Caesar’s heirs More than one party tried to assume power after Caesar’s death. On the one side were men like Cicero, Brutus or Cassius, who tried to rebuild the system of the former republic. On the opposite side were men like Marc Antony and, most importantly, Octavian, who were keen on assuming Caesar’s power themselves. Still others, like the son of Pompey the Great, merely wanted control over a smaller part of the empire. After more than ten years of civil war and after hundreds of thousands had been killed or expelled, Octavian finally emerged as Caesar’s successor. As emperor he called himself Augustus.
01
Caesar’s heirs
The dictator is dead …
After Caesar had been assassinated, Rome was engaged in a struggle for power. Caesar had altered politics so radically that a return to old power structures was not possible anymore. You cannot turn back the hands of time, not today and not 2,000 years ago.
Deification of Iulius Caesar. Copperplate engraving by Virgil Solis, illustration of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Source: Wikicommons.
02
Caesar’s heirs
… to the Republic!
Marcus Iunius Brutus had originally planned to re-establish the Republic in an impassioned speech immediately after the assassination. Unfortunately, the startled senators had fled the place. Two days later, however, the senate granted amnesty to Caesar’s assassins – and confirmed the legal status of all decrees previously passed by the former dictator.
Marcus Iunius Brutus. Engraving by Peter Paul Rubens (1577–1640), Private collection. Source: Wikicommons / Postumus.
03
Caesar’s heirs
Freedom and piety
After Caesar’s death, all parties striving for power minted coins which represented their motivations and ambitions. Caesar’s assassins dedicated their coins to Libertas, the deity of freedom. The reverse shows a jug and a lituus, the curved wand of an augur, traditionally symbols of Pietas, who stands for the devotion to tradition. What the assassins insinuate here is that the assassination should be seen as motivated by the respect for ancient tradition and a victory in the name of freedom.
Denarius of C. Cassius and Cornelius Lentulus, 43–42, military mint moving with Brutus and Cassius. Obverse: Libertas. Reverse: Jug and lituus.
04
Caesar’s heirs
A comprehensive victory
Here is yet another coin issued by the assassins. It commemorates the triumph over the ‘tyrant’ with impressive imagery: Victoria advances holding palm branch and wreath and stepping on a broken sceptre on the ground, an image symbolising the victory over the defeated dictator.
Denarius of P. Servilius Casca and M. Iunius Brutus, 43–42, military mint moving with Brutus. Obverse: Neptune. Reverse: Victoria.
05
Caesar’s heirs
A youngster takes the stage
Nobody had anticipated what happened then. Caius Iulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus, whom Caesar had made his son and heir by will, arrived on the scene. The 19-year-old knew that his life was at stake. As Caesar’s heir, he had to expect attempts on his life from his competitors. So he made an appearance before the senate and demanded vengeance for his adoptive father.
Augustus (Octavian), bronze head. Found in Meroe, Nubia (modern Sudan), 27–25 BC. British Museum, London. Photo: Wikicommons / Merlin-UK/Louis Le Grand / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.en
06
Caesar’s heirs
Octavian takes position
At the time, Octavian did not have his own legions yet. He ‘acquired’ them by promising every soldier 2,000 denarii a year, that was twice the usual pay. The coins with which Octavian paid his legions all presented him as his father’s loyal son. This coin for instance combines his image with the name of his adoptive father Caesar. Octavian’s beard signals that he is in mourning for a relative. The reverse depicts a wreath on a Stella Curulis, like the seat which the young man wanted to include in the games held in honour of the assassinated. The motif moved veterans and citizens of Rome alike. Just as it was meant to.
Octavian. Denarius, 42, mint travelling with Octavian. Obverse: Octavian. Reverse: sella curulis.
07
Caesar’s heirs
Octavian and Cicero
Soon, Octavian had secured support from the people as well as a large army. And Cicero helped him into the political office of propraetor, hoping that he could use him against Marc Antony.
Modern Cicero memorial, at Woolsey Hall, Yale University, New Haven/Connecticut. Photo: Wikicommons / Rootology.
08
Caesar’s heirs
Fighting Marc Antony
Marc Antony was not only a former colleague of Caesar’s, but also the de facto heir of his office. Backed up by the senatorial army and his own, Octavian fought Marc Antony and won. To Octavian’s great luck, both consuls fell in battle, which made him the highest-ranking commander. With his legions behind him, the young man demanded the consulate – and got it.
Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens. Photo: Wikicommons / Adam Carr.
09
Caesar’s heirs
The Second Triumvirate
Thus Octavian completed his rise from political nobody to potential ally. He remembered his original plan of revenging his adoptive father and entered into an alliance of convenience against Caesar’s murderers with Marc Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in 43 BC. This so-called Second Triumvirate in effect constituted an absolute rule, able to pass laws, proscribe enemies and confiscate property – an easy way of financing the expensive war.
Entry of Marc Antony, as new Dionysus, into Ephesus in Asia Minor. Painting by Charles-Joseph Natoire, 1741, Musée des Beaux-Arts de Nîmes. Source: Wikicommons / Robert Valette.
10
Caesar’s heirs
Dividing an empire
In the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC, the united forces of Octavian, Lepidus and Marc Antony defeated the troops of the Caesar murderers. The three men then divided the empire among them: Lepidus was given North Africa, Marc Antony the East, and Octavian the West.
Map of the Roman Empire after the Pact of Misenum in 39 BC. Source: Wikicommons / Akkakk/Borsanova / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.de
11
Caesar’s heirs
Big problems
In order to allot the 50,000 to 60,000 veterans their share, Octavian was forced to expropriate vast tracts of land. That did not contribute to his popularity, especially not with the Italian population. Consequently, many of the expropriated Romans joined the son of Pompey in his venture of barring Octavian’s fleet from shipping grain from Sicily to Rome.
Bread and grains. Source: Wikicommons.
12
Caesar’s heirs
Whose pietas is bigger?
The two sides fought with weapons as well as with images. When Octavian prided himself on his pietas, Sextus Pompey claimed on this coin that his was still much bigger. He, too, wants to show that he is fighting in the name of his dead father, whose effigy is depicted on the obverse. A mythical scene serves to pictorially illustrate his filial devotion: The two brothers of Catania rescue their parents from the erupting Mount Vesuvius. Between them, Neptune puts down his foot on a ship’s bow, demonstrating who rules the sea: certainly not Octavian.
Denarius of Sextus Pompeius, 42–40, mint on Sicily. Obverse: Pompey Magnus. Reverse: Neptune, foot on ship’s bow (prora), the Catanian brothers to the left and right, symbolising filial love.
13
Caesar’s heirs
Shift of power
In 39 BC, Octavian succeeded in defeating Pompey. In general, power relations were changing – and to his advantage.
Map of Parthia. Source: Wikicommons / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
14
Caesar’s heirs
Representation and reality
On this coin, Marc Antony and Octavian meet each other as equals. The inscription reads IIIVIR RPC – meaning: Members of the triumvirate for the restoration of the Roman state. But the consensus among the politicians would not last much longer.
Denarius of Marc Antony, 41, mint moving with Antony. Obverse: Marc Antony. Reverse: Octavian.
15
Caesar’s heirs
The situation escalates
When the term of office of the triumvirate officially came to an end in 33, Octavian got active. He denounced his former ally, who by this time had two children with Cleopatra, as irresponsible and love-crazed. Of course he could not officially declare war on Marc Antony, only on Egypt.
Antony and Cleopatra, painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1883, private collection. Source: Wikicommons.
16
Caesar’s heirs
Minting for the troops
Thus began a new war: The legions of the west against the legions of the east. The coin must be seen in this context. It shows an aquila between two standards on the reverse, a ship on the obverse. The coins were issued by Marc Antony to pay his army and navy.
Denarius of Marc Antony, 32–31, military mint moving with Antony. Obverse: War vessel. Reverse: aquila between two standards.
17
Caesar’s heirs
Clearing the way
In 31 BC, the decisive battle took place at sea, near the city of Actium in the Ambracian Gulf: Octavian won. Not only the battle, but the rule over the entire Roman Empire.
Battle of Actium, painting by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London. Source: Wikicommons.
Augustus buys Rome His conquests made Augustus the richest man of the Roman Republic. He could afford to cover all expenses that up to then had been covered by the whole of the Roman aristocracy together. Thus every citizen of Rome became his client and Augustus unchallenged sole ruler.
01
Augustus buys Rome
The enemy is defeated
After the Battle of Actium, Egypt fell into the hands of Octavian, the victor. The defeated, Marc Antony and his Egyptian queen, committed suicide.
