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www.OnlineIAS.com INDIAN HISTOTY PREHISTORIC PERIOD:
The Prehistory is divided into 4 periods or ages.
Paleolithic Period (or) Old stone Age
Mesolithic age (or) Late stone age
Neolithic age (or) the new stone age
Chalcolithic age
Shall we look into this one after the other? Let us move ahead.
PALEOLITHIC PERIOD: This is also called Old Stone Age. The word Paleolithic was coined by an archeologist John Lubbock (England) in the year 1865. Palaios means ‘Old’ and Lithos means ‘Stone’. The earliest traces of human existence in India go back to 4, 00,000 and 2, 00,000 BC.
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This is found by the large number of stone tools present in SOAN valley (Pakistan) and in south India (around Chennai). The most commonly used tool was FLINT. (Flint is a mineral from Quartz). The Flint was split into flakes or blades for better usage. These tools served for Skinning the animals. Cutting the flesh. Splitting bones. The people during this period were food gatherers. (Complete dependence on nature for the food). Later people of this age learnt to control fire. What about clothing? Animal skin Big leaves Barks of the trees are used as cloths. Towards the end of Paleolithic period the modern human being (Or) Homo sapiens appeared. The Homo sapiens first appeared around 36,000 BC.
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HOMO SAPIENS: The earliest form of man. The first great ape. The Latin meaning is “Wise man or Knowing man”.
MESOLITHIC AGE: This age is also called the late Stone Age. This age is also Middle Stone Age. This is the intermediate age in the Stone Age culture. The term Mesolithic was first used by John Lubbock in the year 1865. Mesos means ‘middle’ and lithos means ‘stone’. This age began around 8000 BC. This age continued up to 4000 BC. The tools that were used during this period were called Microliths. (Pointed or Crescent blades). The Mesolithic sites found in Chotanagpur plateau in the central India. Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh is considered to be the Mesolithic site.
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The sites also found along the river Krishna basin in South. Plant cultivation began during the Mesolithic age. During this age the food collection has started.
NEOLITHIC AGE: This age is also called New Stone Age. This age began around 4000 BC. The term Neolithic was first used by John Lubbock in the year 1865. Neo means ‘New’ and lithos means ‘Stone’. The Neolithic sites were located in the North-West region and Deccan region. The people of this age domesticated animals like dog, goat and sheep. Dog, Goat and Sheep are the first animals to be domesticated. The earliest (first) cereals grown were Wheat and Barley. The people of this age started sedentary (settled) life. This age witnessed the beginning of formation of villages and communities. Digging stick was used as tool for digging purpose. A sickle used for harvesting. An axe used for cutting trees. A quern and Mortar use for grinding grains.
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The people of this age used ochre-colored pottery. Pottery was used to store food grains and storing liquids. Wheel was the most important discovery of this age. Towards the end of Neolithic period use of the metals began.
CHALCOLITHIC PERIOD: The period of this age is 1800 to 1000 BC. Chalco means ‘Copper’ and lithos means ‘Stone”. This is a period between Neolithic and Bronze age. The people lead a settled life. The people used Copper, bronze and stone tools during this period. Brahmagiri near Mysore (Karnataka) and Navada Toli (On the Narmada River) are chalcolithic sites. Mehgarh in Baluchistan of Pakistan is an important site of Neolithic age. Mehgarh is located near Bolan Pass (In West Pakistan 120 km away from Pakistan border) to the west of Indus River.
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ANCIENT URBAN CIVILIZATIONS: There were four important urban civilizations. Egypt Mesopotamia South Asia (Indus Valley Civilization) China. Out of these the largest was Indus Valley Civilization. INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION: This is also called Harappan civilization. The Indus Valley civilization period is considered to be between 2700 – 1700 BC. The civilization spread over the whole Sind, Baluchistan, whole of Punjab, Northern Rajasthan, Kathiawar and Gujarat. Harappa was the first city to be excavated in 1920’s. Marshall and R D Bannerji were behind these excavations. In the year 1968 Sir More Time Wheeler said that the Indus valley Civilization was fully developed. The idea of civilization probably came from Mesopotamia (This is mostly Iraq area and parts of Iran, Syria and Turkey).
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The most important cities of Indus Valley Civilization are Harappa Mohenjo-Daro. The other important cities of Indus Valley Civilization are Ropar
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Chandigarh
Lothal
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Ahmadabad
Kalibangan Kot Doji
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Sind
Chanhu-daro -
Sind
Dholavira
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Banwali
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Rajasthan
Kutch (Gujarat)
Hissar (Haryana)
Surkatoda
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Gujarat
Sutkagendor
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Makran coast (Pakistan and Iran
border) Harappa-Kalibangan-Mohenjadaro
represented
the
heart
of
Harappan civilization. The most remarkable feature of the Harappan civilization was its urbanization. Each city was divided into a citadel (fortress) are where the essential institutions were located. The people lived in the lower areas.
