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COORDINATION OR PARTICIPATION LABOR POLICY IN SMALL-SCALE PROCESS-INNOVATING COMPANIES Erik POUTSMA University of Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands ABSTRACT This study about labor policy in small and medium-sized enterprisees concentrates on the question how entrepreneurs of smaller enterprises organize the labor and the necessary skills in their company. When new technology is implemented the production process is rearranged in such a way that the existing vertical and horizontal division of labor is replaced by a new division of labor. This process involves a change in the skills that are required from the employees in the companies. To control and to manage these change in a effective way to meet the requirements of the market are the central aspects of strategic labor policy. The study aims at developing a theory about labor policy in process-innovating small and medium-sized enterprises. The configuration of technology, labor and organization in the small and medium-sized enterprises is described. These configurations are called arrangements. The research leads to the formulation of verifiable theses about the strategic labor policy in processinnovating small and medium-sized enterprises. The central question is: Do entrepreneurs of small-scale process-innovating companies follow a strategic labor policy, i.e. do they organize the labor and skills according to specific arrangements and does this policy take changes in the environment into account? The research was based on nine longitudinal in-depth case-studies of companies which have implemented advanced computer systems and computer equipment over a period of five years. 1. Introduction This study is about labor policy in small and medium-sized enterprisees. It concentrates on the question how entrepreneurs of smaller enterprises organize the labor and the necessary skills in their company. When new technology or process-innovation is implemented the production process is rearranged in such a way that the existing vertical and horizontal division of labor is replaced by a new division of labor. This process involves a change in the skills that are required from the employees in the companies. The specific configuration of technology, organization of labor and organization of skills is the topic of study. To control and to manage these change in a effective way to meet the requirements of the market are the central aspects of strategic labor policy. The study tries to develop a theory about labor policy in process-innovating small and medium-sized enterprises. The configurations of technology, labor and organization in these small enterprises are described. These configurations are called arrangements. The research leads to the formulation of verifiable theses about the strategic labor policy, i.e. the arrangements in process-innovating small and medium-sized enterprises. The central question is:

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Do entrepreneurs of small-scale process-innovating companies follow a strategic labor policy, i.e. do they organize the labor and skills according to specific arrangements and does this policy take changes in the environment into account? The structure of the paper is as follows. Paragraph 2 provides a short discussion of the methods used. This results in the use of a descriptive framework which has been further presented in paragraph 3. Paragraph 4 gives a short overview of the main results. In paragraph 5 the results are discussed in greater detail. 2. Method and framework The research was based on nine case-studies of companies which have implemented advanced computer systems and computer equipment: four industrial companies and five business services. These nine companies were researched in the period 1985-1990. We have obtained a detailed picture of each of the nine companies with regard to their policy and their actual practice in the demarcated areas. The data were put in diagrams developed on the basis of a grounded theoretical framework. The analysis consisted of a comparison over time (1985-1990) and a comparison of the companies with each other. The limited number of meaningful concepts and theories which could explain the often claimed irrational, complex and difficult to understand small firm behavior makes it worthwhile to design and carry out an more in depth exploratory study. The study has been designed for the purpose of constructing conceptual categories and a theory and discuss organizational processes in small firms from a management perspective. We used two methodological approaches to design the research (see Poutsma, 1993 for a full account of these approaches and subsequent research design). First, the grounded theory approach of Glaser and Strauss (1967) has been used as a central device for the methodology. His approach has been proved useful in description and analysis of strategic behavior, or what is called the entrepreneurial process (cf. Brytting, 1990). The second methodological input has come from the prescriptive casestudy method elaborated by Yin (1984). A careful discussion of both methods has led to a slightly changed casestudy method based on the grounded theory approach. While Yin prescribes a pre-stated theoretical model Glaser and Strauss stress that no formal theoretical model should be used in the process of theory building. 'Possible use of a formal model of integration can be determined only after a substantive model has sufficiently emerged' (1967:41). An argument against this would be that it is not clear how this emerging process in the mind of the researcher proceeds and how this process could be reproduced. This is the reason that we made explicit a initial framework. This framework has been elaborated by researching and discussing the existing theoretical literature and performed empirical research. This elaborated framework denoted the items to be researched according to the grounded approach i.e. it directed the path to main categories and subcategories. In the next paragraph this framework will be presented. 3. Theoretical framework We have concentrated on strategy as the 'entrepreneurial process' of observing opportunities and designing an organization (of

