AP Psychology Study Guide – The format of the midterm will be similar to the AP exam. You will have 70 multiple choice questions and 2 essay questions. You will have 90 min to complete the exam. This review guide lists the topics and terms we covered in this semester. I recommend starting by reviewing the terms, then moving on to the concepts.

Introduction to Psychology            

Describe hindsight bias and explain how it often leads us to perceive psychological research as merely common sense. Discuss how overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments. Compare and contrast case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation, and the experimental method. Explain the importance of proper sampling. Describe both positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures aid the process of prediction. Explain why correlational research fails to provide evidence of cause-and-effect relationships. Discuss how people form illusory correlations and perceive order in random sequence. Describe the three measures of central tendency (mean, median, and mode) and the two measures of variation (range and standard deviation) Explain the difference between random sampling and random assortment and discuss why each is important. Be able to determine the independent and dependent variables in an experiment Explain why psychologists study animals. Discuss the ethics of experimentation with both animals and people.

Terms: Hindsight bias Overconfidence Independent variable Dependent variable Random sample Random assignment Illusory correlation Hypothesis False-consensus effect

Control treatment Operational definition Case study Naturalistic observation Correlation Placebo effect Survey Double blind Single blind

Standard deviation Mean Median Mode Scatterplot Normal distribution Skewed distribution Range

Neurobiology           

Describe the structure of a neuron and explain how nerve impulses are generated Describe how nerve cells communicate, and discuss the impact of neurotransmitters and drugs on human behavior. Identify the major divisions of the nervous system and describe their functions. Contrast the three types of neurons that transmit information through the nervous system. Identify and describe techniques for studying the brain (lesions, EEG, PET, CAT, MRI) Describe the functions of the brainstem (medulla and reticular formation), thalamus, cerebellum, and limbic system (hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus) Identify the four lobes of the cerebral cortex, and describe the sensory and motor functions of the cortex. Discuss the importance of association areas, and describe how damage to several different cortical areas can impair language functioning. Discuss the capacity of the brain to reorganize following injury or illness. Describe research on the split brain, and discuss what is reveals about normal brain processing. Describe the nature and functions of the endocrine system and its interaction with the nervous system.

Terms Neurotransmitters Hormones Dendrites Endorphins Neurons Glial cells Endocrine glands Axons Synapse Reuptake Threshold Action potential

Myelin sheath Cell body Synaptic vesicle Refractory period Lesion Interneuron Affector neuron (sensory neuron) Effector neuron (motor neuron) PET scan MRI Association area Depolarization

Repolarization Reflex All-or-non Acetylcholine Dopamine Seratonin Norepinephrine GABA Agonist Antagonist Curare Parkinson’s disease

Alzheimer’s Schizophrenia Depression Autonomic NS Somatic NS Parasympathetic NS Sympathetic NS Central NS Peripheral NS Limbic system

Amygdala Hypothalamus Cerebellum Thalamus Reticular formation Medulla Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Temporal lobe Occipital lobe

Sensory cortex Motor cortex Wernicke’s area Broca’s area Corpus callosum Hippocampus Auditory cortex Visual cortex Aphasia Plasticity

Nature vs. Nurture Discuss the perspective of evolutionary psychology. Identify gender differences in sexual behavior and describe and evaluate evolutionary explanations for those differences. Describe how twin and adoption studies help us differentiate heredity and environmental influences on human traits. Discuss how differences in infant temperament illustrate the effect of heredity on development Discuss the interaction of genetic and environmental influences on behavior. Explain how twins may experience different prenatal environmental and describe the effect of experience on brain development. Describe how an individual’s peer group and culture influence development. Explain how biological sex is determined and describe the role of sex hormones in biological development and gender differences. Discuss the importance of gender roles and explain how social and cognitive factors contribute to gender identity and gender-typing Terms Genes Chromosomes DNA Nucleotide Gender schema Social learning theory

Gender Sex Gender-typing Culture Gender role Evolutionary psychology

Temperament Cultural norms Fraternal twins Identical twins Adoption studies Natural selection

Development             

Discuss the course of prenatal development and the destructive impact of teratogens. Describe the capacities of newborns and the use of habituation for assessing infant cognition. Describe Piaget’s view of how the mind develops and discuss his stage theory of cognitive development, noting current thinking regarding cognitive stages. Discuss the effect of body contact, familiarity, and responsive parenting on social attachments. Describe the benefits of a secure attachment and the impact of parental neglect and separation, as well as day care on childhood development. Describe the early development of a self-concept. Discuss the possible effects of different parenting styles on children. Define adolescence and identify major physical changes that occur during this period of life. Describe the adolescent’s growing reasoning power and Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. Discuss the search for identity and the development of intimate social relationships during the adolescent years. Describe Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. Identify the major physical changes that occur in middle and older adulthood. Describe the impact of aging on adult memory and intelligence.