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The evidence of agriculture in Indus Valley Civilization came from a place called Mehrgarh near Bolan Pass. The people in this area were growing Wheat and Barley. Varieties of painted pottery were found. The people of Indus valley Civilization also used Seals and Copper objects. The evidence of well developed culture was seen at Amri (Located in Sindh province of Pakistan). Houses of stone or mud brick were also seen. These people also constructed granaries. Thin pottery was identified, on which animal motifs such as humped Bull were seen. Brick making was a large scale industry. The town planning was rectangular in shape. The town planning is the unique feature of the Civilization. The drainage system is one of the impressive achievements. A kind of Municipal organization was existing. The houses were constructed with kuccha bricks and not with stones. The bath rooms and drainage built with Pukka bricks and made waterproof by adding Gypsum. The people of Harappan civilization cultivated Wheat, Barley, Peas and Dates.
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They also cultivated Sesame and Mustard for oil. The Harappans were earliest people to grow cotton. There was no practice of canal irrigation. The Harappans use toothed harrow for ploughing. Sheep, Goat, Humped Cattle, Buffalo and Elephant were domesticated. Camel was also reared. Horse was not known to the Harappans. Deer was used as a game. (Hunting, probably for food). In Amri (Sind province of Pakistan) instance of Indian Rhinoceros was reported. There were proves of Terracotta boats. There was no evidence of coins. The system of weights and measurements was existed. Cubes of agate (Micro crystalline variety of Silica) were employed for weighing purpose. For length measurement strips of shell that are un shrinkable in hot and cold were used. Seals were used for stamping goods. (This was seen in Mesopotamia). The Mesopotamian literature mentioned the merchants of Ur (A place in Iraq) carried trade with foreign merchants. Tilmun
–
Island of Bahrain
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Magan
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Meluhha -
Oman India (Indus region of Saurashtra)
The Harappans were aware of mining metal working. The Harappans did not leave any inscriptions describing their system of government. At places like Sukkur the axes, knives; spearheads were produced in large scale. Temples were not found in the Indus Valley Civilization. Mother goddess was made up of clay. Mother goddess was worshiped for fertility. A seated figure of male god was found. (Probably Pashupati Mahadeva). Symbols of Phallus (Male sex organ) and female sex organs made in stone were worshipped. Pipal tree was treated as sacred. The Bull was worshipped. Some Indus people buried their dead in graves. A large cemetery was seen in Harappa and in other areas people practiced urn burial. The graves contained house hold pottery, ornaments and mirrors. During burial the head was pointed towards North.
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Let us know more about each of the important cities in the Indus Valley Civilization. HARAPPA: This is the first site to be excavated in the Indus Valley Civilization. The city of Harappa located on the banks of river Ravi. This is the premier city of civilization. The Citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. A number of Granaries were found in Harappa (striking feature). A large cemetery (burial place) was seen in Harappa.
MOHENJO-DARO: This is the largest city of Indus valley civilization. This is located on the banks of the river Indus. The local name of Mohenjo-Daro was “Mound of Dead”. The people here build and rebuild houses at the same location. The Citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. (Like Harappa). In citadel area Great Bath is the most striking structure. (Place for important rituals). To the west of Great bath granaries were also found. To the other side of Great bath a long building was located. This was used as residence for high officials. Assembly hall was another significant building in Mohenjo-Daro.
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A figure of dancing girl was recovered from Mohenjo-Daro. The dancing girl figure was made up of Bronze. A Bearded Head in stone was recovered from Mohenjo-Daro. Mohenjo-Daro had a public bath worked by an indigenous hydraulic system. (This is a system of force applying at one point is transmitted to another point using an incompressible fluid). Seals representing marks of authority of traders were found in Mohenjo-Daro.
KALIBANGAN: Kalibangan was excavated in the year 1960. This is located on the southern banks of the river Ghaggar. Both the citadel and lower city were surrounded by a wall. (Unlike Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro). Fire altars were discovered in Kalibangan. (Also in Lothal). (Fire altar is a sacrificial fire offered to God in almost all religious places). This is the worship of God Agni. There were indications of usage of wooden plough. Kalibangan shows the writing was boustrophedon. (This is a bidirectional text, i.e. from right to left and left to right). LOTHAL: This is located on the coast of Gulf of Cambay.
