Creative Spaces: A Postgraduate Journal for the Creative Industries Copyright © The Author(s), 2010. School of Creative Studies & Media, Bangor University Bangor, Wales, UK Vol 1(1): 50-61

Apollinian and Dionysian Perspective in Selected British Works of Art of the Sixties: An Attempt to Depict the Truth of Being Justyna Stępień [email protected] Department of British Literature and Culture, University of Lodz, Poland Abstract: This dream to recover unity between a spectator and a work of art and to end the established distance of body and space contributed to the birth of new pictorial syntax and vocabulary for painting in the Sixties. It was an attempt to break down the traditional hierarchies of representation of reality and question limitations of the form that betrayed its promise to deliver the truth. This paper analyses selected images and metaimages of Pop and Op artists that are reframed by plural system of significance. Without a doubt, this is the visual language that relies on Nietzsche’s principle of the marriage of two contradictory forces (Apollinian vs. Dionysian/ creative vs. destructive). Works of art from that period highlight that these binary principles are essential to understand one’s position in reality and to give the sense of a living wholeness. Contrariwise to fixed, distant views, spectators of the art of the Sixties have to face perceptual instability as they are encircled by the paintings. They float within the frames of spaces that are constructed from easily recognizable content. This morphology of ordinary imagery and the sense of mobility represented in given works of art prove that art of the Sixties “appears to be indicative of truth of being”. 1 Key words: Apollinian, Dionysian, Pop art, Op art, Sixties.

Saying Yes to life even in its strangest and hardest problems; the will to life rejoicing over its own inexhaustibility even in the very sacrifice of its highest types…Not in order to get rid of terror and pity, not in order to purge oneself of a dangerous affect by its vehement discharge… but in order to be oneself the eternal joy of becoming, beyond all terror and pity- that joy which includes joy in destroying. (Nietzsche, 1969:273)

A strong affirmative answer to life becomes a dominant notion in Nietzsche’s first philosophical work The Birth of Tragedy. Nevertheless, the concept of life proposed by the philosopher explores sides formerly negated and rejected by social and cultural norms. The majority of Western interpretations of reality are suppressed by Platonic tradition. Nietzsche 1

Nietzsche, F. (1969) ‘The Birth of Tragedy’ in Ecce Homo. London: Vintage/Random House: London. p272.

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elevates a destructive force and presents it as an indispensable element in every positive construction. For him an antithetical combination of ‘joy in destroying’ and a belief in a higher order, which characterizes European thinking, allows us to understand the whole ‘essence’ of the world. This process is for the philosopher a source of ‘eternal joy of becoming’.2 When our being is ‘separated from these two it becomes nothing, incapable of affirming itself’ (Deleuze, 1996:178). Nietzsche’s revaluation of the values is presented in the context of the elevation of art to the level of everyday life and ‘true activity of man’ (1967:22). As John Sallis summarizes in his article The Play of Tragedy, ‘Nietzsche’s work is a treatise, not only on Greek tragedy, but on art as such- aesthetics….it is about art and life which seeks out the rootedness of art in life; it is metaphysics of art that aims to examine it in the perspective of life’ (1970:92). At that point, Nietzsche accentuates that the development of art depends largely on the duality of two forces, namely, Apollinian and Dionysian that constitute the dichotomy between creation and destruction. Apollo’s illusory world with unified imagery, which indicates ‘things as mere phantoms or dreams’ (1967:34), stands here for a mimetically represented world. On the other hand, we have a Dionysian force inextricably linked with an intuition, natural instincts and ‘profound emotions that overstep and dissolve all limits’ (Sallis, 1970:92). A sense of intoxication can be obtained from the negation of social and cultural barriers and the acceptance of flux of life in which an individual is a dynamic living wholeness. If we take into account a cultural perspective of the European thinking, the second force is always overshadowed by Socratic metaphysics, which is represented here as mere appearance. Inevitably, a scientific harmony is closely associated with the conception of high-brow art, whereas the primordial unity is linked with common, every day aspects and natural instincts subjugated by cultural forms. Despite the antagonistic nature of the two energies, Nietzsche emphasises that their marriage enables us to bring life closer to human beings. What is more, this combination initiates ‘a gospel of universal harmony’ (1967:37). Representative art, which is a domain of Apollinian power, and non-representative expressions, which belong to a realm of Dionysian music and dance, ‘participate in a vigorous warring interplay and mutually incite each other to new artistic births’ (Sallis, 1970:94). This mixture and balance, due to a constant process of 2

This phrase appears, among other things in Nietzsche’s Ecce Homo as a commentary to The Birth of Tragedy.

