UNIT 10: THE COLD WAR AND THE DECOLONISATION
11.. T TH HE EC CO OL LD DW WA AR R:: B BL LO OC CSS The Cold War was an underlying conflict between the USA and the USSR and their allies. Both two superpowers sought the control of the world after WWII. It lasted between 1945 and 1989. The worst period took place between 1945 and 1955. There was not any direct war between two powers. However, there were many battlefields in Third World countries, where both two blocs offered their help. These two blocs are known as: Capitalist bloc, led by the USA. Communist bloc, led by the USSR. Two leaders of both two blocs kindled the Cold War: The American president, Harry S. Truman, alerted to the expansion of the USSR in East Europe in 1947. Hence, Truman offered economic aid for those countries which were in danger of being controlled by the communists, such as Greece or Turkey. It is the so-called Truman Doctrine. The Marshall Plan was implemented in order to stop the communist advance in Europe. On the other hand, the communist leader Zhdanov drafted a report in 1947 that denounced American imperialism. The USSR offered their help to those countries which felt threatened by the USA and wanted to fight their imperialism. It is the so-called Zhdanov Doctrine. Some military alliances were founded by the leaders of both two blocs in order to control the enemies’ actions: The bloc led by the USA founded a military alliance in order to be protected from any likely attack of the USSR; it was the NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation): It followed the principles of the Truman Doctrine (March 1947), which fixed the protection of Western Europe by the USA. It also persecuted any communist idea. It was founded on 4 April 1949 to stop any Soviet expansion. This alliance establishes that any attack to a member country is considered an attack to all of them. Hence, all the members will help that attacked state. The main goal is to save democracies, individual liberties and the State of Law. The initial members were the USA, Canada, Iceland, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy, Portugal, Norway, and Denmark.
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Greece and Turkey joined the NATO in 1952, whereas West Germany did it in 1955. Further enlargements were done from the 1980s onwards. Some other anti-communist and mutual-aid organisms were created in America, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific area from 1950 onwards: The Organisation of American States (OAS) was founded in 1948 in order to defend the American states in case of aggression. It also tries to solve social, political, and economic conflicts. ANZUS was an alliance founded in 1951 between Australia, New Zealand, and the USA. The SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organisation) was an alliance created in 1954 by the members of ANZUS plus the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan. It also counted on French and British cooperation due to their colonial possessions in the area. This alliance was eventually dissolved in June 1977. The WEU (Western European Union) was composed of West Germany, Italy, France, Great Britain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in May 1954. It was very linked to the NATO, which was its European version. It disappeared in June 2011. On the other hand, the USSR founded the Warsaw Pact in May 1955: It was composed of the USSR, Albania (until 1962), East Germany, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. There were some observer states, such as China, North Korea, and North Vietnam. They constituted a mutual-defence alliance. Their external policies were common too. This alliance was led by the General Staff of the USSR. Both leaders also implemented economic policies in order to coordinate the economy of their allies: The USA helped the western democracies through the Marshall Plan (European Recovery Programme), which consisted of economic assistance for the reconstruction of the European countries. All the European democracies received millions of dollars for that task (donations and loans with very low interest rates). The USSR created the COMECON in 1949 (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance), which fixed the economic principles for its state members, especially in the area of heavy industry. It was composed of: The USSR. Bulgaria. Czechoslovakia. Hungary. Poland. Romania. Albania (left in 1961). East Germany (joined in 1950). Mongolia (joined in 1962). Cuba (joined in 1972). Vietnam (joined in 1978). EXERCISES Q1. Choose the best definition for a “cold war”. A cold relationship between the USA and the USSR A war between the USA and the USSR A difficult relationship between the USA and the USSR. A diplomatic relationship between the USA and the USSR.
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Q2. Look at the statements below. Some of them belong to the communist system and some to the capitalist system.
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Q3. Organize these words or phrases and write them in the boxes below.
