A continuous generalization of domination-like invariants Michitaka Furuya∗ College of Liberal Arts and Science, Kitasato University, 1-15-1 Kitasato, Minami-ku, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0373, Japan

Abstract In this paper, we define a new domination-like invariant of graphs. Let R+ be the set of non-negative numbers. Let c ∈ R+ − {0} be a number, and let G be a graph. A function f : V (G) → R+ is a c-self-dominating function of G if for every u ∈ V (G), f (u) ≥ c or max{f (v) : v ∈ NG (u)} ≥ 1. The c-self∑ domination number γ c (G) of G is defined as γ c (G) := min{ u∈V (G) f (u) : f is a c-self-dominating function of G}. Then γ 1 (G), γ ∞ (G) and γ 2 (G) are equal 1

to the domination number, the total domination number and the half of the Roman domination number of G, respectively. Our main aim is to continuously fill in the gaps among such three invariants. In this paper, we give a sharp upper bound of the c-self-domination number for all c ≥ 21 .

Key words and phrases. self-domination, domination, total domination, Roman domination. AMS 2010 Mathematics Subject Classification. 05C69.

1

Introduction

1.1

Definitions and notations

All graphs considered in this paper are finite, simple, and undirected. Let G be a graph. We let V (G) and E(G) denote the vertex set and the edge set of G, respectively. For a vertex u ∈ V (G), we let NG (u) and dG (u) denote the neighborhood and the degree of u, respectively; thus NG (u) = {v ∈ V (G) : uv ∈ E(G)} and dG (u) = |NG (u)|. For a subset U of V (G), we let G[U ] denote the subgraph of G induced by U . We let Pn denote the path of order n. For terms and symbols not defined in this paper, we refer the reader to [4]. ∗

e-mail:[email protected]

1

We let R+ denote the set of non-negative numbers. Here we regard ∞ as a nonnegative number (i.e., ∞ ∈ R+ ). For a graph G and a function f : V (G) → R+ , the ∑ weight w(f ) of f is defined by w(f ) = u∈V (G) f (u). Let G be a graph. A set S ⊆ V (G) is a dominating set of G if each vertex in V (G) − S is adjacent to a vertex in S. The minimum cardinality of a dominating set of G, denoted by γ(G), is called the domination number of G. The domination number is one of the most important invariants in Graph Theory, and it can be widely applied to real problems, for example, school bus routing problem, social network theory and location of radio stations (see [7, 8]). To meet various additional requirements for above problems, many domination-like invariants were defined and studied. A set S ⊆ V (G) is a total dominating set of G if for each vertex of G is adjacent to a vertex in S. Note that if G has no isolated vertices, then there exists a total dominating set of G. For a graph G without isolated vertices, the minimum cardinality of a total dominating set of G, denoted by γt (G), is called the total domination number of G. The total domination number is typically defined for only graphs without isolated vertices. However, in this paper, we define γt (G) as γt (G) = ∞ if G has an isolated vertex for convenience. The concept of total domination was introduced in [2], and has been actively studied (see a book [9]). A function f : V (G) → {0, 1, 2} is a Roman dominating function of G if each vertex u ∈ V (G) with f (u) = 0 is adjacent to a vertex v ∈ V (G) with f (v) = 2. The minimum weight of a Roman dominating function of G, denoted by γR (G), is called the Roman domination number of G. The Roman domination number was introduced by Stewart [14], and was studied by Cockayne et al. [3] in earnest. Roman domination derives from the strategy to defend the Roman Empire against the enemies. Recently, various properties on the Roman domination number has been explored in, for example, [6, 10, 11]. From a mathematical point of view, Roman domination concept seems to be more artificial than original domination and total domination. However, by the following reasons, we can interpret Roman domination as a natural extension of domination and total domination. We define a new domination-like invariant. Let c ∈ R+ − {0}, and let G be a graph. A function f : V (G) → R+ is a c-self-dominating function (or c-SDF) of G if for each u ∈ V (G), f (u) ≥ c or max{f (v) : v ∈ NG (u)} ≥ 1. Remark 1 We choose a c-SDF f of G so that w(f ) is as small as possible. Suppose that there exists a vertex x ∈ V (G) with f (x) ∈ / {0, 1, c}. Now we construct a function f ′ : V (G) → R+ as follows: For u ∈ V (G) − {x}, let f ′ (u) = f (u). If 2

0 < f (x) < min{1, c}, let f ′ (x) = 0; if min{1, c} < f (x) < max{1, c}, let f ′ (x) = min{1, c}; if f (x) > max{1, c}, let f ′ (x) = max{1, c}. Then we can easily verify that f ′ is a c-SDF of G with w(f ′ ) < w(f ), which contradicts the choice of f . Thus {f (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1, c}. In particular, the minimum weight of c-SDF of G is well-defined. The minimum weight of a c-SDF of G, denoted by γ c (G), is called the c-selfdomination number of G. A c-SDF f of G with w(f ) = γ c (G) is called a γ c -function of G. Considering Remark 1, {f (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1, c} for a γ c -function f of a graph G.

