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Unit 5 The Age of Imperialism PART I. COLONIALISM. IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people by another. One of the difficulties in defining colonialism is that it is difficult to distinguish it from imperialism. Frequently, the two concepts are treated as synonyms. Like colonialism, imperialism also involves political and economic control over a dependent territory. Turning to the etymology of the two terms, however, provides some clues about how they differ. The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning „farmer‟. This root reminds us that the practice of colonialism usually involved the transfer of a population to a new territory, where the new arrivals lived as permanent settlers while maintaining political allegiance to their country of origin. Imperialism, on the other hand, comes from the Latin term imperium, meaning „to command‟. Thus, the term imperialism draws attention to the way in which one country exercises power over another, whether through settlement, sovereignty, or indirect mechanisms of control. EXERCISES: Q1. What is the difference between colonialism and imperialism? The latter half of the sixteenth century witnessed the expansion of the English colonial state throughout Ireland. Despite some earlier attempts, it was not until the 17th century that Britain, France and the Netherlands successfully established overseas empires outside Europe, in direct competition with Spain and Portugal and with each other. In the 19th century the British Empire grew to become the largest empire yet seen (see list of largest empires). The end of the 18th and early 19th century saw the first era of decolonization when most of the European colonies in the Americas gained their independence from their respective metropolis. Spain and Portugal were irreversibly weakened after the loss of their New World colonies, but Britain (after the union of England and Scotland), France and the Netherlands turned their attention to the Old World, particularly South Africa, India and South East Asia, where coastal enclaves had already been established. The industrialization of the 19th century led to what has been termed the era of New Imperialism, when the pace of colonization rapidly accelerated, the height of which was the Scramble for Africa. During the 20th Century, the overseas colonies of the World War I losers were distributed amongst the victors as mandates, but it was not until the end of World War II that the second phase of decolonization began in earnest. EXERCISES: Q2. Enumerate in a little table the ancient empires and the new ones. 1
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11.. R RE EA ASSO ON NSS F FO OR RC CO OL LO ON NIIA AL LIISSM M.. ECONOMIC By the 1870s, countries developing second industrial revolutions faced a double problem: 1. Need to sell overproduction, new markets. 2. Need to buy larger amounts of raw materials at the cheapest price. Besides, they wished to invest any surplus of capital in places with cheaper manual (hand) labour in order to get larger profits. RESULT: most developed countries occupied territories –especially in Africa and Asia– areas with weak political and economic structures. EXERCISES: Q3. Europe in 1914 (page 107). SOCIAL The excess population in industrialised countries searched for better living conditions, resulting in the creation of colonies in areas having a similar climate, i.e. South Africa, Australia, Algeria. RESULT: millions of Europeans emigrated to the colonies, thus preventing further social discomfort for the metropolis i.e. strikes, stoppage or workers rioting EXERCISES: Q4. Population growth (page 106), European migrations (page 107). POLITICAL “National pride” increased the number of colonies. MILITARY They needed to occupy ports and build strategic canals to guard their commercial routes that were in competition with nations having the same aims. IDEOLOGICAL Some countries cited moral or ethical reasoning: Europe had a civilising mission through which they could improve peoples´ lifestyles in these new areas due to their technological, educational, and religious supremacy. Rudyard Kipling (December 30, 1865–January 18, 1936) was an English author and poet, born in Bombay, British India, and best known for his works The Jungle Book (1894), Kim (1901). Later in life Kipling also came to be seen (in George Orwell's words) as a “prophet of British imperialism”. Many saw prejudice in his works. RESULT: ideas lead to racism: white man superior to other races. Only a few intellectuals and socialist leaders opposed colonialism, accusing them of brutal and inhuman exploitation in the colonies. EXERCISES: Q5. On colonialism (page 106). 2
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22.. D DIIF FF FE ER RE EN NT TT TY YP PE ESS O OF FC CO OL LO ON NIIE ESS..