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labor) to seize these opportunities. The attention is centred on contingency of changes in the organization of labor in terms of integration, polarization, segumentation for groups of functions in a specific period of time (cf. Sorge, 1989). This approach of the problem by the combination of actions or strategic options and structural contingencies of the external and internal environment makes it possible to formulate in detail the 'Gestalt' of strategic labor policy in the observed innovating company. So-called standard images of organizations have been used as starting points for the analysis. The development of thinking about organizations, and hence the expected arrangements of strategic labor policy, is considered (by organization studies and industrial sociology) to be the development of three general standard images (Cf. Morgan, 1986, Bums and Stalker, 1961). The first image consists in viewing the organization as a machine. All elements and aspects of an organization are logically connected and can be predicted, deducing from the strategic objectives of the company. The second image is that of the organism and the third that of the learning organization. These images have subsequently been fleshed out with the empirical categories relevant for this study. In other words these images comprise the main categories to be described and analyzed in the assessment of strategic labor policy in innovating companies. The following empirical categories of standard images have been deduced from the literature: the characterization of management and entrepreneurship (Morgan, 1986; Hofstede, 1980); the development of strategy in the company (cf Romme 1990(b); Weick, 1979); organizing, coordinating; motivating (Morgan, 1986; see also De Moor, 1992); the significance of labor and skills; and the characterization of recruitment and allocation in the company (cf Beer, 1984). Scheme 1 presents an over-view of the standard images and respective empirical categories. Elaborated in this way, the three standard images have been used as hypothetical arrangements of technology, labor and organization. Entrepreneurs/managers have views on what the arrangement in their company should be like, they act (organize) on the basis of a concept which has been more or less worked out (an explanatory framework or a pattern of thought) and which can be related in a greater or lesser degree to the standard images mentioned above. Subsequently we established that various organizationalsociological approaches: contingency theory, early sociotechnics, have attempted to underpin, flesh out and differentiate the basic typology of mechanic, organic and learning organizations. They often fall back on the revisionist intention of rendering the organization more organic/designing an organization along more organic lines for the sake of flexibility and quality of work and the quality of organization (mainly in terms of effective performance). In addition, we have chiefly studied industrial-sociological approaches that attempt to flesh out and underpin the strategic actions of the management. This review of the theoretical literature leads to a descriptive model (see scheme 2) in which clusters of main categories and subcategories can be denoted as well as the strategic actions or options involved.

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The approaches are: - Strategic choice approach (Child et al., 1984) - Economic determinism (Kern and Schumann, 1970) - Business autonomy approach (Altmann et al., 1978) - Autonomy approach (Fricke, 1975, 1983; Fricke et al., 1979) - Organizational technology (Brandt et al., 1978) - Systemic rationalization (Altmann et al. 1986; Baethge and 0berbeck, 1986) - Strategic approach (mainly (dutch) Labor Process approach) (Friedman, 1977; Doorewaard et al., 1983) - Modern Sociotechnical systems approach (De Sitter et al, 1986; De Sitter, 1989) SCHEME 1 STANDARD

Machine

Organism

Learning organization

Management and entrepreneurship

* * * *

analytical * formulating * creating concentralistic and discussing ditions for regulative objectives formulating performance * regulating the objectives directed social climate * participative

Strategy formation

* rational * attuning to analytic the environobjectives ment formulation * qualifying * quantitative quantities parameters

Organizing

* design * structuring * providing structure processes conditions with specia- * flexible operfor learning lization ations within * negociating * standardiboundaries over operzation en ations of splitting autonomous tasks groups

Coordination

* Hierarchy * functional * bureaucratic attuning * coordination of social actions

Labor

* labor power * performance

Motivating

* payment * rewards * commitment according to * ability to de- * ability to performance velop learn

* environment part of the business concept * throughout planning on the basis of qualities

* projects * communication

* learning abil- * investment ity * innovation * functional capacity flexibility * deployability

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Skills

* deduced from * deduced from technique and targets work-organi- * broader zation * small

* deduced from the process: how to deal with dilemmas * to work in teams

Recruitment and allocation

* deduced re- * organizing * mobilizing quirements human requirehuman from proucments resources tion structure

