)………………………… 116
4.6
Heavy metal analysis of water samples………………………………………………….. 121
4.7
Comparing range of analyzed water samples with (WHO 2011) and (IQS 2001) standards……………………………………..…………………………………………. 125
4.8
Water quality guide for livestock and poultry uses (Altoviski, 1962)………………… 126
4.9
Water quality guide for livestock and poultry uses (Ayers and Westcot, 1994)………
126
4.10 Classification of irrigation water based on salinity (EC) values (College of Agricultural Science, 2002)…………………………………………………………...
127
4.11 Classification of irrigation water based on SAR values (College of Agricultural Science, 2002)……………………………………………..…………………………..
128
4.12 Classification of irrigation water based on SSP (Todd, 1980)…………………...………
129
4.13 Water quality standards for industrial uses (after Hem, 1991)…………………………... 130 4.14 Saturation Indices (SI) for the main minerals phase of the well samples and their master species…………………………………………………………………………………….
132
4.15 Saturation Indices (SI) for the main minerals phase of the spring samples and their master species…………………………………………………………………………….
132
4.16 Ionic Strength, LogpCO 2 , and Calcite Saturation Indices for well and spring samples... 134 4.17 Isotopic compositions (δ18O and δ2H) for all sampling sites in the area of interest. Isotopic compositions are reported in ‰ (per mil)……………………………………... X
138
List of Figures Figure No.
Figure Title
Page No.
1.1
Geographical location of the area of interest………………………………….................
4
1.2
Topography of the area of interest, (derived from DEM 15m.)……...……...………... 5
1.3
The locations of wells for aquifer test analysis………………………………………...
1.4
Locations of selected wells and springs samples for hydrochemical analysis…………... 16
1.5
Locations of selected wells and springs samples used for CMB and Isotopes analysis....
18
1.6
Location of the area of interest on the tectonic map of Iraq (Jassim and Goff, 2006).......
23
1.7
Geological map of the area of interest (After Maala, 2008)……………….….................. 29
1.8
Geological cross-section (A-B) along the area of interest……………………………….. 29
1.9
Division of the s tudied area (thrust and imbri cated zones) into several blocks
12
transversally by normal faults (after Karim, 2005)……………………………………..
32
1.10 Drainage and lineament lines of the area of interest…………………….…………...
33
1.11 The relationship between lineaments and yield of the wells………………………………….
34
2.1
Average monthly precipitation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)……
44
2.2
Annual precipitation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)………………
44
2.3
Average monthly temperature of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)…….
45
2.4
Average monthly relative humidity of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012). 46
2.5
Relationship between temperature and relative humidity…………………………….….
XI
46
2.6
Average monthly wind speed of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)……..
47
2.7
Average monthly sunshine duration of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012) 48
2.8
Average of monthly pan evaporation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)...
49
2.9
Average monthly radiation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)………..
50
2.10 Average monthly reference evapotranspiration of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)…………………...………………………………………………………..
52
2.11 Average monthly effective rainfall of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012)…………………………………………………………………………….
53
2.12 Conceptual model (after Mehta, et al., 2006)……………….…………………………… 55 2.13 Monthly soil water balance (based on the Mehta, et al., 2006 method)…………….. 2.14 Graphical solution of the equation 𝑸 =
(𝑷−𝟎.𝟐 𝑺)𝟐
58
(after Hawkins, 2004)……………...
60
2.15 Aquifer map of the area of interest…………………...……………….………………
68
2.16 Flow net map of Alluvium Intergranular Aquifer in the area of interest…………….
74
3.1
(𝑷+𝟎.𝟖𝑺)
Overview of the methodology for groundwater potential assessment using integrated remote sensing and GIS techniques……………………………………………...…….. 84
3.2
Geological map of the area of interest described by its geological period……………..... 87
3.3
Lineament density map of the area of interest…………………………………….….
88
3.4
Geomorphology map of the area of interest……………………………………..……
89
3.5
Slope map of the area of interest…………………………………………………..….
91
3.6
Soil map of the area of interest……………………………………………..…………
92
3.7
LU/LC map of the area of interest…………………………………………………..
93
3.8
Drainage density map of the area of interest………………………………………..
94
3.9
Reclassified map of geology…………………………………………………..………
96
3.10 Reclassified map of lineament density…………………………………………..……
97
XII
3.11 Reclassified map of geomorphology…………………………………………...……..
98
3.12 Reclassified map of slope……………………………………………………………... 99 3.13 Reclassified map of soil……………………………………………………………….
100
3.14 Reclassified map of LU/LC…………………………………………………………… 101 3.15 Reclassified map of drainage density…………………………………………………
102
3.16 Groundwater potential model of the area of interest in ModelBuilder engine of ArcGIS………………………..………………………………………………………..
103
3.17 Groundwater potential zone of the area of interest…………………….……………..
104
3.18 Distribution of extraction wells in groundwater potential zone map…………...….... 107 4.1
Piper diagram of wells water analysis………………………………………………...
122
4.2
Piper diagram of springs water analysis………………………………………………
123
4.3
Classification of irrigation water (after U.S. salinity laboratory staff, 1954)……….. 129
4.4
Relationship between Ionic Strength and TDS of well samples……………………..
133
4.5
Relationship between Ionic Strength and TDS of spring samples………..................
133
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Relation between SIc and Log pCO 2 in well samples………………………………... Relation between SIc and Log pCO 2 in spring samples……………………………… Relation between pH and pCO 2 in well samples………………………….................. Relation between pH and pCO 2 in spring samples……………………………………
135
135
136
136
4.10 Rainout effect on δ2H and δ18O values (based on Hoefs 1997 and Coplen et al. 2000) (http://web.sahra.arizona.edu/programs/isotopes/oxygen.html#top)................
137
4.11 Seasonal variation of isotopic composition with rainfall amount……………...……..….
140
4.12 The δ2H versus δ18O relationship of the water samples during the rainy season (20132014) in the area of interest, and compared with GMWL……………………………….. 141 XIII
4.13 Variation of δ18O of rain water as a function of the surface temperature, showing nonlinear correlation …………………………………..…………………………………….. 142 4.14 Correlation of the short-term average δ18O and altitude in the area of interest.…….…… 143
List of Plates Plate No.
Plate Title
Page No.
1.1 Field work: (A) Water level measurement by electrical sounder, (B) Isotopes Sampling, (C) Measuring physical parameters in situ, (D) Water samples ready for Isotopes and CMB analysis, (E) Dip and strike measurement, and (F) Water filtration by cellulose acetate syringe filters…………………………………………………………………… 13 1.2 Laboratory work: (A) Analyzing cations by (ICP-MS), (B) Analyzing anions by (IC) in (TUF)………………………………………………...………………………………... 20 1.3 Recent deposits near Upper Pris SW of Halabja…………………………..…………….. 38
XIV
List of Appendices Appendix No. 1
Appendix Title
Page No.
Elevation, S.W.L, and water table elevation above sea level for some selected wells in the area of interest…………………………………………………………………………….. 168
2
Aquifer test data and results in PW1.………………………………................................
3
Aquifer test data and results in PW2.………………………………….............................. 173
4
Aquifer test data and results in PW3.………………………………….............................. 174
5
Location and characteristic of observation wells………………………………………...
175
6
Pair-wise comparison of geological map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio…...
175
7
172
Pair-wise comparison of lineament density map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio…………………………………………………………………………………….… 175
8
Pair-wise comparison of geomorphology map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio. 176
9
Pair-wise comparison of slope map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio………… 176
10 Pair-wise comparison of soil map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio…………..
177
11 Pair-wise comparison of LULC map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio……….
177
12 Pair-wise comparison of drainage density map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio. 178 13 The physical parameters and major ions concentrations in water well samples………....
179
14 The physical parameters and major ions concentrations in water spring samples……....
180
15 The minor ions concentrations and heavy metals in water well samples………………..
181
XV
16 The minor ions concentrations and heavy metals in water spring samples……………...
XVI
181
Chapter One Introduction
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1Preface Water is for sure the only common and global resource that interests all the living bodies of the world including humans, flora, and fauna. Without water, survival is not possible. It is among the main natural resources that recognizes no borders. The two components of water are namely quality and quantity. Water resources in semi-arid areas like Halabja city are under increasing pressure as service is extended to the increasing population, urbanization and land-use shift to more intensive production of crops and livestock. Groundwater is a critical resource in the area of interest as well as many other regions, where in recent years; the use of limited supply has grown year by year. Optimal management of water resources is difficult. For the sustainable management of groundwater resources, the amount of recharge received by an aquifer is by far the most important figure required. Yet this figure is usually the least well-known
quantity
in
hydrogeology,
especially in
semi-arid
environments.
Unfortunately, it cannot be measured directly on any reasonable spatial scale. That so many years of effort have failed to find a single, reliable method for measuring groundwater recharge is due to the complexity of this phenomenon and the large variety of situations encountered. As a result of the increasing of the demand for water and facing the drought, upstream neighbor country strategy for water policies, assessment of groundwater resources by exploitation of new techniques to have a superior protection, management of our water resources.
1.2 Location and topography The area of interest is located in the northeastern part of Iraq, and comprises an area of the southeastern part of the Sulaimani Governorate, approximately 13 km east of Darbandikhan Lake. Halabja City is approximately 76 km away from the governorate capital, Sulaimani. Geographically, the area of interest located in zone 38N and extends between the latitudes (3887000 m and 3901000 m) to the north and longitudes (578700 m and 601324 m) to the east, figure (1.1).
2
Chapter One
Introduction
Halabja city covers an area about 789.1 km2 and is expanding fast; the area of interest is about 314.6 km2. The topographical elevation ranges from (443 to 2053) meter, figure (1.2). In addition to the Halabja Municipal Center, the city comprises three other subdistricts: Khormal, Byara, and Sirwan. The Balambo, Suren, and Hawraman Mountains surround Halabja with the major mountains being in the southeastern part of the city while its central part consists of gently inclined flat and intermittently hilly plain. The area is part of the Darbandikhan Sub-basin.
3
Fig (1.1) Geographical location of the area of interest.
Chapter One Introduction
4
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig (1.2) Topography of the area of interest, (derived from DEM 15m.).
1.3 Water sources Halabja is situated in the Sirwan River catchment area, with streams flowing to the northwest, discharging into Darbandikhan Lake. Sources of potable water in the Halabja district include wells, springs, and streams. In the rural areas, about 80 percent of the villages rely on springs for their potable water, while the remaining villages have constructed wells with an average depth of 100 m. Halabja water supply sources are 34 wells, distributed throughout the city, and two springs. The current Halabja wells have an average depth of approximately 120 m, and their average yield is about 37 m3/h. The maximum daily production of the 34 wells was computed to be 7941 m3/d. It was limited by various factors such as generator outages, well yield, pump condition and electrical service (Personal communication with Halabja water directorate, 2014).
5
Chapter One
Introduction
In addition to the well sources, there are six springs in Halabja. The flow of the springs fluctuates based on the season, with increased flow in the winter and decreased flow in the summer. All the springs discharge water 24 h/d. The Hama Amin, Haji Hassan, and Pasha Springs, combined, produced a minimum of 900 m3/d before 2006, but now Hama Amin and Pasha springs are dried. So only Hajy Hassan spring (500 m3/d) and Ahmed Awa Spring (6600 m3/d) are supplemental. The Mosque and Kani Sheik springs are not used for supplying the domestic water to Halabja water system. There is currently no treatment to water in the Halabja system beyond disinfection using chlorine (Parson, 2006, updated by the information from personal communication with Halabja water directorate, 2014). Currently the Halabja water system has 21 tanks for storage. The current capacity of the tanks combined is approximately 4960 m3. The tank sizes range from 40 m3 to 750 m3. Each of these tanks is fed by a combination of well and springs (Parson, 2006, updated by the information from personal communication with Halabja water directorate, 2014). As mentioned earlier, the water sources for Halabja consist of 34 wells, two springs source. The water of Zalm River is diverted into two irrigation channels and into installed pipelines for the gravity water supply of Halabja town (0.4 m3/s), Khurmal town (0.2 m3/s), and Ahmed Awa village. It has been reported that the water in the wells and springs is free from bacteriological traces and the ranges of other constituents verified by chemical and physical tests were within the international standards for water quality. The same study reported that the water from Ahmad Awa Spring did not require treatment beyond chlorination to control bacteria (Parson, 2006). The current production capacity of the Halabja water supply system with the combined sources is 15041 m3/d, the daily demand for a person is 200 L, and current population is 90000 so the monthly demand in the area is 18000 m3/d. As can be seen, there is still not enough production capacity to supply water to the city. It is concluded that potable water in Halabja is available for about 83 percent of the population. To a certain extent the phenomenon of uncontrolled drilling of wells by the people is relatively widespread throughout the area of Halabja, but the majority of these wells are used for agriculture and not for human consumption. Power shortages and
6
Chapter One
Introduction
relatively expensive fuel prices have a positive role in minimizing the over pumping and abstraction of more water than required; otherwise people would be careless in their practices. It is worth mentioning that a new project of developing a water supply system for Halabja city is currently under construction and expected to finish in mid of 2015. This project funded by the Japanese government. The new supply system will pump water from the Sirwan River, establish a water treatment plant, as well as rehabilitate and improve all the distribution networks and pumps inside the city. Water sources available to supply Halabja and Sirwan with water for their present and future water supply demand are the following (Raouf 2004): 1. Ahmad Awa resort spring 21 Km to the West of Halabja. 2. Sazan water from the Sirwan River which is at the border with Iran and 12 Km to the East of Halabja, and feeds Darbandikhan Dam Reservoir. 3. Directly from Darbandikhan Dam Reservoir at Hana Zalla 16 Km. to the South of Halabja. 4. Deep wells inside Halabja. 5. Zalm River at Emam Zamin village 13 Km to the South West of Halabja. This source also feeds Darbandikhan Dam Reservoir.
1.4 Aims of the study 1. Preparing thematic maps of the area of interest such as; geology, geomorphology, topography, soil, slope, land use/land cover, lineament, lineaments density, drainage, drainage density, water table, hydrogeology, etc by using GIS technique. 2. Determination of water balance component in the area of interest. 3. Determination of groundwater recharges using chloride mass balance. 4. Determination of the hydraulics properties of the alluvium intergranular aquifer. 5. Identifying and delineate, groundwater potential zone through various thematic maps with GIS. 6. Assessment of water quality for different purposes. 7. Study the origin of groundwater using environmental Isotopes.
7
Chapter One
Introduction
1.5 Previous works: The previous studies about the area of interest include:
1-Parsons Company (1957): studied hydrogeology, climate, water quality, availability of water for drinking and irrigation in Tanjero, Halabja and Penjween basins. 2-Polservice Hydrological Co. (1980): that studied the Hydrological condition of Sharazoor plain. 3-Barzinji (2003): Studied the hydrology, climate, and morphometric measurements of some watersheds in Sulaimani region. 4-Raouf (2004): Presented the most feasible economically and technically proposed system to satisfy present and future water supply demand of Halabjay Shaheed, Sirwan and Said Sadiq. 5-Stevanovic, et al. (2004): Through the FAO program, studied the regional geology and hydrogeology of the governorates of Sulaimani, Erbil, and Dohuk. 6-Parsons (2006): Presented a report of public water supplies, the demand and growth parameters also predicated on the expansion of the distribution systems in the urban areas to serve the full population. 7-Karim (2006): Studied details on stratigraphy and lithology of the Avroman Limestone Formation (Triassic) were studied in Iraq and Iran. The study introduced new documentations about stratigraphy, lithology, fossil content and environment of deposition. 8-Ali (2007): Presented investigation of the Sharazoor-Piramagroon basin, he studied the basin from Hydrogeological and morphometrical point of view, the aquifers properties, recharge estimation, chemical and Bacteriological tests, sustainability of the groundwater resources, as well as the main risks and problems which currently have an impact on the basin are exposed. 9-Al-Tamimi (2007): Used water balance method for conjunctive use of surface and subsurface water in Diyala basin. He divided the basin into three sub basins, top Diyala, middle Diyala and south Diyala. The top Diyala sub-basin represent Darbandikhan basin. It should be noted that the
8
Chapter One
Introduction
researcher used the studies done by [Parsons, 1957 & Polservice, 1980] as a guide for finding the water balance in the top Diyala sub-basin. 10-Baziany and Karim (2007): Re-studied the Qulqula conglomerate Formation that is mentioned in the previous studies to be about 500m thick in Halabja - Avroman area. They proposed a new concept for the origin of accumulated conglomerate, those studies considered the Qulqula conglomerate Formation as a part of Qulqula group, which overlies Qulqula radiolarian formation. 11-Muhammed (2008): Studied drinking water quality assessment of Halabja area, in this study water from Artesian wells, drilled wells, and kahreezes as well as soil were examined. 12-Al- Jaf (2008): Presented a research that made a comparative between the Digital Elevation Models (DEM) taken from the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) and the data taken by Global Positional System device (GPS) of Garmin Etrex type. The error in the elevation in Pinjaween - Halabja area does not exceeds (+ 61.5) m., and the higher value for slope depends on the radar data on the place that is fit together the GPS stations is 32.06°, and the causes of the error represented by the slope which have an influence on the same pixel related in a pixel area is a main unite for the radar data. 13-Sharbazheri (2008): Studied the Cretaceous / Tertiary (K/T) boundary section, which crop out within the High Folded Zone, Imbricated Zone and extended in northwestsoutheast direction as narrow trend near and parallel to the Iraqi/ Iranian border. 14-SAPROF (2008): prepare the implementation plan for a Sirwan river project in Halabja. The feasibility study analyzes the economic and technical aspects as well as financial viability of the project. A SAPROF study aims at complementing project formation with support from JBIC. 15-Al-Mashhadani, et al. (2009): Studied dominant Landcover/Landuse type in Sharazur Plain by using remote sensing techniques, the results indicated that there are 12 classes of landuse/landcover. 16-Karim, et al. (2009): Studied historical development of the lineaments of the Western Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt, Halabja city was included; they studied sedimentlogy and geochemistry of the limestone successions of the lower member of the Qulqula Formation.
9
Chapter One
Introduction
17-Raza (2009): Studied the lower member of Qulqula Formation in the Thrust Zone, (Kurdistan Region) near the Iraqi-Iranian border. 18-Ibrahim (2009): Studied NW segment of the Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt (ZFTB) in the Kurdistan Region and determined its tectonic style and evolution by using the field data and analogue modelling technique. 19-Al- Jaf and Al- Azawy (2010): Studied integration of remote sensing images and GIS techniques to locate the mineral showings in Halabja area, using satellite data received from ETM sensor that borne on Landsat 7 satellites depending on band rationing mean bands, band ratio color composite and threshold techniques. 20-AL-Taweel, et al. (2011): Investigated
the environment, history, and archaeology
of the shahrizor survey project. 21-Al-Doski, et al.(2013 a&b): These papers presented land use / land cover changes of the Halabja city in the north part of Iraq over 1986 to 1990 by utilizing multi-temporal remote sensing landsat images (TM).
1.6 Methodology The methodology used in this study included the following steps:
1.6.1 Data collection: Data Gathering and Harmonization presented a summary of the existing documents, papers and review of the literature and reports as well as those works which are related to this thesis’ topic collected as principal subject climate, geology, hydrogeology for the entire area of interest. The data collected have been harmonized and archived and the most relevant have been georeferenced and organized in a GIS environment. SPOT images of the area of interest (from July, 2013) have been acquired so to ameliorate the quality of the forthcoming analysis on the area. Climate data (i.e. precipitation, evaporation, temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, etc) were gathered from Halabja Agro-Meteorological Department of Sulaimani General Directorate of Research & Agriculture. Lithology columns and information of drilled wells are obtained from Sulaimani Groundwater Directorate, in addition to the collection, all available documents of the area of interest analyzed that can be used in next stages.
10
Chapter One
Introduction
1.6.2 Field works Field work began in May 2013. Firstly, a reconnaissance visit is implemented to take a general idea about the geology, geomorphology, access, and number and distribution of wells and springs. GPS (Garmin 60CSx with the 12 channels) was used to determine the coordinates and elevations of the wells, springs, and formations. Carefully controlling and recording the pumping rates were essential for obtaining high-quality results from aquifer test. Three wells were selected on alluvium intergranular aquifer from different areas around Halabja city. Measuring the flow rate during aquifer test analysis was accomplished by using container and stopwatch. During aquifer test, water levels in observation wells measured by electric water-level sounders, table (1.1) and figure (1.3) show the location of pumped wells. Observation wells data shown in appendix 5.
Table (1.1) Name, coordinate, and characteristic of wells for aquifer test analysis.
PW
PW1 PW2 PW3
Well name Well No.8 in Halabja Makwan Qadir Saiid Aiub Faiaq Nury
Easting Northing
Elevation (m.)
Depth (m.)
SWL (m.)
Yield (l/s)
Distance from observation well (m.)
591610
3893498
783
130
31
8.25
36
588754
3892695
729
98
9
4.87
38
590678
3890453
821
140
11
2.5
34
11
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig(1.3) The locations of wells for aquifer test analysis.
Groundwater samples from ten wells and ten springs are collected on 20, June 2013, and these are chemically tested for major cations and anions, minor compounds, and heavy metals, table (1.2) and figure (1.4) show locations of the tested water points. Water samples were taken in pre-cleaned polyethylene bottles; two bottles (500 ml.) are used for each sample. Field measurement instrument (TPS/90FL-T Field Lab. Analyzer), was fully calibrated before starting sampling, which used for measuring temperature, electrical conductivity, pH, and turbidity in situ, plate (1.1). All water samples were filtered through cellulose acetate syringe filters (:25mm) with pore size (0.20 µm) for cation and anion analyses during or upon return from the field, plate (1.1).
12
Chapter One
Introduction
Rain water samples are collected for chloride, 2H, and
18
O analysis during the rainy
period of 2013-2014, extending from November and December of 2013 and January to March of 2014 in Halabja Agro-Meteorological station. For these five months five samples were collected one for each month, rain water for each month was mixed and the mixed sample tested which represent the average of rain water for that month, (IAEA, 1996). One sample of groundwater from well which penetrating the alluvium intergranular aquifer and four samples of springs’ water are collected at different locations for stable isotopes test from each month starting from November of 2013 for five months. The water samples are collected in special glass containers with poly-seal cap (75 ml.), which was provided by the United State Geological Survey (USGS) Reston Isotope Laboratory, plate (1.1), figure (1.5), and table (1.3). Four samples of groundwater wells which penetrating the alluvium intergranular aquifer and ten samples of springs’ water were collected for analyzing chloride with the same time period as stable isotopes sampling, plate (1.1), figure (1.5), and table (1.3).
(A)
(B)
13
Chapter One
Introduction
Isotopes’ bottle sample
Water samples for CMB analysis
(C)
(D)
Cellulose acetate syringe filter
(E)
(F)
Plate (1.1) Field work: (A) Water level measurement by electrical sounder, (B) Isotopes sampling, (C) Measuring physical parameters in situ, (D) Water samples ready for Isotopes and CMB analysis, (E) Dip and strike measurement, and (F) water filtration by cellulose acetate syringe filters.
14
Chapter One
Introduction
Table (1.2) Names and coordinates of selected wells and springs samples for hydrochemical analysis. Well's No. W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10
Well's name Hajy Abbas Hassan Awa 24 Dalamar Naw Bakhcha Mordana Bamok Bakhy Mir Shahidan Qabrstan 23 Bakha kon
Elevation(m.) 638 695 785 840 739 786 743 740 753 908
Easting 587868 588067 590941 585903 589465 590696 589988 590645 591732 593821
Northing 3896015 3893760 3891983 3891070 3892651 3891369 3892672 3893154 3894467 3894101
Spring’s No. S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10
Spring’s name Mrwary Haml Hana Swra Chawg Baharany Ababaile Jalila mosque Jalila- Anab Anab mosque Kany Maran Hamoghan
809 947 891 872 999 838 760 752 822 638
585864 586120 585662 588878 594375 593255 592709 592429 590421 589189
3891135 3889177 3889907 3889992 3892214 3894252 3895711 3896609 3890550 3896002
15
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig (1.4) Locations of selected wells and springs samples for hydrochemical analysis.
16
Chapter One
Introduction
Table (1.3) Coordinates of selected wells and springs samples used for chloride mass balance and Isotopic analysis. Wells for CMB Well's name Elevation(m.) Hajy Abbas 638 1 Hassan Awa 24 695 2 Barez 35 805 3 Bamok 786 4 Springs for CMB Spring's name Mrwary spring 809 1 Haml spring 947 2 Hana Swra spring 891 3 Chawg spring 872 4 Baharany Ababaile spring 999 5 Jalila mosque spring 838 6 Jalila- Anab spring 760 7 Anab mosque spring 752 8 Kany Maran 822 9 Hamoghan spring 638 10 Wells for Isotopic analysis Barez 35 805 1 Springs for Isotopic analysis Mrwary spring 809 1 Chawg spring 872 2 Baharany Ababaile spring 999 3 Anab mosque spring 752 4 Meteorological station name 692 Halabja meteorology station CMB: Chloride Mass Balance
17
Long. 587868 588067 591962 590696
Lat. 3896015 3893760 3893017 3891369
585864 586120 585662 588878 594375 593255 592709 592429 590421 589189
3891135 3889177 3889907 3889992 3892214 3894252 3895711 3896609 3890550 3896002
591962
3893017
585864 588878 594375 592429
3891135 3889992 3892214 3896609
589088
3893907
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig (1.5) Locations of selected wells and springs samples used for CMB and Isotopic analysis.
1.6.3 Laboratory works Water samples were hydrochemically tested in Sulaimani Environment Directorate, table (1.4) and some wells and spring samples were tested for checking in hydrogeology department of Technical University of Freiberg (TUF) in Germany by the following methods, plate (1.2) and table (1.5):
18
Chapter One
Introduction
Table (1.4) Hydrochemical parameters and methods of analysis in Sulaimani Environment Directorate. Parameters
Methods
T.D.S
Gravimetric
HCO 3 -, Cl-, TH as CaCO 3 , Ca2+, Mg2+
Titration
SO 4 2-, NO 3 -, PO 4 3-
Colorimetric
Zn2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Cr2+, Cd2+, Ni2+, Fetotal
Atomic absorption
Unit in (mg/l) Because cations of (K+, Na+) were not analyzed in Sulaimani Environment Directorate, they have been analyzed in Sulaimani Water Directorate by Flame Photometer device.
Table (1.5) Hydrochemical parameters and methods of analysis in hydrogeology department of Technical University of Freiberg. Parameters
Methods
Cations and (Zn2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Cr2+,
Inductively coupled plasma-mass
Cd2+, Ni2+, Fetotal)
spectrometer (ICP-MS) model XSeries-2 Ion Chromatography (IC) by Metrohm
F-, Cl-, Br-, SO 4 2-, NO 3 -, PO 4 3-
Instrument
Chloride concentrations in water samples for determining the recharge by CMB are analyzed in the laboratory of the Water research center/Directory of water and environment/ Ministry of Science and technology in Baghdad by ion chromatography.
19
Chapter One
Introduction
ICP-MS
IC
(A)
(B)
Plate (1.2) Laboratory work: (A) Analyzing cations by (ICP-MS), (B) Analyzing anions by (IC) in (TUF).
Hydrogen isotope ratio analysis has been performed in USGS Reston Isotope Laboratory using a hydrogen equilibration technique (Coplen and others, 1991; Revesz and Coplen, 2008a), rather than the zinc technique used prior to that date (Kendall and Coplen, 1985). The hydrogen equilibration technique measures deuterium activity, whereas the zinc technique measures deuterium concentration. For the majority of water samples, the difference in reported isotopic compositions between the two techniques is not significant. However, in brines, the difference may be significant (Sofer and Gat, 1972, 1975). Reported delta H-2 values of activity are more positive than delta H-2 values of concentration, and this difference is proportional to molalities of the major dissolved solids. Some examples of the differences between activity ratios and concentration ratios for delta H-2 in 1 molal salt solutions are as follows (Horita and others, 1993). The data for individual salts may be multiplied by molality to obtain adjustments to delta values based on concentration.
20
Chapter One Solution (1 molal)
Introduction Delta H-2 (activity) - Delta H-2 (conc.) (30 degrees C)
NaCl
+2.07 per mill
KCl
+2.42 per mill
CaCl 2
+5.31 per mill
MgSO 4
+1.12 per mill
Water samples are measured for delta
18
O using the CO 2 equilibration technique of
(Epstein and Mayeda, 1953), which has been automated (Revesz and Coplen, 2008b). Therefore, both oxygen and hydrogen isotopic ratio measurements are reported as activities. Reporting of Stable Hydrogen and Oxygen Isotope Ratios Oxygen and hydrogen isotopic results are reported in per mill relative to VSMOW (Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water) and normalized (Coplen, 1994) on scales such that the oxygen and hydrogen isotopic values of SLAP (Standard Light Antarctic Precipitation) are -55.5 per mill and -428 per mill, respectively. Oxygen isotopic results of a sample Z can be expressed relative to VPDB (Vienna Peedee belemnite) using the equation: δ 18O of Z relative to VPDB = (0.97001 times δ 18O of Z relative to VSMOW) - 29.99 The 2-sigma uncertainties of oxygen and hydrogen isotopic results are 0.2 per mill and 2 per mill, respectively, unless otherwise indicated. This means that if the same sample were resubmitted for isotopic analysis, the newly measured value would lie within the uncertainty bounds 95 percent of the time.
21
Chapter One
Introduction
1.6.4 Software used -The main analysis of this work is carried out using ArcGIS 10.0 software. Spatial analyst in this software is used to derive maps of groundwater potential. -Aq.QA program was used for hydrochemical data processing, piper, and δ18O and δ2H diagram creating. -WATEQ4F used for equilibrium speciation calculatuion. -AQUIFERwin32-3.0 and AQTESOLV.4.5 used for aquifer test analysis. -Adobphotoshop10 used for editing maps and plates. -Surfer 11 for drawing cross-section and editing water table map. -Ms-word and Ms-Excell were used for typing, data tabulation, solving equations, and constructing diagrams like (Us salinity and water balance equations). -Cropwat8.0 for calculating potential evapotranspiration using Penman-Monteith formula. -Expert choice 2000 is used for deriving weights by using analytic hierarchy process.
1.7 Tectonic framework Regionally, Iraq tectonically divided by many scientists, the recent division was by Jassim and Goff (2006), according to them; Iraq is divided into three tectonically different areas: 1- The Stable Shelf with major buried arches and antiforms but almost no surface anticlines. 2- The Unstable Shelf with surface Anticlines. 3- The Zagros Suture, which comprises thrust sheets of radiolarian chert, igneous, and metamorphic rocks. These three areas contain tectonic subdivisions which trend N-S in the Stable Shelf and NW-SE or E-W in the Unstable Shelf and the Zagros Suture. The N-S trend is due to Paleozoic tectonic movements; the E-W and NW-SE trends are due to Cretaceous-Recent Alpine Orogenesis. The area of interest is located within Western Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt. Structurally, the area of interest is located within the High Folded zone, Imbricated, and Thrust Zones
22
Chapter One
Introduction
(Buday and Jassim, 1987, Jassim and Goff, 2006). The area is characterized by obscured anticlines and synclines which have been stacked together as very thick and tight packages of layers which overturned toward southwest or even over thrusted. The area of interest is characterized by anticlines of high amplitude with Paleogene or Cretaceous carbonate rock exposed in their cores. The zone was uplifted in Cretaceous, Paleocene and Oligocene times (Jassim and Goff, 2006), figure (1.6).
Area of interest
Fig (1.6) Location of the area of interest on the tectonic map of Iraq (Jassim and Goff, 2006). 23
Chapter One
Introduction
1.8 Geological setting of the area of interest The age of the rocks are ranged from Jurassic to recent, as shown in figure (1.7). Below a brief description of the geological formations exposed in the area of interest:
1.8.1 Jurassic rocks According to (Jassim and Buday, 2006), Jurassic units are exposed on the surface in the Sirwan Gorge (Halabja area) and at the core of the Surdash Anticline. The Jurassic units are exposed in the area of interest as a very small tongue in SE, figure (1.7), besides the Jurassic units which are imbricated within the Qulqula Group. Jurassic stratigraphic units were deposited in extensional basins. These stratigraphic units became stable areas on which the obducted Neo-Tethys accretionary prisms were emplaced and became a main source of the Cretaceous Foreland Basin deposits (Jassim and Buday, 2006). Jurassic imbricates have been defined as undifferentiated Jurassic Imbricates sequence, alternating of argillaceous limestone, dolomite with or without shale, carbonates of the Sehkanian, the Sarki, the Sargelu, the Naokelekan and possibly the Barsarin Formations (Jassim, et al., 2006). However, the (Czech geologists, 1976) have characterized them as carbonates of the Sargelu and Sehkanian Formations. These Jurassic Imbricates, whatever their lithological compositions and ages may be, got to the surface along NE dipping deep-seated ramp thrust faults during Upper Miocene-Pliocene when the whole Cretaceous-Pliocene sedimentary cover was thrusted over the Upper Jurassic de´collement unit.
1.8.2 Qulqula Group (Lower Cretaceous) This stratigraphic unit was first described by (Bolton, 1955 and 1956 and in more detail in 1958). The Qulqula Group consists of two formations, the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation and the Qulqula conglomerate Formation. According to (Jassim and Goff, 2006), this group in their tectonic subdivision of Iraq is in the Qulqula-Khuakurk Subzone. It covers the lower part of the southwestern limb of the Avroman and Suren anticlines (Ali, 2007), figure (1.7).