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A vast brick built dockyard was discovered here. This is an important sea port for trade with the West Asia. Fire altars were discovered in Lothal. (Also in Kalibangan). Rice was first cultivated in Lothal in 1800 BC.
SUTKAGENDOR: This is located near to the Makran coast. The town has a citadel surrounded by a stone wall built for defense. HOW INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION DECLINED? There are various theories regarding the decline. The decline suddenly occurred between 1800 and 1700 BC. One theory says that the people of Indus Valley Civilization were destroyed by invasion barbaric tribes. Other theory says that the Aryans the next settlers destroyed the Indus Valley Civilization. Floods and earth quakes may be a reason for the decline. Change of course of rivers. Mohenjo-Daro was destroyed by the course of river Indus away from it. Ecological factors are the other reasons for the decline of Indus Valley Civilization.
IRON AGE: (**********) In India the Iron Age began during 1000 BC.
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THE VEDIC AGE AND ARYANS: Do you know there are four Vedas? Rig Veda Sama Veda Yajur Veda Atharva Veda These Vedas are believed to belong to the period of 1500 – 500 BC. These Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans. The Ayrans have migrated to Indian subcontinent from West Asia. (It is a belief). The Aryans had a common home. (Today’s Iran) The scholars have come to a conclusion because there are similarities in the language used in Rigveda and Avesta.
Avesta: This is the oldest Iranian Text. This is older to the
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Rigveda.
The common racial identity of the Aryans has now been proved false. The Historians believe the common linguistic identity. The Vedic period can be divided into Early Vedic period And Later Vedic period. The year 1000 BC is considered to be the year of demarcation.
THE EARLY VEDIC PERIOD: Rig Veda or Rig Veda Samhitha belongs to this period. This is the oldest book of Vedia age. Rig Veda comprises of 10 Mandals (books). The books from II to VII are the oldest. The books I, VIII, IX and X are the considered to be the late additions.
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The geographical areas that mentioned in Rig Veda are those drained by the Western tributaries of Indus. The eastern limit was formed by the rivers Yamuna and Ganges. In this area the rivers Saraswati, Drasavati, Indus and the 5 tributaries of Indus have formed the core area. The early Vedic society appears to have been pastoral. Iron and copper technology was not used during early Vedic period. Usage of Stone tools was mentioned in Rig Veda. Shifting cultivation was practiced during this period. Individual land ownership was absent. It was community or group land. There was no reference to slaves (hired laborers). Weaving was a domestic activity under the control of women. Barter system was present. Cattle were used as a means of exchange. The battle of 10 kings was mentioned in Rig Veda. The Bharatas, the Purus, the Vadus, the Druhyus, the Anus, the Turvasus were some of the tribes that took part in the Battle of 10 kings. The Bharata tribe was led by Sudasa. The reason for the Battle of kings was the division of water of the river Ravi.
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The four fold Varna system was absent. Vaey less number of references to Brahmans, Kshatroya and only one reference to Sudra. Child marriage was unknown during early Vedic period. The priest acted as the mediator between the clansmen and the God. Purusasukta hymn is mentioned in the 10th book of Rig Veda. In Purusasukta it is mentioned that Brahmana, Kshatriya or Rajanya, Vaisya and Sudra took birth from Mouth, Arms, Thighs and feet of the Purushasva (Cosmic man). Brahmana -
Mouth
Kshtriya
Arms
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Vaisya
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Sudra
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Legs Feet
These names signified the four castes. There are so many terms that are mentioned in the Hymns (Prayer or Religious Song) of Rig Veda. * Let us try to learn some of them. Pasu Gomat
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Goats, Sheep, Horses -
Wealthy person
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Gaviti
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Battle (for cattle)
Gopati
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Raja or Chief (Protector of cattle)
(Cattle is the main reason for disputes between various groups, the chief or Raja is expected to protect the cattle and not land). Rajanya
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Raja or Chief
Purohit
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Priest
Duhitri
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Daughter
Godhuli
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Measurement of time
Gavyuti
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Distance
Gana
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Assembly
Sabha
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Assembly
Samiti
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Assembly
Parishad
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Assembly
Dana
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Gifts (Specially given to priests)
Dakshina -
Gifts
Vis
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People
Yava
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Barley (This is the only grain that is
mentioned in Rig Veda). Langala
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Plough
Sira
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Plough
Phala
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Ploughshare
Khanitra
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Hoe
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Datra
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Sickle
Parasue
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Axe
Samudra -
Mouth of Indus River
Bali
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Tax
Kula
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Family
Purusasukta Dasa
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Cosmic Man Slaves
Dasyus
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Rich
Yagna
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Sacrifice
Note: Please take pain/pleasure of going through all these again. You may get just one question in the examination, but who knows that single question decides the fate/Job. A number of gods were worshipped during early Vedic period. Most of the Gods were masculine (male Gods). Very few female Gods were also worshipped. As there were so many Gods, there was Polytheism (Worshipping many Gods). Animal sacrifice was existing to invoke gods for boons. The God Indra was the most important God during early Vedic period.