(1.1)

We show that c-self-domination is a common generalization of domination, total domination and Roman domination. Proposition 1.1 Let G be a graph. Then the following hold. (i) γ 1 (G) = γ(G), (ii) γ ∞ (G) = γt (G), and 1

(iii) γ 2 (G) = 12 γR (G). Proof. (i) For a dominating set S of G with |S| = γ(G), the function f1 : V (G) → R+ with

 1 (u ∈ S) f1 (u) = 0 (u ∈ / S)

is a 1-SDF of G with w(f1 ) = |S|, and hence γ 1 (G) ≤ w(f1 ) = |S| = γ(G). Let f be a γ 1 -function of G. Then by (1.1), {f (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1}. Hence the set S1 := {u ∈ V (G) : f (u) = 1} is a dominating set of G with |S1 | = w(f ). Thus γ(G) ≤ |S1 | = w(f ) = γ 1 (G). Consequently, γ 1 (G) = γ(G). (ii) If G has an isolated vertex, then it is clear that γ ∞ (G) = ∞ = γt (G). Thus we may assume that G has no isolated vertices. Note that γt (G) < ∞. For a total dominating set S of G with |S| = γt (G), the function f2 : V (G) → R+ with

 1 (u ∈ S) f2 (u) = 0 (u ∈ / S)

is an ∞-SDF of G with w(f2 ) = |S|, and hence γ ∞ (G) ≤ w(f2 ) = |S| = γt (G). 3

Since the function assigning 1 to all vertices of G is an ∞-SDF of G, we have γ ∞ (G) < ∞. Let f be a γ ∞ -function of G. Then by (1.1), {f (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1}. Hence the set S2 := {u ∈ V (G) : f (u) = 1} is a total dominating set of G with |S2 | = w(f ). Thus γt (G) ≤ |S2 | = w(f ) = γ ∞ (G). Consequently, γ ∞ (G) = γt (G). (iii) For a Roman dominating function f of G with w(f ) = γR (G), the function f3 : V (G) → R+ with f3 (u) = w(f3 ) =

1 2 f (u)

(u ∈ V (G)) is a

1 2

and hence γ (G) ≤ w(f3 ) =

1 2 w(f ),

1 2 w(f )

=

1 2 -SDF

of G with

1 2 γR (G).

1

Let f ′ be a γ 2 -function of G. Then by (1.1), {f ′ (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1, 21 }. Hence the function f3′ : V (G) → {0, 1, 2} with f3′ (u) = 2f ′ (u) (u ∈ V (G)) is a Roman dominating function of G with w(f3′ ) = 2w(f ′ ). Thus γR (G) ≤ 1

w(f3′ ) = 2w(f ′ ) = 2γ 2 (G). 1

Consequently γ 2 (G) = 12 γR (G).

1.2



Main results

By Proposition 1.1, c-self-domination can continuously fill in the gaps among three invariants; domination, total domination and Roman domination. On the other hand, some results concerning such invariants have been proved via different technique. Thus the study of c-self-domination for c ≥

1 2

may give essential boundaries

of them. As the initial research for the goal, we focus on the following known upper bounds. Theorem A (Ore [12]) Let G be a connected graph of order n ≥ 2. Then γ(G) ≤ 1 2 n.

Theorem B (Cockayne et al. [2]) Let G be a connected graph of order n ≥ 3. Then γt (G) ≤ 23 n. Theorem C (Chambers et al. [1]) Let G be a connected graph of order n ≥ 3. Then γR (G) ≤ 45 n. In this paper, we generalize Theorems A–C as follows. Theorem 1.2 Let c be a number with c ≥ 12 . Let G be a connected graph of order

4

n ≥ 3. Then

  m+1   2m+3 n      cm+2c+1   2m+5 n     1n c γ (G) ≤ 2  m+2   2m+3 n     cm    2m+1 n     2n 3

Remark 2

( (

m m+1

≤c<

2m+1 2m+3

≤c<

(c = 1) ( m+2 m+1 < c ≤ (


m m+1

m m+1

intervals

)

m∈N m∈N

) )

is a monotonically increasing

[ 12 , 1)

can be partitioned by in-

(m ∈ N). In particular, for a number c ( 12 ≤ c < 1), m m+1 m m+1 [ m+1 , m+2 )

there is only one positive integer m such that since

m+1 m ,

)

(c > 2) .

function and limm→∞ h(m) = 1, the interval tervals

m∈N

m+1 m+2 ,

(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m ,

(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m

(i) Since the function h(m) := m [ m+1 , m+1 m+2 )

m∈N

2m+1 2m+3 ,

2m+1 m+1 2m+3 < m+2 , the interval 2m+1 m+1 m , 2m+1 [ m+1 2m+3 ) and [ 2m+3 , m+2 ).

<

(ii) Since the function h′ (m) :=

m+1 m

≤c<

m+1 m+2 .

Furthermore,

can be partitioned by two

is a monotonically decreasing function and

m+2 m+1 , m ] limm→∞ h′ (m) = 1, the interval (1, 2] can be partitioned by intervals ( m+1

(m ∈ N). In particular, for a number c (1 < c ≤ 2), there is only one positive integer m such that

By

m+2 m+1

< c ≤

m+1 m .