Companies -initially private companies capitalised from Britain- tried to set up their own colonies as private commercial concerns. They frequently found the administration far more expensive than they expected and so often turned to the British government for help particularly when wars or rebellions occurred. Colonies were those areas directly ruled by a governor on behalf of the British government and represented the Crown. The governor was responsible to the Colonial Office in London, although he usually had wide powers of discretion. These were the most common forms of imperial control. Protectorates were territories where the local rulers could continue ruling domestically, but they had to cede foreign affairs and defence to the British. In fact, even in protectorates, British advisers frequently held influence far beyond foreign and defence fields. Dominions were those colonies that were granted significant freedom to rule themselves. The settler colonies were afforded this freedom. Dominions were fully independent countries after the 1931 Statute of Westminster, although their Head of State continued to be the British sovereign. Mandates were set up after World War One as German and Turkish colonies were passed to Britain and France to prepare them for self government on behalf of the League of Nations. Then, after World War Two, the United Nations issued their own mandates. EXERCISES: Q6. Colour this map.
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33.. C CO OL LO ON NIIA AL LE EM MP PIIR RE ESS.. The British Empire The creation of a British Empire in Asia occurred early on, as it had already been completed by 1885. India was undoubtedly the most important domain. It became the principal supplier of raw materials (cotton, jute, tea, etc.). It was the axis of the empire. The building of the Suez Canal improved relations with the metropolis in a notable way. To protect itself from the colonial territories of other powers, Great Britain created a series of surrounding buffer states. Other areas of British domain in Asia were Malaca and Singapore; these areas became strategic points for accessing the maritime routes. Burma, which constituted a semi-independent protectorate and was annexed in 1885, opened the way for a trade route to China. In China, which nominally preserved its independence, British influence was extended after the agreement of Nankín (1842). This agreement put end to the Opium Wars. From then on, China was obliged to yield Hong Kong and to open five coastal ports for exterior trade.
In Africa the British Empire advanced from the south (Cape of Good Hope) in an attempt to connect it with the Sudan. Cecil Rhodes annexed and gave his name to the occupied territories (Rhodesia). In this progression towards the north, the advancing empire encountered the bóers, settlers of Dutch origin. Victory against the Zulus prevented the Portugese from settling Africa from West to East. This widespread expansion was completed by the incorporation of Nigeria, part of Somalia (1884), Kenya and Uganda. In an attempt to control all of the Nile Valley, British expansion encountered another great imperialistic power in Africa: France. Once the danger of a war between both powers after the Fashoda Incident (in the Sudan) was over, the British Empire took possession of one of the richest areas in Africa: the south. It was full of gold and diamonds, and the valley of the Nile (Egypt and Sudan), had fertile cotton growing fields. Controlling this area allowed the British to protect the principal routes that led to India.
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4º CSH Unit 5 New Zealand became a British colony in 1841 leaving its indigenous population, the Maoris (maoríes), under the sovereignty of the metropolis. During a large part of the 19th century, Australia was used as prison.
The French Empire In 1847 they conquered Algeria, the central domain in the Northwest of the continent. Later, in 1881, they conquered Tunis, and in 1905 they established a protectorate in Morocco, which Germany opposed. This provoked two crises that almost resulted in an international, warlike conflict. Nevertheless, they lost their influence in Egypt and the Sudan. Both territories fell under British domain. In 1898, they obtained Madagascar, but after the Fashoda Incident with the British, the French abandoned their project to join the East and West ends of Africa that would have opened the Atlantic and Indian oceans (across the Sudan) for them. They conquered Indochina: Laos, Vietnam, and Cambodia, forming the “Union Indochina " (Indochinese Union) with them. A serious clash with Great Britain resulted in Thailand becoming a buffer state between both empires.
American and Japanese empires After the Civil War (1861-1865), the United States initiated its colonial expansion with the purchase of Alaska from Russia and the war with Spain (1898), after which they acquired the domain of the Carib (Puerto Rico) and influence over Cuba. In Asia they got The Philippines from Spain. After the Meiji Revolution and Japan‟s rapid industrialization, diverse Asian territories were annexed: Formosa and Korea at China‟s expense. Later, they would do the same thing to Manchuria. 5
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EXERCISES: Q7. Activities (pages 110 and 111). Activity 3 (page 122).
44.. C CO ON NSSE EQ QU UE EN NC CE ESS.. 1. Demographics. In general, the population increased due to a decrease in the mortality rate, which had been caused by the introduction of modern western medicine and a high birth rate This fact led to an imbalance between population and resources that is still today a serious problem for the countries arisen from the decolonization. Nevertheless, in some zones the indigenous (native) population was drastically reduced, especially in the early days of imperialism. This was due to the introduction of unknown diseases (smallpox, flu, etc) . In other places, the natives were simply replaced by foreign colonists.