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During early Vedic period the Indra was considered as the God of strength. Indra was invoked to destroy the enemies. Indra was the god of rain and thunder. Agni was the God of Fire. Agni was the intermediary between the heaven and the earth. Agni was also intermediary between God and man. The purifying nature of fire is symbolized Agni. Varuna was the God of water. Yama was the God of Death. The Ashwins were the twin Gods of heaven. The Dyaus was the sky God. The Mitra was the God of Light. The Prajanya was the God of rain. The Prithvi was the Goddess earth. The Aditi was the mother Goddess.
THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD: This period is roughly between 1000 BC and 600 BC. The X mandala/book of Rig Veda was assigned to this period. The Sama Veda, the Yajur Veda and the Atharva Veda were assigned to this period.
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The Sama Veda is a book of prayers and chants. These are from Rig Veda. The Yajur Veda elaborates the rituals. The Atharva Veda contains the folk traditions and represents the popular religion. These Samhitas are followed by Brahmanas. The Brahmanas explained social and religious aspects of the rituals. Later appeared Aranyakas and Upanishads. During later Vedic period for clearing lands the usage of socketed iron axe found in Noh. (During early Vedic period people practiced the shifting cultivation). Importance of agriculture was increased. The ploughs were driven by Oxen (Agriculture). Iron ploughshare was found at Jakhera (Nagaur district of Rajasthan). The manufacturing of glass was also known during this period. Yava (Barley) continued to be important. Vrihi (Rice) assumed importance as a staple diet. Godhuma (Wheat) was relatively insignificant. Some pulses were mentioned in the literature. Mudga – Moong Mass – Urad
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Syamaka – Millet Tila – Sesame The term ‘Griha’ was used for household. Vaisya was the producing class in the society. Bali (tax) became less voluntary and obtained through force. Yajnas (Sacrifices) such as Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Ashvamedha became significant. Vidhis (Rules) for performing each sacrifice were formulated. The rules differed according to the needs of Yajamana (Patron). The word ‘Nishka’ was used for Gold ornaments. The word ‘Satamana’ was used for a weight of Gold/Silver. The word ‘Nagar’ was used for Towns. Varna system gained importance. The Brahmanas who were one of the 17 kinds of priests gained importance and became synonymous with the priesthood. The Brahmans, the Kshatriyas and the Vysyas performed the sacrifices. Sudras were denied of performing sacrifices. New deities (Gods) gained importance. The God Rudra became important. During this period un-touch-ability was absent. But women were increasingly subordinated.
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The institution of ‘Gotra’ appeared during the late Vedic period.
What is Gotra? This signifies the descent (origin) from a common ancestor. The system is to avoid the marriage between the couples belonging to the same gotra. Initially the tribal endogamy was practiced. This is a system of marriage within the tribe, in order to maintain the purity of the tribe. Later fully fledged gotra exogamy was started. This is a system of marriage outside the gotra. The Ashrama Brahmacharya (studentship, 5 to 24 years) Grihasta (households, (25 to 49 years) Vanaprastha (partial retirement, 50 to 74 years) Sanyasa (complete retirement, 75 to 100 years). Upanayan was the prerogative of the upper classes. There was the emergence of janapadas. The term ‘Janapada’ used for the area of tribal settlements. The Rajanyas of Rig Veda became Kshatriyas (Those who hold power over dominions).
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Bali and Bhaga assumed the forms of regular tributes and taxes. In North Bihar a republican form of government was evolved by the Shakyas and the lichchhavis. The Gods Indra and Agni lost significance during later Vedic period. Prajapati was considered to the creator gained significance. Rudra (in Rig Veda Rudra was a minor Deity (God)) became important. The God Vishnu was considered as the preserver and protector of the people. Pushan (the diety who protected the cattle in the early Vedic period) became the God of the Shudras. Pushan was invoked to bring harmony and safe deliveries of babies. The Ashwins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and killing of rats. The Savitri was summoned (invoked or prayed) to fix a place for a new house. The Surya was invoked to remove demons. Idolatry was noticed during the later Vedic period.
IDOLATRY means worship of Idol. This may be in the form of physical object
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or image.