24
Chapter One
Introduction
According to (Baziany, 2006) and (Baziany and Karim, 2007) which provided the evidences to prove that the Qulqula conglomerate Formation does not exist in HalabjaAvroman area and has been misidentified for the Red Bed Series, so the Qulqula Conglomerate Formation in this area, which is mentioned by (Bolton, 1958) and (Buday, 1980), is actually equivalent to the Quaternary sediments which exist in the foothills of the Piramagroon and Suren Mountains. It is worth mentioning that this conglomerate was previously called Qamchuqa Formation by (Jovanovic and Gabre, 1979) and (Ali and Al-Manmi, 2005), this is because this conglomerate appears in some places as thick massive limestone and shows no granularity which is similar in color, thickness and stratification to the Qamchuqa Formation (cited in Ali, 2007). Now it is clear that only Qulqula Radiolarian Formation is cropped out at the northeastern of the area of interest. Lithologically the formation consists of thick successions of bedded chert, shale and siliceous limestone (Buday, 1980; Jassim and Goff, 2006). They also mentioned that the contacts of the formation are hard to be determined because of complex structure of the outcrop areas which are marked by intense folding, faulting and thrusting. The colors of both chert and marl are variegated including red, grey, yellow, brown, and white, while the limestone color is generally black or grey. The general structure in which the layers of this formation are arranged is not known yet.
1.8.3 Balambo Formation (Valanginian-Cenomanian) The Balambo Formation was first described by Wetzel in 1947 (Bellen et al., 1959) from Sirwan valley near Halabja. According to (Jassim and Goff, 2006), Balambo Formation is divided into Lower Balambo Formation of Valanginian-Albian age and Upper Balambo Formation of Cenomanian- Turonian age. Lithologically, the Lower Balambo Formation composed of 280 meter of uniform thin bedded blue ammonite bearing limestone, with beds of olive green marl and dark blue shale (Bellen et al., 1959). The Upper Balambo Formation is homogeneous and composes of thin bedded globigerinal limestone, passing down into radiolarian limestones (Bellen et al., 1959).
25
Chapter One
Introduction
Balambo Formation forms the rock bed of Balambo and Shinirwe Mountains in the southeast of Halabja, figure (1.7).
1.8.4 Kometan Formation (Upper Cretaceous-Turonian) This formation was first described by (Dunington, 1958) and it is of the TuronianLower Campanian age. The formation composed of 120 meter of light grey, thin bedded, globigerinal-oligosteginal limestone, locally silicified with chert concretions in some beds, and with glauconitic bed at the base (Jassin and Goff, 2006). There are abundant fossils in Kometan Formation (Bellen et al., 1959). The overlying formation is Shiranish Formation the contact is unconformable indicating non-depositional hiatus. The lower boundary with Balambo Formation is gradational and there is no sign of any break in the sedimentation, figure (1.7).
1.8.5 Shiranish Formation (Campanian-Maastrichtian) This formation is of Upper Campanian age; the formation was first defined by Henson in 1940 from the High Folded Zone of north Iraq near the village of Shiranish Islam, northeast of Zakho city (Bellen et al., 1959). The formation in the type section consists of thin bedded argillaceous limestone (locally dolomitic) overlain by blue pelagic marls, of Late Campanian Maastrichtian age (Bellen et al., 1959). Shiranish Formation does not appear in the area of interest, but appear in the lithological column of drilled wells in the area, beneath quaternary or Tanjero Formation.
1.8.6 Tanjero Formation (Maastrichtian) The Tanjero clastic Formation is of Upper Senonian age. It is present in the BalamboTanjero Zone of northeast Iraq, (Jassim and Goff, 2006). The formation was defined by Dunnington,in 1958. The type locality of the formation lies in Sirwan valley, southeast of Sulaimani, and belongs structurally to the Imbricated Zone (Buday, 1980). It comprises two divisions, the lower division comprises pelagic marl, occasional beds of argillaceous limestone with siltstone beds in the upper part, the upper division comprises silty marl,
26
Chapter One
Introduction
sandstone, conglomerates, and sandy or silty organic detrital limestone; it interfingers with Aqra limestone (Bellen et al., 1959). The lower contact with the underlying Shiranish Formation is gradational and conformable placed at the lowest occurrence of silt-grade clastics, which corresponds to a change color from blue (Shiranish Formation) below to olive green (Tanjero Formation) above. There is a major unconformity with the overlying Kolosh clastic Formation of Tertiary (Paleocene) age (Bellen et al., 1959). In the area of interest, this formation appears in the southwest as a small curved shape, figure (1.7).
1.8.7 Kolosh Formation (Paleocene) This Paleocene aged formation was described by (Bellen et al., 1959) from the type section near Krozh village in Koya area northeast of Iraq. It is the oldest Tertiary formation. The formation consists of rhythmic alternation of thin sandstone, siltstone, marlstone, and less common conglomerate and limestone with calcareous silt shale interlayers. They resemble flysch-like sediment (Dunnington, 1958). Kolosh Formation is similar to Tanjero Formation but contains more shale and marl and less sandstone. It is exposed in the western and south western part of the area of interest. The outcrops can be seen in the Darazarena and Nazarash Mountains, figure (1.7).
1.8.8 Quaternary deposits (Pleistocene and Holocene) They represent sediments of Pleistocene and Holocene ages (Buday, 1980) that consist of river terraces, slope deposits, alluvial deposits and composed of mud, silt, sand, and gravel. In the High Folded Zone, Quaternary deposits are restricted to depressions such as the Halabja and Qalat Dizeh depressions where the present day Dokan and Darbandikhan lakes are situated. The deposits in these depressions range from coarse conglomerates on the flanks to sands and silts in the central parts (Jassim and Goff, 2006). Most part of the area of interest is covered with different types of Quaternary deposits mainly alluvium deposits of recent and Pleistocene age. Quaternary sediments are unconsolidated (Belen et al., 1959). In the area of interest - Alluvium deposits, Alluvial fan, Flood plain, Slide debris and blocks, and Bajada presented. Alluvium deposits generally consist of angular and badly sorted clasts of boulder, gravel and sand with more or fewer amounts of clay as
27
Chapter One
Introduction
separate deposits. Lithologically, they composed mostly of limestone and chert fragments (Ali, 2007). Alluvial fans deposits comprise boulder, gravel, sand, and silty sand as well as heterogeneous, unsorted, mineralogically immature, fan shape, and angular rock fragments and clay. Flood plain fine detrital sediments that deposited during very large flooding comprise layers of silty clay and clay. Slide debris and blocks like Avroman Limestone which have slided as large blocks from high elevation and rested on Qulqula Formation. During sliding these blocks are suffered from some fracturing and brecciation (Baziany and Karim, 2007). Bajada forms when alluvial fans locally merge (Jassim and Goff, 2006). The area under consideration is covered by a thick layer of recent sediment estimated to be ranging between (50-150) m .The layer is composed of clay, Sand, gravel & layer boulders of limestone mixed with recent sediment, (Raouf, 2004).
According to (Raouf, 2004), the interpretive data obtained by geophysical survey, the area is covered by a thin high resistive topsoil layer (0.9-36) m. A layer of clay, little gravel and sand was identified which has thickness of a bout (15-35)m .The third layer of receptivity ranges between (60-62)ohm-m has a thickness ranging between (60-70) m composed of recent sediment such as gravel sand stone with little clay .This represent a good aquifer, figure (1.7).
28
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig (1.7) Geological map of the area of interest (After Maala, 2008).
Fig (1.8) Geological cross-section (A-B) along the area of interest.
29
Chapter One
Introduction
1.9 Structural features The structural pattern bears evidence on and is the results of the two tectonogenetic phases which affected the zone. It subjected to two major compressive tectonic phases during which the maximum principal stresses, the Laramide Phase is responsible for the basic folding and faulting of the area. The post Laramide Phases caused some slighter renewal of the folding and mainly faulting (Buday and Jassim, 1987). The Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt which was formed in its final stage by the continentcontinent collision process is characterized by the contractional structures. However, the present structural characteristics of this belt are generally a cumulative result of imbrications and displacements, due to the Upper Cretaceous obduction, Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary subduction and Late Tertiary continent-continent collision. These structures include (1) a variety of asymmetric, NW-SE trending, SW verging, doubly plunging and en´echelon folds; (2) NE dipping thrust faults and (3) large scale strike slip faults. The geometry of these contractional structures has been studied by many authors (Ibrahim, 2009). The structure of the area is relatively complex. The area located in the Thrust, Imbricate and High Folded Zone. The folds in the High Folded Zone are relatively tight and with high amplitude. They are either symmetrical or slightly asymmetrical and can be distinguished clearly. Among these anticlines in the High Folded Zone, Balambo anticline is symmetrical to slightly asymmetrical. Conversely, the folds of the Imbricated Zone are more or less obscured and show minor refolding so can be called anticlinorium. Moreover, they are overturned and, in most cases, both limbs are imbricated that the strata of both limbs dip toward the northeast. In this area and along the axis of synclines, the limestone beds of Balambo or Kometan Formations are so intensely deformed that they have suffered from crenulations. The rocks in the Thrust Zone are more complicated than in the High Folded and Imbricated Zones. This complexity is attributed to the extreme deformation of this zone and the separation of the rocks into several thrust sheets of even nappies (Ali, 2007). The structural types are as below, figures (1.7 and 1.9):
30
Chapter One
Introduction
1.9.1 Anticlines: -Shinirwe Anticline according to (Ali, 2007), this anticline is asymmetrical double plunging, the southeastern plunge lies at the Iraqi-Iranian border. Balambo and Kometan Formations are exposed in this anticline which is located at the southeastern part of the area of interest. -Balambo Anticline is fault propagation fold because the layers are bent and shortened on the high angle. This deep fault propagation fold was formed due to the movement of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Units on the Upper Jurassic de´collement units. The surface of Balambo anticline is 65˚NE dipping active major forethrust fault (Ibrahim, 2009).
1.9.2 Faults: Along the Balambo and Suren Mountains set of faults (normal faults) exist, creating graben-like structures in some places (Ibrahim, 2009). In addition to the main thrust faults, there are many transverse normal faults that cut across (nearly normal to) the axes of the anticlines and main Zagros Thrust Fault. These faults divide the area into many uplifted and subsided blocks. These blocks make horsts and grabens which are bounded by normal faults and their traces, on the surface, die out towards the southwest and obscured towards northeast by the southeast thrusting of the front of Iranian plate. The erosion is highly modified the topography of these faults but they could be identified in the field. They are difficult to be identified from satellite images and could be indirectly inferred from the large elevation and depressions that bound these faults (Karim, et. al., 2009). The reverse fault could be seen in the two areas between Chuwarta-Sadiq and Halabja areas. In these areas the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation (as a thrust front) climbs over Balambo Formation (or Jurassic Rocks) with an angle nearly equal to about 40 degrees. The age of these transverse faults is not known but they appear, from stratigraphy, that most of them are younger than Eocene. The evidence of the two of these faults is discussed in detail by Karim (2005).
31
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig (1.9) Division of the studied area (thrust and imbricate zones) into several blocks transversally by normal faults (after Karim, 2005).
1.9.3 Lineaments Kurdistan which is part of Western Zagros Mountain series shows well developed large lineaments which could be seen in the field and by aerial photography and satellite images. These lineaments generally reflect the effect and direction of the thrusting front of Iranian plate which has the general direction of NE-SW which is normal to the direction of the imposed stress by the Iranian plate front. Due to differences in thicknesses and physical properties of the sedimentary rocks, the axes of these lineaments are not continuous they plunge more or less and in some cases are bend. The lengths of most of these lineaments are around 8.3-86.8km (Karim, K.H., et. al, 2009). The main lineaments are the axes of the anticlines; transverse and longitudinal faults; drainage direction discharge and line of distribution of conglomerates. The first appearance of the anticlines in the High Folded Zone possibly started at the Eocene while
32
Chapter One
Introduction
those of the Thrust Zone initiated at Maastrichtian. Some of these lineamentss are cut by transverse faults whose ages are not known. These faults are trending nearly normal to the lineaments. The main direction of drainage discharge is nearly towards the northwest toward Darbandikhan Lake, which is inherited from that of the Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary paleocurrent directions (sediment transport direction). This direction is related to uplift of the extreme norteastern part of the area during Maastrichtian (Numan, 1997 and Al Qayim, 2000). Figure (1.10) shows the lineament direction as well as drainage pattern of the area of interest.
Fig (1.10) Drainage and lineament lines of the area of interest.
As can be seen from figure (1.11), majority of the artesian wells are located on the lineaments path, best water yield from wells are come in the area close to lineament and vise versa. 33
Chapter One
Introduction
Fig (1.11) The relationship between lineaments and yield of the wells.
1.10 Geomorphology The geomorphological features of an area are considered as important criteria to determine the characteristics of runoff, flooding, groundwater recharge, and to some extent rainfall occurrence (Al-Abadi, 2011). In general, the geomorphological features of the area of interest can be divided into three main group of landforms as follow; landforms of structural origin, landforms of denudation origin, and landforms of fluvial (depositional) origin. The most important structural landforms are structural (anticlinal) ridges and monoclonal ridge. If the cores of the anticlines are composed of carbonate rocks, the differential erosion caused in removing the weaker overlying rocks and exposing the resistant carbonate rocks in the core consequently resulted in the formation of structural 34
Chapter One
Introduction
(anticlinal) ridges (Al-Hakari, 2011). These anticlinal ridges show the outline and shape of anticlines, such as Balabmo, Shinirwe, and Bafrimiri anticlines, figure (1.7). The geomorphological setting or features of the area of interest is controlled by the regional tectonic features and patterns of rock composition of the northeastern Iraq as well as other factors such as climate. Also most of the drainage patterns in the area of interest are controlled by structural features and variations in the rock resistance (Al-Hakari, 2011). Erosion landforms as erosional pediment in the area of interest were developed by the fluvial processes of overland flow and stream flow. When initial landforms by folding were created, they were attacked by processes of denudation and especially by fluvial action. Valleys were formed where rock was eroded away by fluvial agents. Between the valleys there are ridges or mountains. Such types of landforms are widespread and controlling the area of interest. Badlands (ruggedness landforms), between mountains series of Nazarash and Darazarina are under the effect of intense of erosion by fluvial processes, forming fine drainage texture in the area. In addition, badlands occur due to the effect of differential weathering and erosion. As a result of erosion of high lands and as an inevitable process of degradation, the depositional landforms (depositional pediment) are developed. The presence of the river terraces on the both sides of permanent stream at various levels is another example of depositional landforms such as those present on both sides of Sirwan River. These terraces mark former valley floor. The alluvial fan can be observed in center, NE, NW, and SW of the area of interest. The area is surrounded from all sides by high mountains while its central part consists of gently inclined flat and intermittently hilly plain. The mountains composed with variety type of limestones and in some places of chert successions. The mountains are cleft by many streams both perennials and ephemerals. These streams scored more or less deep valleys both by erosion and with the aid of mass wasting in the limestone chert successions. Alluvial soils are enriched by seasonal fluvial flooding. The products of erosion and weathering, as angular clasts, are accumulated in the steep valley sides and in the valley bottoms. The accumulated rock fragments are transported seasonally by stream floods during heavy rainfall. Then large quantities of boulder, gravel and sands are carried
35
Chapter One
Introduction
downstream and deposited on the plains and lower slopes of mountain sides. These sediments are deposited as debris flow on the gently sloping plains or as channel deposits (lag and channel fills deposits), or as channel margin deposits and over bank deposits. The mass wasting other than debris flow also has a part in the accumulation of these sediments along the mountain slopes (as colluviums). Repetition of these accumulations forms a thick succession of recent sediment (Ali, 2007). The floating island inside Darbandikhan Lake is part of fluvial deposit which has the same lithology as the surrounding of the lake (recent deposit). The overland flow of the lake water was covering the appearance of this island in the past, but now due to the lowering of the water level in the lake this island is clearly visible, figure (3.4). Halabja lies in southeastern Sharazur plain surround by Hawraman, Suren, and Balambo mountains in the southeastern part. To the northwest, it is bordered by the manmade lake (Darbandikhan), which is fed by Sirwan, Zalm, and Tanjro rivers, emptying via Darbandikhan dam into the Diyala river, and finally into the mighty Tigris as it flows toward the Arabic Gulf. These rivers are mainly fed by local rainfalls (Al-Doski,et. al.,2013a&b).
1.11 Soil The soils of the area of interest are the result of weathering, erosion and sedimentation, and soil-forming processes during the Quaternary period. The soils of the area are generally permeable and well - to moderately well drained (Berding, 2002). The sand, silt, and clay contents vary within rather narrow limits and the vast majority of soils have silty clay loam over silty clay. The silt content is typically higher than the clay content with 50-65% silt, 30-45% clay and 5-10% sand being representative. Only on more recent alluvial deposits (lower terraces) close to the rivers, the texture is more variable and includes sandy and loamy soils. Where the aeolian/fluviatile cover is thin or has been eroded the underlying gravel (and cobble) beds are exposed. The gravel and cobble content of the soils may then change over short distances from nil to more than 40%. Gravelly/cobbly soils are estimated to occupy less than 10% of the plains (Berding, 2003).
36
Chapter One
Introduction
In general, the soils of the basin are rich in lime (20 to 40 % CaCO 3 are commonly found values) and very often have a pH between 7.5 and 8.2. The high lime content and the associated mild alkalinity of the soils reflect the geological pattern and overwhelming presence of limestone rocks in the various sedimentary formations which form the parent materials. In the basin no gypsum found in the soil and generally very low electrical conductivity (usually EC of saturation extract < 1 ds/m) indicates, in combination with usually deep groundwater tables, a very low salinization hazard (Berding, 2003). According to Berding (2003), the high CaCO 3 content of most soils may, however, affect the swelling behavior of the clay. Firstly, it can act as inorganic cement, binding adjacent clay particles together and thus preventing them from swelling. Secondly, it can act as a source of calcium ions, the presence of which will tend to suppress the formation of diffuse double layers on the clay. The exchangeable cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium), usually represented on the exchange complex of the soils, are dominated by calcium which occupies 70% to 80% of the exchange complex in the plain zone. Ca/Mg ratios between 7 and 12 are common. Sodium usually occupies between 515% of the exchange complex while potassium is least represented with percentages often between 2 and 8 (Berding, 2003). Available phosphorus (determined by extraction with sodium bicarbonate) is usually low in the soils because of their generally high lime content. Soluble phosphate tends to react with calcium carbonate to form calcium phosphates of varying solubility. Values in the upper 50 cm in most soils are typically between 3 and 15 ppm. Organic matter content as the main source of naturally available nitrogen in the mountain region is higher (roughly double) than in the soils of the plains and foothills. This is a direct consequence of higher rainfall (biomass production) and lower temperatures (lower rate of mineralization) in the mountain areas than in the plains. The contents of organic matter in the upper 30 cm rank between 1.0 % and 2.5 % (Berding, 2003). According to (Barzinji, 2003), who mentioned that the dominant soils of the plains are Chromoxererts and Calcixerolls, while Rendolls is dominant on the northern facing slopes of the mountains. On the other hand, Xerorthents is the dominant group on the southern facing slopes. The land capability class ranges from I to III for the main plains
37
Chapter One
Introduction
and the bottomlands and from V to VIII for the hilly area and mountain slopes, (Mam Rassol 2000, Barzinji 2003). In the alluvial valleys fluvic soil material (stratification visible, irregular decrease of organic matter content) is often present and the soils are classified as Fluvisols in that case. Sometimes the surface horizon is sufficiently dark for a mollic horizon and the Mollic qualifier is then applied while high content of pebbles will be reflected by the Skeletic qualifier. According to the soil map of (FAO, 2001) three types of soil in the area of interest classified which are; type (C3) lime-rich, non-gravely to gravely silty clay to clay, type (C2.1) loamy to clayey soil with variable gravel and stone content, and type (B2) loamy to clayey soil with variable stone content (rocky area), figure (3.6).
Plate (1.3) Recent deposits near Upper Pris, SW of Halabja.
38
Chapter One
Introduction
1.12 Land use and Land cover Land use/ land cover (LULC) is a fundamental environmental variable for understanding the causes and trends of human and natural processes (Meyer, et. al., 1992). Basically LULC consists of two terms; Land use (LU) and land cover (LC). Land cover is that which covers the surface of the earth such as water, snow, forest, grassland, and bare soil; while land use describes how the land cover is modified into use for example agricultural land, built up land etc. (Cihlar, et. al., 2001). There are many approaches to monitor LULC; traditional techniques such as field survey and remotely sensed images such as satellite images, aerial photographs and others. Satellite remote sensing is the most common data source for detecting, quantificating, and mapping LULC changes at various scales (Mas, 1999) because its availability and repetitive data acquisition, improved quality of multi-spatial and multi-temporal remote sensing data at different spatial, spectral, and digital format suitable for computer processing and new analytical techniques (Mausel, et. al., 2004). Hence, detecting temporal changes of LULC by observing them at different times is one of the most important applications of earthorbiting Satellite sensors. Recently, there are numerous satellites in operation among them medium resolution satellite imagery such as Landsat that has been used broadly by many researchers for LULC changes because it provides a historical and continuous record of imagery the uniqueness of the dataset as the only long-term digital archive with a medium spatial resolution and relatively consistent spectral and radiometric resolution (Chen, et. al., 2002). Digital analysis and image classification are carried out using ArcGIS 10 software to show thematic maps and analyze and extract land cover information. For the area of interest, The USGS Level-1 classification of Anderson scheme classification is adopted to prepare LULC maps, nine land cover classes were intended to be mapped: Water Body, Wetland, Permanent Herbaceous, Scrub/Shrub Land, Grassland Area, Urban/Builtup Area, Forest (Evergreen and Deciduous), Agriculture area, and Barren/ Sparsely Vegetated Land, figure (3.7).
39
Chapter Two Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
2.1 Hydrology Hydrologically, the area of interest is located in Halabja-Khurmal sub-basin. The Halabja-Khurmal sub-basin is the eastern most of four sub-basins within the SharazoorPiramagroon Basin, (Ali, 2007) previously known as the south-eastern Sharazoor hydrogeological basin, (Stevanovic, et. al., 2004). The Sharazoor-Piramagroon Basin straddles the Iran-Iraq border, extending across the Iraqi governorate of Sulaimani and the Iranian province of Kermashan, (Ali, 2007). Mean annual precipitation in the area of the Halabja-Khurmal sub-basin lies around 698.1 mm (Halabja) for the period of (2002-2012), decreasing to 500 mm further to the east. The region is characterized by cycles of dry and wet years. Air temperature in the basin ranges from 7.3°C in January to 34.64ºC in July, with an annual average of 21.2°C. To the east of the basin, Kermashan has a moderate mountain climate. Precipitation falls mostly in winter and the average temperature in the hottest months is around 22°C. This sub-basin has a perennial main stream, but Khandaq branch which located at the east of Zalm watershed has an ephemeral stream flow, there were about (35) springs in this area. Zalm watershed contains (20) Micro catchments (Barzinji, 2013).
2.2 Surface water resources 2.2.1 Sirwan River Sirwan River originates in Iran and then runs mainly through eastern Iraq. It covers a total distance of 445 km, basin area 32.600 km2, it feeds the Darbandikhan Lake from the north-east. The catchment area of Sirwan River inside Iraqi border (107 km²), (22 km) length and (17%) average slope, (Al-Tamimi, 2007, AL-Dulimy, 2008, Hussein, 2013). This river is large which emerges in the high lands of Qshlaq plateau in the central west province in Iran, after it flow inside the Iranian lands it inters Iraqi lands near Sazan village south east of the area of interest, after few kilometers inside Iraq it received its first tributary (Zmkan stream) from its left bank (Amin and Ismael, 2007).
2.2.2 Zmkan Stream This stream is temporary broad stream in which emerges inside the Iranian lands. Zmkan stream locate in the south of the area of interest. 41
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
2.2.3 Zalm Stream The Zalm Stream is initiating from the head of Zalm valley as a seasonal stream, but at the middle part, it becomes permanent which is supplied by a spring locally known as Sarchawai Zalm. The spring supplies, Halabja and Khurmal town with drinking water in addition to Zalm and Ahmadawa villages (Ali and Al-Manmi, 2005). Zalm Stream is a perennial stream emerges from the large karstic spring within the southern piedmont of Hawraman Mountain Chains. The main tributaries of Zalm Stream are two smaller streams named as Reshen and Shalm Streams (Amin and Ismael, 2007). Zalm Stream passes through Khormal town and links with Tanjero River near Karmani village. It feeds the lake from the northwest side. The catchment area of Zalm Stream (684 km²), (65km) length and (15%) average slope, width of river ranges between (4-8m) (Polservice, 1980).
2.3 Climate Climate drives the weather, which is documented and tracked by stations around the world. Climate change has become an important topic, with wide-ranging research focused on the magnitude and interactions associated with the factors that drive our climate (IPCC, 2008). By affecting precipitation and temperature, climate can drive longterm trends of increasing or decreasing discharge, or short or long term periodic oscillations. When classifying the region into a climatic system by means of the latitude, the climates of Kurdistan is characterized by extreme conditions, were large temperature difference between day and night and between winter and summer are noticed (Sharif, 2001). In the area of interest, in summer, the temperature exceeds 45°C. In winter the temperature is below -2.1°C. This large difference in the temperature is usually expressed as climate extreme (Saeed, 2002). This extreme characteristic is one of the main conditions of continental climate. Accordingly, the climate of Kurdistan region has been classified as Semi-Arid Continental, mountainous region, the area is affected by Mediterranean climatologically system, that is to say; hot dry in summer and cold wet in winter. In Kurdistan region, precipitation occurs as rains at lower elevation and snow and rains at higher elevations. Rainfall season starts in October and usually ends in May.
42
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
The area characterized by a series of NW-SE trending ridges which become progressively higher towards the NE. The ridges force the cyclonic storms from the west to rise thus causing a large increase in precipitation in this area as compared to the central and southern sectors of Iraq. The climatic data of Agro-meteorological department station in Halabja city for period of (2002-2012) is utilized to analysis the climatic condition of the area of interest. The available climatic variables for this station are daily relative humidity (%), wind speed (m/s), wind direction, minimum, maximum, and mean temperature (°C), open free surface evaporation (mm), rainfall (mm), and sunshine duration (hrs).
2.3.1 Climatic elements There is one meteorological observatory relevant to the area of interest. The following climatic elements are considered to analysis the climatic conditions of the area of interest:
1- Precipitation Precipitation, still mostly rain showers and very isolated thunderstorms, gradually increases over the fall as the first winter systems begin to shift southward close enough to the region to push through cold fronts. Although snow is possible in late November in the plains and in mid October in the mountains, it does not generally do much more than light, brief flurries in the fall, except at high elevations. The precipitation regime of the area of interest is characterized by a hot dry season from June and August where no precipitation occurs and a rainy period which is extended from October until May. The amount of rainfall in May and October is rather low, (US Air Force, 2009). The monthly rainfall averages for Halabja station is shown in figure (2.1) and total yearly rainfall for the period of (2002-2012) is shown in figure (2.2), the region has an average annual rainfall of 698.1 mm for period of (2002-2012), maximum monthly average rainfall occurs in February 149.7 mm, and the minimum average monthly rainfall occurs in August 0.05mm with considering July is zero rainfall month.
43
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
160
Precipitation (mm)
140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Average 43.06 69.34 93.81 107.37 149.70 99.03 103.45 30.63 0.93
0.00
0.05
0.68
Fig (2.1) Average monthly precipitation of Halabja station for the period of (20022012).
1000 900 Precipitation (mm)
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Total 914.90 782.71 653.10 739.00 946.40 577.00 345.40 656.50 683.70 654.20 725.50
Fig (2.2) Annual precipitation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
2- Temperature The monthly average of air temperature recorded for Halabja station for the period (2002-2012) illustrated in figure (2.3). The coldest months are January, February, and December, while the warmest months are June, July, August, and September. Minimum monthly average temperature occurs in January 7.3 °C and 35.17 °C is the maximum 44
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
average monthly temperature in August. Temperature higher than 40 °C is commonly occurring within the area of interest and temperature below zero occur too. The monthly average of temperature for the recorded period (2002-2012) is 21.2 °C.
40 35 Temperature (°C)
30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Average 23.81 14.97 9.73
7.30
9.16 14.04 18.30 25.16 31.80 34.64 35.17 30.05
Fig (2.3) Average monthly temperature of Halabja station for the period (20022012)
3- Relative humidity Relative humidity is defined as the ratio of the water vapor density to the saturation water vapor density, usually expressed as in percentage. Actual vapor pressure is measurement of the amount of water vapor in a volume of air and increase as the amount of water vapor increase, (Serrano, 1997). The average of annual relative humidity is 42.6%. Minimum monthly average relative humidity occurs in June 23.24% and 61.13% is the maximum average monthly relative humidity in January. The monthly averages of relative humidity for the considered station for the period (2002-2012) are shown in figure (2.4). The relative humidity is maximum in winter months and minimum in summer months. An inverse relationship between air temperature and relative humidity exist, as temperature increases the relative humidity decrease and vice versa, figure (2.5).
45
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
70
Relative Humidity (%)
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Average 31.21 46.11 48.77 61.13 60.65 51.56 52.40 39.10 23.24 25.94 30.26 36.83
Fig (2.4) Average of monthly relative humidity of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
Temperature and Relative Humidity
Relative Humidity %
Temperature °C
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Month
Fig (2.5) Relationship between temperature and relative humidity.
4- Wind Speed The monthly average of wind speed for the Halabja station for the period (2002-2012) is shown in figure (2.6) in which the highest monthly wind velocities average are associated with warm period of the year (June and August) and vice versa. The prevailing winds direction in the considered station is mainly northwesterly winds. During summer, 46
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
the northwestern wind blowing over the area of interest. The speed of these winds is often strong during the day, and slightly decreases at night. The average of annual sum of wind speed is 1.4 m/s. The average monthly minimum and maximum value of wind speed in the area of interest is (0.89 m/s) and (1.99 m/s) in November and June respectively. Overall surface winds continue to come from the northwest but are lighter than they are in summer. Mountain winds are highly variable because of the terrain and upslope/downslope winds vary wind direction and speed diurnally.
2.50
Wind Speed (m/S)
2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 0.00
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Average 1.08
0.89
1.15
1.07
1.24
1.46
1.45
1.52
1.99
1.76
1.64
1.36
Fig (2.6) Average monthly wind speed of Halabja station for the period of (20022012).
5- Sunshine duration The longest sun shine duration occurs in the summer months, which is almost cloudless. During winter, even in the rainy days few hours of sun shine can be recorded. Sunshine hours are regarded as main factor in affecting evaporation process. Figure (2.7) shows the monthly average of sunshine for Halabja station for the period (2002-2012). The monthly average of sunshine duration is 7.9 hrs. The average monthly minimum and maximum value of the duration of sunshine in the area of interest is (5.32 hrs) and (11.16 hrs) in February and June respectively.
47
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
12
Sunshine Duration (hrs)
10 8 6 4 2 0
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Average 7.84
6.73
5.44
5.34
5.32
6.15
6.69
8.75 11.16 10.95 10.93 9.90
Fig (2.7) Average of monthly sunshine duration of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
6- Evaporation from class (E) pan Evaporation is a cyclic variable and affected by many other variables and physical factors (Fetter, 1980). The mean monthly values of evaporation from class (E) pan were determined as seen in figure (2.8) for the period of (2002-2012). The annual average of total evaporation from free surface is 2333.21 mm. The maximum average monthly evaporation is in July (401.16 mm) and the minimum average monthly value is in January (48.68 mm) in the area of interest.
48
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology 450
Pan Evaporation (mm)
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Evaporation (mm) 176.94 77.18 50.67 48.68 52.35 109.75 139.04 246.56 370.45 401.16 383.74 276.69
Fig (2.8) Average of monthly pan evaporation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
7. Solar Radiation Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through the Earth's atmosphere, and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by the clouds or reflects off other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration" to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter, (CIMO, 2008). The monthly average of solar radiation for Halabja station for the period (2002-2012) shown in figure (2.9). The average monthly minimum and maximum value of the solar radiation in the area of interest is (8.9 mJ/m2/day) and (26.5 mJ/m2/day) in December and June respectively.
49
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology 30
Radiation (mJ/m2/day)
25 20 15 10 5 0
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun.
Radiation (mJ/m2/day) 15.0 11.2 8.9
Jul. Aug. Sep.
9.5 11.5 15.1 18.3 22.6 26.5 25.9 24.6 20.7
Fig (2.9) Average monthly radiation of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
2.4 Evapotranspiration Actual evapotranspiration (AET), the combined process of soil water evaporation, interception loss and transpiration (Trajkovic´, 2010), plays a significant role in the global water balance and in the energy balance at the Earth’s surface (Tateishi & Ahn, 1996). However, AET is among the most difficult parts of the hydrological cycle to quantify due to the complex interaction between the land surface, vegetation, and atmosphere (Xu & Singh, 2005; Fang et. al., 2012). Due to complexities in the direct quantification of AET, the potential evaporation (PET) provides the theoretical basis for the estimation of AET (Xu & Chen, 2005; Xu & Singh, 2005; Xu et. al., 2006). Potential evapotranspiration (PET) can be defined as the maximum amount of water capable of being lost as water vapour, either by evaporation or transpiration, in a given time by actively growing vegetation completely shading the ground, of uniform height, and with adequate water in the soil profile (Chattopadhyay & Hulme, 1997). The influence of surface types in PET is removed by using the concept of reference evapotranspiration (ET o ). The ET o expresses the evaporative demand of the atmosphere for a grass reference evapotranspiration surface with abundant water supply and can therefore be estimated from meteorological data alone (Xu et. al., 2006; Sentelhas et. al., 2010). Among the
50
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
various ET o estimation methods, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) PenmanMonteith (PM) method by (Allen et., al., 1998) was adopted in this study as the standard reference tool. The method has been evaluated for a wide range of climatic conditions and found to be more comparable measurement than other methods (Jensen et. al., 1990; Allen et. al., 1998; Ventura et. al., 1999; Pereira & Pruitt, 2004; Gavilán et. al., 2006; Lopez-Urrea et. al., 2006; Benli et. al., 2010). The PM method is a physically based approach incorporating physiological and aerodynamic parameters that can be used globally without much need for additional adjustments of parameters (Allen et. al., 1998; Sentelhas et. al., 2010). The monthly values for the reference evapotranspiration (ET o ), are plotted in figure (2.10). The reference evapotranspiration is a climatic index integrating the effect of air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and solar radiation. It expresses the evaporating power of the atmosphere. ET o is small in winter about 1.4 mm/d, and reaches its maximum in summer at about 8.1 mm/d. The FAO Penman-Monteith method is of quite good accuracy and is usually used for calculations of evapotranspiration. The good accuracy is due to all the parameters of the equation, as solar radiation, air temperature, air humidity, and wind speed data as well as the altitude above sea level (m) and latitude of the Station should be specified.