Source: Poutsma, E. (1993) Tussen Meedenken en Meedoen. Arbeidsbeleid in kleinschalige procesinnovatieve bedrijven. Brussel: VUB-Press These approaches reveal a shift in the interpretation of the strategic actions of the management: a shift from intentional control to regulation, with recognition of the fundamental reciprocity of control and the importance of measures which encourage acceptation. In this respect it is also noted that achievements can be influenced both by means of structural change and by means of direct manipulation of the operations. Starting from a critical review of determinism, we gradually show the significance of (structural) contingency, the uncertainty in decision-making, and the importance of informal processes. These factors make the relationship strategy - structure indefinite. Equifinality and open system approach then offer a perspective for a meaningful representation of the relationships. It is the interaction that matters, as is shown by various approaches and schools of thought. Also, the most recent standard images rather speak of ambiguity than of determining relationships. After a thorough review of the empirical literature 20 strategy variables and 43 contingency factors are being formulated. This model has then being used as a analytical tool for the casestudies. Especially important in the theoretical and empirical literature are the discussions of the following set or string of relationships: that between .... - market flexibility (economic context and commercial options) and an increase in output variety (output characteristics), - the necessity of decentralized control (options: design of production process), - a technical division of labor which supports people at work instead of controlling them, - an organization of labor (options: labor policy) designed with a view to integrated functions, and - recruitment (options: labor policy) aimed at vertically deployable employees for whom specific favorable labor terms are arranged. In addition, a situation like this naturally provides a great deal of open consultation and initiative, and therefore can be said to provide participative management. With this, the type of the learning organization (standard image) is on the horizon, a

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type of organization associated with so-called new production concepts and new employment concepts (Kern & Schumann, 1984; Schumann et al., 1990). SCHEMA 2:

ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

economic technological context labor market & context context industrial relations ----------------------------------------------------------------/|\ | \|/ strategic options: commerial design production technical division labor options process of labor policy ----------------------------------------------------------------/|\ | \|/ internal context: output characteristics

process characteristics

organization charact.

technical charact.

personnel charact.

Of equal importance are, conversely, the following string of relationships: that between .... - a stable market and a decrease in product variety (economic context and commercial options), - central control (design production process), - a technical division of labor aimed at control, - split functions, and recruitment (labor policy) aimed at directly deployable employees, with unfavorable labor terms aimed at flexibilization, - without consultation and initiative, with a - regulatory management operating principally in an adaptive fashion. This brings us to the mechanical type of organization (standard image), which is associated with the traditional concepts of production and labor. 4. Results Strategic labor policy and arrangements found In the companies that were studied, arrangements are used which in most cases are a mixture of characteristics of the standard images `machine', `organism' and `learning organization'. Characteristics of the learning organization are the least frequent. In other words, the `fit' that was found can comprise a consistent pattern, but this pattern cannot be described unequivocally by means of the ideal-typical standard images. It turns out that the arrangements of a majority of the processinnovating companies contain a large number of aspects of the organic standard image. The company studies also reveal that shifts have occurred in the mixture during the period of study,

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1985 - 1990. The following summary of results with respect of the contingent factors are reported (see Poutsma, 1993 for a full account of the relationships): * Maximum variation in the output - i.e. individual pieces and small batch production - can be accompanied with centralized detailed production management. * Detailed production management becomes possible with advanced computer systems. * Detailed production management can be accompanied by integration of labor activities. * Detailed production management allows integration of human tasks at the lowest possible level, i.e. executing activities with a number of planning and/or supporting activities. * The level at which integration of these tasks takes place depends on a minimum level of commitment on the part of the employees, This minimum level is necessary to safeguard quality and continuation. * In view of the last factor, it is necessary to pay emphatic attention to commitment and attachment to the company in a tight labor market. * Increased self-activation of the technical systems, in combination with enhanced logistic production control, allows the pursuit of a labor policy aimed at a division of labor by separation of executing and controltasks, even in the context of small batch production, provided that an attachment strategy (motivation management) is used and that output and process variation are limited. * A maximum degree of output and process variation can be realized by means of machine groups (partially fractionized option, emphasis on horizontal deployability), with centralized control of the process and separation of executing and controltasks. * There is a relationship between the controlling options and the commitment of the employees, in which the complexity of the process and the output is an important restrictive factor. The possibilities of direct control are limited by the employees' commitment. Relative autonomy of employees is expedient in those situations in which the process is complex and in which commitment threatens to diminish if there is too much intervention from above. * The technical system is one of the factors ensuring that the options of direct control and standardization and splitting of executing operations can be implemented. This short summary of the results indicates that the hypotheses mainly concentrate on the relationships among commercial options, with consequences for the output and process variation, the technical division of labor and the labor policy. It turns out that, in the ultimate design of the organization of labor, an important part is played by the selected definitions of the labor relations, and because of this, by the relationship with the labor market. The study addresses these relationships in greater detail. In the next paragraph we will concentrate on the discussion of the results against the more general background of theory and empirical research.