(2m+1)(m+2) m+2 m+1 < m+1 m , the interval ( m+1 , m ] can (2m+3)m (2m+1)(m+2) (2m+1)(m+2) m+1 vals ( m+2 m+1 , (2m+3)m ] and ( (2m+3)m , m ]. (i) and (ii), for each c (c ≥ 12 ), Theorem 1.2 gives

Furthermore, since

m+2 m+1

<

be partitioned by two interexactly one upper bound on

γc. It follows from Proposition 1.1(i) and Theorem A that γ 1 (G) ≤

1 2n

for every

connected graph G of order n ≥ 2. (Indeed, since a maximal independent set S of G and the set S ′ := V (G) − S are dominating sets of G, we obtain the upper bound.) Thus it suffices to focus on Theorem 1.2 for the case where c ̸= 1. We divide the proof of Theorem 1.2 into three cases. We consider the case where

1 2

≤ c < 1 in

Section 3, the case where 1 < c ≤ 2 in Section 4, the case where c > 2 in Section 5. In Section 6, we discuss the sharpness of Theorem 1.2.

2

Trees without good edges

Let T be a tree. For an edge x1 x2 of T , let Txx11x2 be the component of T − x1 x2 containing x1 . An edge x1 x2 of T is good if |V (Txx1ix2 )| ≥ 3 for each i ∈ {1, 2}. For non-negative integers p and q, we let Tp,q denote the tree with V (Tp,q ) = {x} ∪ {yi,j : 1 ≤ i ≤ p, j ∈ {1, 2}} ∪ {zi : 1 ≤ i ≤ q} 5

y1,2

yp,2

y1,1

yp,1 z1

zq

x Figure 1: Tree Tp,q

and E(Tp,q ) = {xyi,1 , yi,1 yi,2 : 1 ≤ i ≤ p} ∪ {xzi : 1 ≤ i ≤ q} (see Figure 1). The following lemma might be known. However, to keep the paper self-contained, we give its proof. Lemma 2.1 Let T be a tree of order at least 3. Then T has no good edge if and only if T is isomorphic to Tp,q for some p ≥ 0 and q ≥ 0 with 2p + q ≥ 2. Proof. For integers p ≥ 0 and q ≥ 0 with 2p + q ≥ 2, it is clear that Tp,q has no good edge. Thus it suffices to show that the “only if” part of the lemma. Let P = x0 x1 · · · xd be a longest path of T . Then d is equal to the diameter of T . In particular, dT (x1 ) ≥ 2 because d ≥ 2. By the maximality of P , every vertex in NT (x1 ) − {x0 , x2 } is a leaf of T . Suppose that dT (x1 ) ≥ 3. Since x1 x2 is not a good edge of T , |V (Txx12x2 )| ≤ 2. In particular, either d = 2 and V (Txx12x2 ) = {x2 } or d = 3 and V (Txx12x2 ) = {x2 , x3 }. Let k = dT (x1 ). If d = 2 and V (Txx12x2 ) = {x2 }, then T is isomorphic to T0,k ; if d = 3 and V (Txx12x2 ) = {x2 , x3 }, then T is isomorphic to T1,k−1 . In either case, we obtain the desired conclusion. Thus we may assume that dT (x1 ) = 2 (i.e., NT (x1 ) = {x0 , x2 }). For each vertex u ∈ NT (x2 )−{x1 }, since x2 u is not a good edge and |V (Txx22u )| ≥ 3, |V (Txu2 u )| ≤ 2. Let p = |{u ∈ NT (x2 ) − {x1 } : |V (Txu2 u )| = 2}| and q = |{u ∈ NT (x2 ) − {x1 } : |V (Txu2 u )| = 1}|. Then T is isomorphic to Tp+1,q , as desired.

Upper bound on γ c for

3

1 2



≤c<1

In this section, we prove the following theorem. Theorem 3.1 Let c be a number with that

m m+1

(i) If

≤c<

m m+1

m+1 m+2 .

≤c<

1 2

≤ c < 1, and let m ≥ 1 be the integer such

Let T be a tree of order n ≥ 3. Then the following hold:

2m+1 2m+3 ,

then γ c (T ) ≤

m+1 2m+3 n.

6

(ii) If

2m+1 2m+3

≤c<

m+1 m+2 ,

then γ c (T ) ≤

cm+2c+1 2m+5 n.

Remark 3 Since the deletion of edges cannot decrease the c-self-domination number, we obtain Theorem 1.2 for the case where

1 2

≤ c < 1 as a corollary of Theo-

rem 3.1. We first show the following lemma. Lemma 3.2 Let c and m be as in Theorem 3.1. If T = Tp,q for integers p ≥ 0 and q ≥ 0 with 2p + q ≥ 2, then the conclusion of Theorem 3.1 holds. Proof. The function f1 : V (Tp,q ) → R+ with   1 (u = x)    f1 (u) = c (u ∈ {yi,2 : 1 ≤ i ≤ p})     0 (otherwise) is a c-SDF of Tp,q with w(f1 ) = cp + 1. Hence γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ w(f1 ) = cp + 1 =

cp + 1 |V (Tp,q )|. 2p + q + 1

(3.1)

If p ≥ 1, then the function f2 : V (Tp,q ) → R+ with   1    f2 (u) =

c     0

(u ∈ {yi,1 : 1 ≤ i ≤ p}) (u ∈ {zi : 1 ≤ i ≤ q}) (otherwise)

is a c-SDF of Tp,q with w(f2 ) = p + cq. Hence γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ w(f2 ) = p + cq =

p + cq |V (Tp,q )| 2p + q + 1

if p ≥ 1.