ET° =
900 (𝑒 ) 𝑇 + 273 𝑈2 𝑠 − 𝑒𝑎 ∆ + 𝛾(1 + 0.34𝑈2 )
0.408∆(𝑅𝑛 − 𝐺) + 𝛾
Where ET o reference evapotranspiration [mm day-1], R n net radiation at the crop surface [MJ m-2 day-1], G soil heat flux density [MJ m-2 day-1], T mean daily air temperature at 2 m height [°C], U 2 wind speed at 2 m height [m s-1], e s saturation vapour pressure [kPa], e a actual vapour pressure [kPa],
51
(2.1)
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
e s - e a saturation vapour pressure deficit [kPa], ∆ slope vapour pressure curve [kPa °C-1], psychrometric constant [kPa °C-1].
300
Et0 (mm/month)
250 200 150 100 50 0
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Et0 mm/month 122.1 66.3
Oct.
54.3
44.0
53.8
99.2 124.2 182.9 242.7 247.1 233.1 174.9
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Fig (2.10) Average monthly reference evapotranspiration of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
From the result of the FAO Penman-Monteith method, a very high evapotranspiration rates are during the summer seasons confirmed (242.7, 247.1, and 233.1 in June, July, and August respectively), while the rates decrease to reach the lowest amount in January (44.0 mm).
2.5 Effective rainfall Hydrogeologist would define effective rainfall as that portion of rainfall, which contributes to groundwater storage. The extent of the rise in the water table or well levels would be the effective rainfall. This quantity comes under groundwater reservoir, river and deep percolation below root zone, (Cited in Al-Manmi, 2008). The effective rainfall (P eff ) can be calculated by CROPWAT 8.0 model used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and Soil Conservation Service (USDA) procedure as follow (Allen et. al., 2006):
52
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
𝑃𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑇. 𝑅/125 ∗ (125 − 0.2 ∗ 𝑇. 𝑅)
𝑃𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 125 + 0.1 ∗ 𝑇. 𝑅
(2.2)
(2.3)
(𝑇. 𝑅 < 250𝑚𝑚)
(𝑇. 𝑅 > 250𝑚𝑚)
Where T.R is total rainfall. The calculated values of (P eff ) are shown in figure (2.11).
120
Effective Rainfall (mm)
100 80 60 40 20 0
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun.
Effective Rainfall (mm) 40.1 61.6 79.7 88.9 113.8 83.3 86.3 29.1 0.9
Jul. Aug. Sep. 0.0
0.0
0.7
Fig (2.11) Average monthly Effective Rainfall of Halabja station for the period of (2002-2012).
2.6 Water balance Without an accurate water balance, it is not possible to manage water resources of a country. When working on the water balance, it is inevitable to face the fact that appearance of water within a country is highly dynamic and variable process, both spatially and temporarily. Therefore, methodology, which is directly dependent on a time unit and is a function of measured hydrometeorological and hydrological data quality and data availability, is the most significant element. The total amount of water available to the earth is finite and conserved, although the total volume of water in the global hydrologic cycle remains constant (Van Beek, et. al., 2011).
53
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Due to the human influence, change of the water needs and climatic variations and/or changes, water balance of an area cannot be taken as final. The process must constantly be monitored, controlled, and updated. Major role of each water balance is long term sustainable management of water resources for a given area (IPCC, 2007). The water balance assumed that the input and output are equal, where any change for one of these elements will lead to change in the storage: Input (P) – output (ET+RO) = change in storage (ΔS)
(2.4)
Where precipitation (P) considered the only input, conversely few outputs are available such as run-off (RO) and evapotranspiration (ET), which is the maximum water loss.
2.7 Water balance calculation methods 2.7.1 Hydrometeorological approach Hydrometeorological input data for near real time water balance estimation approach is widely used when the output is of a small basin, within which urbanization occupies a part of it. Often, such output is not available and accordingly the empirical approaches are considered. Thus, the input parameters for such water balance are used to clarify a possible period of water surplus and deficit. These parameters are mainly of two groups, the first group represents the elements of water availability, while, the second group includes elements of water losses (Hassan, 1998, Chnaray, 2003).
2.7.2 The Mehta simple water balance model This model is a modification of (Thornthwaite-Mather model, 1955) which is done by (Mehta et. al., 2006), figure (2.12) summarizes a simple conceptual water balance model. Water is stored in the soil reservoir until the soil water content (SW) exceeds the available water capacity (AWC), at which point the excess goes into storage (S). The monthly stream flow is a simple linear function of (S). Determining the soil water budget requires keeping track of the accumulated potential water loss (APWL) and the amount of water in the soil (SW). 54
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
All excess water, i.e., water above the AWC, goes into watershed storage (S), which in turn, feeds river discharge (Q o ) from the watershed. St =S t-1 + Excess
(2.5) (Mehta et. al., 2006)
Hydrologists commonly assume that discharge is a constant fraction of watershed storage, especially for groundwater discharge into rivers; this assumption is called the linear reservoir assumption.
Q o = ƒS t
(2.6) (Mehta et. al., 2006)
Where ƒ is the reservoir coefficient and 0 < ƒ < 1. If data are available, ƒ can be empirically determined.
P – ET(PET)
SW
Drainage and runoff
Watershed Storage: Includes lakes, groundwater, and other natural detention storage features
Excess S
Soil Reservoir: Interface between the watershed and the atmosphere
fS
Qo River, Pond Reservoir, etc
Fig (2.12) Conceptual model (after Mehta, et. al., 2006)
2.7.3 Equations Calculations to determine SW and APWL are performed for each time step using monthly precipitation (P) and potential evapotranspiration (PET). Excess water, i.e., net precipitation (ΔP) in excess of the soil’s water holding capacity (AWC) leaves the soil
55
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
and is stored in the watershed and eventually released to the river. Table (2.1) summarizes the calculations.
Table (2.1) Equations of the model (Mehta, et. al., 2006) Situation in the Watershed • Soil is drying ∆P < 0
SW
APWL
Excess
APWLt = AWC exp AWC
= APWLt −1 + ∆P
=0
= SWt −1 + ∆P
SWt = AWC ln AWC
=0
= AWC
=0
= SWt −1 + ∆P − AWC
•
Soil is wetting ∆P > 0 but SWt −1 + ∆P ≤ AWC
•
Soil is wetting above capacity ∆P > 0 but SWt −1 + ∆P > AWC
When P>PET, AET =PET When P
2.7.4 Model input The required model input data are: Rainfall (P): Accurate and local rainfall data; Potential evapotranspiration (PET); Available water capacity (AWC); Rooting depth; Linear reservoir coefficient (ƒ).
2.7.5 Running the soil water balance model The water balance is estimated based on average climatic Variables for the period of (2002-2012). Excel spreadsheet software which prepared by (Mehta et. al., 2006) used to
56
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
run the model and the results are summarized in the table (2.2), and the graphical presentation is denoted in figure (2.13). Reference potential evapotranspiration, calculated by the Penman-Monteith methods and crop coefficient are variables introduced into the model. This model can give basic information for regional and sub-regional base line type study. The available water content is (220 mm) estimated based on tables developed by (Tornthwaite and Mather, 1955) regarding the soil texture, crop type and percentage of each type of soil. According to this model the total groundwater recharge is (154.3 mm) which is (22.1 %) of the total precipitation.
Table (2.2) Monthly soil water balance in the area of interest (Mehta et. al., 2006 method). Month
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Total
P
43.1
69.3
93.8
107.4
149.7
99
103.5
30.6
0.9
0
0.1
0.7
698.1
ET o
122.1
66.3
54.3
44
53.8
99.2
124.2
182.9
242.7
247.1
233.1
174.9
1644.6
Kc
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
0.72
PET crop
87.9
47.7
39.1
31.7
38.7
71.4
89.4
131.7
174.7
177.9
167.8
125.9
APWL
-790.5
-456.3
-216.2
0
0
0
0
-101.1
-274.9
-452.8
-620.5
-745.7
P-PET
-44.8
21.6
54.7
75.7
111
27.6
14.1
-101.1
-173.8
-177.9
-167.7
-125.2
SW
6.1
27.7
82.4
220
220
220
220
138.9
63.1
28.1
13.1
7.4
dSW
-1.4
21.6
54.7
0
0
0
0
-81.1
-75.9
-35.0
-15.0
-5.7
AET
44.5
47.7
39.1
31.7
38.7
71.4
89.4
111.7
76.8
35.0
15.1
6.4
607.5
Deficit
43.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
20.0
97.9
142.9
152.7
119.5
576.4
Surplus
0
0
0
75.7
111
27.6
14.1
0
0
0
0
0
228.4
Storage
0
0
0
0
111
49.8
24.1
4.8
1.0
0.2
0
0
Detention
0
0
0
0
22.2
10.0
4.8
1.0
0.2
0
0
0
Parameter
Recharge
154.3
Units
All units in (mm)
57
1183.9
P,PET, and AET (mm)
Chapter Two 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Water Dificit Water Surplus
Water Dificit
Soil Moisture Utilization
Soil Moisture Recharge
Oct.
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Months P
PET
AET
Fig (2.13) Monthly soil water balance (Based on the Mehta, et. al., 2006 method)
2.8 Estimation of the surface runoff 2.8.1 Soil Conservation Service Method (SCS) The surface runoff in the area was estimated with the help of the US Soil Conservation Service method (SCS). The water surplus (WS) will be divided into two parts: runoff and groundwater recharge. Since neither information was available or provided by hydrological data nor any empirical formula is applicable to be implemented, runoff had to be calculated in a different way. The simple SCS-approach (Soil Conservation Service Curve Number Approach) was implemented. The positive features of the runoff curve number are its simplicity and the fact that runoff curve numbers are related to the major runoff producing properties of the watershed, such as soil type, vegetation type, treatment, surface condition, and antecedent moisture, (Raghunath, 2006). This method is used to determine runoff depths based on rainfall depths and curve numbers, with no explicit account of rainfall intensity and duration, (Ponce, 1989) and in order to compute surface runoff values or create surface runoff values from available rainfall data (Hawkins, 2004) the negative feature of the runoff curve number method represented by the negligence of some metrological elements such as (evaporation, transpiration, wind, and temperature).
58
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
In this method, runoff depth is a function of total rainfall depth and an abstraction parameter referred to as runoff curve number (CN). Based on data from (Al-Dulimy, 2008) the curve number for the area of interest is 64. The empirical rainfall runoff relation is:
𝑸=
(𝑷−𝟎.𝟐 𝑺)𝟐
𝑷 > 0.2𝑺
(𝑷+𝟎.𝟖 𝑺)
(𝟐. 𝟕)
Where: Q = runoff in (mm) of depth. P = total precipitation (mm) (average monthly records used). S = retention including the initial abstraction which is assumed to be (0.2 S) 𝑪𝑵 =
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎+
(𝟐. 𝟖) (𝑺)𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓
𝑺 𝟐𝟓.𝟒
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(𝟐. 𝟗)(𝑺)𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒉
= 𝟏𝟎+𝑺 CN = Curve number
Figure (2.14) is a convenient way to estimate runoff from rainfall directly without having to calculate (S). The factor (S) is generally needed for other applications, such as the analysis of runoff data or the development of supplementary runoff relationships, the SCS method can be used when detailed data on soils and vegetation covers are available (Hawkins, 2004).
59
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Fig (2.14) Graphical solution of the equation 𝑸 =
(𝑷−𝟎.𝟐 𝑺)𝟐 (𝑷+𝟎.𝟖𝑺)
(after Hawkins, 2004).
2.8.2 Runoff estimation The value of curve number (CN=64) was considered in the estimation of runoff using monthly rainfall data as shown in table (2.3). The mean monthly precipitation value of Halabja meteorological station used for estimating runoff values from the standard graphs figure (2.14) as shown in table (2.3). The volume and rate of runoff depends on both meteorologic and watershed characteristics. The rainfall is the most important meteorological characteristic in estimating the volume of runoff. Average monthly rainfall was used for this purpose. (AlDulimy, 2008) prepared the CN values after soil classification of each sub-catchment, in which the area of interest is in one of its sub-catchments, the maximum potential retention (S) and the initial abstraction (0.2S), and the runoff depth (Q) will be obtained. The runoff depth is found by substituting the above parameters in equation (2.9) and the result is tabulated in table (2.3). The maximum rate of runoff depth through all months is
60
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
during February (55.57 mm) which reflecting the maximum precipitation (149.7 mm). According to this model the total runoff is (163.46 mm) which is (23.41 %) of the total precipitation. Table (2.3) Average monthly runoff in the area of interest.
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. July Aug. Sep.
64
month
Precipitation Weighted (P) S CN (mm) 43.06 142.88 69.34 142.88 93.81 142.88 107.37 142.88 149.7 142.88 99.03 142.88 103.45 142.88 30.63 142.88 0.93 0 0 0 0.05 0 0.68 0 Total
Runoff (Q) (mm) 1.33 9.05 20.45 28.01 55.57 23.27 25.75 0.03 0 0 0 0 163.46
2.9 Estimation of recharge To estimate the recharge in the area of interest the chloride mass balance method was applied.
2.9.1 Chloride Mass-Balance method The chloride mass balance method determines recharge by calculating the ratio of chloride concentration in precipitation to that in groundwater (Gieske, 1992), Chloride is one of the most common elements in groundwater, which only precipitates at very high concentrations, and has been recognized as an ideal conservative tracer of water-cycle processes. Various applications of the CMB method have been presented for different parts of the world (Eriksson and Khunakasem, 1969; Eriksson, 1976; Allison and Hughes, 1978; Edmunds et. al. 1988; Phillips et. al. 1988; Dettinger, 1989; Wood and Sanford, 1995; Wood and Imes, 1995; Maurer et. al., 1996; Maurer and Berger, 1997;
61
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Wood, 1999; Grismer et. al., 2000; Edmunds et. al., 2002; Harrington et. al., 2002; Scanlon et. al., 2002; Russell and Minor, 2003; Scanlon et. al., 2006; Subyani and Șen, 2006; Nyagwambo, 2006; Dassi, 2010). The application of the CMB method is simple with no independence on sophisticated instruments, (Al-Abadi, 2011). Due to simplicity, the classical CMB and refined one by Subyani and Şen (2006) are used to estimate recharge rates of the Alluvium intergranular aquifer in the area of interest. The chloride mass balance method assumes that chloride only enters the ground water through precipitation. Since it is non-volatile its concentration increases with evapotranspiration (Eriksson and Khunakasem 1969 and Bazuhair and Wood 1996). This method assumes as well that chloride is conserved in the system, i.e. it doesn’t react and disappear when mixed with other components of ground water. It is further assumed that steady-state conditions are maintained in the system, so that long term average concentrations and rainfall amounts are used in the calculation. Finally, it is also assumed that surface runoff is known and that evaporation from the ground water does not occur. According to this, only the chloride analysis of the wells and springs that are uphill and far away from contamination sources, were used to represent the chloride concentration in the ground water. The CMB approach for estimating groundwater recharge is based on a simple method and has the great advantage of ease of calculation. The ion neither leaches from nor is absorbed by the sediment particles. Also, it does not participate in any chemical reaction. Several underlying assumptions are outlined for the method to be applicable, (Șen, 2008): (1) The chloride is a conservative tracer, i.e., its concentration is neither diminished nor increased through chemical reactions in the soil, vegetative uptake or increased evaporative action among other things. (2) There are no other sources of chloride to the groundwater other than precipitation. (3) The losses through leaching are minimal, i.e., there is no incremental change in chloride concentration in the vertical direction. The chloride tends to decrease with the distance from the sea. Previously this was attributed to the lessening influence of the sea but it has been realized and accepted that the decrease is due to rainout and moisture recycling (Savenije, 1995). This method for
62
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
estimating groundwater recharge is economic and effective, provided that the hydrological conditions for its applications are met and the modeling parameters are known. In the CMB, measurements of chloride concentration (Cl-) in pore water and precipitation are used to estimate the recharge rate. The (Cl-) is used in groundwater recharge studies because of its conservative nature and its relative abundance in precipitation, (Al- Abadi, 2011). The origin of air masses, the regional condensation altitude, intensity of the rain, and the storage of chloride in the atmosphere are the significant causes of the different concentration of chloride in rain water, (Seiler and Gat, 2007). Therefore, most precipitation starts with high and continuous with low chloride concentration. Thus, to avoid the variation of chloride concentration, the rainfall depth-weighted average of chloride Cl wav is used. This weighting was utilized to address temporal variation in precipitation chloride concentrations. It is calculated based on the following equation, (Dassi, 2010):
𝐶𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣 =
∑ 𝐶𝑙𝑖 h𝑖 hi
(2.10)
Where Cl wav : rainfall depth-weighted average of Cl- concentration (mg/ l ) Cl i : chloride concentration in a considered rainfall event (mg/ l ) h: depth of a considered rainfall event (mm)
On the basis of these assumption, the conservative of mass leads to the following relation between rainfall and recharge (Ting el. al. 1998; Wood and Sanford, 1995;Wood, 1999) this is defined as a classic CMB:
𝑞=
𝑅 ∗ 𝐶𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣 𝐶𝑙𝑔𝑤
(2.11)
Where q is the recharge (mm/year), R is the annual rainfall (mm/year), Cl wav is the weighted average chloride concentration of rainfall (mg/l), and Cl gw is the average chloride concentration of groundwater.
63
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
However, this basic equation is refined by adding some statistical properties taking into account the temporal and spatial variation of these variables by Subyani and Șen, (2006): � 𝑟 + 𝜌�𝑅𝐶𝑙 𝜎�𝑅 𝜎�𝐶𝑙 )/𝐶𝑙 � 𝑔𝑤 𝑞� = (𝑅� 𝐶𝑙 𝑟 𝑟
(2.12)
Where 𝑞� is recharge rate; 𝑅� is average of annual rain depth; 𝜌�𝑅𝐶𝑙𝑟 is the correlation
coefficient between the rainfall and its chloride concentration; 𝜎�𝑅 and 𝜎�𝐶𝑙𝑟 are the standard deviations of rainfall and its chloride concentration measurements, respectively.
2.9.2 Estimation of CMB Applying the classic and refined CMB in the area of interest for estimating annual recharge rate, five rainfall water samples are collected for the rainy period of water year (2013 – 2014) extending from November to March. The depth weighted mean of chloride concentration are computed according to eq. (2.10) as:
𝐶𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑣 =
2374.12 465.5
= 5.1 (𝑚𝑔/ 𝑙)
Groundwater sampling is typically accomplished at springs and wells producing from
the Alluvium intergranular aquifer. All water samples are collected and analyzed for chloride for the rainy period of water year (2013 – 2014) extending from November to March. The chloride content of the collected ground water samples ranges from 14.08 to 17.22 mg/l. All the data needed for the application of the classic and refined CMB are given in table (2.4). The total rainfall for the period (2013-2014) is 465.5 mm. The standard deviations of rainfall depth and rainfall chloride concentration are 51.81 mm and 3.52 mg/l, respectively. The correlation coefficient between monthly rainfall depth (height) and its chloride concentration is 0.7. The mean concentration of chloride in main groundwater aquifer is 15.76 (mg/l). Substitution of all the values into eq. (2.11) and eq. (2.12) gives:
64
Chapter Two 𝑞= 𝑞� =
465.5∗5.1 15.76
Hydrology and Hydrogeology = 150.64(𝑚𝑚/𝑦𝑟)
465.5∗5.1+(0.7∗51.81∗3.52) 15.76
Classic CMB
= 158.74(𝑚𝑚/𝑦𝑟)
Refined CMB
2.9.3 Chloride Mass-Balance results The average chloride concentration in groundwater (C gw ) in the area of interest is 15.76 mg/l. This value is based on 64 chemical analysis of groundwater and was calculated by concentrations of chloride in four wells and nine of the ten (one spring was dried during the sampling process) springs as shown in table (1.3). The precipitation weighted average chloride (Cp) concentration for samples of precipitation during 20132014 in the area of interest is 5.1 mg/l. This value is based upon 5 samples collected during the 2013-2014 wet seasons. Precipitation is variable in space as well as time but a reasonable estimate based on historical data is important, but unfortunately is not available records for this region so the only dependable data is the collected samples from this study. Thus using the equations (2.11 and 2.12), the average recharge flux for the area of interest is approximately 150.64 mm/yr and 158.74 mm/yr by classic and refined methods respectively. The estimated recharge rate using refined CMB is slightly higher than that obtained by classic CMB. However, the difference between the two approaches will increase, especially with the increase in the standard deviations of monthly rainfall and/or rainfall concentration. This result could be subjected to great errors because of the various assumptions involved; Determination of chloride content in rainwater is based on 5 samples only and this can affect the reliability of the value. Also there is a strong requirement of evaluating the rate of evaporation, because there has been reported that in semi-arid regions there are occasions where all the water which entered the soil was eventually returned to the atmosphere via evaporation, without any net downward movement of deep drainage (Bromley et al, 1997).
65
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Table (2.4) Depth of monthly rainfall and their chloride concentrations. Mean monthly rainfall
Cl- concentration
Cl- concentration in
(mm)
in rainfall (mg/l)
groundwater (mg/l)
November
139.5
4.9
16.41
December
146.0
5.51
14.65
January
39.8
11.76
14.08
February
22.3
7.08
16.46
March
117.9
2.21
17.22
Arithmetic mean
93.1
6.29
15.76
Standard deviation
51.81
3.52
1.33
Month
Correlation coefficient
0.7
As can be seen from this method the amount of recharge is 34.1% of the total precipitation (465.5 mm/yr) in the area of interest for the rainy period of (2013-2014). From (Mehta, et. al., 2006) the groundwater recharge for the period of (2002-2012) is (22.1 %) of the total precipitation (698.1 mm/yr). Chloride mass balance method shows higher amount of recharge maybe due to the non accounting the rate of evaporation in this method. According to (Ali, 2007) the amount of recharge which calculated by subtracting water surplus to the surface runoff in the sub-basin in which the area of interest included is 35.2% of the total precipitation (851.8 mm/yr).
66
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
2.10 Hydrogeology The Geological formations within the boundary between Iraq and Iran ranges constitute shared aquifer systems in some areas along the boundaries of these countries, like Halabja-Khurmal sub-basin. In the Halabja-Khurmal sub-basin, groundwater is exploited in the Bekhme (Cretaceous) and Pila Spi (Paleogene) semi-confined Aquifer Systems. The groundwater originates in the high mountains of Iran and flows towards the Darbandikhan Lake in Iraq. A total annual recharge of 214 MCM occurs in the basin, and natural discharge of groundwater occurs mostly through springs, (Ali, 2007). Groundwater of this sub-basin originates mainly in Iran (UN-ESCWA and BGR, 2013), this aquifer can be defined as trans-boundary aquifer. Groundwater is mainly exploited in intermountain basins that lie between a series of anticlines and synclines (Stevanovic, et. al., 2004).
67
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Fig (2.15) Aquifer map of the area of interest (After Ali, 2007).
2.10.1 Main local aquifers in the area of interest A wide range of geological units (Late Jurassic to recent deposits) exist in the area of interest in addition to the Bekhme (Cretaceous) and Pilaspi (Paleogene) semi-confined aquifer systems. The area has the following main hydrogeological characteristics (UNESCWA and BGR, 2013): -Occurrence of karstic and fissured-karstic aquifers (Bekhme and Pilaspi aquifer systems) on the edges of the basins. -Highly productive intergranular deposits often filling the basins. -Variable permeability and lateral/horizontal changes in lithology of basin layers.
68
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Quaternary deposits overlie the Cretaceous and Paleogene aquifer systems in the Halabja and Sharazoor Plains, creating confined conditions in both systems in this area (Al-Tamimi, 2007). Together with the Jurassic Formations, the Cretaceous and Paleogene aquifer systems of the Thrust Zone are drained by numerous springs, some of which are of major importance. In the area of interest, the stratigraphic units (formations and recent sediments) are grouped as Jurassic rocks (JKA), Karstic-fissured aquifers for Cretaceous rocks (CKFA), Fissured aquifers for cretaceous Qulqula Formation (CFA), Intergranular aquifer (AIA) for alluvium, and finally aquitard of Tanjero rocks (TAT), (Ali, 2007).
2.10.1.1 Aquifer characteristics The first group of aquifers represented by fissured, karstic, and fissure-karstic types of aquifer, which is due to secondary porosities, developed in chemical rocks resulting from tectonic forces during the geological evolution of the basin. These fractures, joints, and bedding planes were enlarged by the dissolving effects of groundwater, forming canals and cavities in the massive limestone, and dolomitic limestone (Ali, 2007), figure (2.15).
1. Karstic aquifers The karstic aquifer unit or formations in the area of interest are - JKA (Jurassic Karstic Aquifer). Jurassic age formations, developed mainly in carbonate facies (limestones and dolomites and their varieties). This aquifer system is widespread in the northern and central parts of northern Iraq and contains large groundwater reserves, albeit varying in space and time the aquifer is highly fissured and well karstified with many channels and caves that were registered on the surface or during the drilling of many wells. The Jurassic rocks form very thick aquifer. No lower boundary of these rocks is exposed on the surface, and no deep well has been drilled to reach the bottom of these rocks. This aquifer appears only as a small part in the south of the area of interest.
This type of aquifer is characterized by its high permeability and transimissivity values, as groundwater flows through channels and cavities of different diameters that
69
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
depend on the degree of the karstification development. Also the drawdown values in the wells that are drilled in such aquifers are relatively small (Ali, 2007).
2. Karstic-Fissured aquifers This type of aquifer is developed in the marly limestone, dolomitic limestone, limestone, and dolomite. The high density fracturing sets along these rocks prevent karstification processes from developing the hydrogeologic unit into a pure karstic aquifer, as the accumulated water flows through a great number of fractures and fissures. The karstic-fissured aquifers are characterized by high permeability and transimissivity values, but to a lesser extent than those in karstic aquifer (Ali, 2007).
- CKFA (Cretaceous Karstic-Fissured Aquifers) The Cretaceous water bearing formations in the area of interest are: Kometan and Balambo Formations, they are Karstic aquifers with developed karstic features and fissure systems usually maintain the discharge of high yield springs (Stevanovic and Markovic, 2004b). The porosities of these formations consist of cavities, solution channels and fractures. Because of their massiveness, the sets of joint are not clear but where the thickness of the beds decreases to about 1 meter at least two sets of joints can be seen. However the tectonic fractures and large or small faults are frequent in all outcrops; thus, good porosity for groundwater storing is created (Ali, 2007). Kometan and Balambo Formations comprise many large mountains (anticlines) such as Shinirwe, Balambo, and Bafrimiri. The surfaces of these mountains are regarded as an important catchment area. It seems that some of the springs in this sub-basin emerge from or near the plunge of one of the anticlines like Saraw, Hana Zhala, and Kani Karweshka springs.
3. Kolosh aquiclude In the area of interest aquiclude represents by Kolosh Formation. This aquiclude beds vary considerably in their thickness and compaction due to the degree of deformation and effects of weathering.
70
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Tertiary squences which outcrop in synclinal area in southwestern part of area of interest which they comprise clastics of Kolosh Formation and outside the southwestern boundary of area of interest as Gercus and Pilaspi Formations. Sometimes Kolosh and Tanjero Formations are sufficiently permeable to form local fractured aquifer (Jassim and Goff, 2006).
4. Fissured aquifer The mixing lithology of this aquifer is characterized mainly by layers of different lithology such as limestone, shale, chert, dolomite, and marly limestone. Generally it is fractured to a lesser extent than that of previously mentioned types and its fractures are narrower. Generally these aquifers are of less importance and their transimissivity is much less than the karstic and karstic-fissured aquifers and of less extent exposures. This type of aquifer is represented by the Qulqula (marly limestone + chert) Formation. Many joints and fractures form the chief porosity in the aquifers. The outcrop of this formation is located mainly in the Thrust Zone. In most cases, the competent beds (chert and limestone) are totally crushed or pulverized while the shale and marl show plastic flowage around the rigid bodies and are extremely compressed and even partially metamorphosed. These beds act as highly impervious rocks and facilitate the conditions for competent beds to perform as perched aquifers or relatively small springs (Ali, 2007). The most important hydrogeological properties of the Qulqula Radiolarian Formation are the existence of local aquifers. The formation is mostly in the low lands (Ali, 2007). Most significant spring is Sarkan spring which flow its water toward Darashish village.
5. TAT (Tanjero Aquitard) The Tanjero Formation in some localities contains medium beds of limestone and sandstone, which, because of jointing and fracturing, conquer sufficient effective porosity to reserve and transmit groundwater and acts as aquitards. Therefore, wells drilled in the Tanjero Formation in area of interest have moderate groundwater yield, there is a spring on this formation called Kani Chnar spring.
71
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
6. Intergranular aquifers Intergranular aquifer is a very rich aquifer that covers a surface of more than 165.85 square kilometers in the area of interest. Based on the data of previous investigations, including deep-well drilling, the total thickness at the area is assumed to be more than 150 m. The cyclic nature of sediments, as well as the erosional and facial processes, alternate in the deposition environment and mark the discontinuities that limit the extension of some lithological units. Thus, the repetition of the fine, medium, and coarse grained textures, variation in permeability from one site to another within the same aquifer horizon, are typical characteristics of this aquifer. This rich aquifer is tapped by many wells, which in turn provide large amounts of water for irrigation and water supply. The water from this aquifer is generally of good quality. Unfortunately it is more delicate to contamination either chemically or bacterially, mainly as a result of free seepage of sewage water from homes. The coarser deposits had higher values of transimissivity and the wells drilled through it had higher values of specific capacity (Ali, 2007):
- AIA (Alluvium Intergranular aquifer) This aquifer represents the most enriched area for the drilling of highly productive wells. It is estimated that some groundwater from the alluvium percolates into the underlying Tanjero and Shiranish Formations. It is also possible that when the topography is suitable the Tanjero Formation recharges the AIA. The riverbed sediments are characterized by better sorting and roundness than those of alluvial fans. Zalm stream is braided stream which has coarse sediments of gravels and little boulders. The existence of riverbed sediments 5-20 m thick with an overlay of 1-3m thick of flood plain clay and mud is evidence of such shifts. In many cases these streams traversally cut the alluvial fans, the main source of coarse sediments is derived from the reworking of the fan sediments. Therefore, it is possible to find unsorted and angular sections of gravel exposed beside sorted and rounded sections of the same sediment along the stream bank. The flood plain sediments are deposited from the rivers. The heavy
72
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
loads of these streams are released at the plain when the velocity of the streams water decreases (Ali, 2007). The area under consideration is covered by a thick layer of recent sediment estimated to be ranging between (50-150) m .The layer is composed of clay, Sand, gravel, and boulders of limestone mixed with recent sediment . The limestone comes from Balambo Formation which forms the rock bed of Balambo & Shinirwe Mountains in the S and SE of Halabja city. Because of the highly joints & fractures of Balambo limestone it will make a good aquifer at the down of the Shinirwe Mountain which makes the drilled wells in the area Artisan well (Raouf, 2004) There is a clay zone which divides the area in to upper zone and lower zone due to the aquifer of the area. The upper zone is a very good aquifer and the lower zone is a bad aquifer because of the impermeability of the clay zone which divide the area and makes the water levels in the upper zone very high and near to the surface and in the upper zone the underground water is unable to flow through the clay zone and reach the lower zone (Raouf, 2004). Many springs occur in the contact between Kometan and Balambo Formations with Quaternary deposits such as Chawg spring, is located about (1km) west of Bawa kochak village and (7km) from Halabja city. Springs water flow through two earth canals, in the winter flow through Golan stream. The area around this spring is (Tourist area).The discharge of spring (59) l/sec, measured on 16/11/2001, (FAO, 2003), as well as Baharany Ababaile, Kani Maran, and Haml spring. Mrwary, Kani Jana, and Kani Charmala springs occur near the contact between Kolosh Formation with Quaternary deposits. Kagrdal and Hamoghan springs occur inside Quaternary sediments.
2.11 Groundwater flow direction Generally, the (1486 m.a.s.l) water table along the axis of Shinirwe Mountain descends westwards to an elevation of about (482 m.a.s.l) at the Darbandikhan Lake. Assuming uniform gradient, this (1004 m.) difference in the groundwater heads about (21 km.) of horizontal distance leads to a steep flow gradient. Generally the water flows from higher region to lower region and the water table below the surface have the same shape as the topography of the earth’s surface, therefore
73
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
the water level in areas of lower elevation are closer to the surface than of higher elevation (Moore, 2002). According to the figure (2.16) which shows flow direction of water according to the topography and groundwater levels of the area of interest, the interpreted map shows the flow direction of water, the flow is toward northwest direction, which topographically is flat area and consists of sediments of recent deposit and represent as Darbandikhan Lake. The flow net map is done by using ARCGIS and by using the information of 166 wells in Alluvium Intergranular aquifer; this was determined by using data from that of Sulaimani Groundwater Directories, like coordinates, elevations, and static water levels. Static water table above sea level was determined by subtracting the elevations of the wells from the depth of static water levels, appendix (1).