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5. Discussion of the results Regulatory management, organism and innovation The literature posits a relationship between a company's phase of development and its management style (Bird, 1989). In the first phase of growth and innovation, entrepreneurs rather emphasize or spend more time on direct supervision. In other words, the first phases of both growth and innovation are characterized by a regulatory style of management. The literature also produces the thesis that innovating entrepreneurs spend less time on administrative controlling tasks than adaptive entrepreneurs; according to this view, innovating entrepreneurs are more externally oriented and try to anticipate changing circumstances by means of reorganization, whereas non-innovating entrepreneurs are more internally oriented and react to changing circumstances by adapting the organization. In view of the present study, the theses mentioned above must be qualified. The combination `regulatory management' and `organic characteristics' may be interpreted with the twin concepts `growth - consolidation' and `innovatory - non-innovatory'. A company's growth means a change in structures and a change in relationships. To bring about these changes, it is advisable to have direct control over employees, that is, regulatory management, at any rate in small-scale companies. Innovation presupposes change of content, presupposes organic characteristics in order to translate this changing content into structures. In other words: growth implies regulatory management. Innovation implies organic characteristics. Regulatory management and labor relations The research revealed that personal supervision and control (even `beyond contract' (cf. Fox, 1974)) is an important strategy of action in the labor policy for the entrepreneur/manager. This is the means by which he attempts to reduce the uncertainty and attempts to be continually assured of the optimum effort of his employees (cf. Scase and Goffee, 1982). It turns out that control by means of technology and personal control can be complementary. It appears that, on account of the increasing control of the production process by means of computer systems, direct control and supervision of labor by the manager/entrepreneur can be reduced in favor of a more indirect control of labor by means of relative autonomy. After all, the increase in technical control, in combination with an increase in the self-activation of the technical systems, means that the system-dependent human taskdomain become more independent of the transformation process as such. Transparency and measurability of the individual performance play a smaller part in controlling the total process. It is the willingness to delegate (a restriction of regulatory management) which then determines to what extent this `decentralization' in terms of relative autonomy actually takes place in this situation. At any rate, the frameworks for designing the organization of labor are determined by the technical systems and by the entrepreneur/manager.

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Segmentation In the companies there is segmentation in the workforce, i.e. the segmentation between executing (operating) and controlling (preparatory and programming) employees. Decentralization by means of responsible autonomy (cf. Friedman, 1987) can (even on such a small scale as this) be accompanied by segmentation. This means that responsible autonomy is implemented in each of the segments distinguished. Especially for executing employees, this results in a restriction of vertical deployability, a restriction of qualification and career possibilities, and a reduced emphasis on learning potential. An important restraint in this respect is the tightness of the labor market and the fact that the company is dependent on their employees (labor intensive process, professional skilled workers (in business services)) (cf. Sengenberger, 1987). Flexibility In the companies we have looked into, output complexity has increased during the course of the period of study. This greater degree of complexity is not immediately translated into an increased complexity of the production process, which would necessitate integrative task structures. The increase of the output complexity is partially `compensated for' by the advanced computer systems. This is not only realized by integrating the transformations carried out by the technical system, but also by the increased controllability of the flow of goods and the data flow in connection with control of the operations: both people and machines. The direct relationship between on the one hand, the functional requirement of output flexibility that companies are faced with, and, on the other hand, functional flexibility in the organization of labor (cf. Mendius et al. 1987; Piore and Sabel, 1984), must therefore be qualified. An increase of the selfactivation of technology by means of logistic control systems makes it possible to enhance the segmentation of the organization of labor, so that maximum output flexibility is accompanied by fractionized/split options in the organization of labor and by restriction of the functional flexibility. Dependence on the labor market The companies have had to deal with a tight labor market, in the `lower' as well as in the `upper' segment. The companies' reaction aims at driving back this dependence and consists of a mixture of measures. The `traditional' measure of implementing automation as a replacement for employees who are hard to come by always plays a part, but is never the main issue. An important measure is changing the organization of labor in a way which allows a reduction of the required level of training and experience, so that the company can strike out upon a wider labor market. Adjusting the desired level of training and experience downwards in order to reach a wider labor market is a measure which is limited by the production process, the commitment of the employees and the insight of the entrepreneur/manager into the