2. Economics. In order to start the economic exploitation of the colonies, a bit of minimal infrastructure had to be built. Therefore, ports, railroads and roads were created to transport the raw materials to the metropolis. The colonies became the goods suppliers for the metropolitan industries, while manufacturing disappeared in the colonies. The traditional economy, based on a self-sufficient agriculture and polyculture, was replaced by a new one with monoculture exports. This put an end to the old production methods and favoured the introduction of new crops such as coffee, cocoa, rubber, tea or sugar cane. Wide zones were plowed to be adapted to the new economic requirements, giving way to notable landscape changes and serious alterations of the natural way.
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3. Social consequences. The middle class from the metropolis, formed by merchants, civil servants and landowners, occupied the high levels of the colonial society. Some indigenous (native) groups, among which were the former elites, members of some bodies of the army and civil servants of the colonial administration., were also assimilated by the settlers and joined the higher classes. On the other hand, most of the natives suffered through a process of proletarization that increased the workforce supplies to create infrastructure and for plantation agriculture.
4. Political consequences. The major or minor degree to which the colonies depended on the metropolis was determined by the type of administrative organization that was imposed on them. This inmposition led to conflicts among the natives that constituted the spread of the antiimperialism. The native westernized middle classes demanded more respect for their traditions and more participation in making decisions that were adopted by the administered territories.
5. Cultural consequences. Because of Imperialism, the natives lost their identity and had it replaced by the settlers‟ modes of behaviour, education and thought. Their language (especially English and French) was imposed, leading to a strong degree of acculturation. The Christian religions (Catholic, Anglican or Protestant) displaced the preexisting creeds in many zones of Africa, or fused with them, giving rise to syncretic beliefs. Nevertheless, in the Moslem world and Asia the evangelizing effect was scanty compared to that of Black Africa, due to the deeply rooted belief systems of the ancient and complex religions, such as Buddhism and Hinduism.
6. Geographical consequences. The creation of artificial borders, far different from the preexisting ones, forced the union or segregation of tribal and ethnic groups, thus provoking racial conflicts which have been kept alive even to the present day (Rwanda, Liberia, etc).
7. Ecological consequences. The introduction of new methods for agricultural exploitation and unknown animal and vegetable species, led to deep alterations or the total destruction of natural ecosystems. In this way, the bison, an essential element in the lives and cultures of numerous Indian peoples of North America, were almost exterminated by white hunters. The big tropical jungles were submitted to an intense deforestation caused by the overexploitation of their wooden resources and the widespread use of monoculture. The rivers became contaminated by heavy metals (mercury and others) as consequence of the methods applied for extracting precious metals and waste from mining activities.
8. Consequences for the metropolis. From the economic point of view:
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4º CSH Unit 5 Imperialism was used to stimulate industrialization in those areas where still it was weak and favoured its consolidation in areas where it was already progressing. Besides, the principal aim of the metropolis was to obtain lots of cheap raw materials and to distribute products manufactured by its industries in the colonies. From the international point of view: It constituted an inexhaustible source of tensions and conflicts - the Moroccan crises as an example - that would later culminate in a snap of tensions, leading to the First World War. EXERCISES: Q8. Activities 2, 3 and 4 ( pages 113).
PART II. THE GREAT WAR. 11.. IIT TSS C CA AU USSE ESS.. Imperialism Many European nations wanted to have Empires. Between 1870 and 1914, much of Africa was colonised by European countries. This led to several arguments between European nations. The Kaiser wanted “a place in the sun” for the German people. Germans and French argued about Morocco in 1906 and 1911. A meeting was held at Algeciras in 1906 to sort out the disagreement. Russia, Spain, and Italy sided with Britain and France. Only Austria-Hungary sided with Germany. So Germany had to abandon Morocco. Besides, Britain had a huge navy to protect the British Empire all over the world. When Germany started to build a large navy, the British got nervous
Nationalism People around the world were very eager to let the rest of the world how strong and important their country was. Many people thought that their country was better than the others and thought that they'd be able to win a war very easily if there was one. In 1870-71, the German army attacked France. The Germans won this short war. As a „prize‟ they took the regions of Alsace and Lorraine away from France. The Germans claimed that they rightfully belonged to Germany; however the majority of people living there were French. The French were very upset by this and wanted the land back. They were also fearful of the Germans attacking again. The consequences of the Franco-German war were that France became suspicious and mistrustful of the Germans: French wanted la revanche. They made sure that they had a large army and lots of defences to stop invasions. This in turn kept the Germans suspicious of the intentions of the French. A desire for independence: Many people in Europe lived in countries that were part of an empire. They didn't all like being ruled by people with different languages and religions and this led to conflicts that could (and did) involve other nations.