(3.2)

Furthermore, we have m+1 = 2m + 3

(2m+1)(m+2) 2m+3

2m + 5

+1



c(m + 2) + 1 2m + 5

if c ≥

2m + 1 . 2m + 3

(3.3)

We divide the proof into four cases. Case 1: Either p = 0 or (p, q) = (1, 0). Note that if p = 0, then q = 2p + q ≥ 2. Hence it follows from (3.1) and (3.2) that 1 m+1 γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ |V (Tp,q )| < |V (Tp,q )|. 3 2m + 3

7

(3.4)

In particular, (i) holds. If γ c (Tp,q ) <

≤c<

2m+1 2m+3

m+1 m+2 ,

then it follows from (3.4) and (3.3) that

m+1 c(m + 2) + 1 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 3 2m + 5

which proves (ii). Case 2: p = 1 and q ≥ 1. If

m m+1

≤c<

γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

2m+1 2m+3 ,

then by (3.1) and the assumption that q ≥ 1,

cp + 1 |V (Tp,q )| < 2p + q + 1

2m+1 2m+3

+1

4

|V (Tp,q )| =

m+1 |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 3

which proves (i). Next we suppose that

≤c<

2m+1 2m+3

m+1 m+2

and show that (ii) holds. Since

4(cm + 2c + 1) − (c + 1)(2m + 5) = c(2m + 3) − (2m + 1) ≥

(2m + 1)(2m + 3) − (2m + 1) 2m + 3

= 0, we have cp + 1 c+1 cm + 2c + 1 ≤ ≤ . 2p + q + 1 4 2m + 5 This together with (3.1) leads to (ii). Case 3: p ≥ 2 and q ≥ 1. Since p ≥ 2, 2(m + 1)(m + 2)(p + 1) − ((m + 1)p + m + 2)(2m + 3) = m(p − 1) + p − 2 > 0, and hence (m + 1)p + m + 2 m+1 < . 2(m + 2)(p + 1) 2m + 3 This together with (3.1) implies γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

cp + 1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + q + 1 (m+1)p m+2

+1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + 2 (m + 1)p + m + 2 = |V (Tp,q )| 2(m + 2)(p + 1) m+1 < |V (Tp,q )|. 2m + 3

<

In particular, (i) holds. If γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

2m+1 2m+3

≤c<

m+1 m+2 ,

then it follows from (3.5) and (3.3) that

m+1 c(m + 2) + 1 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 3 2m + 5 8

(3.5)

which proves (ii). Case 4: p ≥ 2 and q = 0. Suppose that p ≤ m + 1. Then it follows from (3.2) that γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

p m+1 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|. 2p + 1 2m + 3

2m+1 2m+3

In particular, (i) holds. If

≤c<

m+1 m+2 ,

then it follows from (3.6) and (3.3) that

m+1 c(m + 2) + 1 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 3 2m + 5

γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

which proves (ii). Thus we may assume that p ≥ m + 2. We first suppose that

m m+1

≤c<

2m+1 2m+3

and show that (i) holds. Then

(m + 1)(2p + 1) − ((2m + 1)p + 2m + 3) = p − m − 2 ≥ 0, and hence (2m + 1)p + 2m + 3 ≤ m + 1. 2p + 1 This together with (3.1) leads to γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

cp + 1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + 1 (2m+1)p 2m+3

+1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + 1 (2m + 1)p + 2m + 3 = |V (Tp,q )| (2p + 1)(2m + 3) m+1 |V (Tp,q )|, ≤ 2m + 3

<

which proves (i). Next we suppose that

2m+1 2m+3

≤c<

m+1 m+2

and show that (ii) holds. Then

(c(m + 2) + 1)(2p + 1) − (cp + 1)(2m + 5) = (p − m − 2)(2 − c) ≥ 0, and hence c(m + 2) + 1 cp + 1 ≤ . 2p + 1 2m + 5 This together with (3.1) leads to γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

c(m + 2) + 1 cp + 1 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2p + 1 2m + 5

which proves (ii). This completes the proof of Lemma 3.2.

9

(3.6)



Proof of Theorem 3.1.

We proceed by induction on n. If T has no good edge, then

by Lemma 2.1 and Lemma 3.2, the desired conclusion holds. Thus we may assume that T has a good edge x1 x2 . Then by the induction hypothesis, for each i ∈ {1, 2},  ( )  m 2m+1  m+1 |V (Txxix )| ≤ c < 2m+3 m+1 2m+3 1 2 ( ) γ c (Txx1ix2 ) ≤  2m+1 m+1  cm+2c+1 |V (Txxix )| ≤ c < 2m+5 2m+3 m+2 . 1 2 Since γ c (T ) ≤ γ c (Txx11x2 ) + γ c (Txx12x2 ) and |V (Txx11x2 )| + |V (Txx12x2 )| = n, this leads to the desired conclusion.