22.. T TH HE EC CA AP PIIT TA AL LIISST TB BL LO OC C The capitalist bloc was led by the USA, which defended the establishment of democracies in Europe. These democracies guaranteed rights and freedoms. There were two exceptions where there were dictatorships, which were Spain and Portugal. Capitalism was the economic system they followed, based on private property and free market.
There was an important economic and social growth in this bloc after WWII, which involved the establishment of the welfare state in most of Europe and the growth of the middle class.
2.1. The USA and Japan The USA was the leader of this bloc and had two main stages: Between 1945 and 1960 there were many anti-communist measures implemented by the Republican presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight Eisenhower: A blacklist was drafted with all those likely communist sympathisers within the USA. It is the so-called McCarthyism or Witch-Hunt. The Democrat John Fitzgerald Kennedy became the president in 1961 and tensions with the eastern bloc were reduced. Moreover, there were mobilisations in favour of civil rights for black people led by Martin Luther King against racial segregation. Civil Rights Act was finally passed in 1964, where all discrimination was abolished. Japan was occupied after WWII by the Americans, who forced the establishment of a democracy in the empire. Japan’s sovereignty was restored in 1951 once the parliamentary monarchy and democracy were fully established. There was an economic miracle which made Japan the second largest economy in the world in the 1960s. It could be achieved thanks to the American investment and the attitude of the Japanese.
2.2. Europe Meanwhile, the entire West Europe was composed of democracies (save Spain, Portugal, and Greece). The Marshall Plan allowed the creation of an essential market for the USA. Some European democracies agreed on the foundation of some common institutions to create a European identity: The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, suggested in 1946 that Europe could compete with the USA and the USSR as a leading nation. The French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Robert Schuman, proposed on 9 May 1950 the creation of a common market of coal and steel to avoid rivalries and to be more competent. Hence, that day is commemorated as the Day of Europe since it is considered the foundations of the European Union. Shortly after, some treaties were signed by some European countries in order to fulfil that goal: Benelux Customs Union (1948). It was an agreement that was signed by Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg in order to remove customs and to promote free movement of capital, goods, and workers. Treaty of Paris (18 April 1951). It involved the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). It was signed by France, Western Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. It created a free-trade area for coal and steel in the signing countries. It has been considered the basis for the future European Economic Community. Its functions were assimilated by the future European Union, since it expired in 2002. Treaty of Rome (25 March 1957). It constituted the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) or Common Market. Its main objectives were the free movement of people, goods, services, and capitals by suppressing the customs duties among the member countries. It was signed by West Germany, France, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
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It also involved the creation of Euratom (European Atomic Energy Community) for the development and research of the nuclear energy with pacific goals as well as creating a common market of nuclear fuels. EXERCISES Q4. What was the Benelux? Q5. What was agreed in the Treaty of Rome?
33.. T TH HE EC CO OM MM MU UN NIISST TB BL LO OC C The regime of the communist countries was the so-called dictatorship of the proletariat, although everything was controlled by the Communist party and the USSR. Economy was completely state-controlled with collectivised land and national industry. All these states had full employment, which was guaranteed by the State. Moreover, basic services were also provided by the State, such as education and health. This bloc was quite backward in technology and standard of living compared to the capitalist bloc. Apart from East Europe, communism also spread to Cuba, North Korea, Mongolia, North Vietnam, and China, which has become a superpower. Some African countries also adopted communism, such as Angola.
3.1. Expansion of communism in East Europe Stalin wanted to reach the same production of weapons as the USA. He wanted to avoid a likely invasion. He accomplished the atomic bomb in 1953. The USSR controlled all East Europe after Hitler’s fall. Communist parties seized the government in East Europe assisted by the Soviet army and created people’s republics which worked as buffer-states with the western democracies. Hungary was controlled in 1949. In Bulgaria the king Simeon II was expelled in 1949. In Romania there was a quick process when the king Michael was expelled in 1947. Poland was a much more complex case due to the British support, although anti-Communists left the country after the Soviet repression in 1947. Czechoslovakia associated the Soviet bloc freely after the legal victory of the communists in the elections in 1946. It was completely controlled by the USSR after the resignation of the noncommunist ministers in 1948. In Yugoslavia the communist partisans were really appreciated due their actions during WWII. Josif Broz, Tito abolished monarchy once the king Peter was expelled. Besides, he did not align with the communist bloc in 1948. In Albania a pro-Soviet regime was established after WWII and the expulsion of the king Zog. EXERCISES Q6. Why wasn’t Yugoslavia part of the Warsaw Pact?