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construction and deconstruction, stimulates ‘an excess that reveals itself as truth and speaks out from the very heart of nature’ (Nietzsche, 1967:46). Hence, owing to the combination of illusion and intoxication, which does not function in terms of matched pairs, we are able to grasp the plurality of the world and see it as a constant process. George L. Ulmer in his essay The Object of Post-Criticism notices that, ‘in true life the relation of form to content is no longer a relation of exteriority, the form resembling clothes which can dress no matter what content, it is a process, genesis, and result of work’ (Ulmer, 1985:86). Here we can draw a conclusion that ‘becoming’ is not only a character of reality itself but also a way we perform and express our being. In such a condition, as Gilles Deleuze in his essay The Overman: Against the Dialectic emphasises, diverse and inconsistent nature is uprooted from ‘a dreamlike process that affirms illusion as illusion’ and marks the truth of our existence (1996:14). The aim of this paper is to define a relation between the art of the sixties and Nietzsche’s concept of Apollinian and Dionysian force. The latter brings new perspective on the truth of being that is explored by the artists whose works represent the notions of the countercultural movement. The first part of the paper focuses on the theoretical background of Nietzsche’s philosophy and explores the duality of the forces in reference to aesthetics. The second part is devoted to the analysis of visual works that initiated the changes within depiction of the reality emphasising the primacy of a process in all artistic creations. Without a doubt, Nietzsche’s idea about an art of ‘becoming’ had a profound impact upon the visual arts of the sixties. A notion of ‘art at that time as destructive runs counter to perceptions of the act of creation as constructive’ (Follin, 2004:68). After Dada and Futurism, this fusion of artistic values was further explored. For the art of the fifties and the sixties, a representation no longer relies on a clearly unified image for it aims to expand the possibilities of presentation of fragmented reality. Therefore, the reunification of the antithetical forces, analysed by the philosopher, enabled artists to take off ‘the veil of Maya’ and to highlight the shift from one complete interpretation of reality. The upheaval of consumer society, the hostility towards the establishment, and the unification of high and low brow arts, the profound influence of Americanisation, among other things, contributed to redefinition of visual morphology. Artists had to challenge the reality that is formed of many variable discourses voiced by different communication channels. As Clause Oldenburg highlights: ‘I am for an art that is the human that takes its form from the lines of life itself that twists and extends and accumulates and spits and drips, and is heavy and coarse and blunt and sweet and stupid as life itself’ (Gablik and Russel, 1969:81). Here, the artist defines new CREATIVE SPACES VOL. 1 NO. 1