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applicability of various types of qualification. This option is circumscribed by the production process: at which level can the split option and segmentation be implemented. That is to say, it is a condition that a separation or split in the division of levels of taskdomain is possible, without resulting in large functional barriers in the production process. Another constraint is the resistance of the current employees, although such resistance can be `solved' with specific compensation measures in labor terms. New production and labor concepts and small-scale enterprises In the discussion about the role of the small and medium-sized enterprise, the increased functional significance of this category of enterprises in the economy, is quite often associated with positive qualities of the smaller enterprises with regard to labor-organizational and social relations (cf. Curran, 1990). The smaller enterprises are posited as a means to compensate for the negative aspects of the organization of labor and labor relations of larger companies, or they are posited as an alternative (Sabel, 1982; Piore and Sabel, 1984). As regards the introduction of new technologies, we therefore formulate the thesis that the nature of the labor process in smaller companies offers favorable conditions for the implementation of what are called open, decentralized technical systems. In other words, small and medium-sized companies, on account of their structure, would have a better chance of human-oriented, anthropocentric forms of automation than large companies (Brodner, 1987; Wobbe, 1991). For this reason, the small and medium-sized enterprise would then also be the exponent of the breach with the Tayloristic organization (Laville, 1988; 1991). Others add, that smaller companies have a greater chance of participative management. This is based among other things on the fact that the social distance between the entrepreneur/manager and his employees is relatively small, as a result of which employees are more likely participate and to have a say in the running of it (Scase and Goffee, 1982; Hilbert and Sperling, 1990). It is assumed that these factors are also connected with the innovation potential of the company. The empirical results of the present study lead to a relative position of the small-scale process-innovatory company in this debate. There is a positive relationship between task integration for strategic categories of employees next to a broadly defined employment relationship with specific labor terms for these employees under the regime of regulatory management of commitment and motivation and under the constraint of smallscaledness. The constraint of small-scale means that the variable `size', with regard to output as well as process, limits the possibilities of splitting and segmentation on the one hand. The long and the short of it is, that `splitting' is not a realistic option in small-scale enterprises, because further possibilities of splitting are limited or lacking on account of the volume of the operations. On the other hand, small-scaledness offers the opportunity of gaining a direct, detailed and personal insight into the running of things. This makes it possible to create a regulatory mechanical regime for the plannable segment of the

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labor process. The thesis that there is a direct relationship between smallscaledness and an organization of labor with integrative qualities i.e. less division of work and more participation in management on the part of employees, must be qualified. Processinnovating companies seem to opt for vertical deployability and favorable terms for the part of the workforce which participate in tactical and strategic issues, and for horizontal deployability and favorable conditions for the part of the workforce which cooperates in executing tasks. The phenomenon of participation is enhanced if there is a fairly labor-intensive provision of services and if the level of qualifications of the employees is rather high. BIBLIOGRAPHY Acs, Z.J., D.B. Audretsch (1990) Innovation and Small Firms. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts Altmann, N., G. Bechtle, J. Lutz (1978) Betrieb-Technik-Arbeit. Elemente einer soziologischer Analytik technischorganisatorischer Veranderungen. Campus, Frankfurt/New York Altmann, N., M. Deiss, V. Dahl, D. Sauer (1986) Ein "Neuer Rationalisierungstyp". In: Soziale Welt, vol. 2, nr. 3, p. 191201 Baethge, M., H. Oberbeck. (1986) Zukunft der Angestellten: Neue Technologien und berufliche Perspektiven in Buro und Verwaltung. Campus Verlag, Frankfurt (etc) Beer, M, B. Spector, P.R. Lawrence, D.Q. Mills, R.E. Walton (1984) Managing human assets. The Free Press, Macmillan, New York Benders, J. (1993) Optional Options: Work Design and Manufacturing Automation. Aldershot, Avebury Birch, D. (1987) Job Creation in America. Free Press, New York Bird, B. (1988) Implementing Entrepreneurial Ideas: The Case for Intention. In: Academy of Management Review Bird, B. (1989) Entrepreneurial Behavior. Glenview, Ill.: Scott, Foresman and Co Borum F., P.H. Kristensen (eds) (1989) Technological innovation and organizational change: Danish patterns of knowledge, networks and culture. Copenhagen: New Social Science Monographs Brandt, G., B. Kundig, Z. Papadimitriou, J. Thomae (1978) Computer und Arbeitsprozesz. Frankfurt & New York: Campus Brodner, P. (1986) Fabrik 2000: alternative Entwicklungspfade in die Zukunft der Fabrik. Berlin: Sigma Bohn Brodner, P. (ed) (1987). Strategic options for "New Production Systems' - CHIM: Computer and Human Integrated Manufacturing, FAST-paper 150, CEC, Brussel Brytting, T. (1987) Small Tech Human Touch. In: Poutsma, E. and A. Walravens Technology and Small Enterprises-Technology, Autonomy and Industrial Organization, p.39-63. Delft University Press, Delft Brytting, T. (1990) Spontaneity and Systematic Planning in Small Firms - a grounded theory approach. International Small Business Journal, vol. 9, no. 1, Oct-Dec., p 45-63 Brytting, T. (1991) Organizing in the small growing firm. A grounded theory approach. EFI. Stockholm