Upper bound on γ c for 1 < c ≤ 2

4

In this section, we prove the following theorem. Theorem 4.1 Let c be a number with 1 < c ≤ 2, and let m ≥ 1 be the integer such that

m+2 m+1

(i) If (ii) If


m+2 m+1

m+1 m .


(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m

Let T be a tree of order n ≥ 3. Then the following hold:

(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m ,


m+1 m ,

then γ c (T ) ≤

m+2 2m+3 n.

then γ c (T ) ≤

cm 2m+1 n.

Remark 4 Since the deletion of edges cannot decrease the c-self-domination number, we obtain Theorem 1.2 for the case where 1 < c ≤ 2 as a corollary of Theorem 4.1. We first show the following lemma. Lemma 4.2 Let c and m be as in Theorem 4.1. If T = Tp,q for integers p ≥ 0 and q ≥ 0 with 2p + q ≥ 2, then the conclusion of Theorem 4.1 holds. Proof. If p = 0, then the function f1 : The function f1 : V (Tp,q ) → R+ with  c (u = x) f1 (u) = 0 (otherwise) is a c-SDF of Tp,q with w(f1 ) = c. Hence γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ w(f1 ) = c =

c |V (Tp,q )| q+1

if p = 0.

If p ≥ 1, then the function f2 : V (Tp,q ) → R+ with  1 (u ∈ {x, yi,1 : 1 ≤ i ≤ p}) f2 (u) = 0 (otherwise) 10

(4.1)

is a c-SDF of Tp,q with w(f2 ) = p + 1. Hence p+1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + q + 1

γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ w(f2 ) = p + 1 =

if p ≥ 1.

(4.2)

If q = 0 (i.e., p ≥ 1), then the function f3 : V (Tp,q ) → R+ with  c (u ∈ {yi,1 : 1 ≤ i ≤ p}) f3 (u) = 0 (otherwise) is a c-SDF of Tp,q with w(f3 ) = cp. Hence cp |V (Tp,q )| 2p + 1

γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ w(f3 ) = cp =

if q = 0.

(4.3)

Furthermore, we have cm ≤ 2m + 1

(2m+1)(m+2)m (2m+3)m

2m + 1

=

m+2 2m + 3

if c ≤

(2m + 1)(m + 2) . (2m + 3)m

(4.4)

We divide the proof into three cases. Case 1: Either p = 0 or (p, q) = (1, 0). Note that if p = 0, then q = 2p + q ≥ 2. Hence it follows from (4.1) and (4.3) leads to c cm γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|. 3 2m + 1 In particular, (ii) holds. If

m+2 m+1


(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m ,

(4.5)

then it follows from (4.5) and

(4.4) that γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

cm m+2 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 1 2m + 3

which proves (i). Case 2: p ≥ 1 and q ≥ 1. By (4.2), γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ ≤ = ≤ < In particular, (ii) holds. If

m+2 m+1

p+1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + q + 1 p+1 |V (Tp,q )| 2p + 2 1 |V (Tp,q )| 2 (m + 2)m |V (Tp,q )| (m + 1)(2m + 1) cm |V (Tp,q )|. 2m + 1


(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m ,

then it follows from (4.6) and

(4.4) that γ c (Tp,q ) <

cm m+2 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 1 2m + 3 11

(4.6)

which proves (i). Case 3: p ≥ 2 and q = 0. Suppose that p ≤ m. Then it follows from (4.3) that γ c (Tp,q ) ≤ In particular, (ii) holds. If

cp cm |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|. 2p + 1 2m + 1

m+2 m+1


(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m ,

(4.7)

then it follows from (4.7) and

(4.4) that γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

m+2 cm |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2m + 1 2m + 3

which proves (i). Thus we may assume that p ≥ m + 1. We first suppose that p+1 2p+1



m+2 2m+3 .

m+2 m+1

(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m

< c ≤

and show that (i) holds. Then

This together with (4.2) leads to γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

p+1 m+2 |V (Tp,q )| ≤ |V (Tp,q )|, 2p + 1 2m + 3

which proves (i). Next we suppose that

(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m


p+1 m+2 ≤ = 2p + 1 2m + 3

m+1 m

and show that (ii) holds. Then

(2m+1)(m+2)m (2m+3)m

2m + 1

<

cm . 2m + 1

This together with (4.2) leads to γ c (Tp,q ) ≤

p+1 cm |V (Tp,q )| < |V (Tp,q )|, 2p + 1 2m + 1

which proves (ii). This completes the proof of Lemma 4.2. Proof of Theorem 4.1.