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Conflict in the Balkans The Balkans (area between Austria and Turkey) was an area where the Austrians ruled a large part. However, some of the countries in the area had very strong links with Russia and Turkey. Both of these countries were eager to increase their influence in the area. In 1878, this led to a war between Turkey and Russia. From this point on, the Balkans was an area that the Austrians, Turks and Russians argued over. Each wanted control of the area and they encouraged people that lived there to support their claims for power. Bosnia was a Slav state in the Balkans. Austria-Hungary took over Bosnia in 1908. Serbia, also Slav state, wanted Bosnia for itself. Russia supported Serbia, because they didn´t want Austria-Hungary growing more powerful in the Balkans. EXERCISES: Q9. Activity 1 (page 114).
22.. A AR RM MSS R RA AC CE EA AN ND DA AL LL LIIA AN NC CE ESS.. Arms race From 1891 to 1914, an arms race between several European countries, including Germany, France, Russia, and others took place. Specifically, Germany's envy of Britain's superior navy in the events leading up to World War I resulted in a costly building competition of Dreadnought-class ships. This tense arms race lasted until June 1914, when, after two antagonist power blocks were formed because of the rivalry, the World War broke out. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, or superior military technology in a technological escalation.
Alliances The Franco-Russian Treaty: formed in 1894 between France and Russia The Triple Alliance: formed in 1900 between Austria-Hungary, Germany and Italy The Entente Cordiale: formed between Britain and France in 1904. They also agreed not to fight each other over colonies The Triple Entente: formed when Russia joined the Entente Cordiale in 1907 These alliances between great powers made a world war more likely because: They created two opposing camps. The details of the alliances were kept secret from the other side
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33.. T TH HE EA ASSSSA ASSSSIIN NA AT TIIO ON NO OF FF FR RA AN NZ ZF FE ER RD DIIN NA AN ND D.. Franz Ferdinand was the crown prince of the Austrian empire. In 1914, he and his wife went on a visit to Serbia, a country that Austria had a strong influence over. Several Serbian nationalists, who wanted independence from Austria, decided that they would try to kill the prince. On the 28th of June 1914, they succeeded. His death led the Austrian government to make very strong demands on Serbia. Russia, keen to gain influence in Serbia, supported the Serbs. Days later, the First World War had begun with the Germans declaring war on Russia. 28 July 30 July 1 August 3 August 4 August 5 August
Austria declared war on Serbia The Russians mobilised their army clearly getting ready for war against Austria-Hungary in support of Serbia Germany declared war on Russia Germany declared war on France and the German army set out invade France Britain declared war on Germany Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia
EXERCISES: Q10. Activities 1, 2 and 3 (page 115).
44.. M MO OB BIIL LE EW WA AR RF FA AR RE E.. Germany had to beat France on the Western Front before Russia could mobilise. Schlieffen felt the German army could beat France quickly if it made its main attack through Belgium and the Netherlands. This plan existed since 1905. When the German army marched into Belgium on the 3rd of August 1914, Britain declared war and sent the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) over to France. The French and British troops frustrated the German plan to force France out of the war quick1y -the Schlieffen Plan- at the Battle of the Marne. The Germans then planned to move round to the north of the British and French. This resulted in both sides rushing soldiers north, where they clashed near the town of Ypres. The month-long battle prevented the Germans from moving forward but it did not push them back out of France and Belgium. Both sides dug trenches to maintain their positions and, by early 1915, the war had become a stalemate. On the Eastern Front, the Germans moved forward quickly, but the Russians reacted and arrived at the Austro-Hungarian borderlines.
55.. T TR RE EN NC CH HW WA AR RF FA AR RE E.. For four years, the French and British faced the Germans in deep trenches. Sometimes the trenches were far apart, but in some places they were so close the soldiers could hear the voices of their enemy when the guns were not firing. The trenches were protected by thick fences of barbed wire and by machine guns which could fire 600 bullets a minute. This made attacking an enemy trench very difficult. Both sides tried attacking at different times, but against strongly defended trenches casualties were very high.