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attitudes towards aesthetics that emerged with the beginning of the fifties and its engagement in the mundane sphere of life. Some of the artists of the sixties agreed with the Nietzschean view of Greek art and culture and tried to foster the possibility of sublime, affirmative artefacts that arose spontaneously just out of their liminal environment. This tendency is visible in Pop art movement initiated in the fifties in the United Kingdom. In this visualisation, new vernacular forms emerged and transformed previously accepted cultural productions. As a result, rigid relation between a spectator and a work of art since an artificial distance, which was created by formal techniques, was gradually limited and modified. Lawrence Alloway points out that, ‘an awareness of the world as something that contains both the work of art and the spectator was at the core of the development of visual arts in London in the sixties’(1962:38). This dream to recover unity between a spectator and a work of art and end the established distance of body and space contributed to the birth of new pictorial syntax and vocabulary for painting in the sixties. It was an attempt to break down the traditional hierarchies of representation of reality, and question limitations of the form that betrayed its promise to deliver the truth. There was a common belief that art must act directly on our experience instead of being a pure representation of the world. However, according to Nietzsche, truth is ‘a movable host of metaphors, metonymies, and anthropomorphisms: in short, a sum of human relations that have been poetically and rhetorically intensified, transferred, and embellished’ (in Breazeale, 1990:84). This paper analyses selected images of Pop and Op artists that are reframed by plural system of signification. Pop art, which made use of artefacts, mass advertising and products of modern life, was born together with the upheaval of consumer society in the postwar Britain. Pop iconography subjugated to transformations increases the scope of visual material without destroying the final character of materials. On the other hand, Op art, known also as Optical art, was another step in representation. It explored optical effects that persuade the spectator to see visual illusions that were also a part of mass culture in the sixties. Both movements use the language that relies on Nietzsche’s principle of the marriage of two contradictory forces (Apollinian vs. Dionysian/creative vs. destructive). Works of art from that period highlight that this binary principle is essential to understand one’s position in reality and a sense of a living wholeness. It is the physical world, as John McHale notices in his essay The Plastic Parthenon, ‘available to our direct experience as the media extend our physical environment providing a constant stream of moving, fleeting images of the world for CREATIVE SPACES VOL. 1 NO. 1

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our daily appraisal. They provide physical mobility for the greater mass of our people’ (cited in Gablick and Russell, 1969:48). Contrariwise, to fixed, distant views, spectators of the art of the sixties have to face perceptual instability as they are encircled by the paintings. They float within the frames of spaces that are constructed from easily recognisable ccontent. The morphology of ordinary imagery and a sense of mobility prove that art of the sixties, exemplified in this paper by Pop and Op artworks, depicts the reality as a flux of images difficult to capture. From the very beginning, Pop art proclaimed that it would eliminate the historical separation between the aesthetic and non-aesthetic, thereby reconciling art and reality. In this context, it might be worth mentioning the fact that for Nietzsche the Apollinian and Dionysian are art forces of nature. By proposing an account of natural forces, which are already artistic, Nietzsche rejects nature vs. culture distinction as foundational for our thinking about art. Even though Pop art cast an aura of social criticism on consumer society and it was not just a pure affirmation of mass society, it sought a solution to the question of how to fill a gap between high and low art and make it more accessible and natural to spectators. The majority of artists decided to apply a mosaic form that consisted of formerly unrelated material. A disposal of the artificial distance was the main aim of created combinations of collage and assemblage techniques that properly exemplify this tendency. In the course of time, they became dominant forms to reflect on the complex nature of the entire universe.3 In The Death of the Author Roland Barthes asserted that now a work of art existed in a multidimensional space in which a variety of works, none of them original, blend and clash. In such conditions, the work is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture (1993:182). Iconography of urban life and transformations of well-known images constituted the bedrock for Peter Blake’s imagery from the late fifties and sixties. His canvases are spaces filled with mass culture signs and symbols, a wide range of materials and structures that illustrate experience of popular culture and enthusiasm of ‘fandom’ present in an urban area. Peter Blake’s assemblage Toy Shop aptly illustrates his interest in mass society of London. The work consists of ready-made toys and objects bought from second-hand sources. A colourful shop front made from actual doors and windows enables the artist to place the rest 3

Collage and assemblage technique, which were recycling a variety of formerly unrelated material, were at the very heart of modern art. movement since, from Dada and Constructivism, via Surrealism, Pop and Situationism, to the digital techniques of today.