The doctrines (Believes, Teachings or Principles) Karma Maya Transmigration Identity of Individual soul with the Universal soul Mukti These were first found in Upanishads.
These were accepted as Hindu tenets. (Tenet is a principle on which belief or theory is based).
What is Sruti and Smriti ? These two are considered to be the texts that are used to establish the rule of law. Sruti means hearing or listening. Smriti means ‘that which is remembered’.
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Sruti is a direct revelation of Cosmic sound of truth heard by ancient Rishies. Hence Sruti is a divine origin. Smriti is a writings of remembering what is heard. Sruti is considered to the first source of authority for dharma. Smriti is considered to be the second source of authority for dharma.
SMRITI LITERATURE: The word “Smriti” means ‘That which is remembered’. This is entirely a part of post Vedic Sanskrit literature. The Smriti literature was composed after Vedas around 500 BC. The
Smriti
includes Vedanga Shad-Darsana Itihasa Purana Upaveda Tantra Agama Upanga
literature
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VEDANGA: These are six auxiliary disciplines associated with the study and understanding of the Vedas. The Vedangas are again divided into Kalpa – The ritual action The Kaipa includes the Dharma Shastras/ Legal Codes. Jyotisha or Astronomy Siksha or Phonetics Chanda or Meter Nirukta or Etymology Vyakarana or Grammar SHAD-DARSHANA: These denote the six orthodox schools of Hindu Philosophy. Nyaya Vaisheshika Sankhya Yoga Mimamsa Vedanta
ITIHASA:
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The Ramayana and the Mahabharata are considered to be the Itihasas. These are the legendary works. Ramayana Mahabharata
PURANAS: These are considered to be the extensions of Itihasas. These are the late compilations of legendary ancient legenda.
UPA-VEDAS: These are the auxiliary Vedas that deal with Medicine, Music, Architecture, Eroticism, Archery etc. These are associated with the Vedas. Ayurveda
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Atharva Veda
Arthaveda
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Atharva Veda
Dhanurveda
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Yajurveda
Gandharva-Veda (songs)
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Samaveda
TANTRA: These contain the writings of saka and Shaivite sects.
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AGAMA: These contain the scriptures of Vaishnavites Shaivites Saktas. UPANGAS: This is the name given for a collection of treatise. These are associated with the philosophical systems of Nyaya Mimamsa Dharma Sutras Puranas Tantras
EPICS: There are two great epics in India. Mahabharata Ramayana
MAHABHARATA: This is the longest of all the World epics.
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This was written by sage Vyasa. The sage Vyasa composed the Mahabharata in 24,000 verses. This is originally written in Prakrit. Later it was elaborated into Sanskrit. This consists of 8000 (Eight Thousand) Slokas. The Mahabharata consists of 18 parvas. The Mahabharata edited into the present form during 184 BC to 320 AD.
RAMAYANA: This is originally written in Prakrit. This was rewritten in Sasnskrit during 1st and 2nd centuries. This was written by the sage Valmiki.
MAHAJANAPADAS: (the large territorial states) The Janapadas and Mahajanapadas were referred in Brahmanas and Upanishads that were composed since 800 BC. The janapaadas and Mahajanapadas mention the settlements of agricultural communities. This is also mentioned in Buddhist texts like
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Vinaya Pitaka (rules of the order) Sutta Pitaka (Collection of Buddha’s ceremonys) Abhidhamma Pitaka (a treatise on Metaphysical tell us about the preachers, rich, poor, towns and villages of that period. ** The Jatakas (stories of Buddha’s previous birth) are part of Sutta Pitaka. Various geographical areas like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur, Kosambi, Ujjaini, Sravasthi, Vaishali are mentioned in various texts. (Proved by archeological evidences). A deluxe pottery called NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) of 6 BC was also revealed. Some of the Janapadas of the Vedic period developed into Mahajanapadas by the 6th century BC. As a result of diffusion of Iron technology, the agricultural communities expanded. During Vedic period the agriculture land was owned by the tribe. BY 6th Century BC Gahapahi emerged. (This signifies the disintegration of joint ownership of land and the emergence of big individual land owners). GAHAPATI: An individual household which owned the land.
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During this time a Brahman is said to have more land. (Used 500 ploughs to cultivate the land). The Gahapati land was cultivated by Dasa (Slaves) Karmakaras (Hired labourers) Shudras ( people captured during the war were made slaves) By the end of 6th century BC trade and merchandise became an independent sphere of economic activity. The Mahajanapadas (large territorial states) came into existence by incorporating the Janapadas which were previously autonomous. Kashi and Sakya which were janapadas merged to form into Kosala Mahajanapada. This includes thousands of villages and some cities. Anguttara Nikaya (Buddhist text) that is a part of Sutta Pitaka gives a list of 16 Mahajanapadas. The Ang, Magadh, Vajji, Malla, Kashi, Kosala and Vatsa (total 7) are located in the middle gangetic valley. Note: Of all these the Magadh was the most powerful kingdom.