We proceed by induction on n. If T has no good edge, then

by Lemma 2.1 and Lemma 4.2, the desired conclusion holds. Thus we may assume that T has a good edge x1 x2 . Then by the induction hypothesis, for each i ∈ {1, 2},  ) (  (2m+1)(m+2) m+2  m+2 |V (Txxix )| 2m+3 m+1 < c ≤ 1 2 (2m+3)m ) ( γ c (Txx1ix2 ) ≤ (2m+1)(m+2)  m+1  cm |V (Txxix )| < c ≤ . 2m+1 m 1 2 (2m+3)m Since γ c (T ) ≤ γ c (Txx11x2 ) + γ c (Txx12x2 ) and |V (Txx11x2 )| + |V (Txx12x2 )| = n, this leads to the desired conclusion.



12

Upper bound on γ c for c > 2

5

Lemma 5.1 Let c be a number with c ≥ 2. Let G be a connected graph of order at least 2. Then γ c (G) = γt (G). Proof. Let f be a γ c -function of G. By (1.1), we have {f (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1, c}. Choose f so that |{u ∈ V (G) : f (u) = c}| is as small as possible. Suppose that f (x) = c for some x ∈ V (G), and let y ∈ NG (x). Then the function f′

: V (G) → R+ with

  1 (u = x)    f ′ (u) = f (y) + 1 (u = y)     f (u) (otherwise)

is a c-SDF of G with w(f ′ ) = w(f ) − c + 2 ≤ w(f ) and |{u ∈ V (G) : f ′ (u) = c}| < |{u ∈ V (G) : f (u) = c}|, which contradicts the choice of f . Thus {f (u) : u ∈ V (G)} ⊆ {0, 1}. Since the set S := {u ∈ V (G) : f (u) = 1} is a total dominating set of G with |S| = w(f ), γt (G) ≤ |S| = w(f ) = γ c (G). Since γ c (G) ≤ γ ∞ (G) = γt (G) by □

Proposition 1.1, we obtain the desired conclusion.

By Lemma 5.1 and Theorem 4.1 for the case where c = 2, we obtain the following proposition. Proposition 5.2 Let c be a number with c ≥ 2. Let G be a connected graph of order n ≥ 3. Then γ c (G) ≤ 32 n. Remark 5 We obtain Theorem 1.2 for the case where c > 2 as a corollary of Proposition 5.2.

6

Examples

In this section, we show that Theorem 1.2 is best possible. Let p ≥ 1 and s ≥ 1 be integers, and let Tp,0 be the tree defined in Section 2. l (1 ≤ Let L1p , . . . , Lsp be vertex-disjoint copies of Tp,0 . For l (1 ≤ l ≤ s), let xl and yi,j

i ≤ p, j ∈ {1, 2}) be the vertices of Llp corresponding to x and yi,j , respectively. Let Tps be the tree obtained from L1p , . . . , Lsp by adding edges xl xl+1 (1 ≤ l ≤ s − 1).

6.1

The case

1 2

≤c<1

Throughout this subsection, fix a number c with integer such that

m m+1

≤c<

m+1 m+2 .

13

1 2

≤ c < 1, and let m ≥ 1 be the

Lemma 6.1 Let p ≥ 1 and s ≥ 1 be integers. Let f : V (Tps ) → R+ be a γ c -function ∑ of Tps . Then for l (1 ≤ l ≤ s), u∈V (Llp ) f (u) ≥ min{cp + 1, p}. l ) ≥ c or f (y l ) ≥ 1 for each i (1 ≤ i ≤ p), and hence Proof. If f (xl ) ≥ 1, then f (yi,2 i,1

∑ u∈V



f (u) = f (xl ) +

l l (f (yi,1 ) + f (yi,2 )) ≥ 1 +

1≤i≤p

(Llp )



c = 1 + cp,

1≤i≤p

as desired. Thus we may assume that f (xl ) < 1. For each i (1 ≤ i ≤ p), since the restriction of f on {yi,1 , yi,2 } is a c-SDF of G[{yi,1 , yi,2 }] (≃ P2 ), we have f (yi,1 ) + f (yi,2 ) ≥ γ c (P2 ) = 1. It follows that ∑ u∈V

as desired.

f (u) = f (xl ) +



l l (f (yi,1 ) + f (yi,2 )) ≥

1≤i≤p

(Llp )



1 = p,

1≤i≤p



Now we show that Theorem 1.2 for the case where We assume that

2m+1 ≤ c < 2m+3 . Let f c(m + 1) + 1 ≥ m(m+1) m+1

m m+1

l (1 ≤ l ≤ s). Since

be a

1 2

≤ c < 1 is best possible.

γ c -function

s of Tm+1 . Fix an index

s + 1 = m + 1 and |V (Tm+1 )| = s(2m + 3),

it follows from Lemma 6.1 that s γ c (Tm+1 ) = w(f )

=



∑   1≤l≤s









 f (u)

u∈V (Llm+1 )

min{c(m + 1) + 1, m + 1}

1≤l≤s

= s(m + 1) m+1 s = |V (Tm+1 )|. 2m + 3 s ) = This together with Theorem 1.2 implies that γ c (Tm+1

m+1 2m+3 |V

s )|. Since (Tm+1

s ≥ 1 is arbitrary, there exist infinitely many connected graphs G with γ c (G) = m+1 2m+3 |V

(G)|.