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of imagery within the frames of the work of art. Scraps of newspapers, photographs, leaflets, packages from a variety of products, small souvenirs and national symbols fill the windows. The multiplicity of visual material depicts the things related with some kind of entertainment meant to provide consumers with some kind of visual pleasure. As Natalie Rudd highlights in her monographic work on Blake, ‘the work accurately captures the cramped displays of the typical British high-street shop of the time’ (2005:32). In the filled canvas, every element gains an equal value irrespective of its original source. There is an absence of significant experience. There is no climax, only equally relevant details. As Suzi Gablik notices, ‘the Pop artist who documents the most ordinary scenes from daily life views the world as a total and inclusive unity in which all parts have total relevance, not just some relevance to the whole’ (1969:14). Thus, there is no meaningful difference between the Union Jack and other objects in this composition as they are placed on the same visual level. Moreover, the familiar visual material enriched with real size doors and windows engages us in a window-shopping. The work resembles a real scene in which we can open the doors to enter the interior and be a part of the show prepared by Peter Blake. Additionally, we can clearly identify with the images gathered on the wooden plane, which makes us even more enthusiastic about the process of exploration of the assemblage. According to Blake, ‘the thing about Pop is that you have got to get inside the popular culture of the time whether you are doing the thing historically, or working in the present tense. I have to get right in with the pin-ups and Elvis…and inside every house, which has plastic flowers and curtains’ (Blake and Levy, 1963:29). Undoubtedly, the viewers are there surrounded by ‘the tangible and non-illusionistic objects’ used by the artist to break the illusionism of traditional realism (Ulmer, 1985:84). There is a visible elimination of Renaissance perspective dominant in Western painting. The incorporation of actual fragments and integration of new visual material was to produce a new totality, a sense of boundlessness and modification of the previous order. Although there are frames that pinpoint the surface of the act of creation, a variety of formerly unrelated material becomes a ‘signifier remotivated within the system of a new frame’ (Ulmer, 1985:85). The images are cut out and pasted into new, surprising juxtapositions previously unaccepted by the art of mimesis. Inevitably, the application of the various scraps of reality appears to be recognition of a contemporary state of ‘informational overload’, saturation with visual images that flooded the daily life of Swinging London. As a result, we receive a multi-layered picture of reality with a combination of creation and deconstruction of a presented vision. CREATIVE SPACES VOL. 1 NO. 1

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Hybridisation that describes interactions and different modes of communication and transgresses structural constraints is present in Derek Boshier’s paintings. The artist’s works of art aptly deconstruct the high discourse and become a searing criticism of the subject matters presented on his canvas. Without a doubt, ‘Boshier brought to British Pop art a strong satirical edge which distinguished his work from other fellow students at the Royal College of Art’ (Moorhouse, 2008:93). The majority of his paintings were referring to current events particularly those with a political dimension and consumer policies emphasising manipulative forces of the mass media and the gradual loss of identity in the mass society. In fact, as Marco Livingstone points out, ‘from the very beginning, Boshier proclaimed to eliminate a separation between the aesthetic and the non-aesthetic, thereby joining and reconciling art and reality’ (Huyssen, 1986:143). Derek Boshier’s work of art from 1961 Man Playing Snooker and Thinking of Other Things illustrates the artist’s involvement in the exploration of images produced by popular culture. The painting appears to be a kind of metaphorical self-portrait in which Boshier tries to think over an idea for a future painting. Thus, the well-known images come to his mind filling the empty space of his head. ‘A large head is shown in profile, its interior exposed as if to reveal an anthology of private images: the Union Jack, a comic-book cover with Superman, some samples of newspapers, and several phrases are represented in thought bubbles’ (Moorhouse; 2008:88). Is it a Space Probe? The question is indicated in one of the bubbles of the work of art, in which the artist formulates phrases that might suggest us the major theme of the work of art. Man Playing Snooker and Thinking of Other Things functions as a kind of puzzle for us. In that respect, in seeking a stylistic alternative to abstract works of art, his work epitomises a central tenet of the Pop aesthetic. Inevitably, the major part of his representations has its origin in the mass media imagery. Those figures taken from the mass culture exert a more powerful effect upon the viewer for they are a part of daily life. They are related to amusement imagery, and as a result, the flag through the continuous re-usage in variable social and cultural contexts is ascribed to the same category used by the artist. The mixture of high and low discourses dialogises the public realm destabilizing the assigned mimetic order. As Christopher Finch notices, ‘Boshier’s idealism was combined with a keen analytical sense of how the power of the media, especially in its subservience to big business and government, could be used to shape public taste and opinion’ (2007:5). Hence, Boshier confronts us with issues signalized by slogans and phrases placed on the canvas. CREATIVE SPACES VOL. 1 NO. 1