3.2. The USSR and East Europe after Stalin When Stalin died in 1953 he was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev, who began a process of DeStalinisation to fight the abuse of power of cult of personality of the previous leader. Khrushchev allowed some level of freedom and speech.
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The relations with the capitalist bloc enhanced a lot in this period. However there were some critical moments due to Cuba or Berlin. Leonid Brezhnev led the USSR between Khrushchev’s death in 1964 and 1982. He stopped all Khrushchev’s reforms. His external policy switched from coexistence to tension with the USA. There were anti-communist revolts within the communist bloc in East Europe: Poland (June 1956). Revolts became once the miners in Poznan rose up against the communist regime. The communist government pleaded for help and the USSR invaded Poland so as to restore the order. Hungary (December 1956). The country began its De-Stalinisation in 1953. Imre Nagy, Hungarian president, wanted to proclaim the neutrality of the country in December 1956 in order to establish a democracy. The Soviet army invaded Hungary. All the leaders were executed. Czechoslovakia (January-August 1968). The communist leader Alexander Dubcek implemented some measures that gave more liberties and restricted totalitarianism within the country. It is the so-called Prague Spring. Censorship was put into an end and there were measures to legalise non-communist political parties. The USSR and the allied of the Warsaw Pact (save Romania) invaded Czechoslovakia in August 1968 and those measures were completely stopped. EXERCISES Q7. What was the Prague Spring?
3.3. China After WWII China suffered a civil war between the Nationalists or Kuomintang, led by Chiang Kai-Shek (president of the Republic), and the Communists, led by Mao Zedong (Mao Tsetung): Mao led a communist revolution which Chiang Kai-shek wanted to put down. Mao’s final victory took place in 1949. Chiang Kai-shek and his supporters left China and took refuge on Formosa, where they created the so-called Republic of China (Taiwan). The People’s Republic of China was eventually proclaimed by Mao Zedong on 1 October 1949. The new republic became a communist regime where there was a fierce repression of the opposition and complete control of the society. The control was stronger during the Cultural Revolution (1967-1971), which made people leave their traditional ways of life. Chinese economy was based on two fields: Collectivisation of the land, which was organised in communes, which were selfsufficient. Promotion of heavy industry after 1958; the so-called Great Leap Forward. China invaded Tibet in 1950 and influenced over the neighbouring countries, such as North Korea, Mongolia, Laos, Cambodia or North Vietnam. China and the USSR had excellent relations after the Revolution. Hence. They signed a treaty of friendship. However, Mao’s communist theories differed a lot from the USSR after Stalin’s death and he considered it was a treason of Marxist principles.
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Hence, Maoism criticised the Soviet policy and created its own economic system away from Soviet principles. EXERCISES Q8. Is Taiwan part of China? Why or why not?