Middle
gangetic
growing area.
is
the
rice
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Upper gangetic is the wheat growing area.
The production of rice exceeded the production of Wheat. The rice producing area is a densely populated area. The Mahajanapadas like Magadh have easy access to the resources like Iron ore.
MAGADH:
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The Capital of Magadh was Pataliputra. The Pataliputra is situated on the confluence of many rivers like Ganges, Gandak, Son and Pun Pun. The Magadh is located in the vicinity of large Alluvial soil. The Magadh kingdom was victorious in the battle between four kingdoms Kosala
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Vajji Avanthi Magadh The iron rich areas are located near to Magadh and Avanti enabled them to produce good weapons for warfare. Avanti was the most serious competitor of Magadh. (Avanti was also located near to the iron rich areas.
BIMBISARA: Under the rule of Bimbisara the Magadh emerged as the controller of the middle gangetic plains. (Note: Bimbisara belongs to Haryanka dynasty. He was the contemporary of Buddha). Bimbisara acquired Anga and it was kept under the viceroyalty of Ajatashatru. (Ajatashatru was the son of Bimbisara). Bimbisara’s first wife was the daughter of the King Kosala and the sister of Prasenjit. Through this marriage Bimbisara got Kashi village in the form of dowry. Bimbisara’s second wife Chellana (Lichchhavi Princes) from Vaishali.
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Bimbisara’s third wife was the daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab. Bimbisara was starved to death by his son Ajatashatru around 492 BC. AJATASHATRU: Ajatashatru was the successor of Bimbisara and came to throne. Ajatashatru ruled Magadh from 492 BC to 460 BC. Ajatashatru gained complete control over Kasi and broke the relations with his maternal uncle Prasenjit, the kong of kosala. Ajatashatru defeated Vajji confederation after a long period of 16 years of war. During the rule of the Ajatashatru KAshi, Vaishali, capital of Vajji confedararion were added to Magadh. The plan of annexing Avanti did not materialize.
UDAYIN: Ajatasatru was succeded by Udayin. During his rule the Magadh kingdom extended up to Himalayan range in the North and Chhota Nagpur hills in the South. He built a fort on the comfluence of ganga and son. After Udayin his four proved to be ineffective and were thrown out by the people of Magadh.
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SHISHUNAGA: After all the 4 sons have been replaced by the people of Magadh, the viceroy of Benaras Shishunaga has come to the crown. His biggest achievement of Shishunaga was that the destruction of Avanti with its capital at Ujjain. This is the end of the rivalry between Magadh and the Avanti. Avanti became the part of the Magadhan empire and remained with the Magadh till the end of Mouryan rule. This rule was of short duration and gave way to Nanda rule.
NANDAS: Nandas inherited large kingdoms of the Magadh. These are considered as the first empire builders. During Nanda period only Alexander invaded India. (326 BC). Nandas had contact with Deccan and South India. Nandas controlled some parts in Kalinga (Odisha). It was indicated in Hatigumpha inscription of King Kharavela who ruled Orissa (Odisha) from the middle of the 1st century BC. Nine Nanda kings have ruled. The Nanda Empire had a very vast army. (This is described in Greek classical writings).
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It came to an end by 321. BC. By the end the Nanda kings have become very unpopular and the advantage was taken by Mouryan kings. The advantage was taken by Chandra Gupta Maurya. The architecture of the Magadhan Empire is the first of any contemporary period. The palaces of Pataliputra were built by timber and brick. (This was admired by Megasthenese).
MAURYAS: The architecture of Magadhan empire was the first of which we have any contemporary records. The Cyclopean walls of Rajgriha and the timber and brick palaces of Pataliputra, won the admiration of Megashanese (Greek scholar). It was also mentioned in the buddist works. Evidence of burnt brick is also seen.
PERSIAN INVASION: In 519 BC, the Persian or Achaemenian (Modern Iran) emperor Darius annexed Punjab. ALEXANDER:
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The king of Macedonia. Crossed Hindukush mountains after subduing the Achemenian and consolidating his gains in the Persian empire. Crossed Indus in the river 326 BC. He encountered 2 powerful kings Ambi (Taxila near modern Rawalpindi)) and porus. Ambi sent a mission to Alexander offering him to help if his own kingdom was spared. Porus decided to oppose him. The battle of Hydespes was fought on the river Jhelum. Porus was defeated after a long fight but appointed as the representative of Alexander. Aleander decided to go back after his admiral NEARCHUS took the fleet home. Alexander died in 323 BC in Babylonia. PIETHON was the last king to return from India from Gangdhara in 316 BC. But Selucus Nicator returned in 305 BC.