Fig (2.16) Flow net map of Alluvium Intergranular Aquifer in the area of interest.
74
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
2.12 Springs systems The springs in the area of interest are associated with phenomenon which made them to come out from their aquifer. Karst springs often associated with fault locations and fracture systems, and border massif carbonate rocks at their contacts with non-carbonate rocks. Many karst springs are mainly related to their favorable geologic-geomorphologic setting. Some factors are affecting the occurrence of springs (Stevanovic and Markovic, 2004b): 1-Geological factors; deals with main geological character that control the karst spring location. 2-Lithologic factor; change in aquifer lithology or contacts with less permeable layers that acts as a barrier like in Bekhme, Kometan, Shiranish Formations. 3-Regional or local faults/fractures. 4-Combination of plunge of the anticline dissected by transversal fractures/faults the most frequently occurring feature for some large springs. 5- Geomorphologic factors; karstification, generally the lowest point the karstification process occurs, represents the discharge point of the karst system for gravity springs. However, the same does not apply for artesian springs, for which the base of karstification is below the discharge point; hence, many systems are eventually drained through alluvial deposits or into/under riverbed. 6- Hydrogeological factors; as for the surface streams the discharge of karst springs are related to the catchment area, in addition to the drained volume of the water-bearing layers. Thus the geometry of the aquifer is one of the most important aspects determining its capacity.
2.13 Hydraulic properties of the Alluvium intergranular aquifer Hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficients are aquifer properties that may vary spatially because of geologic heterogeneity. Estimation of these properties allows quantitative prediction of the hydraulic response of the aquifer to recharge and pumping. Storage coefficients are important for understanding hydraulic response to transient stresses on aquifers. These properties can be estimated on a local scale by analysis of data from aquifer tests which is conducted to evaluate an aquifer by "stimulating" the aquifer
75
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
through constant pumping, and observing the aquifer's "response" (drawdown) in observation wells. Aquifer test is a common tool that hydrogeologists use to characterize a system of aquifer.
2.13.1 Aquifer test analysis Three aquifer tests were performed close to the Halabja boundary in the AIA using 3 pumping and 3 observation wells. Locations of the wells are shown in table (1.1) and figure (1.3). Pumping rate was determined by means of a stopwatch filling a container with a volume of 15 liters. Drawdown was monitored with a depth sounder in the observation wells. Aquifer tests were performed in Alluvium Intergranular aquifer in order to provide information about hydraulic characteristics of AIA. In the case of this study observation wells are available in the evaluation of aquifer test. The mathematical model in AQTESOLV 4.5 was used for transmissivity and storage coefficient calculations for partial penetrating aquifer. AQTESOLV is advanced software for aquifer test data analysis that features the most comprehensive set of solution methods and it estimates selected aquifer parameters based on a best fit analytical solution to measured timedistance-drawdown data. The software includes an automatic curve-matching algorithm computing optimized aquifer parameters and fitted drawdown results (Batu, 1998).
2.13.2 Aquifer test evaluation Aquifer test in well (PW3) was performed for 180 minutes to reach steady state. Then the pump was switched off to monitor recovery reaching the former static level after 72 minutes. Aquifer test in well (PW1) was performed for 240 minutes to reach steady state and then pump was switched off to monitor recovery, which was reached after 100 minutes. Aquifer test in well (PW2) was performed for 270 minutes to reach steady state and then pump was switched off to monitor recovery, which was reached after 300 minutes. Results of aquifer test and recovery evaluated with the AQTESOLV 4.5 for Windows. The method of analysis presented here is called the Jacob (sometimes referred to as the Cooper-Jacob) straight-line method, which is based on a simplification of the
76
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Theis method is presented in appendices (2 to 4). Results show that well (PW3) has a higher transmissivity value (153.2 m² /day) in comparison with other well, table (2.5).
2.13.3 Hydraulic characteristics The hydraulic characteristics of aquifers are important for groundwater flow and contamination assessment and modeling. The important aquifer characteristics are:
1. Hydraulic Conductivity (K) The hydraulic conductivity is the constant of proportionality in Darcy's law. It is defined as the volume of water that will move through a porous medium in unit time under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit area measured at right angles to the direction of flow. Hydraulic conductivity can have any units of Length/Time, for example m/d (Kruseman and de Ridder, 1994).
2. Transmissivity (T) Transmissivity is the product of the average hydraulic conductivity (K) and the saturated thickness of the aquifer (D). Consequently, transmissivity is the rate of flow under a unit hydraulic gradient through a cross-section of unit width over the whole saturated thickness of the aquifer (Kruseman and de Ridder, 1994, Dellur, 1999). Values of Transmissivity parameter also increase from south to north, indicating capability of aquifer to get and transmit water in this direction. This also means that the Transmissivity part of the aquifer is increasing with the direction of flow.
3. Storativity (S) The storativity of a saturated confined aquifer of thickness D is the volume of water released from storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit decline in the component of hydraulic head normal to that surface. In a vertical column of unit area extending through the confined aquifer, the storativity S equals the volume of water released from the aquifer when the piezometric surface drops over a unit distance.
77
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
4. Specific yield (S y ) The specific yield is the volume of water that an unconfined aquifer releases from storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit decline of the watertable. In unconfined aquifers, the effects of the elasticity of the aquifer matrix and of the water are generally negligible. Specific yield is sometimes called effective porosity, unconfined storativity, or drainable pore space. Small interstices do not contribute to the effective porosity because the retention forces in them are greater than the weight of water. Hence, no groundwater will be released from small interstices by gravity drainage (Kruseman and de Ridder, 1994).
The AIA in the area of interest is unconfined aquifer; it has an average Transmissivity of ~ 83.24 m²/day and a storativity of ~ 0.29. The transmissivity of AIA seems to be spatially related with the high permeability of aquifer, the variation in hydraulic parameters is attributed to the differences between layers in the aquifer, the type of the lithology, the texture of the sediments, and sorting of connected particles in AIA consequently affected the property of AIA.
Table (2.5) Hydraulic characteristic of aquifer test by AQTESOLV 4.5. K
Type of
T(m2/day)
S or S y
0.65
77.62
0.41
Unonfined
89
0.21
18.89
0.01
Unconfined
129
1.19
153.2
0.46
Unconfined
Wells
b (m)
PW1
119
PW2
PW3
(m/day)
78
aquifer
Solution CooperJacob CooperJacob CooperJacob
Chapter Two
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
According to Ali, (2007), it is to be expected that the resulting values of the hydrogeological parameters should be lower than the actual ones. The wells were probably not thoroughly developed and the resulting drawdowns include not only the linear formation losses but also the square losses due to the turbulent flow toward the pumped wells. In general the relatively thick aquifer of AIA could be considered the most promising area for drilling successful and productive wells.
79
Chapter Three Groundwater Potential Mapping
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
3.1 Introduction Water plays a vital role in the development of activities in the area. The surface water resources are inadequate to fulfill the water demand. Productivity through groundwater is quite high as compared to surface water, but groundwater resources have not yet been properly exploited. Keeping this view, the present study attempts to select and delineate various groundwater potential zones for the assessment of groundwater availability in the Halabja area using remote sensing and GIS technique. The occurrence of groundwater at any place on the earth is not a matter of chance but a consequence of the interaction of the climatic, geological,
hydrological,
physiographical and ecological factors. Groundwater exploration operation is essentially a hydrogeological and geophysical inference operation and is dependent on the correct interpretation of the hydrological indicators and evidences. The movement of groundwater is controlled mainly by porosity and permeability of the surface and underlying lithology. The same lithology forming different geomorphic units will have variable porosity and permeability thereby causing changes in the potential of groundwater. This is also true for same geomorphic units with variable lithology. The surface hydrological features like topography, geomorphology, drainage, surface water bodies, etc. play important role in groundwater replenishment. High relief and steep slopes impart higher runoff, while the topographical depressions help in an increased infiltration. An area of high drainage density also increases surface runoff compared to a low drainage density area. Surface water bodies like rivers, ponds, etc. can act as a recharge zones enhancing the groundwater potential in the vicinity. Hence, identification and quantization of these features are important in generating groundwater potential model of a particular area (Arkoprovo B., et al., 2012). Remote sensing is an excellent tool for understanding the “perplexing” problems of groundwater exploration. In recent years, satellite remote sensing data has been widely used in locating groundwater potential zones. satellite remote sensing data is not only cost-effective, reliable and timely but also meets the essential requirements of data in the Geographical Information System (GIS) domain, which are “current, sufficiently accurate, comprehensive and available to a uniform standard, Integration of the information on the controlling parameters is best achieved through GIS which is an
81
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
effective tool for storage, management and retrieval of spatial and non-spatial data as well as for integration and analysis of this information for meaningful solutions. The technique of integration of remote sensing and GIS has proved to be extremely useful for groundwater studies (Arkoprovo B., et al., 2012). Satellite remote sensing provides an opportunity for better observation and more systematic analysis of various geomorphic units/landforms/lineaments due to the synoptic and multi-spectral coverage of a terrain. Investigation of remotely sensed data use for drainage map, geological, geomorphological and lineament characteristics of terrain in an integrated way facilities effective evaluation of ground water potential zones. The parameters are shown and explained overleaf. A thematic map of each input factor was produced, derived from various sources including maps of geology and geomorphology, satellite images, water well records. The input layers were ranked according to their relative importance in controlling groundwater potential. Each factor was divided into classes based on hydrogeological properties. The classes were then weighted according to their relative importance in controlling groundwater potential. The type and number of thematic layers used for assessing groundwater potential vary considerably from one study to another depending on the availability of data in an area and often their selection is arbitrary. Also, in a majority of the studies concerning demarcation of groundwater potentiality, selection of thematic layers is depending on personal judgment and expertise opinion (Al- Abadi, 2011).
3.2 Groundwater potential map procedure The detailed methodology for groundwater potential mapping is given in the flowchart figure (3.1). To identify groundwater potential zone a multi parametric dataset comprising satellite data, Google Earth data and conventional maps, the Landsat 8, Quick Bird on updating July 26, 2013, and SRTM (DEM 15) have been used in the present study. Remote Sensing data and ARC GIS 10 software have been used for the preparation of thematic maps of drainage density, thematic map of lineament density, the area of interest boundary, soil, and slope. Further, the thematic layer of land use land cover was prepared by using landsat TM 30m, the main feature types of land use (human activities) and land cover (resources) classes that are classified according to U.S. geological survey
82
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
(USGS) system, and the thematic layer of geomorphology was prepared by using visual interpretation with geological map, hillshade map, and high resolution data of QuickBird. The geological map was prepared from existing maps obtained from GEOSURV map of Sulaimani. The soil layer was prepared by digitizing the soil map of FAO. Next all of the groundwater storing controlling features layers was converted into raster format with pixel size (30X30). Raster classification was performed for all the seven layers to demarcate six classes of geomorphology, four classes of geology, five classes of slope, five classes of drainage density, five classes of lineament density, nine classes of land use/ land cover, and three classes of soil, further these raster maps are reclassified. These reclassified maps are overlay in terms of weighted overlay method using spatial analyst tool in ARCGIS 10. The weights of the different themes were assigned on a scale of 1 to 7 based on their influence on the groundwater development (Chowdhury, et al, 2010). Suitable weights were assigned to the seven themes and their individual features by using Expert Choice 11 after understanding their hydrogeological importance in causing groundwater occurrence in the area of interest. The weights assigned to different themes are in table (3.1). Finally ground water potential map prepared in terms of high, moderate and low. Further GIS based output was validated by conducting field survey by selecting wells randomly in different locations.
83
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Data Source
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Satellite Imagery
Existing maps/ literature
Image processing
Spatial Models
Ratings & weightages
Identify spatial themes
Results & assessment
Thematic maps of: geology, soil, geomorphology, drainage density, lineament density, slope, and land use/ land cover
Data checks Digital database creation in GIS domain, providing ratings for classes and weightages for each spatial data layer
Integration and analysis
Identify groundwater potential zones
Compare groundwater potential with wells yield data
Fig (3.1) Overview of the methodology for groundwater potential assessment using integrated remote sensing and GIS techniques.
84
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Table (3.1) Ranks and weights for factors and their influencing classes used for groundwater potential mapping. Theme
Geology
Geomorphology
Lineament Density
Soil
Slope
LU/LC
Drainage density
Class
Groundwater prospect
Rank
Quaternary
Very good
7
Cretaceous
Moderate
4
Jurassic
Poor
3
Tertiary
Poor
3
Depositional Pediment
Very good
7
Erosional Pediment
Good
5
Island
Moderate
4
Structural Ridge
Moderate
3
Monoclinal Ridge
Poor
2
Bad Land
Poor
1
2.2-2.7
Very good
7
1.6-2.2
Good
5
1-1.6
Moderate
4
0.4-1
Poor
3
0-0.4
Poor
2
C3
Good
4
C2.1
Moderate
3
B2
Poor
1
0-1.9
Very good
6
2-7.9
Good
5
8-15.9
Moderate
4
16-29.9
Poor
2
>30
Poor
1
Scrub/Shrub
Very good
7
Agricultures
Good
6
Wetland/Permanent Herbaceous
Good
5
Forest, Deciduous
Good
4
Grassland
Good
4
Water
Good
4
Barren/sparsely vegetated
Moderate
3
Forest, Evergreen
Moderate
3
Urban/Built-Up
Poor
1
0-1.03
Very good
5
1.03-2.06
Good
4
2.06-3.09
Moderate
3
3.09-4.1
Poor
1
>4.1
poor
1
85
Weight(%)
19%
16%
17%
14%
16%
14%
4%
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
3.3 Groundwater potential input factor maps The seven hydrogeological influenced input layers are shown in order of their ranked importance in controlling groundwater potential. Selection of thematic layers is depending on personal judgment and expertise opinion, as the following:
3.3.1 Geological map Geology is the main control on the primary porosity and permeability of rocks. Higher porosity contributes to higher groundwater storage, and higher permeability contributes to higher groundwater yields. The characteristics considered for lithology of the formations are: rock type, type and thickness of weathering, fracture density, etc. For instance, a maximum value of seven was given for quaternary deposit (table 3.1) due to its favorable characters for groundwater accumulation owing to their primary porosities and permeability. The Cretaceous rocks (Kometan, and Balambo) Formations were assumed to have better groundwater accumulation than other rock types of Jurassic and Tertiary (Kolosh) Formations due to primary structures owing to joints and secondary porosity, figure (3.2).
86
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.2) Geological map of the area of interest described by its geologic period (After Maala, 2008).
3.3.2 Lineament density map Lineaments are structural lines such as faults, which often represent zones of fracturing and increased secondary porosity and permeability, and therefore of enhanced groundwater occurrence and movement (Attoh and Brown, 2008). The variations in size, shape, and orientation of these lineaments are mainly attributed to style, nature of deformation, and geological behavior of the rocks (Genzebu et al., 1994). For analysis of lineaments in relation to groundwater prospective zones, distance analyses were carried out and five classes were produced, figure (3.3).
87
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.3) Lineament density map of the area of interest.
3.3.3. Geomorphological map Geomorphology is a reflection of the various landform and structural features of an area. Such landform and structural features are useful in categorizing groundwater occurrence. Geomorphological investigations could have a direct control on the occurrence and flow of groundwater. The mapping activities significantly contribute in deciphering areas of groundwater recharge and their potential for groundwater development (Singhal and Gupta 1999). The geomorphology of the area of interest were classified into six classes and values assigned according to the landform type. For instance, depositional pediment was
88
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
considered best targets of groundwater occurrence. In contrast, monoclinal ridge was labeled as poor candidates for groundwater, figure (3.4).
Fig (3.4) Geomorphology map of the area of interest.
3.3.4 Slope map Slope determines the hydrological characteristics of a catchment: lower slope angles result in lower hydraulic gradients, which tend to enhance infiltration and therefore recharge by reducing the speed of surface runoff. The slope amount map has been prepared using contours produced from DEM 15m data. In relation to groundwater flat areas where the slope amount is low are capable of holding rainfall, which in turn facilitates recharge whereas in elevated areas where the slope amount is high, there will be high run-off and low infiltration (Ribolzi O., et. al.,2011). 89
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
The mountain located on north eastern and south of area of interest with slopes more than 16°. The central and NW part is characterized by flat generally the area has high elevation in the NE and S which can as well be confirmed by the drainage system flow direction. The slope amount map classified in to five classes, figure (3.5) has been prepared.
3.3.5 Soil map The presence of different types of soil influences on groundwater and can indicate the occurrence of groundwater. In the area of interest three types of soil are classified based on the soil map of FAO 2001, the priority is given to almost flat to rolling land with soil type (C3) lime-rich, non-gravely to gravely silty clay to clay, then to the rolling land to hilly with (C2.1) loamy to clayey soil with variable gravel and stone content, and the lest priority is to rolling to mountainous land with (B2) loamy to clayey soil with variable stone content (rocky area), table (1.6) figure (3.6).
3.3.6 LU/LC map One of the parameters that influence the occurrence of sub-surface groundwater occurrence is the present condition of land cover and land use of the area. The effect of land use / cover is manifested either by reducing runoff and facilitating, or by trapping water on their leaf. Water droplets trapped in this way go down to recharge groundwater. Land use/cover may also affect groundwater negatively by evapotranspiration, assuming interception to be constant (LVIA and MAB, 2009). Land use/ land cover determines the amount of precipitation that reaches the water table to recharge the groundwater (e.g. in urban areas or where there is dense vegetation, rain is intercepted above the ground and less is available to infiltrate the ground) (James R., et. al., 2001). Land use and land cover of the area of interest is shown in figure (3.7).
90
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.5) Slope map of the area of interest.
91
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.6) Soil map of the area of interest (After FAO, 2001).
92
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.7) LU/LC map of the area of interest.
3.3.7 Drainage density map Drainage density indicates rock permeability and infiltration capacity, therefore recharge capacity. Low drainage density is related to higher recharge and higher groundwater potential. The drainage network of the area of interest is shown in figure (1.10). All the branches, which are found in the area of interest drain from almost all part to north-western direction, toward Darbandikhan Lake. Comparison of the drainage system of the area and structure has shown that the drainage system of the area is structurally controlled. Dendritic drainage pattern is
93
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
recognized, which are indicative of the presence of structures that act as conduits or storage for sub-surface water (LVIA and MAB, 2009). The drainage density was calculated directly in Arcmap version 10 using spatial analyst extension. In the area of interest, mainly five drainage density categories have been identified and mapped as shown in figure (3.8). Extremely high drainage density is found in the central and northwestern part of the area of interest whereas very high, high, and moderate drainage density is found scattered in all parts of the area of interest. Low drainage density concentrates in the eastern and western part of the area of interest.
Fig (3.8) Drainage density map of area of interest.
94
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
3.4 Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Prior to integration of thematic maps in GIS, thematic maps and their features should be assessed weights to reflect relative importance of them in building a true picture of groundwater potentiality. This step is implemented through application of analytic hierarchy process (AHP) or through personal judgment based on the expert's opinion. The AHP developed by (Saaty, 1980) provides a flexible and easily understood way of analysis complicated problems. It is a multiple criteria decision making technique that allows subjective as well as objective features to be considered in decision making process (Al-Abadi, 2011). Using AHP as implemented in Expert Choice TM (EC) software. EC 2000™ is a robust, desktop-based application that enables teams to prioritize objectives and evaluate alternatives and achieve alignment, buy-in, and confidence around important organizational decisions. The weights calculated for each thematic map were the results of pair-wise comparison of each map based on their relative importance to groundwater occurrence. First of all, the selected thematic maps (geology, lineament density, geomorphology, slope, soil, LU/LC, and drainage density) are assigned weights which reflect the importance of these maps in groundwater potentiality of the area of interest. Table (3.2) shows the result of pair – wise comparison of each map and normalized weighs in addition to consistency ratio.
Table (3.2) Pair-wise comparison of maps and normalized weights and consistency ratio. Geology Geology Lineament density
Lineament density 2
Drainage
Slope
Soil
LU/LC
3
3
4
4
7
0.19
19
2
2
3
3
5
0.17
17
1
2
2
3
0.16
16
2
2
3
0.16
16
1
3
0.14
14
2
0.14
14
0.04
4
Geomorphology Slope Soil LU/LC Drainage density
Consistency ratio:0.01
95
density
Weight
Normalized
Geomorphology
weight
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
3.5 Assigning weights using AHP Consistency ratios of the assigned weights for all thematic maps and their attributes are found to be less than 10% and thereby suggesting that the assigned weights are consistent. Each of these seven maps are reclassified to all thematic layers are converted to raster data set having the same pixel size (30 × 30 m). Classification of geology thematic map attributes are done based on their formation character to transport and store groundwater. Quaternary sediments are more important than Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Tertiary formations from the groundwater occurrence point of view. Pair – wise comparison is calculated for geology and the reclassified map of geology, figure (3.9) is produced based on the weights computed. Tabulated weight for geology of the area of interest is shown in appendix (6).
Fig (3.9) Reclassified map of geology.
96
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
For analysis of lineaments density in relation to groundwater availability, map of lineament density figure (3.3) is reclassified based on the weight calculated table (3.1) after a pair-wise comparison done based on the fact that areas closer to lineaments are the highest zone of increased porosity and permeability which intern has greater chance of accumulating groundwater fig (3.10). Tabulated weight for lineament density of the area of interest is shown in appendix (7).
Fig (3.10) Reclassified map of lineament density.
Landform types must be understood to assess groundwater potential. The classification of a landscape into geomorphological units is commonly performed through conventional field surveys or by interpreting remote sensing data. The geomorphologic map of the area of interest figure (3.4) is assigned weights and reclassified depending on pair – wise comparison. The reclassified map is shown in figure (3.11). The geomorphologic units 97
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
are reclassified based on their characteristic to store and infiltrate water. The higher capabilities to infiltrate water, the higher weight assigned table (3.1). Tabulated weight for geomorphology of the area of interest is shown in appendix (8).
Fig (3.11) Reclassified map of geomorphology.
Pair-wise comparison done and the weight calculated (Table 3.1) for slope angle was based on the fact that the flatter the topography (low slope angle) is the better are the chances for groundwater accumulation. The reclassified map was produced based on their degree of steepness and their relation with infiltrate water. The higher capabilities to infiltrate water, the higher weight assigned, which is the flatter slope. The reclassified map is shown in figure (3.12). Tabulated weight for slope of the area of interest is shown in appendix (9).
98
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.12) Reclassified map of slope.
The soil map of the area of interest, figure (3.6), is reclassified with respect to groundwater occurrence, the higher ability of soil to infiltrate water, the higher chance to groundwater accumulation. The pair- wise comparison done is based on this fact. For areas with high infiltration rate higher weight is assigned, and vice versa. The reclassified map of soil of the area of interest is produced based on these assigned weights, figure (3.13). Tabulated weight for soil of the area of interest is shown in appendix (10).
99
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.13) Reclassified map of soil.
Classification of land use/cover for analysis was done based on their character to infiltrate water in to the ground and to hold water on the ground. Generally settlements are found to be the least suitable for infiltration and after pair-wise comparison of each class weight for each class was calculated, table (3.1). Reclassified map was produced based on the weight calculated figure (3.14). Tabulated weight for land use/cover of the area of interest is shown in appendix (11).
100
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.14) Reclassified map of LU/LC.
For analysis of drainage density in relation to groundwater availability, map of drainage density. Figure (3.8) is reclassified based on the calculated weights. With respect to groundwater occurrences the higher drainage density is related to less infiltration of water to the ground, which in turn leads to higher run off and vice versa. The pair-wise comparison done based on this fact has shown that for areas with low drainage density higher weight was calculated, table (3.1) and vice versa and the reclassified map of drainage density, figure (3.15) was produced based on these weight. Tabulated weight for drainage density of the area of interest is shown in appendix (12).
101
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.15) Reclassified map of drainage density.
3.6 GIS modeling and groundwater potential map After assign weights for all thematic maps and their attributes, the data sets are integrated in GIS using equation (3.1), a model that constructed in the ArcGIS ModelBuilder engine, figure (3.16). ModelBuilder is an application that uses to create, edit, and manage models. Models are workflows that string together sequences of geoprocessing tools, feeding the output of one tool into another tool as input. ModelBuilder can also be thought of as a visual programming language for building workflows. The final groundwater potential map, figure (3.17), for the area of interest is produced by linear weighted combination using equation (3.1).
102
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
All reclassified input layers were combined in GIS using raster calculation techniques to produce the final groundwater potential map based on the weighted linear combination method as follows (Malczewski, 1999): 𝑛 𝐺𝑊𝑃 = ∑𝑚 𝑗=1 ∑𝑖=1 (𝑤𝑗 ∗ 𝑥𝑖)
(3.1)
Where x i is the normalized weight of the ith class/feature of theme, wj is the normalized weight of the jth theme; m is the total number of themes, and n is the total number of classes in a theme.
Fig (3.16): Groundwater potential model of the area of interest in ModelBuilder engine of ArcGIS.
103
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.17) Groundwater potential zone of the area of interest.
In the present study, the groundwater potential zones have been categorized into three types high, moderate and low. Figure (3.17) shows the groundwater potential of the area of interest. The map was developed in a GIS environment using seven input parameters that indicate groundwater potential. The high groundwater potential zone mainly encompasses Quaternary sediments. The Halabja area is covered mostly by high zone, while a small part of it is covered by moderate zone from south and a little bit from west. Considerable areas of north and north-western of the Halabja boundary is covered mostly by high zone.
104
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
3.7 Verification of groundwater potential map In order to validate the classification of the area of interest into different groundwater potential zones (high, moderate, and low), borehole yield data from 95 of existing wells from Sulaimani Groundwater Directorate were collected and evaluated. The data revealed that boreholes in the area of interest can be categorized into good (>5.7 l/s), moderate (2– 5.7 l/s) and poor yield (<2 l/s). The data also revealed that in high groundwater potential zone 89.4 % of wells are of good yield (>5.7 l/s) while 7.8 % of wells are of moderate yield (2 – 5.7 l/s). In moderate availability zone 52.2% of the wells are with good yield (>5.7 l/s), 13.4% of the wells with moderate yield (2-5.7 l/s), and 29.8% of wells with poor yield (<2 l/s). In low availability zone there are only a few wells occurs. These are characteristics of high to low groundwater potential zones which is consistent with the trend of the GIS based potential zones. The verification of groundwater potential zones prepared through this model, figure (3.18) show that it is important to point out that the model generated will help as a guideline for designing a suitable groundwater exploration plan in the future. The spatial distributions of the various groundwater potential zones obtained from the model generally show patterns of geology, lineaments, geomorphology, slope, soil, LU/LC, and drainage. Spatially the high category is distributed along quaternary with very high lineaments density, depositional pediment, and low degree of slope. This highlights the importance of lineaments and hydrogeomorphological units for groundwater investigations. Areas with medium groundwater prospects are attributed to contributions from combinations of the lineament density, slope and landform. The low category of groundwater potential zones is spatially distributed mainly along structural ridges and monoclonal ridge and to some extent along less denser lineaments with high to very high slope degree. The most promising targets in the quaternary constitute areas with dense lineaments. Vegetation types and patterns are usually good indicators of shallow groundwater in area of interest. Dry season green vegetation is often used as an indicator of moisture in the near surface zone as areas SW and N of Halabja city.
105
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
However, there are some wells in high groundwater potential zone are characterized by poor yield (<2 l/s) which is due to occurring the layers of clay in quaternary deposits that act as a barrier. Nonetheless, the frequency of well yield distribution, figure (3.18) support the early observation because wells with poor yield (<2 l/s) are predominant in the low groundwater potential zone and minimal in the high and moderate groundwater potential zone. Thus the frequency of occurrence of good yielding wells decreases from high groundwater potential zone to low groundwater potential zone in agreement with the GIS evaluation of the groundwater potential of the study area. As can be noted that there are some wells in low groundwater potential zone which have good yield (>5.7 l/s) this is due to the occurring of these wells on or near to the lineament places, figure (1.11). Based on these findings, it can be inferred that the groundwater potential zones identified by GIS and AHP techniques are reliable and representative. The model generated will help as a guideline for designing a suitable groundwater exploration plan in the future and thereby help efficient planning of scare groundwater in the study area.
106
Chapter Three
Groundwater Potential Mapping
Fig (3.18): Distribution of extraction wells in groundwater potential zone map.
107
Chapter Four Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.1 Introduction The study of chemical characteristics of groundwater is very important for municipal, commercial, industrial, agriculture, and drinking water supplies. Development provides opportunities for pollution of groundwater and consideration must be given to the protection of quality. The chemical composition of water is based primarily on the minerals which have dissolved in it. In addition, the chemical composition of water is modified by ion-exchange equilibrium (Drever, 1997). The major cations (calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium) and the major anions (bicarbonate, chloride and sulfate) typically comprise approximately 98% of all salts dissolved in groundwater. The measurement of the concentrations of these major constituents provides a method for the determination of the dissolved mineral species present or which reactions may be occurring within a particular aquifer. Identification of these components and processes can then be used to propose the history of water-rock interaction within an aquifer (Appelo and Postma, 1999). Groundwater chemistry, in turn, depends on a number of factors, such as general geology, degree of chemical weathering of the various rock types, quality of recharge water, and inputs from sources other than water-rock interaction. Such factors and their interactions result in a complex groundwater quality (Domenico and Schwartz, 1998). The hydrochemistry of the area of interest evolves the major cations, major anions, heavy metals, PO43-, NO3-, total dissolved solids (TDS), temperature of water wells samples as well as springs (T°C), electrical conductivity (Ec), turbidity, and reactivity in term of (pH). The temperature, Ec, turbidity, and pH were measured in situ. Water samples were collected from different wells and springs on 20, June 2013. The distribution of the samples points in the area were selected according to the field information, and areal distribution of the water points, table (1.2) and figure (1.4). The results of chemical analysis are shown in appendices (13 to 16).
4.2 Errors of chemical analysis In general, two types of errors are discerned in chemical analysis; Precision (random errors) and Accuracy (systematic errors) (Appelo and Postma, 1999).
4.2.1 Accuracy or systematic errors Display systematic deviation due to faulty procedures or interference during analysis. Systematic errors can be tested only by analyzing reference samples and by inter laboratory comparison of results. The accuracy of the analysis for major ions can be estimated from the 109
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
electroneutrality condition since the sum of positive and negative charges in the water are balanced (Appelo and Postma, 1999):
Where cations and anions are expressed as (meq/l) The accepted limit or (certain) is between 0-5 %, 5-10 % should be carefully dealt with or (probable certain), and >10 % (uncertain) is not useful for geochemical interpretation. The accuracy of the water samples analysis according to above limits shows that all the samples are useful for the hydrochemical interpretation, table (4.1).
Table (4.1) Accuracy of the hydrochemical analysis of water samples Wells
Springs
No.
EN%
Type
No.
EN%
Type
W1
2.3
Certain
S1
3.1
Certain
W2
4.7
Certain
S2
1.2
Certain
W3
2.9
Certain
S3
2.2
Certain
W4
2.2
Certain
S4
3.3
Certain
W5
4.8
Certain
S5
1.5
Certain
W6
0.1
Certain
S6
4.2
Certain
W7
1.1
Certain
S7
3.5
Certain
W8
5.5
P. Certain
S8
2.1
Certain
W9
4.7
Certain
S9
0.7
Certain
W10
2.5
Certain
S10
5.9
P. Certain
4.2.2 Precision or random errors Reflect random fluctuations in the analytical procedure. The precision calculated by repeated analysis of the same sample in two different laboratories. How precise an analysis can therefore be quantified in terms of the standard deviation obtained from replicate measurements; the smaller the standard deviation, the more precise the analysis (Al-Manmi, 2008). Standard deviation (SD) of a group data compared with mean %. Precision is estimated according to Maxwell (1968) as follows:
110
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
According to Maxwell (1968) acceptable precision values are (5-25%) in 95% level of confidence, table (4.2) show the precision of the analyzed samples, which are well performed.