Next we assume that

2m+1 2m+3

≤c<

index l (1 ≤ l ≤ s). Since c(m + 2) +

m+1 ′ c s m+2 . Let f be a γ -function of Tm+2 . Fix an s 1 < (m+1)(m+2) + 1 = m + 2 and |V (Tm+2 )| = m+2

14

s(2m + 5), it follows from Lemma 6.1 that s γ c (Tm+2 ) = w(f ′ )  ∑  = 





 f ′ (u)

u∈V (Llm+2 )

1≤l≤s





min{c(m + 2) + 1, m + 2}

1≤l≤s

= s(c(m + 2) + 1) cm + 2c + 1 s = |V (Tm+2 )|. 2m + 5 s This together with Theorem 1.2 implies that γ c (Tm+2 )=

cm+2c+1 2m+5 |V

s (Tm+2 )|. Since

s ≥ 1 is arbitrary, there exist infinitely many connected graphs G with γ c (G) = cm+2c+1 2m+5 |V

(G)|.

Therefore, Theorem 1.2 for the case where

6.2

1 2

≤ c < 1 is best possible.

The case c = 1

Fink et al. [5] and Payan and Xuong [13] proved that a connected graph G satisfies γ(G) =

1 2 |V

(G)| if and only if G is isomorphic to either a cycle of order 4 or the

graph obtained from a connected graph H by adding a pendant edge to each vertex of H. This together with Proposition 1.1(i) implies that there exist infinitely many connected graphs G with γ 1 (G) = 12 |V (G)|. Consequently Theorem 1.2 for the case where c = 1 is best possible.

6.3

The case 1 < c ≤ 2

Throughout this subsection, fix a number c with 1 < c ≤ 2, and let m ≥ 1 be the integer such that

m+2 m+1


m+1 m .

Lemma 6.2 Let p ≥ 1 and s ≥ 1 be integers. Let f : V (Tps ) → R+ be a γ c -function ∑ of Tps . Then for l (1 ≤ l ≤ s), u∈V (Llp ) f (u) ≥ min{p + 1, cp}. l ) ≥ c or f (y l ) ≥ 1 for each i (1 ≤ i ≤ p), and hence Proof. If f (xl ) ≥ 1, then f (yi,2 i,1 ∑ ∑ ∑ l l 1 = 1 + p, (f (yi,1 ) + f (yi,2 )) ≥ 1 + f (u) = f (xl ) + u∈V (Llp )

1≤i≤p

1≤i≤p

as desired. Thus we may assume that f (xl ) < 1. For each i (1 ≤ i ≤ p), since the restriction of f on {yi,1 , yi,2 } is a c-SDF of G[{yi,1 , yi,2 }] (≃ P2 ), we have f (yi,1 ) + f (yi,2 ) ≥ γ c (P2 ) = c. It follows that ∑ ∑ ∑ l l c = cp, (f (yi,1 ) + f (yi,2 )) ≥ f (u) = f (xl ) + u∈V (Llp )

1≤i≤p

1≤i≤p

15



as desired.

Now we show that Theorem 1.2 for the case where 1 < c ≤ 2 is best possible. We assume that

m+2 m+1


l (1 ≤ l ≤ s). Since c(m

(2m+1)(m+2) c s (2m+3)m . Let f be a γ -function of Tm+1 . s + 1) ≥ (m+2)(m+1) = m + 2 and |V (Tm+1 )| = m+1

Fix an index s(2m + 3), it

follows from Lemma 6.2 that s γ c (Tm+1 ) = w(f )

 ∑  =  ∑

 f (u)

u∈V (Llm+1 )

1≤l≤s



 ∑

min{(m + 1) + 1, c(m + 1)}

1≤l≤s

= s(m + 2) m+2 s |V (Tm+1 )|. = 2m + 3 s This together with Theorem 1.2 implies that γ c (Tm+1 ) =

m+2 2m+3 |V

s (Tm+1 )|. Since

s ≥ 1 is arbitrary, there exist infinitely many connected graphs G with γ c (G) = m+2 2m+3 |V

(G)|.

Next we assume that

(2m+1)(m+2) (2m+3)m

m+1 ′ c s m . Let f be a γ -function of Tm . (m+1)m s )| = s(2m + 1), = m + 1 and |V (Tm m


Fix an index l (1 ≤ l ≤ s). Since cm ≤ it follows from Lemma 6.2 that

s γ c (Tm ) = w(f ′ )  ∑ ∑  =



f ′ (u)

u∈V (Llm )

1≤l≤s





min{m + 1, cm}

1≤l≤s

= scm cm s = |V (Tm )|. 2m + 1 s)= This together with Theorem 1.2 implies that γ c (Tm

cm 2m+1 |V

s )|. Since s ≥ 1 is (Tm

arbitrary, there exist infinitely many connected graphs G with γ c (G) =

cm 2m+1 |V

(G)|.

Therefore, Theorem 1.2 for the case where 1 < c ≤ 2 is best possible.

6.4

The case c > 2

In Subsection 6.3, we showed that there exist infinitely many connected graphs G 1

with γ 2 (G) = 23 |V (G)|. On the other hand, it follows from Lemma 5.1 that for a number c >

1 2

1

and a connected graph G of order at least 2, γ c (G) = γ 2 (G). Hence 16

for c >

1 2,

there exist infinitely many connected graphs G with γ c (G) =

2 3 |V

(G)|.