JAINISM:
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Rishaba was the first Jain Thirthankara. Rishaba means bull. Parshva was the 23rd Jain Thirthankara. Mahavira was the 24th one. Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC, in a village near Vaishali in North Bihar. His father was the head of a famous kshayatriya clan and his mother was a Lichchhavi princess. At 30, he became ascetic. 42, he attained a state called Nirvana (Cessation) or Kaivalya (Omniscience). Ie a realization of one’s self. He was acclaimed as Thirthankara (forth finder), Kailvalin (supreme omniscient), Jina (Conqueror) and Arhant (Blessed one). He was called Mahavira (Great hero). Died at the age of 72 in 468 BC. At pavapuri near rajgir. Mahavira recignised the teachings of early 23 Tirthankaras aboyt which practically nothing is known. Only Parshava was historical personage. Mahavira was recognized as the historical founder of Jainism. Mahavira told that they should follow 3 rights. (3 jewels or 3 ratnas) Right Knowledge – is the knowledge of Jain creed. Right faith – is the belief in what he knows.
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Right action – is the practice of 5 vows. Non-injury to living organisms, truth, non-stealing, not to own property and to practice chastity. First 4 given by parshava and 5th added by mahavira. According to jains Vedas are not realiable and should be disregarded. Reality in Jainism is characterized by anekatva or plurality or multistudiness and is beyond the scope of finite minds to know all aspects of a thing. Jains believed in the dualistic principle of Jiva (eternal soul) and ajiva ( eternal element) everywhere. According to them even stones have souls. Plants and trees have 2 jivas. Animals have 3 or more jives. Jains are permitted to eat things with 2 jivas only. Eating a thing with 3 jivas leads to the breach of basic law of noninjury. Mahavira preached in Magadhi, the language spoken by common people. The teachings of Jainism were recorded at a council conducted at pataliputra in 5 AD. At the time of the council jains divided into 2 sects. Svethambaras and Digambaras.
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***Mahavira and Buddha both are important for the examination point of view. Read carefully.*
BUDDHISM: Buddha was the contemporary of Mahavira. Born in 563 BC. In a shakya kshatriya family in kapilavastu in Nepal. He attained knowledge or enlightenment at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree. Delivered first sermon at saranath in Benaras. Passed away in 483 BC at a place called kushinagara in Deoria district in UP. Buddha discarded vedic religion in its totality. ARYASATYA ( 4 truths) enunciated by Buddha formed the basis for Buddhism. They are Suffering (Dukha) exists wherever life is there. Next is the desire is the cause of suffering. It leads to birth and rebirth. Releasing from the pain can be achieved only by abandoning the desire. The way out of this circle ie middle path. The guiding principle for this path are embodied in a series of precepts called the eight-fold path (Astanga marga).
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They are Right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right meditation. The true follower of the astanga marga attains salvation or nirvana. Attainment of Nirvana was the chief objective of the Buddhism. Both Buddhism and Jainism are non-theistic in nature. After death of Buddha four councils were held. 1st at Rajagriha in 483 BC, in which discourse of Buddha was collected compiled and embodied in pali.
The literature is
known as Tripitaka. (Vinaya – dealing with the rules of the order), sutta – collection of buddhas cermons, Abhidhamma pitaka – about preachers, princes, rich , poor.) The jatakas deal with the stories of previous birth of Buddha were dealt in Sutta pitaka. 2nd council at Vaisali in 383 BC. 3rd in pataliputra (250 BC). 4th during 1st AD in Kashmir. Here it was divided into Hinayana (followers of the lesser vehicle) and Mahayana ( Followers of the graeater vehicle). According to Buddhism Sanskrit was the religious language. Bodisatva means previous incarnations of Buddha. Buddhism disappeared from India in 12 AD.
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Ambedkar o0n October 14, 1956 embraced Buddhism.
THE MAURYAS (312 – 185 BC)
Arthasastra written by Kautilya or chanakya. Kautilya was the Prime Minister M of Chandragupta Maurya. The other source was Indica written in Greek by Megastanese. Megastanese was the ambassador of Selucus Nicator.
Important Kings: Chandra Gupta Maurya Bindusara Ashoka
CHANDRA GUPTA MAURYA (SANDROCATTUS):
Chandra Gupta Maurya was also called Sandrocattus. Chandra Gupta Maurya was the founder of the Maurya dynasty. Under the rule of Chandra Gupta Maurya the whole northern India was united.