Table (4.2) Precision of the hydrochemical analysis of water samples Wells
Parameters
Springs
Mean (mg/l)
SD
C.V.(95%) Mean (mg/l)
SD
C.V.(95%)
Ca2+
75.5
0.8
2.1
77.3
1.8
4.7
Mg2+
18.1
0.1
1.1
14.7
0.4
5.4
Na+
2.6
0.09
6.9
1.7
0.07
8.2
K+
0.5
0.01
4
0.4
0.007
3.5
Cl-
12.3
0.3
4.9
14.5
0.4
5.5
HCO3-
209.6
0.5
0.5
204.3
0.4
0.4
SO42-
66.7
1.4
4.2
45.3
1.06
4.7
NO3-
2
0.08
8
11.9
0.5
8.4
PO43-
0.3
0.01
6.7
0.2
0.007
6.3
Zn2+
0.002
0.00007
6.9
0.0009
0.00004
8.9
Pb2+
0.00002
5*10-08
0.5
-
-
-
Cu2+
0.0005
0.00003
12
0.007
0.00007
2
Cr2+
0.003
0.00006
4
0.005
0.00005
2
Cd2+
-
-
-
-
-
-
Ni2+
0.01
0.0005
10
0.02
0.0008
8
Fetotal
0.009
0.0004
8.9
0.009
0.0004
8.9
4.3 General evaluation of the water analysis The results of chemical analysis of water samples for wells and springs are tabulated in the appendices (13 to 16) and the range and median values are tabulated and represented in table (4.3). Median values are taken because it is more reliable for samples having outlier values (Hasan et. al., 2007). 111
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Table (4.3) Range and median values of hydrochemical parameters for water samples. Wells
Springs
Parameters Range
Median
Range
Median
68.4-106.4
80
60.8-91.2
68.4
1.8-22.3
11.9
10-26.4
14.4
1.8-28.5
5.2
0.5-18.6
1.8
0.5-1.6
0.7
0.2-1.8
0.4
10.1-36.8
16.2
11.04-32.2
13.8
155.3-284.8
196.3
164.3-244.6
207.2
45.5-146.2
59.6
40.2-63.6
42.4
1.9-50.8
19.7
6.3-31.4
10.5
0.01-4.1
0.3
0.1-1.6
0.3
193.8-304
253.9
216.6-304
241
286-435
349.5
300-410
349.5
296-820
425
340-603
425.5
pH
7.2-7.6
7.5
7.23-8.01
7.59
Turbidity
2-5
3
2-5
3
T °C
13.6-16
15.2
11-15.2
12.6
*N.D-0.04
0.002
*N.D-0.004
0.0009
*N.D-0.007
0.001
*N.D-0.00001
0.00001
*N.D-0.002
0.0005
*N.D-0.007
0.004
*N.D-0.02
0.01
*N.D-0.02
0.01
*N.D-0.00001
0.000005
*N.D-0.003
0.003
*N.D-0.02
0.01
*N.D-0.02
0.02
*N.D-0.01
0.009
*N.D-0.009
0.009
Ca2+ (mg/l) Mg2+ (mg/l) Na+ (mg/l) K+ (mg/l) Cl- (mg/l) HCO3- (mg/l) SO42- (mg/l) NO3- (mg/l) PO43- (mg/l) T.H. (mg/l) TDS (mg/l) EC µS/cm
Zn2+(mg/l) Pb2+(mg/l) Cu2+(mg/l) Cr2+(mg/l) Cd2+(mg/l) Ni2+(mg/l) Fetotal(mg/l)
*N.D: Not detected
112
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.4 Physical and chemical parameters of groundwater 4.4.1 Color, Odor, and Taste Color and odor of the important measurements to be carried out, that the reason for the existence of color and odor is the presence of organic materials such as algae and humic compounds (Pierce et. al., 1998). The water samples in area of interest characterized by colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
4.4.2 Temperature (ToC) All geochemical reactions depend on temperature, so it is necessary to measure the temperature to assess the type of balance quotient (Mather in Saether, 1997). Temperature of groundwater depends on many factors most notably the depth of the layers that contain water, as well as the interactions that take place in the rocks where the temperature of the earth's crust increase by 2.9 °C per 100 meters (Todd, 1980). Water temperature varies with season, elevation, geographic location, and climatic conditions and is influenced by stream flow, streamside vegetation, groundwater inputs, and water effluent from industrial activities. There is no abnormal value in temperature and the slight increase is a result of the depth change, wells median temperature is 15.2 °C and have the range of 13.6-16 °C, springs median temperature is 12.6 °C and have the range of 11-15.2°C, the temperature values of water samples shown in the appendices (13 and 14).
4.4.3 Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) Water samples have the pH of sevens which is neutral, while pH levels of S5 and S10 are higher than 7 indicate increasingly alkaline solutions which are 8 in both springs, appendices (13 and 14). The slight alkaline nature of groundwater is due to the presence of bicarbonates. Wells have median pH of 7.5 and range of 7.2-7.6, while springs median pH is 7.6 and have the range of 7.2-8.01.
4.4.4 Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Total Dissolved Salt (TDS) Electrical conductivity determinations are useful because they provide a direct measurement of dissolved ionic matter in the water. Low values are characteristic of high-quality, low-nutrient waters. High values of conductance can be indicative of salinity problems but also are observed in eutrophic waterways where plant nutrients (fertilizer) are in greater abundance. Very high values are good indicators of possible polluted sites. A sudden change in electrical conductivity can indicate a direct discharge or other source of pollution into the water. However, electrical 113
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
conductivity readings do not provide information on the specific ionic composition and concentrations in the water (GOWA, 2009). The distribution of EC in the area of interest is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Drever, 1997 classified water according to TDS, table (4.4), the water samples in both wells and springs are classified as fresh water. Wells median value of EC is 425 µS/cm and TDS of 349.5 mg/l and EC range of 296-820 µS/cm, TDS range of 286-435 mg/l, while springs median value of EC is 425.5 µS/cm, for TDS is 349.5 mg/l, and EC range of 340-603 µS/cm, TDS range of 300-410 mg/l. The conductivity and TDS values fluctuated in the samples, being particularly high when sulphates and chlorides are present at high concentration like W7 and S10 which have EC (820 and 603) µS/cm and TDS (435 and 410) mg/l respectively. This possibly could be as a result of contamination due to the area which is animal ranch.
Table (4.4) Classifications of water according to (TDS) content in (mg/l), (Drever, 1997). Water Class
Drever (1997)
Fresh water
<1000
Brackish water
1000-20000
Saline water
20000-35000
Brine water
>35000
4.4.5 Turbidity The appearance of water with a turbidity of less than 5 NTU is usually acceptable for consumers, although this may vary with local circumstances. The distribution of TU in the study area is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Turbidity of water samples has median value of 3 NTU and range of 2-5 NTU for both wells and springs.
4.5 Major cations 4.5.1 Calcium (Ca2+) Calcium is important major cation in water, main source of Ca2+ is chemical weathering of rocks and minerals containing such as calcite, dolomite, and clay minerals (Davis and Dewiest, 1966; Hem, 1991). Calcium increases toward the groundwater flow direction and decreases in the recharge area. Median values are 80 and 68.4 mg/l, the ranges value are 68.4-106.4 and 60.8-91.2 mg/l for wells and springs respectively, appendices (13 and 14) show the results. 114
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.5.2 Magnesium (Mg2+) The fertilizers and municipal wastewaters are the main source of Mg2+. The other sources of magnesium are dolomite and clay minerals (Collins, 1975). The quantity of magnesium is less than calcium in natural water because of the solubility of dolomite, which is slower than calcite and limestone (Al-Manmi, 2002). Appendices (13 and 14) show the results of magnesium in water samples. Median values are 11.9 and 14.4 mg/l, the ranges value are 1.8-22.3 and 10-26.4 mg/l for wells and springs respectively
4.5.3 Sodium (Na+) Human activities can have a significant influence on the concentration of sodium in surface water and groundwater (Al-Manmi, 2008). The main source of sodium is clay minerals and industrial waste, rain water is another source of enrichment of groundwater with sodium that basically originated from evaporation of sea water (Langmuir, 1997). The distribution of Na+ ions is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Median values are 5.2 and 1.8 mg/l, the ranges value are 1.8-28.5 and 0.5-18.6 mg/l for wells and springs respectively
4.5.4 Potassium (K+) The main sources of potassium in groundwater are weathering of potash silicate minerals, use of potash fertilizers, clay minerals, and use of surface water for irrigation. The distribution of K+ ions is shown in appendices (13 and 14). The low degree of weathering and dissolving power in its bonding structure could be reasons for its low concentration in the area of interest. Median values are 0.7 and 0.4 mg/l, the ranges value are 0.5-1.6 and 0.2-1.8 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.5.5 Total Hardness Hardness caused by calcium and magnesium and depending on the interaction of other factors, such as pH and alkalinity, water with hardness above approximately 200 mg/l may cause scale deposition in the treatment works, distribution system and pipe work and tanks within buildings (WHO, 2008).The distribution of TH is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Median values are 253.9 and 241 mg/l, the ranges value are 193.8-304 and 216.6-304 mg/l for wells and springs respectively The water analyses were classified with regard to the hardness using Boyd (2000) classification table (4.5), observes that the samples of wells and springs are belong to hard water
115
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
category except for W10 and S3 their value is 304 mg/l which are slightly belong to very hard category. Table (4.5) Classification for water hardness, according to (Boyd, 2000) Hardness (mg/l) as CaCO3
Classification
0-75
Soft
75-150
Moderately hard
150-300
Hard
Over 300
Very hard
Hard water leads to incidence of urolithiosis (WHO, 2006), anencephaly, parental mortality, and some types of cancer. Such waters can also develop scales in water heaters, distribution pipes and well pumps, boilers and cooking utensils, and require more soap for washing clothes (Todd, 1980).
4.6 Major anions 4.6.1 Bicarbonate (HCO3-) and Carbonate (CO32-) CO32-, HCO3- are the sources of water alkalinity which is the capacity of water to accept H+ ion and a measure of acid neutralizing capacity (Kiely, 1997). The distribution of HCO3– in the area of interest is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Median values are 196.3 and 207.2 mg/l, the ranges value are 155.3-284.8 and 164.3-244.6 mg/l for wells and springs respectively. Dissolving through rainwater of limestone and dolomite, irrigation, precipitation, and groundwater movement were the main reasons for high HCO3 – level in the area of interest. CO32- is absent in all water samples because the pH value does not exceed 8.3.
4.6.2 Sulfate (SO42-) Sulfate comes from dissolving evaporated rocks like anhydrite and the process of mixing between fresh water and sea water and acidic water (Appelo, 1999), and also come from chemical fertilizers, detergent, pesticides, and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the atmosphere (WHO, 2006). The presence of sulfate in drinking water can cause noticeable taste, and very high levels might cause a laxative effect in unaccustomed consumers (WHO, 2008). The distribution of SO4-2 is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Median values are 59.6 and 42.4 mg/l, the ranges value are 45.5-146.2 and 40.2-63.6 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
116
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.6.3 Chloride (Cl-) Chloride originates from natural sources, sewage, industrial effluents, urban runoff containing de-icing salt, and saline intrusion excessive chloride concentrations increase rates of corrosion of metals in the distribution system, depending on the alkalinity of the water. This can lead to increased concentrations of metals in the supply (WHO, 2011). High concentrations of chloride give a salty taste to water and beverages (WHO, 2008). The distribution of Cl- in the area of interest is shown in appendices (13 and 14). Median values are 16.2 and 13.8 mg/l, the ranges value are 10.1-36.8 and 11.04-32.2 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.7 Minor compounds 4.7.1 Nitrate (NO3-) Nitrate is found naturally in the environment and is an important plant nutrient. It is present at varying concentrations in all plants and is a part of the nitrogen cycle. Nitrate can reach both surface water and groundwater as a consequence of agricultural activity (including excess application of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers and manures), from wastewater disposal and from oxidation of nitrogenous waste products in human and animal excreta, including septic tanks (WHO, 2011). High nitrate indicates the presence of fertilizers and/or animal waste (including sewage) in the water. Its levels in natural waterways are typically low (less than 1 mg/L). Excessive amounts of nitrate can cause water quality problems and accelerate eutrophication, altering the densities and types of aquatic plants found in affected waterways (GOWA, 2009). Fertilizers are considered to be the principal source in the intensively cultivated areas. The amount of nitrate that leaches from agricultural lands is influenced by natural factors such as the soil type and climatic conditions (Mikkelsen, 1992). Alluvial and shallow aquifers are particularly vulnerable to nitrate pollution, whilst deep or confined aquifers are generally better protected. However, surface or near-surface outcrops of confined aquifers can allow nitrate to migrate towards deeper strata (EEA, 1999). The existences of deep boreholes that tap the entire sequence of successive aquifers create favorable conditions for the migration of nitrate polluted water from the surface or a superficial to a deeper confined aquifer (Panagopoulos, 1995). The distribution of NO3- is shown in appendices (15 and 16) that show the W7 has relatively high nitrate 50.8 mg/l, the most probable source is supposed to be from infiltrated municipal
117
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
wastewater into the groundwater. Median values are 19.7 and 10.5 mg/l, the ranges value are 1.9-50.8 and 6.3-31.4 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.7.2 Phosphate (PO43-) Phosphates in the water come from plant and animal matter and wastes. High levels (>0.1 ppm) result in increased plant growth (eutrophic conditions) and oxygen depletion, and indicate a human source from sewage, fertilizers, industrial waste, some detergents, and animal faeces (e.g. from farms and feed lots). High levels of phosphorus and/or other key nutrients may lead to related problems such as nuisance or toxic algal blooms, although some waterways are naturally eutrophic (nutrient enriched) (APHA, 1998). Increasing concentration of (PO43-) with increasing (NO3-) means that the source is from chemical fertilizer (Ali and Al-Manmi, 2005). Orthophosphate, poly phosphate and organic phosphate represent the usual forms of phosphorous found in aqueous solutions (McKenzie et al., 2001). The distribution of PO43- is shown in appendices (15 and 16) which present that W6 and S3 have a very large amount of phosphate (4.1 and 1.6) mg/l, respectively, which caused by the use of the areas that were and still animal ranches. W3, W7, and S10 have large amount of phosphate which are close to sewage and irrigated land. Median values are 0.3 mg/l in wells and springs, the ranges value are 0.01-4.1 and 0.1-1.6 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.8 Heavy metals Excessive abnormal concentration of heavy metals in water leads to contamination (Tesconi, 2000), Contamination of groundwater by heavy metals has received great significance during recent years due to their toxicity and accumulative behavior. The major sources of heavy metals in ground water include weathering of rock minerals, discharge of sewage and other waste effluents on land and runoff water. The water used for drinking purpose should be free from any toxic elements, living and nonliving organism and excessive amount of minerals that may be hazardous to health. Some of the heavy metals are extremely essential to humans, for example, cobalt; copper, etc., but large quantities of them may cause physiological disorders. The cadmium, chromium and lead are highly toxic to humans even in low concentrations (CPCB, 2008). Elements detected in some wells and some springs others are not, ten wells and ten springs were analyzed for the heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Ni, and Zn). The values of these results are shown in table (4.6).
118
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.8.1 Cadmium Cadmium is released to the environment in wastewater, and diffuse pollution is caused by contamination from fertilizers and local air pollution. Contamination in drinking-water may also be caused by impurities in the zinc of galvanized pipes and solders and some metal fittings (WHO, 2011). Only one well and one spring detected for cadmium W10 and S8 they have the values of 0.00001 and 0.003 mg/l respectively. In W10 the presence of cadmium may be due to the use of fertilizer, and in S8 it may be due to the sewage water.
4.8.2 Chromium Chromium is widely distributed in Earth’s crust. It can exist in valences of +2 to +6 (WHO, 2011). Chromium contamination of soil and groundwater is a significant problem worldwide. The extent of this problem is due primarily to its use in numerous industrial processes (i.e., metal plating and alloying, leather tanning, wood treatment, chemical manufacturing), but also to its natural presence in rocks enriched in chromium (Kresic, 2007). In the analyzed samples median values are 0.01 and 0.01 mg/l, the ranges of chromium are N.D.-0.02 and N.D.-0.02 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.8.3 Copper Copper is both an essential nutrient and a drinking-water contaminant. It is used to make pipes, valves and fittings and is present in alloys and coatings. Copper sulfate pentahydrate is sometimes added to surface water for the control of algae. Copper concentrations in drinkingwater vary widely, with the primary source most often being the corrosion of interior copper plumbing. Levels in running or fully flushed water tend to be low, whereas those in standing or partially flushed water samples are more variable and can be substantially higher (frequently above 1 mg/l). Copper concentrations in treated water often increase during distribution, especially in systems with an acid pH or high-carbonate waters with an alkaline pH (WHO, 2011). In analyzed samples median values are 0.0005 and 0.004 mg/l, the ranges of copper are N.D.-0.02 and N.D.-0.007 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.8.4 Iron Iron is one of the most abundant metals in Earth’s crust. It is found in natural fresh water at levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mg/l. Iron may also be present in drinking water as a result of the use of iron coagulants or the corrosion of steel and cast iron pipes during water distribution (WHO, 2011). In water samples median values are 0.009 and 0.009 mg/l, the ranges of iron are N.D.-0.01 and N.D.-0.009 mg/l for wells and springs respectively. The water samples (W6, W7, 119
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
W10, S1, S2, S6, and S10) contained noticeable concentration of iron. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA, 1990) observes that the iron concentration determined by the analysis may be underestimated because iron precipitates very fast in the stored water samples. Therefore, the groundwater could have a higher iron concentration than recorded in table (4.6). The weathering of rock and discharge of waste effluents on land are the main source of iron in groundwater.
4.8.5 Lead There is lead in most types of rocks and liberate itself during chemical weathering of minerals and there are small quantities in groundwater and surface water because of the lack of solubility of lead (Faure, 1998). The concentration of lead in water samples have median values of 0.001 and 0.00001 mg/l, the ranges of lead are N.D.- 0.007 and N.D.- 0.00001 mg/l for wells and springs respectively.
4.8.6 Nickel Nickel that occurs naturally in groundwater is mobilized or where there is use of certain types of kettles, of non-resistant material in wells or of water that has come into contact with nickel or chromium-plated taps, the nickel contribution from water may be significant (WHO, 2011). Sometimes the contamination of water by nickel is from sewage wastewater (Sujatha et al., 2001). In analyzed water samples median values are 0.01 and 0.02 mg/l, the ranges of nickel are N.D.-0.02 mg/l for wells and springs respectively. Presence of nickel in the area of interest maybe resulted from agriculture and/or leakage from sewage.
4.8.7 Zinc Zinc is an essential trace element found in potable water in the form of salts or organic complexes. Although levels of zinc in surface water and groundwater normally do not exceed 0.01 and 0.05 mg/l, concentrations in tap water can be much higher as a result of dissolution of zinc from pipes (WHO, 2011). In analyzed water samples median values are 0.002 and 0.0009 mg/l, the ranges of zinc are N.D.-0.04 and N.D.-0.004 mg/l for wells and springs respectively. The presence of zinc in samples may be come from washed agricultural topsoil.
120
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis Table (4.6) Heavy metal analysis of water samples
Wells
Zn2+(mg/l) Pb2+(mg/l) Cu2+(mg/l) Cr2+(mg/l) Cd2+(mg/l) Ni2+(mg/l) Fetotal(mg/l)
W1
0.004
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.02
N.D.
W2
0.04
0.001
N.D.
0.01
N.D.
0.01
N.D.
W3
N.D.
0.0002
0.0005
0.003
N.D.
0.01
N.D.
W4
N.D.
0.007
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.01
N.D.
W5
0.002
0.001
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
W6
0.002
N.D.
0.002
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.007
W7
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.01
W8
N.D.
0.005
0.0004
0.02
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
W9
0.002
0.0009
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.01
N.D.
W10
N.D.
0.00002
0.0004
0.01
0.00001
N.D.
0.009
Springs S1
0.004
N.D.
0.007
0.01
N.D.
N.D.
0.009
S2
0.0006
N.D.
N.D.
0.005
N.D.
N.D.
0.009
S3
0.0009
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.007
N.D.
S4
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.02
N.D.
S5
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.02
N.D.
S6
N.D.
0.000009
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.0002
0.005
S7
0.0006
N.D.
0.0004
N.D.
N.D.
0.02
N.D.
S8
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.02
0.003
0.007
N.D.
S9
0.003
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
S10
N.D.
0.00001
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.02
0.009
N.D. : Not Detected
4.9 Water classification It is possible to characterize water by performing a chemical analysis of their major ions. Once this is done the results can be plotted in a variety of formats to allow comparison between different waters. Figures (4.1) and (4.2) show trilinear diagrams for Wells and Springs known as Piper diagram. Here cations, expressed as percentages of total cations in milliequivalent per liter, plot as a single point on the left triangle; while anions similarly plot on the right triangle. These two points are then projected in the central diamond-shaped area. This single point is thus uniquely related to the total ionic distribution. Such plots conveniently reveal similarities and differences 121
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
among different samples because those with similar qualities will tend to plot together as groups like shown in figures (4.1) and (4.2). Based on the piper diagram all water samples for both wells and springs located in the field number five which means that secondary alkalinity (carbonate hardness) exceeds 50% and type of water is Ca-HCO3.
Fig (4.1) Piper diagram of wells water analysis.
122
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Fig (4.2) Piper diagram of springs water analysis.
4.10 Groundwater quality evaluation Groundwater resources in the area of interest are evaluated for drinking, livestock, irrigation, and industry purposes.
4.10.1 Drinking water quality The analytical results have been evaluated to ascertain the suitability of groundwater of the area of interest for drinking uses. The drinking water quality is evaluated by comparing with the specifications of TH, TDS, and major ions set by the World Health Organization as well as Iraqi Standard, table (4.7). According to WHO specification TDS up to 500 mg/l is the highest desirable and up to 1500 mg/l is maximum permissible. Based on Drever (1997) classification, 100% of samples are belonging to the fresh water category, table (4.4). The classification of groundwater based on total hardness shows that 90% of the groundwater samples fall in the hard water category, 10% fall in very hard category, table (4.5). Maximum allowable limit of TH for drinking is 500 mg/l and the most desirable limit is 100 mg/l as the WHO international standard. Water wells can be generally described as water with TDS contents of about 357.9 mg/l on average. Predominant ions in the wells water types are Ca-HCO3. The pH values range from 7.2 to 7.6. 123
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
In addition to the previous mentioned wells, further some springs were identified. The pH values range from 7.23 to 8.01, remarkable TDS values ranges from 300 to 410 mg/L. Springs water can be described as Ca-HCO3 type. High HCO3– levels in the area of interest which is beyond the standard of (IQS, 2001) in (W4, W5, W7, W9, W10, S1, S2, S6, S7, S9, and S10), but according to (WHO, 2011) standard there is no guideline range. All water samples for both wells and springs have up normal amounts of calcium according to (IQS, 2001) standard, but according to (WHO, 2011) standard W1, W2, and W6 are in range, and all springs are in range except for S1, S5, S6, and S10. High levels of HCO3– and Ca2+ is due to the characteristic of the rock types in the area of interest. Nitrate in W7 is above permitted limit of (WHO, 2011) and (IQS, 2001) standard. Phosphate is in range according to (IQS, 2001) standard except in W6, but according to (WHO, 2011) standard W3, W6, S3, and S10 are out of guideline limit, so caution must be concern. The result for selected trace constituents (Zn2+, Pb2+, Cu2+, Cr2+, Cd2+, Ni2+, and Fetotal), table (4.6) show that all the sampled springs and wells water contain very low concentrations that are beyond the WHO and IQS standards and in many cases even below the detection limits. This leads to the suggestion that above named heavy metals in the water resources in the study area have no health hazard potential. Only cadmium in S8 (0.003) and nickel in some of the samples that reach (0.02) need to monitor periodically. From table (4.7), all values of heavy metals are normal according to (WHO, 2011) and (IQS, 2001).
124
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Table (4.7) Comparing range of analyzed water samples with (WHO, 2011) and (IQS, 2001) standards Parameter
Well
Spring
WHO (2011)
IQS (2001)
Ca2+ (mg/l)
68.4-106.4
60.8-91.2
75
50
Mg2+ (mg/l)
1.8-22.3
10-26.4
150
50
Na+ (mg/l)
1.8-28.5
0.5-18.6
200
200
K+ (mg/l)
0.5-1.6
0.2-1.8
N.G
N.G.
Cl- (mg/l)
10.1-36.8
11.04-32.2
250
250
HCO3- (mg/l)
155.3-284.8
164.3-244.6
N.G
200
SO42- (mg/l)
45.5-146.2
40.2-63.6
250
250
NO3- (mg/l)
1.9-50.8
6.2-31.4
50
50
PO43- (mg/l)
0.01-4.1
0.1-1.6
0.4
2
T.H. (mg/l)
193.8-304
216.6-304
1000
500
TDS (mg/l)
286-435
300-410
1000
1000
pH
7.2-7.6
7.23-8.01
6.5-8.5
6.5-8.5
Turbidity
2-5
2-5
5 NTU
5 NTU
Zn2+(mg/l)
N.D-0.04
N.D-0.004
3
3
Pb2+(mg/l)
N.D-0.007
N.D-0.00001
0.01
0.01
Cu2+(mg/l)
N.D-0.002
N.D-0.007
2
1
Cr2+(mg/l)
N.D-0.02
N.D-0.02
0.05
0.05
Cd2+(mg/l)
N.D-0.00001
N.D-0.003
0.003
0.003
Ni2+(mg/l)
N.D-0.02
N.D-0.02
0.07
0.02
Fetotal(mg/l)
N.D-0.01
N.D-0.009
0.3
0.3
N.D: Not detected
N.G: No guideline
125
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Assessment of water samples from those two standards indicated that groundwater in area of interest is chemically suitable for drinking uses except for W6 which has a very high phosphate 4.1 mg/l.
4.10.2 Groundwater uses for livestock According to Altoviski (1962) all water samples, table (4.8) are very good for livestock and poultry and according to Ayers and Westcot (1994) all water samples, table (4.9) are excellent for livestock and poultry.
Table (4.8) Water quality guide for livestock and poultry uses (Altoviski, 1962) Parameter
Very good
Good
Permissible
Can be
Maximum
used
limit
Wells range
Springs range
Na+
800
1500
2000
2500
4000
1.8-28.5
0.5-18.6
Ca2+
350
700
800
900
1000
68.4-106.4
60.8-91.2
Mg2+
150
350
500
600
700
1.8-22.3
10-26.4
Cl-
900
2000
3000
4000
6000
10.1-36.8
11.04-32.2
SO42-
1000
2500
3000
4000
6000
45.5-146.2
40.2-63.6
T.D.S
3000
5000
7000
10000
15000
286-435
300-410
T.H
1500
3200
4000
4700
54000
193.8-304
216.6-304
Table (4.9) Water quality guide for livestock and poultry uses (Ayers and Westcot 1994) Water Salinity (EC) (dS/m)
Rating
Remarks
<1.5
Excelent
Usable for all classes of livestock and poultry.
1.5-5.0
Very Satisfactory
Usable for all classes of livestock and poultry. May cause temporary diarrhea in livestock not accustomed to such water; watery droppings in poultry.
Satisfactory for 5.0-8.0
Livestock Unfit for Poultry Limited Use for
8.0-11.0
May cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by animals not accustomed to such water. Often causes watery feces, increased mortality and decreased growth, especially in turkeys.
Livestock
Usable with reasonable safety for dairy and beef cattle, sheep, swine and horses. Avoid use for pregnant or lactating animals.
Unfit for Poultry
Not acceptable for poultry.
11.0-16.0
Very Limited Use
>16.0
Not Recommended
Unfit for poultry and probably unfit for swine. Considerable risk in using for pregnant or lactating cows, horses or sheep, or for the young of these species. In general, use should be avoided although older ruminants, horses, poultry and swine may subsist on waters such as these under certain conditions. Risks with such highly saline water are so great that it cannot be recommended for use under any conditions.
126
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.10.3 Irrigation water quality The suitability of water for irrigation is determined by its mineral constituents and the type of the plant and soil to be irrigated. Many water constituents are considered as macro or micro nutrients for plants, so direct single evaluation of any constituent of these will not be of great value except if complete analysis of soil and determination of plant need are done. Due to that more generalized criteria, which represent combinations of the different water parameters, were adopted worldwide (i.e. salinity (EC), SAR, and SSP) for the evaluation of water quality for irrigation purposes, and will be used in this work. This evaluation is necessary owing to the fact that private and public lands are presently irrigated using groundwater (Qannam, 2003).
1. Salinity Excess salt increases the osmotic pressure of the soil water and produces conditions that keep the roots from absorbing water. This results in a physiological drought condition. Even though the soil appears to have plenty of moisture, the plants may wilt because the roots do not absorb enough water to replace water lost from transpiration. Based on the EC, irrigation water can be classified into four categories (College of Agricultural Sciences, 2002) as shown in table (4.10) Based on this classification, the water samples of wells had C2, and C3 water type, while all spring’s samples are of C2 water type. Table (4.10) Classification of irrigation water based on salinity (EC) values (College of Agricultural Sciences, 2002). Level
EC
Hazard and limitations
(μS/cm)
C1
<250
C2
250-750
C3
750-2250
C4
>2250
Low hazard; no detrimental effects on plants, and no soil buildup expected. sensitive plants may show stress; moderate leaching prevents salt accumulation in soil salinity will adversely affect most plants; requires selection of salt-tolerant plants, careful irrigation, good drainage, and leaching generally unacceptable for irrigation, except for very salttolerant plants, excellent drainage, frequent leaching, and intensive management
2. Sodium hazard The main problem with high sodium concentration is its effect on soil permeability and water infiltration. Sodium also contributes directly to the total salinity of the water and may be toxic to
127
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
sensitive crops. The sodium hazard of irrigation water is estimated by the sodium absorption ratio (SAR), which is calculated by the following formula: SAR = Na+ / ((Ca2+ + Mg2+) / 2)0.5
(4.3)
where the cations are expressed in meq/L. Continued use of water having a high SAR leads to a breakdown in the physical structure of the soil. The sodium replaces calcium and magnesium sorbed on clay minerals and causes dispersion of soil particles. This dispersion results in breakdown of soil aggregates and causes a cementation of the soil under drying conditions as well as preventing infiltration of rain water. Classification of irrigation water based on SAR values is shown in table (4.11).
Table (4.11) Classification of irrigation water based on SAR values (College of Agricultural Sciences 2002). Level
SAR
Hazard
S1
<10
No harmful effects from sodium. An appreciable sodium hazard in fine-textured soils
S2
10-18
of high CEC, but could be used on sandy soils with good permeability. Harmful effects could be anticipated in most soils
S3
18-26
and amendments such as gypsum would be necessary to exchange sodium ions.
S4
>26
Generally unsatisfactory for irrigation.
All the samples collected during this study belong to S1 group with SAR values < 10.
The US Salinity Laboratory’s diagram is used widely for rating irrigation water where SAR is plotted against EC (Richards, 1954). Here, SAR is an index of sodium hazard and EC is an index of salinity hazard. In figure (4.3), all of the water samples have low SAR and medium EC except in W7 that has high EC. Based on US Salinity Laboratory Diagram the water samples are safe for irrigation purposes.
128
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
S4
S4
Chapter Four
28
HIGH
HIGH
28
24
S3
S3
24
20
SAR
MEDIUM
S2
16
12
8
8
4
4
0
0 250 250
100 CLASS
16
12
LOW S1
SAR
MEDIUM
LOW S1
S2
20
750 750 1000
2250 2250
Salinity Hazard EC (µS/cm at 25o C)
250 250
100
10000
750 750 1000
2250 2250
10000
Salinity Hazard EC (µS/cm at 25o C)
CLASS
C1
C2
C3
C4
C1
C2
C3
C4
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
V.HIGH
LOW
MEDIUM
HIGH
V.HIGH
Wells Springs Fig (4.3) Classification of irrigation waters (after U.S. salinity laboratory staff, 1954).
3. Soluble sodium percentage Soluble sodium percentage (SSP) is an estimation of the sodium hazard of irrigation water like SAR, but it expresses the percentage of sodium out of the total cations and not as SAR correlating the sodium with the Ca and Mg only. SSP is calculated by the following formula: SSP = ((Na+ + K+) / (Ca2+ + Mg2+ + Na+ + K+)) * 100
(4.4)
Where the ionic concentrations are in meq/L. Based on Todd (1980) classification of the irrigation water according to the soluble sodium percentage, table (4.12) it was found that all springs and wells have a SSP values less than 20 indicating excellent irrigation water type. Table (4.12) shows the results of SSP. Table (4.12) Classification of irrigation water based on SSP (Todd, 1980). Water Class
SSP
Excellent
<20
Good
20-40
Permissible
40-60
Doubtful
60-80
Unsuitable
>80 129
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.10.4 Industrial water quality According to (Hem, 1991) water samples of the area of interest are suitable for all industries except textile, Chemical pulp and paper, and wood chemicals because (Ca2+, Mg2+ , and NO3-) concentrations exceed maximum permitted values, except for W4, table (4.13).
Table (4.13) Water quality standards for industrial uses (after Hem, 1991)
Bleached
Wood chemicals
Synthetic rubber
Petroleum products
Soft-drinks bottling
Leather tanning
Hydraulic cement manufacture
20
20
100
80
75
-
100
-
-
0
12
12
50
36
30
-
-
-
-
0
200
200
500
-
300
250
500
250
250
pulp and
Textile
Parameters
paper
Ca2+ Mg2+ -
Cl
-
-
-
0
-
-
100
-
-
250
500
250
250
-
0
-
-
5
-
-
10
-
-
-
0.01
-
-
-
-
-
-
500
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
TH
25
100
100
900
350
350
250
-
Soft
-
TDS
100
-
-
1000
-
1000
500
-
-
600
pH
2.5-10.5
6-10
6-10
6.5-8
6.5-8.3
6-9
6.5-8.5
-
6-8
6.5-8.5
T(°F)
-
-
95
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Unsuitable
Unsuitable
Unsuitable
Unsuitable
W5 All samples are suitable
All samples are suitable
NO3
Cu2+ Zn
2+
except of
-
All samples are suitable
-
Few samples are suitable
-
springs samples are suitable
250
Three wells and most of
-
springs samples are suitable
-
HCO3
Half of wells and most of
0
SO42-
Suitability of samples
-
vegetables
Unbleached
Canned, dried, frozen fruits and
Chemical
Units (mg/l) except T
4.11 Chemical equilibrium and saturation indices The quality of the recharge water and its interactions with soil and rocks during its percolation and its storage in the aquifers are key factors in the chemistry of groundwater. These 130
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
interactions involve mainly dissolution and precipitation processes, which are controlled by the solubility products of the different involved mineral phases. Generally, the saturation indices (SI) are used to express the tendency of water towards precipitation or dissolution. The saturation indices (SI) of the sampled collected in this study were calculated for the major mineral phases using the software (WATEQ4F4.0) (Ball and Nordstrom, 2001). The saturation indices of the water samples are summarized in table (4.14) and table (4.15). Table (4.14) Shows that all the water of wells is unsaturated with main carbonate mineral (anhydrite, aragonite, gypsum, magnesite, and dolomite).Calcite is slightly unsaturated in 50% of the wells samples and 50% is slightly oversaturated. Cuprite is presented in W3, W6, and W8 which are oversaturated and in W10 is slightly undersaturated. Calcite, aragonite, and dolomite represents the major sediments that built-up the geology of the area of interest. Occurrence of the iron mineral phases (goethite and ferrihydrite) reflects the sensitivity of the Fe to oxidation even if it is in low concentrations in W6, W7, and W10 which are undersaturated for ferrihydrite and oversaturated for geothite. The oversaturation of the water of W2, W3, W8, and W10 with to Cr2O3 and W10 with FeCr2O3, and undersaturation of W2, W3, W8, and W10 with Cr(OH)3.W2, W3, and W10 are undersaturated with Cr(OH)3 (Cr), but W8 is slightly oversaturated, all of this suggests additional source of chromium which could be Leaching from topsoil and rocks is the most important source of chromium entry into water. Solid wastes from chromate-processing facilities, when disposed of improperly in landfills, can be sources of contamination for groundwater (ATSDR, 2000). Table (4.15) Shows that all the water of springs is unsaturated with main carbonate mineral (anhydrite, gypsum, and magnesite,). S5 and S10 are oversaturated with aragonite, and dolomite and the rest of spring samples are undersaturated. Calcite is slightly unsaturated in 20% of the spring samples and 80% is slightly oversaturated. Cuprite is presented in S1 and S7 which are oversaturated. Calcite, aragonite, and dolomite represents the major sediments that built-up the geology of the area of interest. Occurrence of the iron mineral phases (goethite and ferrihydrite) reflects the sensitivity of the Fe to oxidation even if it is in low concentrations in S1, S2, S6, and S10 which are undersaturated for ferrihydrite and oversaturated for geothite. The oversaturation of the water of S1, S2, and S8 with to Cr2O3 and (S1, S2) with FeCr2O3, and undersaturation of S1, S2, and S8 with Cr(OH)3.S1 and S2 are undersaturated with Cr(OH)3 (Cr), but S8 is slightly oversaturated, all of this suggests additional source of chromium which could be leaching from topsoil and rocks is the most important source of chromium entry into water. Solid wastes from chromate-processing facilities, when disposed of improperly in landfills, can be sources of contamination for groundwater (ATSDR, 2000).