44.. IIN NT TE ER RN NA AT TIIO ON NA AL LR RE EL LA AT TIIO ON NSS 4.1. Extreme tension (1947-1956) Germany became the first tension hotspot after WWII and marks the beginning of the Cold War: The four major allies divided the country into four sectors. Moreover, the national boundaries were reduced up to 25% and Germany could not have any army. The entire German budget was used for reconstruction. The Soviets dismantled all the production units in their sector, which were taken to the USSR. There were conflicts between the former allies about the type of state to create since there were different interests. The USSR wanted a state-controlled economy in Germany. France did not want a powerful state. Great Britain and the USA wanted to establish a democratic regime in Germany. Thanks to the Marshall Plan industry and agriculture grew a lot in Germany. In September 1948 Great Britain and the USA passed a Constitution for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), composed of their sectors. On 23 May 1949 France joined its sector to the newly constituted West Germany. The USSR did not unite its sector to that country and founded the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on 7 October 1949, which existed until 3 October 1990. After the creation of both two republics Berlin became the new tension hotspot due to the Blockade of Berlin: Between July 1948 and May 1949 the USSR cut all the contacts with West Berlin (controlled by the USA, France, and Great Britain; thus by West Germany). No food arrived in West Berlin from West Germany. Western powers reacted by creating a non-armed Airlift to provide the necessary supplies for West Berlin. Western powers intended to thwart the blockading of the city of Berlin. EXERCISES Q9. What was the Blockade of Berlin? What caused it? The Korean War (1950-1953) was a major hotspot where both two blocs fought: Korea was a strategic area for China, USSR, and Japan. It was invaded by the USSR in August 1945, but Great Britain and the USSR occupied the south up to the 38ºN parallel. That division involved the creation of both two Koreas: North Korea was controlled by the USSR and had 120,000 km2 with 10 million inhabitants. South Korea was a democratic state of 98,500 km2 and 40 million inhabitants. The UN wanted to re-unite both two countries between 1946 and 1948, but the USSR did not want. There were unified elections in May 1948, but they were boycotted in the north. In 1949 the USA army eventually left South Korea. North Korea invaded South Korea on 25 June 1950. The UN demanded the protection of the south. Great Britain and the USA intervened in favour of South Korea. China and the USSR helped North Korea. A truce was eventually agreed on 24 July 1953:
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Korea would be divided into two countries in the 38th parallel. Parallel 38ºN became a demilitarised area administered by the UN. This war made the USA the protector of the democracies in South East Asia. The Suez Crisis took place in 1956 once the Egyptian leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, nationalised the Suez Canal from Great Britain. Great Britain and France allied with Israel in order to attack Egypt. The USSR promised to defend Egypt from any foreign attack. The USA made the Anglo-Franco-Israeli alliance quit from any possible war. Egypt received the Soviet help after this diplomatic victory by Nasser.
4.2. Period of coexistence: the détente (1956-1976) Once the process of De-Stalinisation was more important, the relations between the USA and the USSR improved and there was a period of peaceful coexistence. However, there were some critical moments in this period: Berlin Wall (1961). The Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, demanded the withdrawal of the allied army from West Berlin in 1960. The inhabitants of East Berlin took advantage of the situation in order to cross the border to West Berlin. Khrushchev commanded the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961. More than 100,000 people tried to cross this wall. This wall existed until 9 November 1989 when it was torn down by the Berliners. Cuban Missile Crisis (October-November 1962). After the revolution led by Fidel Castro in 1959, a pro-communist government was established, which was a threat for the USA. In 1961 Kennedy tried to depose Castro from the Cuban government by invading the island. Hence the USA executed the Bay of Pigs Invasion. This invasion was completely thwarted by the Cuban authorities. After this attempt by the USA, Castro strengthened his communist reforms on the island. Shortly after, the USSR tried in 1962 to install military bases in Cuba with missiles. The USA protested against those military bases, which were very close to them. They threatened with a nuclear attack on the USSR and Cuba was blocked by sea. After some negotiations, the USSR eventually accepted not to install its bases in Cuba. As a consequence, the red telephone line (Moscow-Washington hotline) was created between the White House (USA) and the Kremlin (USSR) in order to reduce tensions between both two countries. EXERCISES Q10. Look at the map. Why was the USA so worried about soviet missiles?
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Vietnam War (1956-1975) became a major conflict where the interests of the USSR and the USA fought. After the war of independence, the communist government of North Korea led an invasion of South Vietnam, which was protected by the USA. The USA intervened by supporting South Vietnam, whilst the communist countries supported North Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh, the North Vietnamese leader, organised the Viet Cong, which was an army that ambushed and attacked the American army everywhere. After many years of war and many protests within the USA, the Americans left Vietnam. Vietnam unified in a single country led by the communist Ho chi Minh. EXERCISES Q11. Make a brief report of the Vietnam War. Dates of the Vietnam War. What was the Viet Cong? What was the Tet Offensive? Why did Americans protest against the Vietnam war? How many American soldiers were killed?