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Chanakya was the minister of Nandas, who conspired with Chandra Gupta Maurya to overthrow the last of the Nanda kings and occupied pataliputra. Chanakya was a professor at the University of Takshila (located in present day Pakistan) and was an expert in commerce, warfare, economics, etc. Chanakya’s famous works include Chanakya Neeti, Arthashastra and Neetishastra. Chanakya is also known by the name of Kautilya. Chanakya was also called Vishnugupta. When Chanakya was born he had a full set of teeth, which is a sign that he would become a king or an emperor. But since he was born in a Brahmin family, it was considered inappropriate. Thus, his teeth were broken and it was predicted that he would make another person a king and rule through him. Chanakya was thrown out of the court of King Nanda as he was a blunt man and spoke his mind clearly. Chanakya swore that he would take revenge. Chanakya comes across with Chandra Gupta Maurya and used him to take the revenge. For this he used to add little poison in the food of Chandra Gupta Maurya to make him immune of poison.
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Without knowing this one day Chandra Gupta Maurya gave some food to his wife who was ninth month pregnant. But the baby was taken out by chanakya. He was Bindusara. Bindusara had a minister SUBANDHU, who told Bindusara about the death of his mother. He sent chanakya away. And after knowing the fact he called back chankya through subandu. But subandu killed chanakya. Chandra Gupta Maurya negotiated with Selucus Nicator, the Greek viceroy of Alexander who ruled over the area west of Indus. Selucus forced to concede eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and the area wet to Indus. Selucus sent Meganistanese to Chandra Gupta Maurya who lived there for quite long period. Chandra Gupta Maurya left only present Kerala, Tamil Nadu and some parts in North India. Subjugation of Saurastra or kathiawad in the west is mentioned in the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman of 1st century AD. Chandra
Gupta
Maurya’s
viceroy
pushyagupta
constructed famous sudarshan lake (Gujarat). Chandra Gupta Maurya was a follower of Jainism.
BINDUSARA: Son of Chandra Gupta Maurya.
(vaishya)
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He is referred to as Amitrochates. He had contacts with Seleucid king of Syria Antiochus I. His religious learning’s were towards Ajivakas while that of Chandra Gupta Maurya was Jainism. After his death there was struggle among the sons for kingdom, and ultimately Ashoka came to the power.
ASHOKA: Ashoka credited for conquering Kalinga (Orissa). Ashoka rock edict –XIII describes his conquest of kalinga which is said to have taken place 8 years after coronation. i.e 260 BC. Later he turned towards Buddhism and adopted his policy Dhamma Vijaya. Titles of Ashoka: Samrat. Devanampriya Priyadarsi Dhammarakhit Dharmarajika Chakravartin Magadhrajshretha etc. His successor was Dasaratha Maurya. Sanchi Stupa was built by Emperor Ashoka.
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What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of Harappa. The language used for inscription was the then current spoken form called Prakrit. The last Maurya ruler was Brihadrata, was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the Sunga dynasty (185 BC-78 BC) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire The third Buddhist council at pataliputra was conducted by the monk Moggaliputta-Tissa who was the spiritual teacher of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka. Tamraparni (Sri Lanka) and now it is called Tamirabarani) and Suvarnabhumi (Burma). The Suvarnadweepa was used for Southeast asia. Ancient name for the Indian subcontinent is Jambudvipa
MISCELLNEOUS (MOURYAN EMPIRE) Irrigation cess was imposed to 1/5th of the produced. It was levied only on irrigated soil. Land tax was called Bhaga, the main item of revenue levied at the rate of 1/6th of the produced. Share cropping was existing. State collected ½ from here.
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Pindakara is a tax paid by those who practiced animal husbandry. Hiranya was another tax. The exact nature was not known. Hiranya means gold. Pranaya is a tax it means a gift of affection. (This was first mentioned by Panini but elaborated in Arthasastra). This is equal to 1/4th of the produced. Sri of Arthasastra was identified as Sri Lakshmi. The most important than Jainism was the Ajivaka sect founded by Makkali Gosala. Mouryan has the biggest ever army for any empire. Arthasastra referred to “Mantri PARISHAD” means council of ministers. “Mantris” is a small group of ministers for urgent issues. Sales tax was called Sulka. Land revenue was called Bhaga The last Maurya ruler was Brihadratha. (181 BC). The aftermath of mauryans was indicated in Mahabhashya of Patanjali, Malavikagnimitra of Kalidasa and Harsha charita of Harsha.