131
Table ( 4.14) saturation indices (SI) for the main minerals phase of the well samples and their master species. Saturation indices (SI) Phase Master Species W1 W2 W3 W4 W5 W6 W7 W8 W9 W10 2+ 2-2 -2.1 -1.8 -2 -1.9 -2.1 -1.6 -2 -2 -1.9 Anhydrite Ca SO4 = Ca + SO4 Aragonite CaCO3 = CO32- + Ca2+ -0.2 -0.1 -0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1 -0.2 -0.04 -0.03 -0.2 -0.02 0.1 0.1 -0.04 -0.01 0.1 -0.1 0.1 0.1 -0.01 Calcite CaCO3 = CO32- + Ca2+ + + 0.5 1.7 0.2 -0.4 Cuprite Cu2O + 2H = 2Cu + H2O 2+ 2+ CaMg(CO3)2 = Ca + Mg + 2CO3 -0.5 -0.4 -0.4 -0.9 -1.3 -1.3 -0.5 -0.9 -0.2 -0.4 Dolomite + 3+ Ferrihydrite Fe(OH)3 + 3H = Fe + 3H2O -2.6 -3.3 -3.7 Goethite FeOOH + 3H+ = Fe3+ + 2H2O 2.9 2.3 1.9 2+ 2CaSO4.2H2O = Ca + SO4 + 2 H2O -1.8 -1.8 -1.5 -1.8 -1.6 -1.9 -1.4 -1.8 -1.8 -1.7 Gypsum 2+ MgCO3 = Mg + CO3 -1 -1 -1.1 -1.4 -1.8 -1.9 -1 -1.5 -0.8 -1 Magnesite Cr (OH)3 (a) -1.5 -1.7 -1.1 -1.2 -0.2 -0.5 0.1 -0.02 Cr (OH)3 (cr) 7.4 7 8 7.8 Cr2O3 7.1 FeCr2O4 Table ( 4.15) saturation indices (SI) for the main minerals phase of the spring samples and their master species. Phase Anhydrite Aragonite Calcite Cuprite Dolomite Ferrihydrite Goethite Gypsum Magnesite
Master Species Ca SO4 = Ca2+ + SO42CaCO3 = CO32- + Ca2+ CaCO3 = CO32- + Ca2+ Cu2O + 2H+ = 2Cu+ + H2O CaMg(CO3)2 = Ca2+ + Mg2+ + 2CO3 Fe(OH)3 + 3H+ = Fe3+ + 3H2O FeOOH + 3H+ = Fe3+ + 2H2O CaSO4.2H2O = Ca2+ + SO42- + 2 H2O MgCO3 = Mg2+ + CO3 Cr (OH)3 (a) Cr (OH)3 (cr) Cr2O3 FeCr2O4
S1 -2.1 -0.2 -0.1 2.1 -0.9 -3.6 1.8 -1.8 -1.4 -1.5 -0.1 7.3 6.6 132
S2 -2.3 -0.2 0.1 -0.4 -3 2.4 -2 -0.8 -1.9 -0.4 6.6 6.2
S3 -2.2 -0.1 0.02 -0.4 -2 -1 -
Saturation indices (SI) S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 -2.2 -2 -2.1 -2.2 -2.2 -0.3 0.4 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.6 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 -0.9 0.7 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 -3.1 2.4 -1.9 -1.8 -1.9 -2 -2 -1.3 -0.5 -1 -2 -1 -1.2 0.1 7.8 -
S9 -2.2 -0.04 0.1 -0.3 -2 -0.9 -
S10 -2 0.4 0.5 0.5 -1.5 3.8 -1.7 -0.5 -
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.12 Relationship between Ionic Strength and TDS Figure (4.4) and (4.5) represents a high significant relationship between ionic strength (mol/Kg) and TDS (mg/l). The total ionic strength of water samples are shown in table (4.16). The empirical formula relates ionic strength I with TDS: I (mol/L) ≈ 2.5 *10-5 × TDS (mg/L)
Fig (4.4) Relationship between Ionic Strength and TDS of well samples.
Fig (4.5) Relationship between Ionic Strength and TDS of spring samples.
133
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Table (4.16) Ionic Strength, Log pCO2, and Calcite Saturation Indices for well and spring Samples.
Wells
Ionic Strength
Log PCO2
SIc
Springs
Ionic Strength
Log PCO2
SIc
W1
0.009
-2.2
-0.02
S1
0.009
-1.9
-0.1
W2
0.008
-2.4
0.1
S2
0.008
-2.1
0.1
W3
0.009
-2.5
0.1
S3
0.007
-2.4
0.02
W4
0.008
-2.1
-0.04
S4
0.007
-2.2
-0.1
W5
0.009
-2
-0.01
S5
0.009
-2.8
0.6
W6
0.007
-2.4
0.1
S6
0.008
-2.3
0.1
W7
0.01
-2.02
-0.1
S7
0.007
-2.5
0.1
W8
0.008
-2.4
0.1
S8
0.007
-2.5
0.1
W9
0.009
-2.3
0.1
S9
0.008
-2.4
0.1
W10
0.01
-1.8
-0.01
S10
0.01
-2.7
0.5
4.13 Relationship of pCO2 to state of saturation Partial pressure of CO2 plays a significant role in the state of saturation of carbonate minerals. Considering the above fact and relationship between log pCO2 and SI of calcite (SIc), a graph was plotted. It is also observed that pCO2 in well samples ranges from -2.5 to -1.8, and in springs are -2.8 to -1.9. Most samples of springs and half of wells show oversaturation with respect to calcite and low pCO2 condition. This may be due to the availability of Ca2+ and Mg2+ in the water (Chidambaram et al., 2011b). Figure (4.6) and figure (4.7) show the relationship between SIc and pCO2 of wells and springs samples, respectively, generally it is noted that decreasing of pCO2 with the increasing of SI. In water, pCO2 tends to decreases with increase in saturation, suggesting that the area zone is an open system (Raymahashay 1986). The composition of freshwater is controlled by dissolution and precipitation processes and by degassing of CO2. Higher pCO2 value, suggest that the additional CO2 has been acquired from the soils during the process of infiltration towards the zone of saturation (Chidambaram, et al. 2011b).
134
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Fig (4.6) Relation between SIc and Log pCO2 in well samples.
Fig (4.7) Relation between SIc and Log pCO2 in spring samples. Figures (4.8) and (4.9) show the relation between pH and log pCO2 and the groundwater pH decreases when pCO2 increases, this negative pH-pCO2 relationship has been reported in water from carbonate lithologies (Cherry, 1972, cited by Freeze and Cherry, 1979). This inverse relationship reflects the calcite-saturated character of water, table (4.16).
135
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Fig (4.8) Relation between pH and Log pCO2 in well samples.
Fig (4.9) Relation between pH and Log pCO2 in spring samples.
4.14 Environmental isotopes analysis 4.14.1 Introduction The stable isotopes of 2H and 18O occur naturally as part of the water molecule and have been utilized as tracers to provide information on physical, kinetic, and chemical processes that affect water molecules as they are transported through the different stages of the hydrologic cycle (Bowen, 1986; Kendall and McDonnell, 1998; Aggarwal et al., 2005; Singh and Kumar, 2005). A qualitative and quantitative characterization of groundwater recharge is essential to ensure the sustainable development and management of groundwater resources. Aquifers which receive little recharge exhibit only small fluctuations in groundwater levels; a reliable estimate of recharge rate cannot therefore easily be obtained on the basis of classical approaches alone, such 136
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
as water level monitoring. Isotope techniques are virtually the only tools which can be used to identify and evaluate present day groundwater recharge under semi-arid conditions (Kattan, 2007). The isotopic fractioning during evaporation of water from the oceans and open water surfaces as well as the reverse process, condensation and rain formation, account for the most notable changes in the water isotopic pattern. These processes are responsible for the depletion of meteoric water and enrichment within lakes, plants and soil water of heavy isotopic species of H and O relative to the ocean (Clark and Fritz, 1997). The stable isotope composition of groundwater is a telltale parameter which relates these waters to the site of precipitation, infiltration or to their origin from surface water or fossil groundwater (Gat and Dansgaard, 1972). The isotopic composition of groundwater (expressed as abundance of oxygen-18 and deuterium) is determined by the isotopic composition of recharge, figure (4.10). If most of the recharge is derived from direct infiltration of precipitation, the groundwater will reflect the isotopic composition of that precipitation (Gat, 1996). In this study the isotopic composition of the stable isotopes, deuterium (D2H) and oxygen-18 (18O), in the precipitation, springs and well were determined and evaluated.
Fig (4.10) Rainout effect on δ2H and δ18O values (based on Hoefs 1997 and Coplen et al. 2000) (http://web.sahra.arizona.edu/programs/isotopes/oxygen.html#top).
137
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.14.2 Sampling and analysis Water samples from precipitation, springs, and wells in the area of interest were collected between November and December 2013 and between January and March of 2014, and analyzed for their isotopic composition (18O and 2H). From the area of interest, four springs, one well, and one precipitation sample were sampled in each months on above hydrological year (2013-2014). The water samples for 18O and 2H were collected in 50 ml glass bottles, details are shown in chapter one.
4.14.3 The 2H and 18O composition of the springs and well Table (4.17) and figure (4.12) show that the isotopic constituents of the water samples collected from the springs and well distributed in the area of interest plot on the Global Meteoric Water Line with average values of –33.34 ‰, -6.5 ‰ and 18.63 ‰ for the δ2H, δ18O and the d-excess, respectively. This proves that the water of all these springs and well is originating from rain water. Although the differences in isotopic compositions (δ2H and δ18O) between the analyzed samples are not so large, δ18O and δD of the groundwater are both closely distributed along the HMWL line, suggesting that the area has little evaporation. Table (4.17) Isotopic compositions (δ18O and δ2H) for all sampling sites in the area of interest. Isotopic compositions are reported in ‰ (per mil). Date
11/30/13
12/31/13
1/31/14
2/28/14
3/31/14
Mean
δ2H
δ18O
δ2H
δ18O
δ2H
δ18O
δ2H
δ18O
δ2H
δ18O
δ2H
δ18O
Pricipitation
-13.27
-4.11
-16.29
-5.29
-28.18
-5.09
-14.87
-4.32
-5.52
-3.24
-15.63
-4.41
Barez 35 well
-33.19
-6.39
-33.12
-6.36
-34.34
-6.33
-32.5
-6.31
-32.1
-6.36
-33.05
-6.35
Mrwary Spring
-32.05
-6.42
-32.36
-6.36
-31.93
-6.34
-31.16
-6.41
-31.54
-6.31
-31.81
-6.37
Chawg Spring
-32.04
-6.3
-31.84
-6.16
-31.09
-6.22
-30.88
-6.22
-30.29
-6.28
-31.23
-6.24
-35.73
-6.75
-35.89
-6.7
-33.79
-6.72
-34.95
-6.72
-35.08
-6.72
-35.09
-6.72
-33.42
-6.5
-33.86
-6.51
-33.19
-6.59
-33.32
-6.5
-33.25
-6.47
-33.41
-6.51
Sample
Baharany Ababaile Spring Anab Mosque Spring
138
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.14.4 The 2H and 18O composition of precipitation There are no former data available about the isotopic composition of the rain water in the area of interest. Therefore, the results of this study that was conducted during (20132014) rainy seasons in the area of interest will be adopted and presented here. Rain water samples were collected quantitatively by allowing the water to accumulate in a large funnel to drip into a narrow headed bottle. Generally, this type of bottles is used in order to reduce the evaporation effects on the collected rain water isotopic composition. Figure (4.12) shows that the rain water in the early and the late season is isotopically enriched, that could be attributed to the fact that the rain events at these times are of lower intensity and usually occur at higher temperatures and lower humidity compared to the rain events during the season. The range of the isotopic composition during the whole rainy season (2013-2014) varied for δ18O between –5.29 ‰ and -3.24 ‰ and for δ2H between 28.18 ‰ and -5.52 ‰. The relation between δ18O and δ2H of the rain water is a function of the amount of rainfall and the intensively of rainfall events, usually heavy rainfall per event, define a more slope with a high d-excess, whereas light rain showers form a trend along evaporation line with a less slope and low d-excess. These deviations from the GMWL are consequences of evaporation processes happening to rain drops during their fall from the cloud to the ground (Gat 1996; Gat and Dansgaard 1972 and Gat and Carmi 1970). The relationship between the δ18O content of the rain water and the surface temperature was also studied and plotted in figure (4.11 and 4.13) and showing a positive, non-linear correlation. The δ18O is depleted with the increasing of the amount of rainfall, but δ18O is positively correlated with surface temperature so with higher temperature the δ18O shows enrichment.
139
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis O
18
O
18
Fig (4.11) Seasonal variation of isotopic composition with rainfall amounts.
4.14.5 Deuterium-Oxygen-18 relationships In spite the complexity of the hydrological cycle, the 2H and 18O in the precipitation and the fresh surface water correlate on a global scale. This correlation, as a best fit line termed global meteoric water line, is expressed as follows: δ 2H = 8 * δ 18O + 10 (Craig 1961) This line is actually an average of many global meteoric water lines, which differ from the Halabja line due to varying climatic and geographic parameters. The Halabja Meteoric Water Line (HMWL), representing the 2H and
18
O relation in the area of interest, has the
following formula: δ 2H = 8.0331 * δ 18O + 19.8 Both the HMWL and the GMWL are presented in figure (4.12) which shows the relationship of deuterium composition (δD) and oxygen–18 composition (δ18O) based on 5 samples of rain. On this plot, the data define a clear linear trend that represents the local meteoric water line for Halabja (HMWL) region during the rainy season (from November to March) of (2013-2014). The slope (8.0331) and intercept (19.8) of the HMWL are both higher than that of the global meteoric water line (GMWL, 8 and 10; Craig 1961), because under condition of about 50% humidity the vapour is strongly depleted. The precipitation plots well above the GMWL.
140
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
Fig (4.12) The δ2H versus δ18O relationship of the water samples during the rainy season (2013-2014) in the area of interest, and compared with GMWL. An important term in the δ 2H – δ 18O correlation is the d-excess, which is expressed as: d-excess = δ 2H – 8 δ 18O d-excess is a measure of the deuterium enrichment that exceeds the δ 18O value by more than 8 times (Clark and Fritz 1997). It is also a measure of evaporation effects both during primary evaporation, when water is evaporated to form a vapor mass, and during secondary evaporation. High d-values indicate low humidity and rapid or kinetic evaporation effects on the isotopes. Secondary evaporation of rain can only happen during rainfall in a hot, dry
141
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
air column, and in this case cause a low d (usually negative) to develop (Clark and Fritz 1997). Generally, the rain water in the area of interest is enriched in δ2Η relative to the global meteoric water line (GMWL) with a d-excess of around 19.7 ‰. This was attributed to the interaction of the cold and relatively dry fronts originated from the Atlantic Ocean, which is the origin of the most storm tracks reaching the Eastern Mediterranean region, with the warm and humid air above the Mediterranean Sea during winter (Gat and Dansgaard 1972; Gat and Carmi 1987 and Gat 1996). The composition of the precipitation is reflected directly or with some modification in the composition of the ground water. These modifications are a result of secondary processes such as fractional evaporation prior to infiltration or isotope exchange with aquifer at different temperatures (Olmo, 2011).
Fig (4.13) Variation of δ18O of rain water as a function of the surface temperature, showing non-linear correlation.
142
Chapter Four
Hydrochemistry and Stable Isotopes Analysis
4.14.6 Altitude effect The isotopic composition changes with the altitude of the terrain and becomes more and more depleted in 18O and 2H at higher elevations. This has enabled one of the most useful applications in isotope hydrology, namely the identification of the elevation at which groundwater recharge takes place, (IAEA, 2001). This altitude effect is temperature-related, because the condensation is caused by the temperature drop due to the increasing altitude. As clouds rise up the mountains, the heavy isotopes are depleted and the residual precipitation gets isotopically lighter. This effect turns out to be an effective tool in tracing groundwater recharge, (Mazor, 2003). The observed 18O effect generally is -1.2‰ /100 m of altitude often decreasing with increasing altitude, figure (4.14). As can be seen from figure (4.14) the weak relationship between altitude and δ18O is due to the lack of the samples.
Fig (4.14) Correlation of the short-term average δ18O and altitude in the area of interest.
143
Chapter Five Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter Five
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusions This study can be concluded in the following points: 1. Regarding the climate in the area of interest which characterized by rainy cold winter and hot-dry summer. The average annual rainfall for the period (2002-2012) is 698.1 mm, relative humidity is 42.6 % the average temperature is 21.2 °C, average wind speed is 1.4 m/sec, average sunshine duration 7.9 hours and annual pan evaporation is 2333.21 mm. By applying (CROPWAT 8.0) program the annual reference evapotranspiration on the bases
of
Penman-Monteith
formula
was
1644.6
mm,
annual
actual
crop
evapotranspiration was 1183.9 mm, and effective precipitation was 584.4 mm. 2. According to Mehta simple water balance model the groundwater recharge is 154.3 mm which is 22.1 % of the total rainfall. 3. According to SCS method the total runoff is 163.46 mm, which is 23.41 % of the total rainfall. 4. Application of the classical and refined chloride mass balance methods for groundwater recharge estimation demonstrates that the net recharge for main groundwater reservoir in the area of interest is 150.64 mm and 158.74 mm, respectively. 5.The traditional ways of hydraulic conductivity calculation (aquifer tests) analysis have been used and hydraulic conductivity values of Alluvium Intergranular aquifer range (0.21- 1.19 m/day) the sediments of the Alluvium Intergranular aquifer are gravel and sand with significant amount of silt and clay which decreases values of this parameter significantly. Values of transmissivity parameter also increase from south to north, indicating capability of aquifer to get and transmit water in this direction. This also means that the transmissivity part of the aquifer is increasing with the direction of flow. 6. The flow direction as inferred from water table map is from southeast to northwest similar to topographic elevation trend. The south and southeast areas of the area of interest represent the recharge zone. 7. GIS technique have been successfully used and demonstrated for evaluation of groundwater potentiality of the area. The Weighted index overlay model has been found very useful in the mapping of groundwater prospective zones. The groundwater potential analysis of the area of interest using principle analytic hierarchy process, and GIS reveals three distinct zones representing high, moderate, and low groundwater availability. The
145
Chapter Five
Conclusions and Recommendations
delineated groundwater potential map is finally verified using the available extraction rates of 95 wells. Based on verification test, it can be inferred that the groundwater potential zones identified by GIS and AHP techniques are reliable and representative. 8. Assessment of water samples from (WHO, 2011 and IQS, 2001) standards indicated that groundwater in area of interest is chemically suitable for drinking uses except for W6 which has a very high phosphate 4.1 mg/l. all water samples are very good for livestock and poultry. Assessment of water samples from various methods indicated that groundwater in the area of interest is suitable for agricultural uses. Water samples of the area of interest are suitable for all industries except textile, Chemical pulp and paper, and wood chemicals because (Ca2+, Mg2+, and NO 3 -) concentrations exceed maximum permitted values, except for W4. 9. The results of calculation saturation index shows that all the water samples are unsaturated with main carbonate mineral (anhydrite, aragonite, gypsum, magnesite, and dolomite). 10. Isotope compositions of groundwater ranged from -35.89 ‰ to -30.29 ‰ δ 2H and from -6.75 ‰ to -6.16 ‰ δ 18O. δ 2H and δ 18O compositions of rain that plot above the Global Meteoric Water Line ranging from -28.18 ‰ and -5.52 ‰ δ 2H and from 5.29 ‰ and -3.24 ‰ δ 18O, which indicate these have been under condition of about 50% humidity the vapor is strongly depleted. The precipitation plots well above the GMWL.
146
Chapter Five
Conclusions and Recommendations
5.2 Recommendations On the basis of the conclusions, a number of recommendations are proposed here: 1. Implementing new agro-meteorological monitoring stations in high elevated areas like in Ababaile is necessary for monitoring climate parameters which is more representing the area. 2. A groundwater monitoring network has to be established by drilling piezometric wells to all relevant aquifers for daily records to document the water table and pressure head. 3. Continuous monitoring chloride concentrations in rainfall and groundwater are essential to build a database for calculating recharge via the chloride mass balance method. 4. Implementation of sophisticated irrigation system such as drip irrigation, green houses and evaporation protective measures in combination with use of pre-treated wastewater for irrigation will help optimizing the utilization of water in the area of interest. 5. Artificial recharge to Alluvium Intergranular aquifer is possible if small dams could be constructed. Harvested rainwater could be recharged to the aquifer to be reused in drought seasons. 6. Periodic analyses of complete chemical and physical water quality parameters are recommended in order to assure that no serious problems may arise in the studied springs and wells. 7. Contineous monitoring of the springs is highly recommended in order to fully understand the spring regimes thus allowing proper management and protecting them. 8. To more accurate representative of hydraulic characteristics of aquifers, many pumping test must be carried out. 9. Creating 3D numerical model of groundwater flow should be developed in order to estimate the effects of various hypothetical pumping scenarios and alternatives in aquifers. 10. Adaption of the groundwater vulnerability and optimal design of groundwater level monitoring system strategies for the future project of groundwater development to reduce development risks and cost. 11. To prevent the contamination risks it should be prevent the use of pesticides and use other safe methods for controlling pests and weeds such as biological methods. As well
147
Chapter Five
Conclusions and Recommendations
as monitoring the industrial and agricultural contaminants in these areas to define the status of contamination and make corrective measures. 12. It is highly recommended to perform hydrochemistry investigation especially for analyzing radioactive tritium to figure out the age of groundwater. 13. In order to make more validation for groundwater potential areas, more drilling wells is recommended in the places were no well is available, to see if this model is really realistic.
148
References
References References Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) (2000) “Toxicological Profile for Chromium”. http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toprofiles/tp7.html Aggarwal, P.K., Gat, J.R., Froehlich, K.F.O. (2005) Isotopes in the Water Cycle: Past, Present and Future of a Developing Science, Netherlands, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). 377 p. Al-Abadi A.M. (2011) “Hydrological and Hydrogeological Analysis of Northeast Missan Governorate, South of Iraq Using Geographic Information System”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Baghdad, 220 p. Al-doski J., Mansor S. B.and Shafri H. Z. (2013a) “Monitoring Land Cover Changes in Halabja City, Iraq”, International Journal of Sensor and Related Networks (IJSRN) Volume 1, Issue1 , P. 01-11. Al-doski J., Mansor S. B.and Shafri H. Z. (2013b) “NDVI Differencing and Postclassification to Detect Vegetation Changes in Halabja City, Iraq”, IOSR Journal of Applied Geology and Geophysics (IOSR-JAGG).Volume 1, Issue 2, P. 01-10. Al-dulimy G.A. (2008) “Evaluation of Rainfall-Runoff Relationship for Darbandikhan Basin with Aid of Remote Sensing & GIS Techniques”, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of technology, Iraq. 120 p. Al-Hakari, S., H., S. (2011) “Geometric Analysis and Structural Evolution of NW Sulaimani Area, Kurdistan Region, Iraq”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sulaimani, 358 p. Ali S. S., (2007) “Geology and Hydrogeology of Sharazoor - Piramagroon Basin in Sulaimani Area, Northeastern Iraq”, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Faculty of Mining and Geology, University of Belgrade, Serbia. 330 p. Ali, S.S., and Al-Manmi, D.A.M. (2005) “Geological and Hydrochemical Study of Zalim Spring, Shahrazoor, Sulamania, Iraq”, Iraqi Journal of Earth Science, Vol.5, No.1 P.1528. Al-Jaf, A. O. (2008) “Error Measurement in Digital Elevation Models in PinjaweenHalabja Area” (3rd congress of college of Science), Baghdad University, 9 p.
150
References Al-Jaf, A. O. and Al-Azawy, M. A. (2010) “Integration of Remote Sensing Images and GIS Techniques to Locate the Mineral Showings in Halabja Area, NE Iraq”, Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, Vol.6, No.1, P.31-46. Al-Kubaisi, Q.Y. (2004) “Annual Aridity Index of TYPE.1 and TYPE.2 Mode Options for Climate Classification”, Iraqi journal of Science. Vol. 45 C, No.1. P. 32-41. Allen R. G., Pereira L. S., Raes D., and Smith M.M. (2006) “Crop Evapotranspiration, (guidelines for computing crop water requirements)”, FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 56, 307 p. Allen, R., Pereira, L., Raes, D., and Smith, M. (1998) “Crop Evapotranspiration (Guidelines for computing crop water requirements)”, FAO irrigation and drainage paper, No. 56. Italy, Rome. 297 p. Allison, G. B and Hughes, M. W. (1978) “The Use of Environmental Chloride and Tritium to Estimate Total Recharge to an Unconfined Aquifer”, Australian Journal of Soil Research 16: 181-195. Al-Manmi, D.A.M. (2002) “Chemical and Environmental Study of Groundwater in Sulaimani City and its Outskirts”, Unpublished M.Sc. Thesis, College of Science, University of Baghdad, 200 p. Al-Manmi, D. A. M. (2008) “Water Resources Management of Rania Area, Sulaimani, NE of Iraq”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Baghdad, 226 p. Al-Mashhadani, A.S., Azeez, D.R., Qadir, M.H. (2009) “Study of Landcover/Landuse in Sharazur Plain by Using Remote Sensing Techniques”, Mesopotamia Journal of Agriculture. Volume 37, No.1. P.1-10. Al-Qayim, B. (2000) Sedimentation and Tectonic Environment of the Suwais Red Beds, NE-Margin of the Arabian Plate-5th international on the geology of the Arab world, Egypt. Abstract book, P.112. Al-Tamimi, O. S. (2007) “Water Resources Evaluation in Diyala River Basin-Middle Part”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Baghdad, College of Science. Baghdad. 190 p. (In Arabic). Al-Taweel M., Marsh A., Mühl S., Nieuwenhuyse O., Radner K., Rasheed K .and Saber A. S. (2011) “New Investigations in the Environment, History, and Archaeology of the Iraqi Hilly Flanks”, Shahrizor Survey Project.
151
References Altoviski, M.E. (1962) Handbook of Hydrogeology, Gosgoelitzdat, Moscow, USSR, 614 p. American Public Health Association (APHA). Clesceri LS, Greenberg AE, & Eaton, AD, (Eds) (1998) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th edition American Public Health Association, Washington, DC. 1325 P. Amin A.I. and Ismael N.S. (2007) “Sirwan River general morphology report”, Watershed management department, Sulaimani Irrigation Directorate. 15 p. Appelo, C. A. J. and Postma, D. (1999) Geochemistry groundwater and Pollution, A.A.Balkema, Netherlands. 536 p. Arkoprovo B., Adarsa J., and Prakash S.S. (2012) “Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones using Satellite Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System Techniques: A Case study from Ganjam district, Orissa, India”, Research Journal of Recent Sciences, Vol. 1(9), P. 59-66. Attoh, K. and Brown, L. D. (2008) "The Neoproterozoic Trans-Saharan/Trans-Brasiliano shear zones: Suggested Tibetan Analogs", American Geophysical Union. Retrieved 201101-30. Ayers, R. S. and Westcot, D. W. (1994) Water Quality for Agriculture. Irrigation and Drainage Paper 29, Rev. 1, FAO, Rome, Italy, 174 p. Ball J. W. and Nordstrom D. K. (2001) “User's Manual for WATEQ4F, with Revised Thermodynamic Data Base and Test Cases for Calculating Speciation of Major, Trace, and Redox Elements in Natural Waters”, Us Geological Survey. Open-File Report 91183, 188 p. Barzinji, K. T. (2003) “Hydrologic Studies for Goizha - Dabashan and other Watersheds in Sulaimani Governorate”, Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, College of Agriculture, University of Sulaimani, 224 p. Barzinji K. T. M. (2013) “Classification Of Watersheds In Sulaimaniyah Governorate Based On Database Of Some Morphometric Characteristics”, International Journal of Plant, Animal, and Environmental Science, Vol.3, Issue.2, P.203-221. Batu, V. (1998) Aquifer Hydraulics: a Comprehensive Guide to Hydrogeologic Data Analysis, Wiley-Interscience. 752 p.
152
References Baziany M.M.Q. (2006) “Stratigraphy and Sedimentology of Former Qulqula Conglomerate Formation, Kurdistan Region, NE- Iraq”, Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, Sulaimani University, 98 p. Baziany M.M.Q. and Karim K. H. (2007) “A New Concept for the Origin of Accumulated Conglomerates, Previously Known as Qulqula Conglomerate Formation at Avroman- Halabja Area, NE-Iraq”, Iraqi Bulletin of Geology and Mining, Vol.3, No.2, 33-41. Bazuhair, A.S. and Wood, W.W. (1996) “Chloride Mass-Balance Method for Estimating Ground Water Recharge in Arid Areas: Example from Western Saudi Arabia”, Journal of Hydrology, 186: 153-159. Bellen R.C., Dunnington H.V., Wetzel R., and Morton D. (1959) Lexique Stratigraphique International, Iraq. Vol. III, Asie, Fasc. 10a, Paris. 336 p. Benli, B., Bruggeman, A., Oweis, T., and Üstün, H. (2010) “Performance of PenmanMonteith FAO56 in a Semiarid Highland Environment”, Journal of Irrigation Drain Eng., 136(11), 757–765. Berding F. (2002) “Soil management consultancy, FAO Agricultural Rehabilitation Programme, Mission Report”, No. 1, Erbil, Iraq. Berding F. (2003) “Agro-ecological zoning of the three northern governorates of Iraq, FAO Agricultural Rehabilitation Programme”, Plant production SS, Erbil, Iraq. Bolton, C. (1956) “The Geology and Economic Prospects of the Rania area”, Manuscript report No.269, GEOSURV, Baghdad. Bolton, C. M.G. (1958) “The geology of Chwarta (K5) and Halabja (K6)”, Site Invest. Co. Rep. Vol. IXB p.117, Geol. Surv. Min. Invest. Lib. Rep.No.271, Baghdad, Iraq. Bowen, R. (1986) Groundwater. England: Elsevier Applied Science Publishers. 427 p. Boyd, C.E. (2000) Water Quality. an Introduction. Kluwer Acad. Publisher, USA, 330 p. Bromley, J., Edmunds, W.M., Fellman, E., Brouwer, J. Gaze, S.R., Sudlow, J. and Taupin, J.D. (1997) “Estimation of Rainfall Input and Direct Recharge to the Deep Unsaturated Zone of Southern Niger Using the Chloride Profile Method”, Journal of Hydrology, 188-189, P.139-155. Buday T. (1980) Regional Geology of Iraq: Vol. 1, Stratigraphy, I.I. Kassab and S.Z. Jassim (Eds) D. G. Geo Survey. Min. Invest. Publication. 445 p.