4.3. Return to tension and end of the Cold War (1977-1991) Tensions increased after 1977 again since the USSR installed nuclear missiles in those countries it controlled. Some of those missiles directly pointed towards West Europe. The USSR tried to impose its control in some other countries: It invaded Afghanistan in 1979 in order to support the communist government. None the less, they found a strong opposition from the local population, mostly by the Taliban. It intervened in some African countries, such as in Angola. On the other hand, the Republican Ronald Reagan was elected as the new president of the USA, who increased the military budget: They supported some Latin American dictatorships in order to avoid the spread of communism, such as in Chile or Argentina. They developed the Programme of Strategic Defence (Star Wars) in order to create an antimissile shield. The tension relaxed once Mikhail Gorbachev was appointed as the new leader of the USSR since he implemented some reforms in order to modernise the communist system, the so-called Perestroika. Dialogue with the USA was reopened. The USSR withdrew from Afghanistan. More autonomy was given to the communist republics in East Europe, which led to the fall of Berlin Wall in 1989. The USSR was eventually dissolved in 1991 after a coup d’état against Gorbachev. Hence, the USA became the only superpower and it involved the end of the Cold War. EXERCISES Q12. What was the Programme of Strategic Defence?
4.4. Arab-Israeli conflicts The UN decided to create in 1947 a new state by dividing Palestine into two sectors: a Jewish area and an Arab area, whilst Jerusalem would be internationally controlled.
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Palestine attacked the new Israeli towns since they did not accept that division. The State of Israel was eventually proclaimed on 15 May 1948 and the British troops left the area. Arab armies from Egypt, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, and Lebanon attacked Israel, but it resisted. A ceasefire was signed in July 1949 and the territory was divided again: The Gaza Strip should be controlled by Egypt. The West Bank was given to Jordan. Negev Desert and Galilee were kept by Israel. In 1964 the PLO (Palestine Liberation Organisation) was established in order to create an independent Palestinian state. They have received a massive support from the Arab countries. Its main leader was Yasser Arafat. There have been more wars between Israel and its neighbouring states: Six-Day War (1967). Israel launched a surprise attack on Egypt, Syria, and Jordan to prevent a likely Arab invasion and due to the blockade of the Gulf of Aqaba by Egypt. Israel conquered many territories in just six days: West Bank from Jordan. Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt. Golan Heights from Syria. The new capital of Israel was fixed in the newly conquered Jerusalem. Many Jewish colonies were built in those territories. Yom Kippur War (1973). Arab forces made an alliance launched a surprise attack on Israel during their holy feasts. Israel counterattacked quickly and re-took over many territories. The Arab countries threatened the world by raising the price of petroleum, which caused a major economic crisis worldwide. Peace mediators put this war to an end. There have been attempts to reach agreements between Israel and its neighbouring countries. Camp David Accords were signed in 1978 between Israel and Egypt. Israel agreed on returning Sinai to Egypt. Egypt acknowledged the State of Israel. Oslo Accords were signed in 1993, where Israel agreed on granting autonomy to the West Bank and Gaza Strip and to be ruled by Palestinian authorities. Nowadays there are still many conflicts since there are still Jewish settlements in Palestinian lands, whereas Palestinians still attack Israel. EXERCISES Q13. What were the Camp David Accords?
55.. T TH HE ED DE EC CO OL LO ON NIISSA AT TIIO ON N Before Decolonisation most of the world was controlled by European nations. The Decolonisation was a movement that grew after WWII in those areas which were controlled by European nations. The colonies had taken part in WWII and their inhabitants understood that they had got the right for self-determination. WWII had also shown that their metropolises were quite weak. The UN promoted the self-determination right with the support of the USSR and the USA.