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A sense of movement, which is accentuated by the format and open framing, adds to the carnivalesque dimension of the painting. Undoubtedly, viewers are invited to take part in the game prepared by Boshier. The green space, which surrounds a supposed snooker table, introduces here a double framing. There is a part of a hand sneaking in the colourful frame. Hence, we are not only voyeurs for we have a possibility to follow the movement present within the frame and take part in the final creation of the work art. Moreover, there is a sense of dialogical laughter over the artistic process of thinking. This combined with intertext, multiple references to popular imagery; minimize the distance between viewers and the presented artistic world. One of the Observer’s reviews of Bridget Riley’s display in 1962 described her paintings as ‘experiments in perceptual experience in which black and white patterns of geometric shapes bring the flat surface alive and vibrant to an extraordinary degree’ (Gallery Guide, 1962:12). Having some background in advertising and commercial design, Riley crossed barriers imposed by the representational canon in the United Kingdom. Her Op artworks introduced some geometric devices that induced a kind of optical playfulness with the viewers. All the variations in shape and tone were to induce optical illusion and gradually disorientation of vision. The beginnings of the movement are related to the achievements of Constructivism and Futurism that analysed the idea of scientific art with the repetition of certain units and structures. Nevertheless, as Frances Follin points out, ‘modernism emphasised individual discrimination while Op manipulated viewers’ perceptual system implying that it denied an individual and discriminating response’ (2004:45). The phenomenological relationship between art and viewer appeared to be the most crucial element of the Op visualisation. Fascination with science and its influence upon the society, the drug culture of the sixties, visual perception, happenings and performativity contributed to the development of new kind of visualisation. In the course of time, Op images were copied and widely used in the decoration of mass-produced goods encouraging the use of the imagination for hedonistic purposes. Mario Amaya in one of his interviews commented that ‘Op designs are still sold in New York, everything from evening gowns and wall paper to the Holy Bibles was being designed in Op and the craze is still in full swing’ (Follin, 2004:171). Undoubtedly, the Op patterns became a part of common imagery meant to appeal to a wider part of consumer society. The desire derived from a plethora of goods in which repetitive forms borrowed from works of art played a prominent role. Soon, fashion and commodity designs were the CREATIVE SPACES VOL. 1 NO. 1

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expression of mass culture, which was perceived transient and to some extent trivial, however, they were stimulating widespread pleasure. Without a doubt, as Frances Follin points out in the essay The Pursuit of a Projected Future, ‘Op-derived patterns were trying to separate themselves from stability and were emphasizing longing for a desired future states’ (2004:182). The Op works were not anchored in a fixed, focal point as they produce a sense of mobility while looking at a particular work of art. The viewers are in the centre of spectacle. This deconstruction of an image enables spectators to move within the frames since a rhythm of lines marks a direction in which spectators should start their visual experience in art of ‘perceptual instability’.4 In The Birth of Tragedy Nietzsche proposes that in order to avoid appearances ‘we need a new world of symbols; where the entire symbolism of the body is called into play, not mere symbolism of lips, face but the whole pantomime of dancing, forcing every member into rhythmic movement’ (1967:40). This idea, in which the dynamic deconstructive nature unites with a representational value, appears to find its realisation in Bridget Riley’s work of art from 1963. The painting Fall with its dazzling rhythm of lines derives mainly from the artist’s fascination with technologies of printing and its influence upon a visual imagination. Undoubtedly, the work proves that a body mediates all visual response. The body of a spectator wholly incorporated, as the painting encircles our visual space; an eye is rarely allowed to settle and concentrate on a given point. The black and white lines with carvings initiate our movement up and down creating some kind of optical illusion of losing ground. Inevitably, the geometric shapes bring the flat surface of the work of art alive vibrating and producing optical impact upon the spectators. The visual stimuli provoke intensive disturbances and illusion of kinesis. Moreover, the limited number of colours introduces interplay between feelings of composure and anxiety. We participate in the world depicted by Riley. The physical experience implies that we become actors within the frames constructed by the artist. Hence, Riley’s picture can be perceived as a ‘happening on canvas’ thanks to which we are able to plunge into uncanny spaces of designed forms (Follin, 2004:168). As Pop art was associated with a world of commodified technology, Op art with its use of images was a step forward in European aesthetics. The scientific interference in the world of artistic creation appears to be a dominant feature of all the optical representations. 4

This term appears in several publications on the visual arts of the sixties; however, Hungarian artist Victor Vasarely ascribes it to his works.