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Burns, T. (1967), The comparative study of organizations, in: Vroom, V.H. (red). Methods of organizational research. Pittsburgh: P. 113-169. Burns, T., G.M. Stalker (1961) The management of Innovation. London Child, J. (1972) Organizational Structure, Environment and Performance: The Role of Strategic Choice. In: Sociology, vol. 6, p. 1-22 Child, J. (1985) Managerial strategies, New Technology and the Labor Process. In: Knights, D., H. Willmott, D. Collinson. Job redesign, Gower, Aldershot Child, J., H.-D. Ganter, A. Kieser (1987) Technological Innovation and Organizational Conservatism. In: Pennings J., A. Buitendam (eds). New Technology as Organizational Innovation. Cambridge, Mass. Child, J., R. Loveridge, J. Harvey, A. Spencer (1984) Microelectronics and the quality of employment in services. In: Marstrand, P. (ed): Now technology and the future of work, P. 163-190. Francis Pinter. London. Churchill, C.W., V.L. Lewis (1983) The five stages of small business growth. Harvard Business Review, May-June, p30-50 Curran, J. (1990) Rethinking economic structure: exploring the role of the small firm and self-employment in the British economy, In: Work, Employment and Society. Special Issue, May, p. 125-146 Donckels, R. en A. Miettinen (1990) New findings and perspectives in entrepreneurship. Aldershot. Doorewaard, H., M. van Klaveren, F. Pot, M. van der Woude (eds) (1983) `Stratego op bedrijfsniveau'. Onderzoek naar techniek en organisatie als resultaat van strategisch handelen. Nijmegen Fox, A. (1974) Beyond contract: work, power and trustrelations. London Fricke, W. (1975) Arbeitsorganisation und Qualifikation. Neue Gesellschaft, Bonn/Bad Godesberg Fricke, W. (1983) Participatory Research and the enhancement of workers' innovative qualifications. In: Journal of Occupational Behavior, vol. 4, p.73-87 Fricke, W. et al. (1979) Bedingungen der Vermittlung und Anwendung innovatorischer Qualifikationen im Industriebetrieb. In: WSI Mitteilungen, vol. 6, p.311-321 Friedman, A.L. (1977) Industry and Labor. London and Basingstoke Friedman, A.L. (1987) Managementstrategien und Technologie: Auf dem Weg zu einer komplexen Theorie des Arbeitsprozesses. In: Hildebrandt, Seltz (Hg) Glaser, B., A. Strauss (1967) The discovery of grounded theory. Strategies for qualitative research. Aldine, Chicago Hilbert, J., H.J. Sperling (1990). Die kleine Fabrik. Munchen: Rainer Hampp Verlag Hirschman, A.O. (1970) Exit, Voice and Loyalty. Cambridge, Massachusetts (Harvard University Press) Hofstede, G. (1980) Motivation, Leadership and organization: Do Amercan theories apply abroad? Organizational Dynamics, summer, p.42-63 Holly Buttner, E. and N. Gryskiewicz (1993) Entrepreneurs' problem-solving styles: An emperical study using the Kirton adaption/innovation theory. In: Journal of small business management, vol. 31, nr. 1, p.22-31

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