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At that moment there were some movements that grew to gain the independence of the colonies: Pan-Arabism, Pan-Africanism, and Pan-Asiatism. Some major leaders strengthened nationalist ideas across the colonies, such as Gandhi in India, Sukarno in Indonesia, or Ho Chi Minh in Indochina. The Conference of Bandung (1955) was a meeting point of 29 former colonies which condemned colonialism and the system of blocs. This was the origin of the movement of NonAlignment. The main problem after the decolonisation was to fix the borders of the new states because they did not create ethnic states but artificial states.
5.1. Independence of Asia In Asia there were different metropolises: Great Britain ruled over India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and Singapore. France controlled Indochina. The Netherlands owned Indonesia. The USA had controlled the Philippines since 1898. The USSR annexed some areas which gained their independence after the dissolution of the Soviet regime: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan. Moreover, Siberia is part of Russia. The Philippines became the first state to be born after WWII when the USA granted them their independence in 1946. Shortly after, India and Pakistan also became independent states: The Indian Empire (British Raj) was a big ethnic mosaic of 4 million km2 with 430 million inhabitants: 340 million people were Hindu. 90 million people were Muslim. More than 1,500 languages are spoken. The nationalist movements began at the end of the 19th century: The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 in order to create an Indian state. Mahatma Gandhi was one of its main leaders. He rejected violence and suggested to boycott British products in India. The All-India Muslim League was promoted by the British and founded in 1906. They defended the interests of the Muslim population, who mostly lived in Pakistan and East Pakistan (Bangladesh). After 1940 they advocated the creation of an independent Muslim state. Its main leader was Muhammad Ali Jinnah. After WWII there were frequent clashes between Muslims and Hindus. British wanted to create a federal Hindu-Muslim state, but it was not possible. On 15 August 1948 India and Pakistan proclaimed their independence from Great Britain. After the independence there was a major problem since there were more than 50 million Muslims in India, whereas 20% of Pakistan was Hindu. There were massive migrations to go to their country basing on religious reasons. Many trains were attacked and many people died. At the same time Ceylon also gained its independence in 1948, where Sri Lanka was created. The Indo-Pakistani War broke out in 1949 due to the Indian control of some Muslim areas. The UN intervened in the conflict. India eventually annexed part of Kashmir and Hyderabad. East Pakistan proclaimed its independence in 1971, which involved the birth of Bangladesh.
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The new state was supported by India. EXERCISES Q14. What was the partition of India? Burma and Malaysia had been British until the Japanese invasion in 1942. They demanded their independence after the creation of Pakistan and India. They gained their independence in 1948 and joined the Commonwealth of Nations. 12
Indonesia had been a Dutch colony since the 17th century and was invaded by Japan in 1941. It is a 10,000-island archipelago with 1.9 million km2 and 100 million inhabitants. After the end of WWII Sukarno proclaimed the independence of Indonesia, which was acknowledged by Great Britain and the USA. The Netherlands tried to re-gain control over Indonesia, but it was not possible. Hence, the total independence took place in 1954. After the independence there were some internal problems, such as guerrillas, which led to a military coup d’état by Suharto in 1968. Indochina was a French area with four protectorates (Laos, Cambodia, Annam, and Tonkin) and one territory (Cochinchina). During WWII Ho Chi Minh defended the colony from Japan and after the end of the war attacked the French army. He created the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam), where he created the Viet Minh (League for the Independence of Vietnam). He also took part in the guerrillas of Laos and Cambodia. The French army resisted in the south, but they were massacred by the North Vietnamese guerrillas in Dien Bien Phu in 1953. The Geneva Accords were signed on 21 July 1954 by China, the USSR, the USA, France, Great Britain, and representatives of the colonies: Laos, Cambodia and North Vietnam would be fully independent. A new state was created: South Vietnam. Its north border was fixed in the 17th parallel. A further reunification should be discussed, which was the origin of the Vietnam War (19561975) with the USA. In the Middle East there were mandates controlled by France and Great Britain in the former territories of the Ottoman Empire. New states were born in those mandates: Syria (from France), Lebanon (from France), and Iraq (from Great Britain). Palestine was partly divided between Arabs and Jews, which led to the creation of the State of Israel in 1948.