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The Eastern Front Meanwhile, the Germans, with the Austrians, were fighting the Russians on the Eastern Front. After two years of fierce fighting, the Germans had a stronger position than the Russians and by the winter of 1916-17, Russian resistance was collapsing. The Germans could now transfer half a mi1lion soldiers from the Eastern Front to the Western Front.
Verdun and the Somme The Germans attacked the French at Verdun and the French army fought them to a standsti1l. Both sides lost thousands of men, but the French held Verdun. Meanwhile, to take some of the pressure off the French, the British agreed to attack the Germans further north, on the River Somme. The Battle of the Somme started on 1 July 1916. The British had 60,000 casualties on the first day and the fighting went on until November, when both sides were exhausted. The British had taken only 15 kilometers of land.
66.. T TH HE EC CR RIISSIISS O OF F 11991177 A AN ND DT TH HE EE EN ND DO OF FT TH HE EW WA AR R.. The USA entered the war in 1917, and just as the Russians withdrew from the war (Peace of Brestlitovsk), Germany was keen to defeat Britain and France on the Western Front before the American soldiers began to arrive in France. German forces attacked in March 1918, but by July, after early success, they were driven back, short of supplies because of the British naval blockade. The Turkish and Austro-Hungarian Empires asked for an armistice .The guns stopped firing at 11 o'clock on the morning on 11 November 1918.The war was over.
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77.. A AD DIIF FF FE ER RE EN NT TW WA AR R.. The First World War was a new type of conflict because it involved the mobilization of many resources and had implications for the civil population. The technical advancements in transport and armaments caused thousands of deaths. New armaments appeared such as gas, submarines, tanks... The use of modern technologies for propaganda allowed countries to influence public opinion and to sway it against the enemy.
EXERCISES: Q11. Activities (page 117).
88.. T TH HE EP PE EA AC CE EO OR RG GA AN NIISSA AT TIIO ON N.. The President of the USA, Wilson, wanted a perfect Some of the Fourteen Points solution. The USA was less concerned about punishing 1. No secret treaties Germany than the other Allies. There had been no fighting in 2. Free access to the seas in the USA, so there was no war damage. The USA joined the peacetime war late, in 1917. Far fewer US soldiers had been killed than and wartime 3. Free trade between countries soldiers from the other allied countries. Wilson's biggest concern was preventing another World War. So, he wanted everyone to be content with the peace settlement, even Germany. He believed Germany should not be forced to pay for the crippling cost of the war. He wanted a League of Nations to settle international disputes diplomatically before they could lead to war. He wanted everyone to accept a set of rules, the Fourteen Points, that would guide international relations. The most important of these was 'self- determination'. This meant that each nation had a right to rule itself, and not be part of another nation's empire.
4. Disarmament 5. Colonies to be able to have a say in their own futures 6. German troops to leave Russia 7. Independence for Belgium 8. France to regain AlsaceLorraine 13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea 14. A League of Nations to be set up to keep the peace
EXERCISES: Q12. What were the possible problems of self-determination?
99.. T TH HE ET TR RE EA AT TY YO OF FV VE ER RSSA AIIL LL LE ESS.. On the 28th of June, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed by the Allies at the Palace of Versailles, 16 km from Paris. It was very complicated, over 200 pages long with over 400 clauses (sections). Two representatives from the new German government were summoned. They were not allowed to discuss any of the clauses. They had no choice but to sign.
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4º CSH Unit 5 Territorial changes: Alsace-Lorraine was given back to France. France was to run the Saar coalfields for the League of Nations. Belgium was given Eupen and Malmédy. Denmark was given Northern Schleswig. Poland was given West Prussia, part of Upper Silesia and Posen. Lithuania was given Memel. Danzig became a free city, controlled by the League of Nations. Poland could trade from Danzig. Germany lost all the land taken from Russia at Brest-Litovsk in 1918. Germany was forbidden to unite with Austria. All Germany's colonies were taken away and given to other nations to rule until they were able to rule themselves.
Military restrictions: The army was limited to 100,000 men No conscription: all soldiers were to be volunteers No tanks, submarines or military planes .They were only allowed six battleships. No German troops could go into the Rhineland, near the French border. The Allies kept an army there for fifteen years to enforce it.