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From fragmentation of the images visible in Pop visualisation, here we face unfamiliar compositions of geometrical shapes that substitute real objects. Technological process reshapes all the familiar representations, leaving abstract combinations and unknown forms giving them unrelated names. Without a doubt, the title The Fall denotes some kind of ending, destruction of a former system of interpretation. As Bataille notices, ‘the Fall, of course, restores things to ground level and to the base material of dust and dirt’ (cited in Follin, 2004:85). Untypical vision makes the spectators delve into the work structure. The non-representational canvas appears to be a tool to dispose of any barriers and limitations formerly imposed by illusory pictorial language. Riley summarises in one of her interviews, ‘Op is art not as a means of transcending the physical, but as exploring the heights of experience that the body can attain and make life experience closer to the spectators’ (Follin, 2004:83). Bridget Riley was fascinated by the relation of the body and the artwork. It is thanks to body’s reaction that we become closer to paintings as we are stimulated by the artistic creations. ‘To understand these transubstantiations we must go back to the working, actual body – not the body as a chunk of space or a bundle of functions but that body which is an intertwining of vision and movement’ (Merleau-Ponty, 1984:124). As Merleau-Ponty notices, Bridget Riley’s works of art see the body as a site of perception and experience drifting away from the central point. Riley’s painting from 1963 Uneasy Centre aptly illustrates the process of viewers’ confinement in the structural spaces of a painting. At first glance, the circular format of the work of art chosen by the artist appears to introduce a more intimate relation with the viewer than shapes of traditional canvases. The viewers’ sight concentrates on a black dot placed in the very middle of black and white lines. Nonetheless, the focal point does not seem to hold the whole structure of the work of art since the powerful pulsation of ovals dominates the whole painting. There is a sense of rhythm fixed by the circular movement of the lines that embraces the space of our visual experience. Additionally, we have to face a constant disorientation produced by abstract fusion of geometrical forms that form some kind of a tunnel shaped by the dazzling images. We are trapped in this tunnel feeling a physical and optical discomfort as even the centre is uneasy and unstable. In comparison to traditional painting, which provided the focal point, here we are floating together with rhythm pinpointed by the lines into the unknown direction that does not allow us to rely on a single, representative vision. Is this weightlessness and visual trans a kind of liberation from the traditional frames imposed by the art of mimesis and somehow CREATIVE SPACES VOL. 1 NO. 1

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affirmation of the flux of life? The painting Uneasy Centre highlights that there is recognition of involuntary cognitive response to the bodily character of optical perception (Crow, 1996:113). The revival of natural instincts that multiply to infinity. What is more, the repetitive character of the work of art implies its strong resemblance to the industrial production of the culture of the sixties at that time. Now the viewers are able to be a part of the mass society mingling with the sphere previously related with high-brow art. Nietzsche proposed to ‘look at science in the perspective of the artist, but at art in that of life’ (1967:19). The works of art presented in this paper appear to illustrate the philosopher’s point about a wide-ranging transformation of culture. On the one hand, the Pop visualisation and its fascination with mundane iconography investigated reality to syncretise even the tiniest details taken from life. On the other hand, Op crossed the physical barriers activating our somatic experience while being confronted with a painting. As a result, we receive a link between representative and non-representative art, aesthetic and non-aesthetic visual material. The world presented in the works by Pop and Op artists is no longer ‘fixed, canonical and binding’ but it is a process of embracing antagonistic elements (Nietzsche in Beazeale, 1990:84). The artists use constructive and destructive methods to present an authentic response of mutable, unrelated discourses of reality. The process, the play, the building and destroying are essential tools to Nietzsche’s conception as they dissolve the distinction between thing-in-itself and appearance (Sallis, 1970:104). Here we can arrive at a conclusion that the works of art celebrate ‘becoming not being that lies at the core of our existence’ (Sallis, 1970:106).

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