5.2. Independence of North Africa Egypt had been a British protectorate until 1922, when it officially gained its independence. A monarchy was established in Egypt until the king Farouk I was expelled from the country in 1952 after the revolution led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. After that revolution a republic was established in Egypt, which is considered to be the actual moment of the independence. That revolution also involved the independence of Sudan from Egypt in 1956. Nasser created the United Arab Republic with Syria and North Yemen in 1958 in order to develop a Pan-Arabic state, which just lasted until 1961.
Libya had been an Italian colony until the end of WWII. After WWII the UN did not agree on what to do with Libya. Hence it was accepted to proclaim the independence in 1951. The new state was led by the former emir of the Cyrenaica region, King Idris I, who was dethroned in a revolution in 1969 by Muammar al Gaddafi. Tunisia was controlled by France, which signed an agreement of pre-independence in 1955. The actual independence was gained in March 1956. The new state was a monarchy until 1957. Morocco had been divided into two protectorates in 1912, which were controlled by France (most of Morocco), and Spain (the north): France granted the independence to its protectorate on 2 March 1956. Spain gave the independence to its part on 10 March 1956, which joined the rest of Morocco. The international city of Tangiers was also added to the new kingdom. Only Ifni remained controlled by Spain, which ceded it back in 1969. A monarch was established by Muhammad V, who has been succeeded by Hassan II, and Muhammad VI. Algeria was a very difficult process since it was a part of the French metropolis as a department. There was an important social difference, since French people owned the best lands, which had been seized to the native population. They were just 1,000,000 people. Instead, native Algerians were 6,000,000 and did not have the same rights. Some nationalist organisations grew in Algeria, which merged and created the National Liberation Front (FLN) in 1954, led by Ben Bella. The FLN declared war on France in 1954. It was a very hard war since it involved many groups: 400,000 French soldiers. Algerian rebels, who were internationally supported. Franco-Algerians created the terrorist group OAS (Organisation of the Secret Army), which attacked every nationalist interest. The French president, Charles de Gaulle, eventually gave the independence to Algeria on 4 July 1962, which became the People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria. All the colonists left Algeria and their lands were seized.
5.3. Independence of Sub-Saharan Africa Most of the new states of this area agreed their independence with their former metropolises, although there are some exceptions. There were very few independent countries before the Decolonisation: Liberia, which had been independent since 1957. South Africa, which gained its full independence in 1910. Ethiopia, just controlled by Italy between 1936 and 1941. The first country to gain its independence was Ghana (Gold Coast), which got it in 1957 from Great Britain. It actually joined the Commonwealth of Nations. Shortly after, Guinea, obtained its independence from France in October 1958 once they voted against the Constitution of the French Fifth Republic. Between 1959 and 1960, 17 new states gained their independence:
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Mali (from France). Mauritania (from France). Chad (from France). Niger (from France). Burkina Faso (Upper Volta, from France). Senegal (from France). Ivory Coast (from France). Benin (Dahomey, from France). Cameroon (from France and Great Britain). Central African Republic (from France). The Congo (from France). Gabon (from France). Madagascar (from France). Nigeria (from Great Britain). Togo (from Great Britain). Somalia (from Italy and Great Britain). Democratic Republic of the Congo (from Belgium). There was a civil war where the UN Blue Berets had to take part.