Reparations: Once Germany accepted Clause 231 and accepted responsibility for war damage, it could be made to pay for it. The payments were called 'reparations'. The amount was not set in the Treaty of Versailles. It was set, in 1921, at L6600 million. Germany was to pay a certain amount each year. In fact, the amounts were reduced in later years and in 1930 Germany stopped paying.
EXERCISES: Q13. Activities 1 and 2 (page 121). 15
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1100.. M MA AP PO OF FE EU UR RO OP PE ER RE ED DR RA AW WN N.. However, the post-war map of Europe was redrawn in 1918, but it was a patchwork superimposed on many minorities. For instance, Yugoslavia contained Slovenes, Bosnians, Muslims, Magyars, Germans, Albanians, Romanians and Macedonians.
EXERCISES: Q14. Activity 3 (page 121).
1111.. L LE EA AG GU UE EO OF FN NA AT TIIO ON NSS.. The fourteenth point on Wilson's 1ist was to set up a League of Nations. Each nation would send representatives to a permanent world assembly which could settle disputes between countries. The idea was welcomed and a headquarters was set up in Geneva, Switzerland. Problems Although the League had some success (slavery was made illegal in many parts of the world) and a few territorial disputes were settled, there were serious problems - apart from the failure of the USA to join. The USSR did not join for many years and Germany left the League in 1933. This meant that three major countries did not belong to the League. One problem was that the League had no way of enforcing its decisions. For instance, in 1923 Lithuania attacked and took the port of Memel from Germany. The League of Nations said that Lithuania must hand it back to 16
4º CSH Unit 5 Germany. Lithuania just said no and the League could do nothing. When countries saw that the League was powerless, they began to ignore it.
EXERCISES: Q15. Describe the structure of the League of Nations. What happened if a member was attacked?
R REEVVIIEEW W 1.- Complete the concept map (page 122). 2.- Answer the key questions (page 122). 3.- Define: Colonialism, Protectorates, Dominions, Mandates, Entente Cordiale, Treaty of SaintGermain, Trench, White Man’s Burden, Companies, Berlin Conference, Schlieffen Plan, Opium War. 4. - Who were these figures? Rudyard Kipling, Jules Ferry, J.R. Stanley, Cecil Rhodes, Leopold II, Wilhelm II, Franz Ferdinand, Gavrilo Princip, Woodrow Wilson. 5.- Correct: The term colony comes from the Latin word colonus, meaning crafsman: Imperialism, on the other hand, comes from the Latin term imperium, meaning to populate: It was not until the 17th century that Britain, Germany and the Netherlands successfully established overseas empires: Spain and France were irreversibly weakened after the loss of their New World colonies: In some zones the indigenous population was drastically reduced in the late days of imperialism: The foreign colonists were replaced by natives: 17
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Manufacturing increased in the colonies: Some indigenous groups occupied the high levels of the colonial society: The native westernized middle classes demanded the right to citizenship: The natives set up their identity and replaced settlers’ modes of behaviour and thought: The Islam displaced the preexisting creeds in many zones of Africa: Europeans put an end to the racial conflicts in Africa: The bison were almost exterminated by Sioux hunters:
6.- Complete: The question whether _______ is ever justified, and if so under what circumstances, is one which has _______ forcing itself upon the attention of all thoughtful _______. On this question I find myself in the somewhat _______ position of holding that no single one of the combatants is justified in the present war. The objects for which men have _______ in the past, whether just or _______, are no longer to be achieved by wars amongst _______ nations. A great weight of _______, of financial interests, of _______ insincerity, is bound up with the anachronism of _______ hostility. It is, however, perhaps not chimerical to _______ that the present war, which has _______ the conscience of mankind more than any war in previous _______, may produce a revulsion against antiquated methods, and may lead the exhausted nations to insist upon the _______ and cooperation which their _______ have hitherto denied them. There is no reason whatever against the settlement of all disputes by a _______ of Powers deliberating in public. Nothing stands in its _______ except the pride of rulers who wish to _______ uncontrolled by anything higher than their own _______. When this great _______ has worked itself out to its disastrous _______, when the passions of _______ and self-assertion have given place to compassion with the universal _______, the nations will perhaps realize that they have fought in _______ and delusion, and that the way of _______ is the way of _______ for all. Bertrand Russell, The Ethics of War (1915). 7.- Comment these pictures.
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