153
References Buday T., and Jassim S.Z. (1987) The Regional Geology of Iraq: Tectonis, Magmatism, and metamorphism. I.I. Kassab and M.J. Abbas (Eds), Baghdad, 445 p. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) (2008) “Status of Groundwater Quality in India Part – II”, (Ministry of Environment and Forests). www.ncagr.com/agronomi CIMO Guide (2008) "Chapter 8: Measurement of Sunshine Duration"(PDF), World Meteorological Organization. 681 p. Chattopadhyay, N. & Hulme, M. (1997) “Evaporation and Potential Evapotranspiration in India under Conditions of Recent and Future Climate Change”, Agriculture and Forest Meteorology 87, 55–73. Chen P., Lu X., Liew S. and Kwoh L. (2002) "Quantification of Land Cover Change and its Impact on Hydro-Geomorphic Processes in the Upper Yangtze Using Multi-Temporal Landsat Imagery: An example of the Minjiang area," Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. IGARSS'02. IEEE International, P. 1216-1218. Cherry, J.A. (1972) “Geochemical Processes in Shallow Groundwater Flow Systems in Five Areas in Southern Manitoba, Canada”, Proc. 24th International Geological Congress, Montreal, Section 11, P. 208-221. Chidambaram, S., Prasanna, M.V., Karmegam, U., Singaraja, C., Pethaperumal, S., Manivannan, R., Anandhan, P. and Tirumalesh, K. (2011b) “Significance of
P CO 2
Values in Determining Carbonate Chemistry in Groundwater of Pondicheery Region, India”, Front. Earth Science, Vol.5, no.2, P.197- 206. Chnaray, M. A. H. S. (2003) “Hydrogeology and Hydrochemistry of Kepran Basin ErbilN Iraq”, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, College of Science, University of Baghdad, 161p. Chowdhury, a., Jha, M. K., Chowdary, V. M. (2010) “Delination of groundwater recharge zones and identification of artificial recharge sites in West Medinipur District, West Bengal using RS, GIS and MCDM techniques”, Environmental Earth Science 59(6): P. 1209-1222. Cihlar, J. R., Kennedy, E., Townsend, P. A., Gross, J. E., Cohen, W., Bolsrad, P. and Wang, T. (2009) “Remote sensing change detection tools for natural resource managers: Understanding concepts and tradeoffs in the design of landscape monitoring projects”, Remote Sensing of Environment, Vol. 113 (7), P. 1382-1396.
154
References Clark,I. and Fritz,P. (1997) Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology, New York: Lewis Publisher, New York, 328 p. College Of Agricultural Sciences (2002) Irrigation water quality, The Pennsylvania State University, USA. (http://www.cas.psu.edu/docs/casdept/Turf/Education/Turgeon/CaseStudy/OldRanch/Irr WatQual.html ). Collins, A.G. (1975) “Geochemistry of Oil-Field Water”, Development in Petroleum Science, No. 1, Elsevier, Amsterdam, Holland, 496 p. Cooper, H.H. and C.E. Jacob (1946) “A Generalized Graphical Method for Evaluating Formation Constants and Summarizing Well Field History, American”, Geophysical Union Trans., Vol. 27, P. 526-534. Coplen, T. B. (1994) “Reporting of Stable Hydrogen, Carbon, and Oxygen Isotopic Abundances”, Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol. 66, P. 273-276. Coplen, T. B., Wildman, J. D. and Chen, J. (1991) “Improvements in the Gaseous Hydrogen-Water Equilibration Technique for Hydrogen Isotope Ratio Analysis”, Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 63, P. 910-912. Craig, H. (1961) “Isotopic Variations in Meteoric Waters”, Science, Vol.133: P. 17021703. Czech Team, (1976) “Geological Map of Thrust Belt, NE Iraq”, Iraqi Geological Survey Mineral Invest., Baghdad, Iraq. Dassi, L. (2010) “Use of Chloride Mass Balance and Tritium Data for Estimation of Groundwater Recharge and Renewal Rate in an Unconfined Aquifer from North Africa: A Case Study from Tunisia”, Environmental Earth Sciences, Vol. 60: P. 861- 871. Davis, S.N. and Dewiest, R.J.M. (1966) Hydrogeology. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 463 p. Dellur, J.W. (1999) The Hand Book of Groundwater Engineering. Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indian, 940 p. Dettinger, M.D. (1989) “Reconnaissance Estimates of Natural Recharge to Desert Basins in Nevada, U.S.A., by Using Chloride-Balance Calculations”, Journal of Hydrology Vol. 106: P. 55-78.
155
References Domenico, P. A. and Schwartz, F. W. (1998) Physical and chemical hydrogeology, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 824p. Drever, J.I. (1997) The Geochemistry of Natural Water, Surface and Groundwater Environments, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall, USA, 436 P. Dunnington H.V. (1958) Generation, Accumulation, and Dissipation of Oil in Northern Iraq, In Weeks, L.G.(ed.)Habitat of Oil, AAPG, Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA, 1194- 1251. Edmunds WM, Darling WG, Kinniburgh DG (1988) “Solute Profile Techniques for Recharge Estimation in Semi-Arid and Arid Terrain”, In: Simmers I Estimation of natural groundwater recharge. Reidel, Dordrecht, Netherlands, P. 139–157. Edmunds, W. M., Fellman, E., Goni, I. B., Prudhomme C. (2002) “Spatial and temporal distribution of groundwater recharge in northern Nigeria”, Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 10: P. 205-215. Epstein, S. and Mayeda, T. (1953) “Variation of
18
O Content of Water from Natural
Sources”, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Vol. 4, P. 213-224. Eriksson, E. (1976) “The distribution of Salinity in Groundwater of the Delhi Region and the Recharge Rates of Groundwater”. In Interpretation of Environmental Isotopes and Hydrochemcial Data in Groundwater Hydrology, IAEA: Vienna: 171-177. Eriksson, E. and Khunakasem, V. (1969) “Chloride concentration in ground waterrecharge rate and rate of deposition of chloride in the Israel coastal plain”, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 7: P. 178-197. European Environmental Agency (EEA) (1999) “Groundwater quality and quantity in Europe”, Environmental assessment report, No. 3. 123 p. Fang, X., Ren, L., Li, Q., Liu, L., Yuan, F., Zhao, D. & Zhu, Q. (2012) “Estimating and Validating Basin-Scale Actual Evapotranspiration Using MODIS Images and Hydrologic Models”, Hydrological Research 43 (1–2), P. 156–166. FAO Representation In Iraq (2003) "Spring and Stream Discharge Monitoring", Overall Report, Sulaimani Sub-Office. Faure, G. (1998) Principles and Application of Geochemistry (2nd edition). Prentice Hall Inc, USA, 600 p. Fetter, C. W. (1980) Applied hydrogeology. Charles E. Merril (pub.) Co. A. Bell and Howell Co., Columbus. Ohio, 488 p.
156
References Freeze, R.A. and Cherry, J.A. (1979) “Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs”, N.J. Gherini, S.A., Mok, L., Hudson, R.J.M., Davis, G.F., Chen, C.W. and Goldstein, R.A.,1985. The ILWAS model: formulation and application. Water Air Soil Pollution, Vol. 26: P.425-459. Gat, J.R. (1996) Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes in the Hydrologic Cycle, Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 24. A non Profit Publisher. USA: P. 225-262. Gat JR, Carmi L (1970) “Evolution of the Isotopic Composition of Atmospheric Waters in the Mediterranean Sea Area”, Journal of Geophysics Res 75: P. 3039–3048. Gat, J.R. and Carmi, I. (1987) Effect of Climate Changes on the Precipitation Patterns and Isotopic Composition of Water in Climate-Transition Zone: Case of Eastern Mediterranean Sea Area. In: The Influence of Climate Changes and Climatic Variability on the Hydrologic Regime and Water Resources. Proceedings of Vancouver Symposium.August. IAHS Publ. No. 168: P. 513-523. Gat JR, Dansgaard W (1972) “Stable Isotope Survey of the Fresh Water Occurrences in Israel and the Northern Jordan Rift Valley”, Journal of Hydrology 16: P. 177–212. Gavilán, P., Lorite, I. J., Tornero, S. & Berengena, J. (2006) “Regional Calibration of HAG Equation for Estimating Reference ET in a Semiarid Environment”, Agricultural Water Management 81, P. 257–281. Genzebu, W., Hassen, N., and Yemane, T. (1994) “Geology of the Ageremariam Area” (NB37-10). Ethiopian Institute of Geological Surveys, Addis Ababa, Vol. 8, P. 1-112. Gieske, A.S.M., (1992) “Dynamics of Groundwater Recharge. A Case Study in SemiArid-Eastern Botswana”, Ph.D. Thesis, Free University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 115 p. Government of Western Australia (GOWA) (2009) Surface Water Sampling Methods and Analysis — technical appendices, Department of Water,Australia, 66p. Grismer, M. E., Bachman, S. and Powers, T. (2000) “A Comparison of Groundwater Recharge Estimation Methods in Semi-Arid, Coastal Avocado and Citrus Orchard, Ventura County, California”, Hydrological Processes 14: P. 2527-2543. Hasan, M.A., Ahmed, K.M., and Sracek, O. (2007): Arsenic in shallow groundwater of Bangladesh: Investigations from three different physiographic setting. Hydrogeology J. Vol.15: pp. 1507-1522.
157
References Hassan, I. O. (1998) “Urban Hydrology of Erbil City Region”, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Baghdad, 119 P. Harrington, G. A, Cook, P. G., Herczeg, A. L. (2002) “Spatial and Temporal Variability of Groundwater Recharge in Central Australia: a Tracer approach”, Ground Water Vol. 40(5): P. 518-528. Hawkins, R. H. (2004) National Engineering Handbook, United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, 791 p. Hem, J.D. (1991) “Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics of Natural Water”. USGS Water Supp. Paper no. 2254, 263 p. Horita, J., Wesolowski, D., and Cole, D. (1993) “The Activity- Composition Relationship of Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotopes in Aqueous Salt Solutions: I. Vapor-liquid Water Equilibration of Single salt solutions from 50 to 100 oC”, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, Vol. 57, P. 2797-2817. Hussein, H. A. (2013) "Dependable Discharges of the Upper and Middle Diyala Basins". Journal of Engineering, Vol.16, No. 2. P. 4960-4969. IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency (1996) “Statistical Treatment of Data on Environmental Isotopes in Precipitation”. Technical reports series No. 331. Vienna. IAEA - International Atomic Energy Agency (2001) “Environmental isotopes in the hydrological cycle, principle and application”. Centre Isotope Research, Groningen, The Netherlands, Vol.2, P.203.
Ibrahim A.O. (2009) “Tectonic Style and Evolution of the NW Segment of the Zagros Fold. Thrust Belt, Sulaimani Governorate, Kurdistan Region Ne Iraq”. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis. University of Sulaimani. 236 p. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller, of the (eds.)] (IPCC) (2007) Climate Change: The Physical Science Basis, Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 996 p. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2008) Climate Change and Water, Geneva, Switzerland. 214 p.
158
References Iraqi Drinking- water standard IQS (2001) “Central Organization for Quality Control and Standardization”, Council of Ministers, Republic of Iraq. No. 417. James, R. A., Ernest, E. H., John, T. R., and Richard E. W. (2001) “A Land Use and Land Cover Classification System for Use with Remote Sensor Data”, Geological Survey Professional Paper 964, Washington. P. 41. Jassim, S. Z., Buday, T., Cicha, I. and Vladimir, P. (2006) Late Permian- Liassic Megasequence, In: Jassim S.Z., Goff, J. C., Geology of Iraq, publication of Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum, Brno, 341p. Jassim S.Z. and Guff J.C. (2006) Geology of Iraq. Jassim (Eds) D. G. Geo Survey. Min. Invest. Publication. 445 p. Jensen, M. E., Burman, R. D. and Allen, R. G. (1990) Evapotranspiration and Irrigation Water Requirements. New York: American Society of Civil Engineers. 360 p. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) (1990) “The Study of Groundwater Development in Sokoto State”, vol. 2, main report. JICA, Lagos. Jovanovic, O. and Gabre, R. (1979) “Results of Sedimentologic Examination of Specimens from the Area of Kaolos Dam Project, Iraq”, GEOZAVOD, Belgrade. 120 p. Karim, K.H. (2005) “Some Sedimentary and Structural Evidences of a Possible Graben in Mawat – Chuarta Area, NE Iraq”, Iraqi Journal Earth Science, Vol.5, No.2, P.9-18. Karim K.H. (2006) “Stratigraphy and Lithology of the Avroman Formation (Triassic), North East Iraq”, Iraqi Journal of Earth Sciences, Vol.7, No.1, P.1-12. Karim K.H., Fatagh A. I., Ibrahim A. O., Koyi H. (2009) “Historical Development of the Present Day Lineaments of the Western Zagros Fold-Thrust Belt: A Case Study from Northeastern Iraq, Kurdistan Region”, Iraqi Journal Of Earth Sciences, Vol.9, No.1, P.55-70. Kattan, Z. (2007) “Estimation of evaporation and irrigation return flow in arid zones using stable isotope ratios and chloride mass-balance analysis: Case of Euphrates River, Syria”, Journal of Arid Environments, Vol. 72, P. 730-747. Kendall, C. and McDonnell, J.J. (1998) Isotope Tracers in Catchment Hydrology. Netherlands: Elsevier Science B.V. 839 p. Kiely, G., (1997) Environmental engineering, McGraw-Hill international (UK) limit. 979 p.
159
References Kruseman, G .P. and de Ridder, N.A. (1994) Analysis and Evaluation of Pumping Test Data. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Imporovement, Wageningen, Netherlands, 377 p. Krasny, J., Alsam, S. and Jassim, S. Z. (2006) “Chapter 19-Hydrogeology”, In Geology of Iraq. 1st edition Published by Dolin, Prague and Moravian Museum. Prague. P. 251287. Kresic, N., (2007) Hydrogeology and Groundwater Modeling (2nd edition). Published by CRC Press, Taylor and Francis group, LLC, USA, 807p. Langmuir, D. (1997) Aqueous Environmental Geochemistry. Prentice Hall, USA, 600p. Lay Volunteers International Association (LVIA) and MAB Consult – Consulting Hydrogeologists and Engineers (2009) Groundwater Potential Zone Mapping in MoyaleTeltele Sub Basin at Dire, Arero, Yabelo and Teltele Woredas, Borena Zone of Oromia Regional State Using GIS and Remote Sensing. Oromia Regional State. 66 p. López-Urrea R., Montoro, A., López-Fuster, P. and Martín de Santa Olalla, F.(2006) “Some Results of Evapotranspiration Measured by Three Weighing Lysimeters in La Mancha, Spain”, World Environmental and Water Resources Congress 2009: P.1-10. Malczewski, J. (1999) GIS and Multicriteria Decision Analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York, 392 p. Mam Rassol G.A. (2000) “Study of Water Quality and its Effect on Nutrients Availability for Corn in Sulaimani Region”, M.Sc. Thesis, College of Agriculture, University of Sulaimani, 120 p. Mas, J. F. (1999) "Monitoring Land-Cover Changes: a Comparison of Change Detection Techniques," International Journal of Remote Sens., Vol. 20, P. 139-152. Maurer, D.K. and Berger, D.L. (1997) “Subsurface Flow and Water Yield from Watersheds Tributary to Eagle Valley Hydrographic Area, West-Central Nevada”. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 97-4191, 37 p. Maurer, D.K., Berger, D.L. and Prudic, D.E. (1996) “Subsurface Flow to Eagle Valley from Vicee, Ash, and Kings Canyons, Carson City, Nevada, Estimated from Darcy's Law and the Chloride-Balance Method”. U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations Report 96-4088, 38 p.
160
References Mausel, D. Lu, Brondízio, P., E. and Moran, E. (2004) "Change Detection Techniques”, International Journal of Remote Sens, Vol. 25, P. 2365-2407. Maxwell, J. A., (1968) Rock and mineral analysis. John Wiley and Sons. New York 584 p. Mazor, E., (2003) Chemical and isotopic groundwater hydrology. Marcel Dekker. 3rd Edition. New York. 455p. Mehta, V. K., Walter, M.T., and De Gloria, D. S. (2006) “A Simple Water Balance Model”. Cornell University, Technical report No.5, 9 p. Meyer, W. B., Turner, B. L. (1992) “Human Population Growth and Global LandUse/Cover Change”, Annual Review Ecology and Systematics, vol. 23, P. 39-61. Mikkelsen, S. A. (1992) “Current Nitrate Research in Denmark-Background and Practical Application, Nitrate and Farming Systems”, Aspects of Applied Biology,Vol. 30, P. 29-44. Moore, J. E. (2002) Field Hydrogeology. Printed in the United States of America.195 p. Muhammed, D. A. (2008) “Drinking Water Quality Assessment of Halabja/ SulaimaniKurdistan Region of Iraq”, Unpublished M.Sc. thesis, College of agriculture, University of Sulaimani, 158 p. Numan, N. M. S. (1997) “A Plate Tectonic Scenario for the Phanerozoic Succession in Iraq”, Journal of Geological Soc. of Iraq, 30 (2), P. 85-119. Nyagwambo N. L. (2006) “Groundwater Recharge Estimation And Water Resources Assessment in a Tropical Crystalline Basement Aquifer”, Ph.D. dissertation, Delft University of Technology and of the Academic Board of the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education. 229 p. Olmo K. D. (2011) “Stable Isotope (δ2H and δ 18O) Characterization of the South Platte River, Colorado”, Published M.Sc. thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, 88 p. Panagopoulos, A. (1995) “A Methodology for Groundwater Resources Management of a Typical Alluvial Aquifer System in Greece”, Ph.D. thesis, The University of Birmingham, UK. 251 p.
161
References Parson, R.M. (2006) “Mini Master Plan for the Public Water Supplies for the Governorate of Sulaimani, Iraq”, Public Works- Water Sector. Projects and Contracting Office- United States Missions to Iraq. Iraq- Baghdad, 122 p. Parson, R.M. (1957) “Groundwater Resources of Iraq”, Vol. XII: Sulaimania Liwa and area North of Khanaquin. R.M. Parson Co., Ministry of Development, Development Board, Iraq, 93 p. Pereira A.R. & Pruitt W.O. (2004) “Adaptation of the Thornthwaite Scheme for Estimating Daily Reference Evapotranspiration”, Agricultural Water Manag. 66, P. 251257. Phillips FM, Mattick JL, Duval TA (1988) “Chlorine 36 and Tritium from Nuclear Weapons Fallout as Tracers for Long-Term Liquid Movement in Desert Soils”, Water Resource Res. 24: P. 1877–1891. Pierce, J.J., Weiner, R.F., and Vesilind, P.A. (1998) Environmental Pollution and Control (4th edition). Butterworth . Heinemann, USA, 392 p. Polservice (1980) "Sharazor Irrigation Project. Feasibility Report", Annex I, Climate and Water Resources, Ministry Of Irrigation, Baghdad, P.76. Ponce .V.M (1989) Engineering, Hydrology, Principles and Practices", Prentice-Hall. 640 p. Qannam Z. (2003) “Hydrogeological, Hydrochemical and Environmental Study in Wadi Al Arroub Drainage Basin, South West Bank, Palestine”, Freiberg On-line Geosciences Vol. 9: P. 1434-7512. Raghunath H. M. (2006) Hydrology, Principles .Analysis .Design, New Age International (P) Limited ,Publishers. 477 p. Raouf M. (2004) “Halabjay Shaheed, Sirwan and Said Sadiq Water Supply Project”, Feasibility Report Prepared By Water and Environmental Sanitation Planning Team (Group One), 93 p. Raymahashay B C (1986) “Geochemistry of Bicarbonate in River Water”, Journal of Geological Soc. India, 27: P. 114–118. Raza, S. M., (2009) “Sedimentlogy and Geochemistry af the Limestone Successions of the Lower Member of the Qulqula Formation, Kurdistan Region, Ne-Iraq”, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Geology department, University of Sulaimani. 161 p.
162
References Révész, Kinga, and Coplen, T.B. (2008a) “Determination of the Delta (2H/1H) of Water” RSIL lab code 1574, chap. C1 of Révész , Kinga, and Coplen, T.B., eds., Methods of the Reston Stable Isotope Laboratory: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods 10 C1, 27 p. http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/tm10C1/ Révész, Kinga, and Coplen, T. B. (2008b) “Determination of the Delta (18O/16O) of P
P
P
P
Water”: RSIL lab code 489, chap. C2 of Révész, Kinga, and Coplen, Tyler B., eds., Methods of the Reston Stable Isotope Laboratory: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques and Methods, 10–C2, 28 p. http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/tm10C2/ 6TU
U6T
Ribolzi O., Patin J., Bresson L.M., Latsachack K.O., Mouche E., Sengtaheuanghoung O., Silvera N., Thiébaux J.P., Valentin C. (2011) “Impact of Slope Gradient on Soil Surface Features and Infiltration on Steep Slopes in Northern Laos”, Journal of Geomorphology, Volume 127, Issues 1–2, P. 53–63. Richard L.A. (1954) Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkali soils, Agricultural Handbook No.60, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington D.C., 160 p. Rowe, D.R. and Abdel-Magid I.M. (1995) Handbook of Wastewater Reclamation and Reuse. CRC Press, Inc. 550 p. Russell, C.E. and Minor T. (2003) “Reconnaissance Estimate of Recharge Based on an Elevation-Dependent Chloride Mass-Balance Approach”, Desert Research Institute Publication No. 45164, 50 p. Saaty T. L. (1980) The analytic Hierarchy Process. McGraw-Hill, New York. 340 p. Saeed, M.A. (2002) “Introduction to Climate Change”.FAO north, Erbil-Iraq. Saether, O.M. and Caritat, P.D. (eds.), (1997) Geochemical Processes, Weathering and Groundwater Recharge in Catchments. A.A. Balkama, Rotterdam, Brookfield, Holland, 400 p. Saprof Team (Special Assistance for Project Formation) (2008) “Water Supply Improvement Project in Kurdistan Region, Republic of Iraq”. (Jbic) Nihon Suido Consultants Co., Ltd. 35 p. Savenije, H.H.G. (1995) "New Definitions for Moisture Recycling and the Relation with Land-Use Changes in the Sahel", Journal of Hydrology, 167: P. 57-78. 4T
4T
Scanlon, B. R., Healy, R. W., Cook, P. G. (2002) “Choosing Appropriate Techniques for Quantifying Groundwater Recharge”, Hydrogeology Journal 10: P. 18–39.
163
References Scanlon B.R., Keese KE, Flint AL, Flint LE, Gaye CB, Edmunds WM, Simmers I (2006) “Global Synthesis of Groundwater Recharge in Semiarid and Arid Regions”, Hydrological Process 20: P. 3335–3370. Seiler, K. P. and Gat, I. R. (2007) Groundwater Recharge from Run-off, Infiltration, and Percolation, 1st edition, Springer, Dordrecht, 241p. Șen, Z. (2008) “Wadi Hydrology”, Taylor & Francis Group, CRC Press, USA, 368 p. Sentelhas, P. C., Gillespie, T. J. & Santos, E. A. (2010) “Evaluation of FAO Penman Monteith and alternative methods for estimating reference evapotranspiration with missing data in Southern Ontario, Canada”. Agricultural Water Management 97, P. 635– 644. Serrano, S. E. (1997) “Hydrology for Engineers, Geologists and Environmental Professionals”, Hydrology Science Inc. USA, 452 p. Sharbazheri, K. M. I. (2008) “Biostratigraphy and Paleoecology of Cretaceous/Tertiary Boundary in the Sulaimani Region, Kurdistan, NE Iraq”, Ph.D. thesis, University Of Sulaimani. 219 p. Sharif, M.I.A. (2001) “The local Weather and Climate Brief for Northern Iraq”, FAO north, Erbil-Iraq. Singh, B.P. and Kumar, B. (2005) Isotopes in Hydrology, Hydrogeology and Water Resources. India, Narosa Publishing House. 188 p. Singhal, B.B.S. and Gupta, R.P. (1999) Applied Hydrogeology of Fractured Rocks. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 400 p. Sofer, Z. and Gat, J. R., (1972) “Activities and Concentrations of Oxygen-18 in Concentrated Aqueous Salt Solutions: Analytical and Geophysical Implications”, Earth Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 15, P. 232-238. Sofer, Z. and Gat, J. R. (1975) “The Isotope Composition of Evaporating Brines: Effect of the Isotopic Activity Ratio in Saline Solutions”, Earth Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 26, P. 179-186. Stevanovic, Z. and Markovic, M. (2004b) Hydrogeology of Northern Iraq, Published by FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Rome. 173 p. Subyani, A. and Șen, Z. (2006) “Refined chloride mass-balance method and its application in Saudi Arabia”, Hydrological Processes 20: P. 4373-4380.
164
References Sujath, S.D., Sathyanarayanan, S., Satish, P.N. and Nagaraju, D. (2001) “A Sewage and Sludge Treated Lake and its Impact on the Environment, Mysore, India”, Environmental Geology 40: P. 1209-1213. Tateishi, R. & Ahn, C. H. (1996) “Mapping Evapotranspiration and Water Balance for Global Land Surfaces”, ISPRS, Journal of Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing 51, P. 209–215. Tesconi, T. (2000) Water Quality Control, Part III. Human Impact on Water Resources. The Press Democrat. P. 182. Thornthwaite, C. W. and Mather, J. R. (1955) “The water balance”, Publication in Climatology, 8: DTT, Laboratory of Climatology, Publication No. 10, Cenetron, New Jersey, USA. P. 1-86. Ting, C. S., Kerth, T. and Liao, C. J. (1998) “Estimation of Groundwater Recharge Using the Chloride Mass-Balance Method, Pingrung Plain, Taiwan”, Journal of Hydrogeology 6: P. 282-292. Todd, D. K., (1980) Groundwater Hydrology (2nd edition).John Wiley and Sons, New York, USA, 535 p. Trajkovic´, S. (2010) “Testing Hourly Reference Evapotranspiration Approaches Using Lysimeter Measurements in a Semi-arid Climate”, Hydrological Research 41 (1), P.438– 449. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia; Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (UN-ESCWA and BGR) (2013) “Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia”, Beirut. 16 p. US
Air
Force,
UN
World
Water
Development
Report
of
year
(2009)
http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/afghan/iraq-narrative.html US Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) Diagnosis and Improvement of Saline and Alkali Soils. US Department of Agricultural Hand Book 60, Washington.160 p. Van Beek, L. P. H., Wada, Y. & Bierkens, M. F. P., (2011) “Global Monthly Water Stress: Water Balance and Water Availability”, Water Resources Research Vol.47, Issu.7, Netherlands. P. 1-25 Ventura, F., Spano, D., Duce, P., and Snyder, R. L. (1999) “An Evaluation of Common Evapotranspiration Equations”, Irrigation Science, 18, P. 163-170.
165
References Wood, W. W. (1999) “Use and Misuse of the Chloride-Mass Balance Method in Estimating Groundwater Recharge”, Ground Water 37: P. 2-3. Wood, W. and Imes, J. L. (1995) “How wet is wet? Precipitation Constraints on Late Quaternary Climate in the Southern Arabian Peninsula”, Journal of Hydrology 164: P. 263-292. Wood, W.W., Sanford, W.E. (1995) “Chemical and Isotopic Method for quantifying Groundwater Recharge in a Regional Semi-Arid Environment”, Groundwater 33 (3), p. 458–486. World Health Organization (WHO), (2006) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. 3rd edition, Vol.1, Recommendations, Geneva, 595 p. World Health Organization (WHO) (2008) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. 3rd edition, Vol.1, Recommendations, Geneva, 668 p. World Health Organization (WHO) (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality - 4th edition, Recommendations, Geneva, 564 p. Xu, C.-Y. & Chen, D. (2005) “Comparison of Seven Models for Estimation of Evapotranspiration and Groundwater Recharge Using Lysimeter Measurement Data in Germany”, Hydrological Processes, Vol. 19, P. 3717–3734. Xu, C.-Y., Gong, L., Jiang, J., Chen, D. & Singh, V. P. (2006) “Analysis of Spatial Distribution and Temporal Trend of Reference Evapotranspiration and Pan Evaporation in Changjiang (Yangtze River) Catchment”, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 327, P. 81–93. Xu, C.-Y. & Singh, V. P. (2005) “Evaluation of Three Complementary Relationship Evapotranspiration Models by Water Balance Approach to Estimate Actual Regional Evapotranspiration in Different Climatic Regions”, Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 308, P. 105–121.
166
Appendices
Appendices
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
Appendix (1) Elevation, S.W.L, and water table elevation above sea level for some selected wells in the area of interest. Elevation S.W.L W.T.A.S.L Wells name Easting Northing (m) (m) (m) Zamaqy/1 587865 3896018 627 27 600 Halabja collective town/1 591202 3894584 722 A 722 Halabja collective town/2 590727 3894579 711 A 711 Halabja collective town/3 590786 3894114 728 A 728 Halabja military reception/1 591478 3894886 725 A 725 Halabja military reception/2 591730 3894468 754 A 754 Halabja hospital 590434 3894439 700 A 700 Project of drilling 10 wells/7 591934 3893023 809 38.7 770.3 Project of drilling 10 wells/8 591610 3893498 783 54.2 728.8 Project of drilling 10 wells/9 589435 3894196 698 56.4 641.6 Project of drilling 10 wells/10 588241 3895228 647 24.7 622.3 Qshlagha ruta well 586997 3899279 568 A 568 Ali abdulaziz 590449 3892791 750 11.50 738.5 Muhammed abdulla&idriss muhammed 591341 3893209 780 A 780 Abdulla karim& idriss hamakarim 590530 3895105 687 A 687 Paimangay takniky halabja 587960 3896226 624 12 612 Masjid haji umar yarwaisi 590984 3892560 768 A 768 Project of drilling 10 wells/1 587892 3894641 662 31.8 630.2 Bamoke well no.(4) 591296 3891419 803 17.8 785.2 Paimangay takniky halabja (bashy nawxoyy) 587757 3896250 622 34.03 587.97 Halabja technical institute 587991 3896344 619 27 592 Olive project 591715 3895787 707 82 625 Halabjay shahid graveyard 588885 3892101 763 15.5 747.5 Bawa kochak 588873 3890000 859 59 800 Birth and childern hospital 589403 3895123 650 12 638 Zamawandan 2008 591309 3894651 807 17.8 789.2 Aso 2008 591993 3891826 825 44.2 780.8 Barez 2008 591996 3893017 808 38.7 769.3 Hawar 591609 3893495 771 54.2 716.8 Shahid fatih 591128 3894263 733 56.4 676.6 Shex ezadin 588239 3895246 647 24.7 622.3 Mahbub karim mustafa 590855 3892031 778 27.2 750.8 Aiub haji hassan 590932 3892496 771 33.2 737.8 Halabja sport club 1 589619 3891947 750 21 729 Sarkar hussain majid 589265 3892439 739 13.3 725.7 Ahmad shekh hama ali 589014 3891782 758 2.75 755.25 Haji sharif 590515 3891218 776 43.3 732.7 Mohammad ahmad mohammad 590741 3892261 771 27 744 Farwq mohammad ahmad 590632 3892297 759 26 733 Tofiq manuchar abdulqadir 590802 3892221 769 29 740 Sirwan fatah 590717 3892138 769 25.8 743.2
168
Appendices 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Rafiq manuchar Mohammad rahim Abdulla mohammad rasheed Farhan ali mahmood Ahmad qadir nadir Ali ahmad raza/1 Haji ossman dalamary Bakhtiary village Ata Ezat Mamosta ahmad Wahid tofeeq Bestun jaefar taha Burhan Anwar anabi Anwar haji osman/3 Ibrahim abdulkarem Anwar hama zahir Taher mhammed ahmad Muhssen mahmod ali Yassen salh abdula/2 Yassen salh abdulla/1 Hsen maged amen Amjad ali faraj Ali hussem ahmad merwaes Ali huseen ahmad merwaes /3 Yassen faraj ahmad Kwekhamhammed bamoky Halabjay shahed wateratsewerage Zamaqe collective town/2 Zamaqi collective town/6 Tobacco bowdlerising factory in halabja/2 Sloughter house of halabja M.ali abdulaziz Halabja graveyard Makwan qadr saed Muhammad rashed & mahmood rashed Zamaqi collective town/4 Mhammad amin mhammad nury Anwer ali abdlqadr Ayub fayq nori Osman najm ahmad/2 Osman najm ahmad/1 Nuri ahmad sharef &najm ahmad karem Sherwan mawlud
590740 590918 590643 591136 591256 591056 592580 592071 589323 589215 588655 589054 591381 592026 591961 587555 592170 590238 587837 587532 587613 587622 587048 585959 587889 587688 590603 590994 589174 588269 588605 589502 589046 588999 588714 588754 588314 588203 589235 591337 590678 590951 590893 591077 591555
169
3892085 3892141 3891211 3891651 3890859 3890752 3891981 3892595 3894848 3894822 3895400 3895901 3895461 3896162 3896768 3897063 3896681 3896251 3898531 3897946 3898025 3897965 3896730 3899536 3898865 3898942 3898780 3891556 3893377 3895235 3895317 3893355 3894257 3894299 3892272 3892695 3893574 3894673 3894753 3890978 3890453 3890559 3890539 3890050 3890532
777 778 788 797 807 810 881 825 668 674 653 641 704 721 722 605 723 654 578 587 589 586 595 541 563 577 658 799 703 645 646 713 670 679 735 729 697 660 677 814 821 813 815 852 839
25.3 31 34.7 3.3 27.5 27 70 22.9 15.7 21 20.9 8.9 11 10.7 35.7 14.1 43.7 22.3 1.9 20.7 3.8 21.6 17.7 20 3 18.5 64 27.4 11.7 25 37 20 16.4 11.5 16.4 11 52.8 14 21 19 22 35 32.6 32 17.5
751.7 747 753.3 793.7 779.5 783 811 802.1 652.3 653 632.1 632.1 693 710.3 686.3 590.9 679.3 631.7 576.1 566.3 585.2 564.4 577.3 521 560 558.5 594 771.6 691.3 620 609 693 653.6 667.5 718.6 718 644.2 646 656 795 799 778 782.4 820 821.5
Appendices 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131
Omer hama faraj Ezat ahmad saed Diari osman ali Hassan qadr abubakr Omer enayat Baqi qadr hassan Mala abdulla abdulkarem Faruq mahmood karim Barez bureau camp Mahmood mawlud farhad Abdulla najmadding abdulla Fazil hama amin Ahmad ali omer Rizgar arif abdulkareem Abdulrahim abdulaziz hama amin Hadi hama rauf abd-alaziz Nabaz mohammad faraj ali Ghafar hassan saeed Jalila village Aumed rifat ali/2 Hikmat mahmooa abdkarim Karim afrasiab rostam Khaled mhame Kamal mhammed ahmad Haidar mhammed anayat Osman ali arf Anab army camp Gullan project/2 Gullan project/2 Kamal mahmud qadr Prisy khwaroo Kani karweshka boulder guerd contes Mhammed qafoor Hana soora Project of 5000 plants Barzan osman muhammad Zamaqi collective town/5 Rashed kazm &haidar rashed Amanj naji abdulla Tofeeq faraj mahmood Saed ali mustafa Abid hassan nazdar &hassan abid Omer muhammad mahmood Muhammad qadr faraj Hassan rashed muhammad
592488 591657 592292 592462 592893 592572 591948 591689 592037 592198 592006 591912 591796 591736 591830 591885 592508 593376 593113 590139 589266 591009 591133 591452 592184 591590 592510 585248 585200 585288 585396 582179 584575 585514 588182 588481 588086 588753 587896 587400 591658 589393 590057 589859 589493 170
3890945 3891937 3891866 3891747 3891707 3892572 3892723 3893228 3892982 3893091 3895209 3895241 3895285 3895178 3895085 3895007 3894763 3893614 3894077 3895648 3895535 3895500 3895888 3895297 3896589 3896818 3897108 3895957 3895945 3895170 3894876 3888734 3889266 3889859 3895587 3895698 3896218 3896866 3896798 3897614 3896291 3896805 3897342 3899057 3898465
896 821 852 865 880 857 821 794 812 821 737 735 725 726 733 743 782 892 848 673 652 698 685 702 737 695 756 599 603 630 637 675 852 866 645 636 624 620 609 586 706 627 644 624 627
75 11.18 55 49 45 78.5 20 51 43.1 55.2 20 24 18.5 15 23.9 27.5 13.3 90 55.6 14.7 11.7 57 46.9 4.8 37 11.0 9.5 8.3 11.2 23.4 17 19.4 44.3 11.7 31.8 23 17 14 4.3 4.95 62 31.5 57.3 48.5 25.3
821 809.82 797 816 835 778.5 801 743 768.9 765.8 717 711 706.5 711 709.1 715.5 768.7 802 792.4 658.3 640.3 641 638.1 697.2 700 684 746.5 590.7 591.8 606.6 620 655.6 807.7 854.3 613.2 613 607 606 604.7 581.05 644 595.5 586.7 575.5 601.7
Appendices 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166
Ali abdul aziz 589084 3898292 Assmael abdulrahman ahmad 588799 3898108 Faqe muhammad sofi&alifaqe muhammad 588368 3898416 Hogr anwar &peshraw jamal 587693 3896856 Hogr anwar& peshraw jamal/1 587702 3896864 Tobacco reserch station of zamaqi 587901 3896459 Specialstadium of halabja 587709 3895962 Gullan project/1 587734 3895064 Gullan project/3 586089 3897270 Gullan project/3 586111 3897286 Makwan ahmad muhammad/2 586705 3897262 Makwan ahmad muhammad/1 586709 3897262 Sabah ghafur salh 586770 3896701 Sirwan nuresury 585502 3900866 Ikram kareem mohammad amin 582558 3898987 Zainab abdulqadir mohammad wais 583178 3899359 Mohammad ghafur mohammad 583509 3899881 Mohammad ali mohammad 584284 3900167 Gullan project well 584388 3899403 Golan project /4 584419 3899391 Mahmood fatah abdul 585687 3900197 Peshawa younis aziz 585550 3898749 Shahrzoor paoject no.6 586483 3899015 Sharazoor project 9 586392 3898436 Sharazoor project no.13 587499 3896599 Sharazoor project no.10 586686 3897952 Dr. Bakhtiar 588637 3900305 Darashish village 594453 3896901 Sarko hussain karim & sherko hussain karim 593516 3897293 Aziz hama rahim 592819 3898141 Latif hassan wais murad 590000 3900008 Kharpani village 596064 3900594 Khargelan village 596266 3898692 Yaseen hama karim rahman 597994 3900154 Zardahal village 598089 3899419 A: Artesian well
171
610 608 589 610 611 617 627 652 584 589 595 597 607 534 518 520 520 523 532 535 538 561 562 570 616 579 572 835 770 761 618 756 830 802 906
14.45 20.8 13.5 8.7 8.3 3.95 14.4 12 19.5 18.82 7.7 5.2 8 12.2 6 10.6 7.2 6.2 18.2 5.8 17.1 3 20.8 10 2 28.8 30 21.5 2.3 55.3 25 7.2 79.7 37 54.4
595.55 587.2 575.5 601.3 602.7 613.05 612.6 640 564.5 570.18 587.3 591.8 599 521.8 512 509.4 512.8 516.8 513.8 529.2 520.9 558 541.2 560 614 550.2 542 813.5 767.7 705.7 593 748.8 750.3 765 851.6
Appendices Appendix (2) Aquifer test data and results in PW1. Time- drawdown data of the pumping test analysis of PW1. Well Name: No.8 in Halabja Time (minute) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 6 7 8 9
Drawdown (m) 0 0.05 0.068 0.073 0.079 0.084 0.093 0.098 0.1 0.15 0.175 0.19 0.22
Time (minute) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 35 40
Drawdown (m) 0.25 0.3 0.39 0.41 0.44 0.47 0.52 0.55 0.59 0.63 0.68 0.73 0.81
Time (minute) 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 110 130 150 180 210 240
Drawdown (m) 0.86 0.99 1.1 1.3 1.42 1.55 1.63 1.72 1.76 1.79 1.81 1.81 1.81
Un
Time-Drawdown Graph Using (Cooper –Jacob, 1946) Method for PW1.