Most of the other states gained their independence between 1961 and 1970: Sierra Leone (from France). Burundi (from Belgium). Rwanda (from Belgium). Uganda (from Great Britain). Tanzania (it was the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar, from Great Britain). Kenya (from Great Britain). Malawi (from Great Britain). Zambia (from Great Britain). Botswana (from Great Britain). Swaziland (from Great Britain). Lesotho (from Great Britain). Equatorial Guinea (from Spain). After 1970 there were very few dependent states, whose processes of independence were really different. Angola and Mozambique gained their independence from Portugal in 1975 after a long and dramatic war. São Tomé and Príncipe, Cape Verde, and Guinea Bissau got their independence from Portugal in 1975. Djibouti gained its independence from France in 1975. Zimbabwe (former Rhodesia) got its independence from Great Britain in 1980 after a long war and the non-accepted Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965. Namibia was a South African protectorate after 1990. Eritrea proclaimed its independence from Ethiopia in 1993 after a long war of independence. South Sudan separated from Sudan in 2011 after a long civil war with the north. Spanish Sahara (Western Sahara) has never gained its independence after the Spanish withdrawal in 1975. Morocco planned the Green March to occupy its territory in October 1975. It was agreed to share the country between Morocco and Mauritania, but the latter relinquished of its rights in 1979. It has been an occupied territory since then and there is not a defined date for the referendum of independence. Meanwhile, many Saharans fled to Algeria as refugees.
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EXERCISES Q15. Complete:
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5.4. Independence of the European colonies The sole colonies that existed in Europe were controlled by Great Britain: Malta was given its independence in 1964 and it remained as a part of the Commonwealth of Nations until 1974. Cyprus was a much more complicated case due to the existence of Greek and Turkish communities. It became an independent country in 1960. Greeks wanted to join Greece, whilst Turks did not. Hence, in 1974 there was a Turkish invasion that occupied the north of the island. Henceforth, Cyprus had been divided into two areas: The south is controlled by the Greco-Cypriot government and is part of the European Union. Instead the north has established the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, only acknowledged by Turkey. Gibraltar is the only colony that exists in Europe and is still controlled by Great Britain, which has caused many diplomatic conflicts with Spain, which claims its sovereignty.
5.5. Consequences of the Decolonisation Political consequences: There is not a national structure in most of them. Most of the boundaries were traced with straight lines without any tribal respect, which have caused many civil wars. These countries did not have well-prepared politicians. Many states have suffered totalitarian and corrupt regimes since it has been very difficult to keep democracy. Economic consequences: These countries have commonly depended on their former metropolises or on the USA or former USSR. There has been a new way of colonialism in these countries, Neo-colonialism. Social consequences: Most of the people who live in these states are really poor. There have been severe famines in many of these countries caused by underfeeding. Many of their inhabitants suffer from medical deficiencies and are illiterate.
66.. N NO ON N--A AL LIIG GN NE ED DM MO OV VE EM ME EN NT T During the period of the Cold War there were new countries which did not want to join any of both two blocs. Hence, these states met at the Bandung Conference (1955) where they established the principles of non-alignment. This movement was the result of decolonisation since many of its members were former Asian or African colonies and they condemned colonialism. After the meeting some new members joined this movement (apart from the former colonies), such as Colombia, Ecuador, and Yugoslavia. EXERCISES Q16. What was the Bandung Conference? The characteristics of the non-aligned countries are: Politics. They had different regimes, since there were democracies and dictatorships. None the less, all of them supported the right to self-determination. International relations. They did not establish any military alliance and considered themselves neutral in the Cold War. They also defended non-violent solutions of conflicts. They supported every country’s right to take decisions with no external interference. Economy. Most of these countries were developing economies and they meant to get growth and development through cooperation. These non-aligned countries were known as the Third World, since they did not belong to any of the other two blocs.
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R RE EV VIIE EW W 1.- Write a short text summarizing what happened during this critical time. Use some of the following words if necessary.
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2.- Define: a) All-India Muslim League b) ANZUS c) Berlin Wall d) Civil Rights Act e) COMECON f) Cultural Revolution g) De-Stalinisation h) ECSC i) FLN j) German Democratic Republic
k) l) m) n) o) p) q) r) s)
F FIIN NA ALL TTA ASSK K
After watching Thirteen Days, make a brief summary.
Indian National Congress Marshall Plan NATO Palestine Liberation Organisation Red telephone SEATO Third World Truman Doctrine Zhdanov Doctrine