Consequently Theorem 1.2 for the case where c > 2 is best possible.

7

Concluding remarks

In this paper, our aim is to find essential boundaries among domination, total domination and Roman domination. Thus we focused on c-self-domination for c ≥ 12 . As far as we check Theorem 1.2 and its proof, the essential parts are roughly divided into

1 2

≤ c < 1, c = 1 and c > 1. Hence, for example, we expect that some results

on Roman domination can be extended to c-self-domination for

1 2

< c < 1.

Here one might be interested in upper bounds on c-self-domination for c < 21 . As a general upper bound on c-self-domination, we obtain the following proposition. Proposition 7.1 Let c > 0 be a number. Let G be a graph of order n. Then γ c (G) ≤ cn. Proof. Since the function f : V (G) → R+ with f (u) = c (u ∈ V (G)) is a c-SDF of G with w(f ) = cn, we get the desired conclusion.



Proposition 7.1 is best possible for the case where 0 < c ≤ 31 . It suffices to show that γ c (Pn ) ≥ cn for all n ≥ 1. Let f be a γ c -function of Pn . By (1.1), we have {f (u) : u ∈ V (Pn )} ⊆ {0, 1, c}. Choose f so that |{u ∈ V (Pn ) : f (u) = c}| is as large as possible. Suppose that {f (u) : u ∈ V (Pn )} ∩ {0, 1} ̸= ∅. Then there exists a vertex x ∈ V (Pn ) with f (x) = 1. Let f ′ : V (Pn ) → R+ be the function with   c (u = x)    ′ f (u) = max{f (u), c} (u ∈ NPn (x))     f (u) (otherwise). Then f ′ is a c-SDF of Pn with w(f ′ ) ≤ w(f ) − 1 + 3c ≤ w(f ) and |{u ∈ V (Pn ) : f ′ (u) = c}| > |{u ∈ V (Pn ) : f (u) = c}|, which contradicts the choice of f . Thus f (u) = c for all u ∈ V (Pn ). Consequently, γ c (Pn ) ≥ cn, and so Proposition 7.1 is best possible for the case where 0 < c ≤ 13 . On the other hand, we have not found a sharp upper bounds on c-self-domination for

1 3

< c < 12 . We conclude the paper by presenting the following open problem.

Problem 1 Let c be a number with

1 3

< c < 21 . Find a sharp upper bound on γ c (G)

for connected graphs G of sufficiently large order.

17

Acknowledgment This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant number 26800086 (to M.F).

References [1] E.W. Chambers, B. Kinnersley, N. Prince and D.B. West, Extremal problems for Roman domination, SIAM J. Discrete Math. 23 (2009) 1575–1586. [2] E.J. Cockayne, R.M. Dawes and S.T. Hedetniemi, Total domination in graphs, Networks 10 (1980) 211–219. [3] E.J. Cockayne, P.A. Dreyer Jr., S.M. Hedetniemi and S.T. Hedetniemi, Roman domination in graphs, Discrete Math. 278 (2004) 11–22. [4] R. Diestel, “Graph Theory” (5th edition), Graduate Texts in Mathematics 173, Springer (2016). [5] J.F. Fink, M.S. Jacobson, L.F. Kinch and J. Roberts, On graphs having domination number half their order, Period. Math. Hungar. 16 (1985) 287–293. [6] X. Fu, Y. Yang and B. Jiang, Roman domination in regular graphs, Discrete Math. 309 (2009) 1528–1537. [7] T.W. Haynes, S.T. Hedetniemi and P.J. Slater, Fundamentals of Domination in Graphs, Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York (1998). [8] T.W. Haynes, S.T. Hedetniemi and P.J. Slater, Domination inn Graphs: Advanced Topics, Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York (1998). [9] M.A. Henning and A. Yeo, Total domination in graphs, Springer Monographs in Mathematics. Springer, New York, (2013). [10] M. Liedloff, T. Kloks, J. Liu and S.L. Peng, Efficient algorithms for Roman domination on some classes of graphs, Discrete Appl. Math. 156 (2008) 3400– 3415. [11] C.H. Liu and G.J. Chang, Roman domination on 2-connected graphs, SIAM J. Discrete Math. 26 (2012) 193–205. [12] O. Ore, Theory of graphs, American Mathematical Society Colloquium Publications Vol.38 American Mathematics Society, Providence, RI (1962). [13] C. Payan and N.H. Xuong, Domination-balanced graphs, J. Graph Theory 6 (1982) 23–32. 18

[14] I. Stewart, Defend the Roman Empire!, Sci. Am. 281 (1999) 136–139.

19

A continuous generalization of domination-like invariants

bound of the c-self-domination number for all c ≥ 1. 2 . Key words and ... All graphs considered in this paper are finite, simple, and undirected. Let G be ..... 0 (otherwise) is a c-SDF of Tp,q with w(f1) = cp + 1. Hence γc(Tp,q) ≤ w(f1) = cp +1= cp + 1. 2p + q + 1. |V (Tp,q)|. (3.1). If p ≥ 1, then the function f2 : V (Tp,q) → R+ with.

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