172
Appendices Appendix (3) Aquifer test data and results in PW2. Time- drawdown data of the pumping test analysis of PW2. Well Name: Makwan Qadir Time (minute)
Drawdown (m)
Time (minute)
Drawdown (m)
Time (minute)
Drawdown (m)
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.56 0.6 0.7 0.75 0.81 0.89 0.93 0.99 1.2 1.8 1.99 2.2 2.54 2.78
12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 35 40 45 50
3.11 3.36 3.8 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5 5.05 5.1
55 60 70 80 90 110 130 150 180 210 240 270
5.36 5.42 5.61 5.69 5.78 5.89 6.049 6.558 7.11 7.5 7.8 7.8
Time-Drawdown Graph Using (Cooper –Jacob, 1946) Method for PW2.
173
Appendices Appendix (4) Aquifer test data and results in PW3. Time- drawdown data of the pumping test analysis of PW3. Well Name: Aiub Faiaq Time (minute) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Drawdown (m) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.073 0.085 0.09 0.11 0.123
Time (minute) 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 35 40
Drawdown (m) 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.17 0.181 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.242 0.25 0.31
Time (minute) 45 50 55 60 70 80 90 110 130 150 180
Drawdown (m) 0.35 0.36 0.376 0.39 0.4 0.445 0.5 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.55
Time-Drawdown Graph Using (Cooper –Jacob, 1946) Method for PW3. 174
Appendices Appendex (5) Location and characteristic of observation wells. OW
Well name
Easting
Northing
Elevation (m.)
Depth (m.)
SWL (m.)
OW1 OW2 OW3
Mahmood Ramazan Halabja Graveyard Othman Najm
591646 588716 590644
3893519 3892801 3890505
780 722 829
100 85 110
35.1 6 19
Appendix (6) pair-wise comparison of geological map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio. Quaternary Cretaceous Jurassic Tertiary Weight Quaternary
2
Cretaceous
Normalized weight
Reclassified value
(%)
(Weight*Rank)
3
4
0.45
45
855
3
5
0.33
33
627
3
0.15
15
285
0.7
7
133
Jurassic
Tertiary
Consistency ratio:0.06 Appendix (7) Pair-wise comparison of lineament density map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio.
>2.2 >2.2 1.6-2.2 1-1.6 0.4-1
Normalized
Reclassified value
weight (%)
(Weight*Rank)
0.42
42
714
4
0.26
26
442
3
0.16
16
272
2
0.10
10
170
0.06
6
102
1.6-2.2
1-1.6
0.4-1
<0.4
Weight
2
3
4
5
2
3 2
<0.4
Consistency ratio:0.02
175
Appendices Appendix (8) Pair-wise comparison of geomorphology map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio. Depositional
Erosional
Pediment
Pedient
Depositional
Monoclinal
Bad
Ridge
Ridge
Land
4
5
6
7
0.45
45
720
2
3
4
5
0.22
22
352
2
3
4
0.14
14
224
2
3
0.09
9
144
2
0.06
6
96
0.04
4
64
Island
3
Pediment Erosional Pedient
Reclassified
Structural
Island Structural Ridge Monoclinal Ridge
Weight
Bad Land
Normalized weight (%)
value (Weight*Rank)
Consistency ratio:0.03
Appendix (9) Pair-wise comparison of slope map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio.
<1.9 <1.9 2-7.9 8-15.9 16-29.9
Normalized
Reclassified value
weight (%)
(Weight*Rank)
0.42
42
672
4
0.26
26
416
3
0.16
16
256
2
0.10
10
160
0.06
6
96
2-7.9
8-15.9
16-29.9
>30
Weight
2
3
4
5
2
3 2
>30
Consistency ratio:0.02
176
Appendices Appendix (10) Pair-wise comparison of soil map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio.
C3
Normalized
Reclassified value
weight (%)
(Weight*Rank)
0.53
53
742
0.33
33
462
0.14
14
196
C2.1
B2
Weight
2
3 3
C3 C2.1 B2
Consistency ratio:0.05
Appendix (11) Pair-wise comparison of LULC map, normalized weighs, and
Scrub/Shrub
Wetland, Permanent
1
3
1
2
5
1
1
0.14
14
196
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
0.07
7
98
3
1
2
5
1
1
0.13
13
182
3
5
2
1
1
0.06
6
84
2
4
1
1
0.12
12
168
5
2
2
0.23
23
322
4
4
0.03
3
42
1
0.11
11
154
0.11
11
154
Urban/Built-up Water
Herbaceous
Vegetated
Water
Grassland
Urban/Built-up
Forest, Evergreen
Scrub/Shrub
Forest, Deciduous
Grassland
Vegetated
Forest, Evergreen
Barren/Sparsely
3
Forest, Deciduous
Agriculture
Barren/Sparsely
Agriculture
consistency ratio. Reclassified Weight
Normalized weight (%)
value (Weight*Rank)
Wetland, Permanent Herbaceous Consistency ratio:0.02
177
Appendices Appendix (12) Pair-wise comparison of drainage density map, normalized weighs, and consistency ratio. <1.03 <1.03 1.03-2.06 2.06-3.09
3.09-4.1
Normalized
Reclassified value
weight (%)
(Weight*Rank)
0.42
42
168
4
0.26
26
104
3
0.16
16
64
2
0.10
10
40
0.06
6
24
1.03-2.06
2.06-3.09
3.09-4.1
>4.1
Weight
2
3
4
5
2
3 2
>4.1
Consistency ratio:0.02
178
Appendices
Appendix (13) The physical parameters and major ions concentrations in water well samples.
Well Parameters W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
W6
W7
W8
W9
W10
T °C
15.4
15.1
15.5
13.6
14.2
15.2
16
15.1
14.9
15.2
pH
7.5
7.6
7.6
7.4
7.3
7.6
7.3
7.6
7.6
7.2
EC (µS/cm)
513
400
296
447
583
365
820
403
388
588
TDS(mg/l)
380
318
310
340
390
286
435
326
359
435
TU (NTU)
2
3
3
5
3
3
3
5
3
5
SARadj
0.5
0.7
0.1
0.8
0.4
0.2
1.5
0.1
0.2
0.1
SSP
7.4
10.8
2.6
11.6
5.2
4.6
16.3
1.8
3.3
1.3
T.H. (mg/l)
275.5
209
209.9
247
260.8
193.8
285
199.5
266
304
ppm
73.6
68.4
84
76
106.4
74.4
93.9
87.4
76
94.7
epm
3.7
3.4
4.2
3.8
5.3
3.7
4.7
4.4
3.8
4.7
%epm
68.1
70.2
77.8
74.8
89.7
91.7
60
90.4
69.1
70.9
ppm
15.9
11.1
12.7
8.3
3.6
1.8
22.3
4.5
18.2
22.3
epm
1.3
0.9
1.06
0.7
0.3
0.2
1.9
0.4
1.5
1.9
%epm
24.5
19
19.6
13.5
5.06
3.7
23.7
7.8
27.6
27.8
ppm
8.7
11.7
2.5
12.7
6.7
3.8
28.5
1.8
3.8
1.8
epm
0.4
0.5
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.2
1.2
0.08
0.2
0.08
%epm
7
10.4
2
10.8
4.9
4.02
15.8
1.6
3
1.2
ppm
0.8
0.7
1.3
1.6
0.7
1
1.4
0.5
0.7
0.5
epm
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.01
0.02
0.01
%epm
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.3
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.2
ppm
26.6
12.04
14.9
10.1
19.3
14.7
36.8
23.8
17.4
10.1
epm
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.4
1.02
0.7
0.5
0.3
%epm
14.3
7.6
8.1
5.8
10
10.1
13.4
15.3
9.7
4.4
ppm
191.7
183.4
155.3
209.9
219.1
164.3
219.1
164.3
200.8
284.8
epm
3.1
3.01
2.6
3.4
3.6
2.7
3.6
2.7
3.3
4.7
%epm
60.9
67.9
50
70.8
66.7
66.5
46.9
62.2
65.8
73.4
ppm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
epm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%epm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ppm
61.3
52.3
102.5
54.7
60.3
45.5
146.2
46.9
58.9
67.6
epm
1.3
1.09
2.1
1.1
1.3
1
3.05
1
1.2
1.4
%epm
24.8
24.6
41.9
23.5
23.3
23.4
39.8
22.6
24.5
22.2
2
Ca
2+
Mg
+
Na
+
K
Cl
-
-
HCO3
2-
CO3
SO4
2-
179
Appendices Appendix (14) The physical parameters and major ions concentrations in water spring samples.
Springs Parameter S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
T °C
13
12.4
13.1
12.3
12.4
13.6
15.2
12.6
12.6
11
pH
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.4
8.01
7.5
7.7
7.7
7.6
8
EC (µS/cm)
525
498
355
340
460
455
366
396
368
603
TDS(mg/l)
401
359
325
324
372
369
300
300
340
410
TU (NTU)
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
5
SARadj
0.3
0.05
0.03
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
1.04
SSP
5.2
0.7
0.6
1.9
0.8
1.7
2.3
2
1.8
12.5
T.H. (mg/l)
269.8
262.2
304
218.5
266
257.7
237.5
216.6
231.8
290.7
ppm
91.2
60.8
64.6
68.4
79
76
60.8
64.8
68.4
83.8
epm
4.6
3.04
3.2
3.4
4
3.8
3.04
3.2
3.4
4.2
%epm
80.2
57.6
72.7
76.8
73.7
74
72.8
73.2
72.6
62.9
ppm
10
26.4
14.2
11.4
16.4
15
12.5
13.2
14.5
19.6
epm
0.8
2.2
1.2
1
1.4
1.3
1.04
1.1
1.2
1.6
%epm
14.7
41.7
26.6
21.3
25.5
24.3
25
24.9
25.6
24.6
ppm
5.7
0.8
0.5
1.8
0.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
18.6
epm
0.3
0.03
0.02
0.08
0.03
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.08
0.8
%epm
4.4
0.6
0.5
1.7
0.6
1.5
1.8
1.7
1.6
12.2
ppm
1.8
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.8
epm
0.05
0.004
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.02
%epm
0.8
0.08
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.1
0.3
ppm
13.8
14.7
13.8
11.04
12.8
14.7
11.04
13.8
12.8
32.2
epm
1
0.9
0.9
0.8
1.1
1
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.3
%epm
17.8
16.5
20.5
20.09
21.9
20.3
23
20.5
18.3
22.5
ppm
244.6
237.3
182.6
184.4
226.4
204.5
164.3
182.6
209.9
224.5
epm
4.01
3.9
3
3.02
3.7
3.4
2.7
3
3.4
3.7
%epm
75
75.5
70.5
72.6
71.3
71.04
69.2
70.5
74.08
62.4
ppm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
epm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%epm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ppm
45.8
40.9
41.8
40.2
54.7
46
42.9
41.8
40.7
63.6
epm
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.4
0.9
%epm
7.2
7.9
9.02
7.4
6.8
8.7
7.9
9.02
7.7
15.2
2+
Ca
2+
Mg
+
Na
+
K
Cl
-
-
HCO3
2-
CO3
SO4
2-
180
Appendices Appendix (15) The minor ions concentrations and heavy metals in water well samples.
Wells Parameter W1
W2
W3
W4
W5
W6
W7
W8
W9
W10
NO3- (mg/l)
30.3
16.9
3.5
2.1
33.09
22.09
50.8
22.3
17.2
1.9
PO43- (mg/l)
0.01
0.3
0.7
0.3
0.2
4.1
0.4
0.1
0.3
0.1
Zn2+(mg/l)
0.004
0.04
N.D
N.D
0.002
0.002
N.D
N.D
0.002
N.D
Pb2+(mg/l)
N.D
0.001
0.0002
0.007
0.001
N.D
N.D
0.005
0.0009
0.00002
Cu2+(mg/l)
N.D
N.D
0.0005
N.D
N.D
0.002
N.D
0.0004
N.D
0.0004
Cr2+(mg/l)
N.D
0.01
0.003
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.02
N.D
0.01
Cd2+(mg/l)
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.00001
Ni2+(mg/l)
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.01
N.D
Fetotal(mg/l)
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.007
0.01
N.D
N.D
0.009
Appendix (16) The minor ions concentrations and heavy metals in water spring samples.
Springs Parameter S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
NO3- (mg/l)
8.6
10.4
11.1
10.6
6.3
12.3
16.3
10.3
7.3
31.4
PO43- (mg/l)
0.3
0.3
1.6
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.5
Zn2+(mg/l)
0.004
0.0006
0.0009
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.0006
N.D
0.003
N.D
Pb2+(mg/l)
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.000009
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.00001
Cu2+(mg/l)
0.007
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.0004
N.D
N.D
N.D
Cr2+(mg/l)
0.01
0.005
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.02
N.D
N.D
Cd2+(mg/l)
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.003
N.D
N.D
Ni (mg/l)
N.D
N.D
0.007
0.02
0.02
0.0002
0.02
0.007
N.D
0.02
Fetotal(mg/l)
0.009
0.009
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.005
N.D
N.D
N.D
0.009
2+
181
ﺭﺳﻢ ﺧﺎﺭﻁﺔ ﻭﻓﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺗﺨﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺣﻠﺒﺠﺔ ﺷﻤﺎﻝ ﺷﺮﻕ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ.
ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﻣﻘﺪﻣﺔ ﺍﻟﻰ ﻣﺠﻠﺲ ﻓﺎﻛﻠﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻭ ﺗﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﺳﻜﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻡ ﻓﻲ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻛﺠﺰء ﻣﻦ ﻣﺘﻄﻠﺒﺎﺕ ﻧﻴﻞ ﺷﻬﺎﺩﺓ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺟﺴﺘﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻋﻠﻢ ﺍﻻ ﺭﺽ)ﻫﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ( ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ
ﻟﻪ ﻧﺠﻪ ﻓﺎﺭﻭﻭﻕ ﺭﺅﻭﻑ ﺑﻜﺎﻟﻮﺭﻳﻮﺱ ﺟﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ) ، (2007ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﻴﻤﺎﻧﻴﺔ
ﺑﺎﺷﺮﺍﻑ
ﺩ .ﺩﻳﺎﺭﻱ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺍﺳﺘﺎﺫ ﻣﺴﺎﻋﺪ
ﺍﻏﺴﻄﺲ 2014ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻼﺩﻳﺔ
ﺷﻮﺍﻝ 1435ﺍﻟﻬﺠﺮﻳﺔ
ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﻠﺺ ﺗﻘﻊ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺍﻕ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺧﻄﻲ ﻋﺮﺽ ) 3887000ﻡ( ﻭ ) 3901000ﻡ( ﺷﻤﺎﻻ ﻭ ﺧﻄﻲ ﻁﻮﻝ ) 578700ﻡ( ﻭ )601324ﻡ( ﺷﺮﻗﺎ ﻭ ﺗﺒﻠﻎ ﻣﺴﺎﺣﺘﻬﺎ ) 314.6ﻛﻢ.(2 ﺗﻤﺘﺎﺯ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺑﺸﺘﺎء ﺑﺎﺭﺩ ﻭ ﺻﻴﻒ ﺣﺎﺭ ﺍﺫ ﻳﺘﺮﺍﻭﺡ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺩﺭﺟﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ ﻣﺎ ﺑﻴﻦ ) ⁰35.17 -7.3ﻡ( .ﺍﻥ %90ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ ﻟﻬﻄﻮﻝ ﺍﻻﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺷﻬﺮﻱ ﺗﺸﺮﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ ﻭ ﻧﻴﺴﺎﻥ ،ﺑﻠﻎ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ ﻟﺴﻘﻮﻁ ﺍﻻﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﻟﻠﻔﺘﺮﺓ ) 698.1) (2012-2002ﻣﻠﻢ( ،ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ ﻟﻠﺮﻁﻮﺑﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ) ،(%42.6ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺩﺭﺟﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺍﺭﺓ ⁰21.2ﻡ ،ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ ﻟﺴﺮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺎﺡ 1.4ﻡ/ﺛﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻮﻱ ﻟﻠﺘﺒﺨﺮ )2333.21 ﻣﻠﻢ( .ﺗﻢ ﺣﺴﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺯﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ) (Mehtaﻭﻛﺎﻥ ﻣﻘﺪﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ 154.3ﻣﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ % 22.1ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻟﻼﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ ﻭ ﺣﺴﺐ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ) (SCSﻓﺎﻥ ﻛﻤﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺢ ﻛﺎﻧﺖ 163.46ﻣﻠﻢ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ % 23.41ﻣﻦ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻟﻼﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻗﻄﺔ . ﺗﻢ ﺗﺨﻤﻴﻦ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻜﻤﻦ ﺗﺮﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻲ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﻁﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺗﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﻛﺘﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭ ﻭﻗﺪ ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﻌﺪﻝ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻫﻮ 158.74ﻣﻠﻢ ﺳﻨﻮﻳﺎ َ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻤﺜﻞ . % 32.2 ﻫﻨﺎﻙ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﺎﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺭﺳﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﺭﺍﺳﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻜﻤﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﻬﻔﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺸﻘﻘﻲ ﺍﻟﻄﺒﺎﺷﻴﺮﻱ ﻭ ﻣﻜﻤﻦ ﺗﺮﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻲ،ﺍﻥ ﺣﺮﻛﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﺸﺮﻗﻲ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﺑﻲ . ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﺦ ﺍﻻﺧﺘﺒﺎﺭﻱ ﻟﻼﺑﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﺮﻗﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻟﻐﺔ ﻋﺪﺩﻫﺎ ) (3ﺃﺑﺎﺭ ﻟﻤﻜﻤﻦ ﺗﺮﺳﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻲ ﺍﻥ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﻳﺪﺭﻭﻟﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﺗﺮﺍﻭﺣﺖ ﺑﻴﻦ ) (1.19 -0.21ﻡ/ﻳﻮﻡ ﻭ ﺍﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﻗﻠﻴﺔ ﺗﺰﺩﺍﺩ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﻮﺏ ﺍﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺸﻤﺎﻝ ﻭ ﻫﺬﺍ ﻳﺪﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻜﻤﻦ ﻟﺘﻮﺻﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻻﺗﺠﺎﻩ. ﺗﻢ ﺗﻘﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻓﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻣﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻭ ﻧﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﻠﻮﻣﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻐﺮﺍﻓﻴﺔ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺋﺞ ﺑﺎﻥ ﻣﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺗﺘﻤﻴﺰ ﺑﺜﻼﺛﺔ ﺍﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﻣﻦ ﻭﻓﺮﺓ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻭﻫﻲ )ﻗﻠﻴﻞ،ﻣﺘﻮﺳﻂ ،ﻋﺎﻟﻲ( . ﺑﻴﻨﺖ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺍﻻﺑﺎﺭ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻮﻥ ﺑﺎﻧﻬﺎ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻋﺪﻳﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻮﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺋﺤﺔ ﻭ ﺫﺍﺕ ﻣﺤﺘﻮﻯ ﻭﺍﻁﻲء ﻣﻦ ﺍﻻﻣﻼﺡ ﺍﻟﺬﺍﺋﺒﺔ ﻳﺴﻮﺩ ﻓﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻳﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﻜﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺎﻩ ﺑﻴﻜﺎﺭﺑﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻭ ﺗﺒﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﺔ ﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺻﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﻟﻠﺸﺮﺏ ﻋﺪﺍ ﺑﺌﺮ ﺭﻗﻢ ﺳﺘﺔ ﻻﻧﻪ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻧﺴﺒﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﺎﺕ 4.1 ﻣﻠﻐﻢ/ﻟﺘﺮ ﻭ ﺻﺎﻟﺤﺔ ﻟﺘﺮﺑﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻭﺍﺟﻦ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ﻭﺍﻻﻏﺮﺍﺽ ﺍﻟﺰﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻨﺎء ﻭﺍﻻﻧﺸﺎءﺍﺕ ﻭﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﺎﺕ . ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺣﺴﺎﺑﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺴﺤﻨﻲ ﻭ ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻧﺎﻣﺞ ) ( WATEQ4Fﺗﺒﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻏﻠﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﻫﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺣﺎﻟﺔ ﺗﺤﺖ ﺍﻻﺷﺒﺎﻉ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻤﻌﺎﺩﻥ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻟﺴﺎﻳﺖ ﻭﺍﺭﻛﻮﻧﺎﻳﺖ ﻭﺩﻭﻟﻮﻣﺎﻳﺖ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺒﺴﻮ ﺍﻧﻬﺎﻳﺪﺭﺍﻳﺖ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻛﻨﻴﺴﺎﻳﺖ.
ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ ﺗﺤﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺎﺋﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ) (18O , 2Hﺗﺒﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﻨﻤﺎﺫﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻴﺔ ﺗﻘﻊ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺨﻂ ﺍﻟﺠﻮﻱ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻭ ﺧﻂ ﺣﻠﺒﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﻭﻫﺬﺍ ﺩﻟﻴﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﻥ ﻣﻴﺎﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻟﺔ %50ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﻁﻮﺑﺔ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﺨﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻀﺐ .ﺗﻢ ﺍﺳﻘﺎﻁ ﻗﻴﻢ ﺍﻻﻣﻄﺎﺭ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺟﻴﺪ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺨﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺎﺋﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺎﻟﻤﻲ ﻭ ﻧﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﺬﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻄﻘﺔ ﻫﻮ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺷﺮ.
دروست كردنى نةخشةي زؤري ئاوي ذيَر زةوي و خةمالَندني برِي ثرِبونةوةي ئاوي ذيَر زةوي بؤ ناوضةي هةلَةجبة لة باكووري رِؤذهةالَتي عيَراق
نامةيةكة ثيَشكةش كراوة بة ئةجنومةني فاكلَيت زانست و ثةروةردة زانستةكان سكولَى زانست لة زانكؤي سليَماني وةك بةشيَك لة ثيَداويستيةكاني بةدةستهيَناني برِوانامةي ماستةري زانست لة زةويناسي)هايدرؤجيوَلوَجي(
لةاليةن
لةجنة فارووق رؤوف
بةكالوريوَس لة جيوَلوَجي ( ، )7002زانكؤي سليَماني
بةسةرثةرشيت
د .دياري علي حممد
ثرؤفيسؤري ياريدةدةر
ئاب 7002زاييين
خةرمانان 7202كوردي
ثوختة ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراو دةكةويَتة بةشي باكوري رِؤذهةالَتي عيَراق لة نيَوان هةردوو هيَلَي ثاني ( 7883000م) و (7003000م) بة ئارِاستةي باكوور وة هةردوو هيَلَي دريَذي ( 738300م) و ( 603731م) بة ئارِاستةي رِؤذهةالَت .ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراو رِووبةري ( )73116كيلؤمةتر دووجا دةطريَتةوة. كةشوهةواي هةلَةجبة بة زستاني سارد و هاويين طةرم ناسراوة كة ثلةي طةرمي لة نيَوان()77133-317ثلةي سانتيطراداية .نزيكةي %00برِي باراني ساالَنة لة مانطةكاني نيَوان نوظةمبةر و ئةثريل دةباريَتِ ،ريَذةي ساالَنةي باران بارين بؤ ماوةي ( )3033-3003برييت ية لة 60813مليمةترِ ،ريَذةي ساالَنةي رِادةي شيَ برييت ية لة (ِ ،)%1316ر َيذةي ثلةي طةرمي برييت ية لة 3313ثلةي سانتيطرادِ ،ريَذةي ساالَنةي خيَرايي با برييت ية لة311 مةتر لة ضركةيةكدا،وة برِي ساالَنةي هةلَمي ئاو برييت ية لة 3777133مليمةتر .بة ثشتبةسنت بة ِريَطاي ( )atheMبؤ هاوسةنطي ئاو برِي ثرِبوونةوةي ئاوي ذيَر زةوي برييت ية لة 371.7مليمةتر كة دةكاتة %3313لة كؤي باران بارين .بةثيَي رِيَطاي ( )SCSئاوي سةر ِريَذ برييت ية لة 367116مليمةتر كة ئةم برِة دةكاتة %37113لة كؤي باران بارين . هةردوو ريَطاي كالسيكي و دووبارة ضاكراوي هاوسةنطي بارستةي كلؤرايد بؤ خةمالَندني ثرِبوونةوةي ئاوي ذيَرزةوي ئةوة دةردةخةن كة تؤرِي ثرِبوونةوةي ساالَنة بوَ كؤطاي سةرةكي ئاوي ذيَرزةوي ضاخي ضواري ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراو برييت ية لة 370.61مليمةتر وة 378131مليمةتر،يةك لة دواي يةك. ذمارةيةكي زؤر كؤطاي ئاوي هةية لة ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراودا وةك كارسيت جوراسيك و كارسيت درزيين كريستاسي و كؤطاي ئاوي ضاخي ضواري .ئارِاستةي جولَةي ئاوي ذيَرزةوي لة باشووري رِؤذهةالَتةوة بة ئارِاستةي باكووري رِؤذئاوا دة ِروات. تاقيكردنةوةي كؤطاي ئاوي بؤ سيَ بريي ئاو ئةجنام درا كة كؤطاي ئاوي ضاخي ضواري برِيووة ،دةريدةخات كة برِي طةياندني هايدرؤليكي لة نيَوان ( ) 3130-0133مةترداية لة رِؤذيَكدا وة دياريكةري تيَثةرِاندني ئاو زياد دةكات لة باشوورةوة بؤ باكوور ئةمةش تواناي كؤطا ئاويةكة دةردةخات بؤ بالَوكردنةوةي ئاو بةو ئارِاستةيةي كة ئاماذةي ثيَدرا.
ليَكؤلَينةوةي ئاوي ذيَرزةوي بؤ ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراو بة بةكارهيَناني ثرؤسةي ِريَساي ليَكؤلَينةوةي زجنريةيي وة سيستةمي زانياري جوطرايف ( )SISدةردةكةويَت كة ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراو لة سيَ جؤر لة زؤري ئاوي ذيَرزةوي ثيَكديَت كة بريتني لة (زؤر ،ناوةند ،كةم). ثاش ئةجنام داني شيكاري كيمياوي بؤ منونةي ئاوي بري و كانييةكان ،دةركةوت كة بيَ رِةنط و بؤنن وة ب ِريَكي كةم خويَي تواوةي تيَداية ،وة تومخي باو لة ئاوةكاندا برييت ية لة كالسيَوم و بيكاربؤنات هةربؤية جؤري ئاوةكان برييت ية لة ئاوي كلسي بيكار بؤنات .لة ناوضةي بايةخ ثيَدراودا ئاوةكان شياون بؤ خواردنةوة بيَجطة لة بريي ذمارة شةش كة ب ِريَكي زؤر فؤسفاتي تيَداية ( )113مليطرام بؤ هةر ليرتيَك هةروةها طوجناوة بؤ ئاذةلَ و بالَندة و طشتوكالَ و ئاوةدان كردنةوة و ضةند جؤريَكي ثيشةسازي . لة رِووي تايبةمتةندي هاوسةنطي يةوة بة بةكارهيَناني بةرنامةي كؤمثيوتةري تايبةت ( )ETAWQ1Fدةركةوت كة زؤربةي منونة ئاويةكان لة ذيَر تيَربووندان بةثيَي كالسايت،ئةرةطؤنايت،دؤلؤمايت ،جيبسةم،ئةنهايدرايت،وة مةطنيسايت. لة رِووي ليَكؤلَينةوةي هاوتاي ذينطةي يةوة بؤ ( ، )38O ، 3Hهةموو منونة ئاويةكان دة كةونة نيَوان هيَلَي ئاوي كةشي جيهاني و هيَلَي ئاوي كةشي هةلَةجبة ،كة ئةمةش ئةوة دةردةخات كة منونة ئاويةكان لة ذيَر بارودؤخي %70 شيَ و هةلَم بة شيَوةيةكي بةهيَز رِؤضووة .داتاي دابارين دةكةويَتة سةرووي هيَلَي ئاوي كةشي جيهاني يةوة. ميكانيزمي ثرِبوونةوةي ئاوي ذيَرزةوي برييت ية لة ثرِبوونةوةي رِاستةوخؤ.