Terms Cognitive Embryo Zygote Fetus Placenta Teratogen Fetal alcohol syndrome Rooting reflex Conservation

Attachment Imprinting Accommodation Assimilation Schema Fluid intelligence Crystallized intelligence Object permanence Stranger anxiety

Egocentrism Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage Formal operarational stage Preconventional Conventional Postconventional Secure vs. insecure attachment

Authoritarian Authoritative

Permissive Theory of mind

Sensation and Perception                    

Contrast sensation and perception. Distinguish between absolute and difference thresholds. Discuss research finding on subliminal stimulation. Describe the phenomenon of sensory adaptation and explain its functional value. Explain the visual process, including the stimulus input, the structure of the eye, and the transduction of light energy. Explain the opponent-process theory of color vision. Explain the auditory process, including the stimulus input and the structure of the ear. Explain place and frequency theories of pitch perception and describe how we locate sounds. Describe the sense of touch and explain the basis of pain. Describe the senses of taste and smell and comment on the nature of sensory interaction. Distinguish between kinesthesis and the vestibular sense. Describe how the process of perception is directed and limited by selective attention Discuss Gestalt psychology’s contribution to our understanding of psychology. Explain the figure-ground relationship, and identify the principles of grouping in form perception. Discuss research of depth perception involving the use of the visual cliff, and describe the binocular and monocular cues in depth perception. Describe stroboscopic movement and the phi phenomenon. Describe the perceptual constancies, and show how the perceived size-distance relationship operates in visual illusions. Describe the debate over the role of nature and nurture in perception, and discuss what research findings on sensory deprivation and restored vision have contributed to this debate. Discuss the effects that experiences, assumptions, expectations, and context have on our perceptions. State the claims of ESP, and explain why most research psychologists remain skeptical.

Terms Signal detection theory Sensory interaction Subliminal Sensation Perception Difference threshold Absolute threshold Weber’s law Transduction Sensory adaptation Optic nerve Frequency theory Place theory Opponent-process theory Gate control theory Parallel processing Pupil Lens Retina Fovea Blind spot Rods Cones Bipolar cells Ganglion cells Iris Olfactory Gustatory Kinesthesis Vestibular sense Proprioceptors Semicircular canals

Cochlea Hair cells Hammer, anvil, stirrup Ear drum Pinna Afterimage Substance P Oval window Basilar membrane Selective attention Retinal disparity Size constancy Phi phenomenon Interposition Visual capture Perceptual set Stroboscopic movement Convergence Gestalt Texture gradient Depth perception Linear perspective Relative height Relative size Relative clarity Perceptual set Context effects

States of Consciousness            

Sleep and Dreams: Circadian rhythms Alpha waves, delta waves, circadian rhythm, manifest/latent dream content Sleep Cycle (length of one sleep cycle) o Stage 1 o Stage 3 o Stage 2 o Stage 4 Sleep disorders (Night terrors, Narcolepsy, Insomnia, Sleep Apnea) Dream theories (wish fulfillment, information processing, activation synthesis) Latent vs. manifest content REM rebound Hypnosis Age regression, hidden observer, posthypnotic suggestions Drugs o Depressants o Stimulants Near-Death experiences (Monism v. Dualism)

Terms Consciousness Biological rhythms Circadian rhythm REM sleep Alpha waves Hallucinations

Delta waves Insomnia Narcolepsy Sleep apnea Night terrors Dream

o

REM Sleep (paradoxical)

o

Hallucinogens

Manifest content Latent content REM rebound Hypnosis Posthypnotic suggestion Dissociation

Learning        

Describe how behavioralism approached the study of learning. Describe the general process of classical conditioning as demonstrated by Pavlov’s experiments. Explain the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination. Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in classical and operant conditioning. Describe the process of operant conditioning, including the procedure of shaping, as demonstrated by Skinner’s experiments. Identify the different types of reinforcers and describe the major schedules of partial reinforcement. Discuss the effects of punishment on behavior. Describe the process of observational learning as demonstrated by Bandura’s experiments, and discuss the impact of antisocial and prosocial models.

Terms Learning Overjustification effect Latent learning Generalization Shaping Classical conditioning Operant conditioning

Observational learning Primary vs. secondary reinforcers Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous recovery Discrimination Punishment

Fixed vs. variable reinforcers Ratio vs. interval reinforcers. UCS, CS, UCR, CR Positive vs. negative reinforcers Continuous Cognitive map

Memory       

Describe memory in terms of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Distinguish among sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Distinguish between automatic and effortful processing and discuss the importance of rehearsal. Explain the importance of meaning, imagery, and organization in the encoding process. Describe the capacity and duration of long-term memory, and discuss the biological changes that may underlie memory formation and storage. Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, and identify different brain structures associated with each. Explain why the capacity to forget can be beneficial and discuss the role of encoding failure and storage decay in the process of forgetting.

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Explain what is meant by retrieval failure and discuss the effects of interference and motivated forgetting on retrieval. Describe the evidence for the constructive nature of memory and the impact of imagination and leading questions on eyewitness recall Describe the difficulties in discerning true memories from false memories and the reliability of children’s eyewitness recall.

Terms Encoding Storage Priming Automatic processing Effortful processing Overlearning Semantic encoding Priming State-dependent memory

repression Rehearsal Implicit memory Explicit memory Iconicmemory Flashbulb memory Serial position effects Spacing effects Chunking

Imagery Retrieval Retroactive interference Proactive interference Semantic encoding Echoic memory Amnesia