Cleopatra’s death, painting by Jean-Baptiste Regnault, 1796/99, Museum Kunstpalast, Düsseldorf. Source: Wikicommons.
02
Augustus buys Rome
Jackpot!
Octavian finally had access to the resources of a country that could have been part of the Roman Empire long ago. Egypt was weak, but the senate had refrained from invading it so that no senatorial member could win its enormous resources. From then on the land of the Nile was put directly under the control of the emperor. He considered the ‘Granary of Rome’ his personal property and no one was permitted to set foot on it without his explicit consent.
Illustration from ‘Description de l’Egypte’, between 1821 and 1826. Photo: Wikicommons.
03
Augustus buys Rome
Fight war to bring peace
Octavian’s newly acquired riches allowed for a personality cult like Rome had never seen it before. Coins, statues, buildings and literature from the time all bear witness of Octavian’s celebration of himself as the founder of the golden age. This coin motif alludes to the solemn ceremony in which, during times of peace, the temple doors, the ‘Gates of Janus’, were closed. Despite a historical reality in which Augustus fought more wars than any other Roman emperor, he continues to exist in our memory as the peace-making emperor.
Sestertius of Nero, Lugdunum, AD 66. Obverse: Nero. Reverse: Temple of Janus with closed gates. From Gorny & Mosch auction sale 219 (2014), 378.
04
Augustus buys Rome
Consolidation of power
On his return from Egypt, Octavian was confronted with the same problem like his adoptive father before: How to win the former ruling class over in his favour, move them to cooperate and preclude the possibility of opposition to his politics.
Cross of Lothair with Augustus cameo, Aachen Cathedral Treasury. Photo: Wikicommons / Absalypson2 / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
05
Augustus buys Rome
Same on the outside, different on the inside
Octavian only superficially retained all structures of the former republic, while simultaneously securing enough offices and responsibilities that no other politician could even come close to his power and resistance became futile. At the same time, he elevated himself to an almost divine status by celebrating himself as the country’s founding father. By request of his client Lucius Munatius Plancus the senate bestowed on him the honorific name Augustus, which sounded an almost superhuman quality.
Statue of Plancus in the city hall in Basel, Switzerland, 1580. Photo: Wikicommons / Wladyslaw / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.en
06
Augustus buys Rome
Honours and more honours
Augustus, as we will refer to him from now on, made sure to receive countless honours rooted deep in the republican tradition. Already their sheer quantity made him exceptional. By request of the senate, two small laurel trees, like those traditionally decorating the offices of high priests, were set up on either side of his front door. The laurel is depicted on this coin, here framing the golden shield put up in the senate in his honour. It praises the emperor’s virtues: valour, piety, clemency and justice.
Denarius of Augustus, unspecified Spanish mint, 19/18 BC. Obverse: Wreathed head of Augustus, Reverse: shield (clipeus) between laurel trees. From Künker auction sale 257 (2014), 8454.
07
Augustus buys Rome
Where is it, the Republic?
Although the traditional offices continued to exist, Augustus by far surpassed them in power. In addition, he issued and assumed unprecedented full powers. In effect, he was commander in chief of the Roman army. He had the power to call the senate into session, set the agenda, propose laws and veto decisions.Plus, most senators had become his clients, owing him either money or favours, so that they were bound to support his politics. Despite its Republican facade, Rome was once more ruled by an autocrat.
Bust of Augustus. Glyptothek, Munich. Photo: Wikicommons / Bibi Saint-Pol.
08
Augustus buys Rome
First among equals
Augustus always emphasised that he did not understand himself as a king, such as they were known abroad. Instead, he called himself princeps, first. The offices of Princeps Senatus (= the first in the senate) and the Principes Iuventutis (= the first among the young) had already existed in the time of the Republic.The form of government founded by Augustus is accordingly called principate.
Procession of the imperial family, 13–9 BC, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons / Louis le Grand / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.en
09
Augustus buys Rome
Keep them moving
As commander in chief of the Roman army, Augustus was facing an insoluble problem: how to reduce the size of the military, greatly increased during the civil war. He did not possess enough land to retire dispensable legionaries. That meant that he had to both pay and keep busy a professional army of 28 legions (c. 150,000 to 160,000 men).
Roman soldier, RömerWelt Rheinbrohl, Rhineland-Palatinate. Photo: Wikicommons / Frila / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.en
10
Augustus buys Rome
Two birds with one stone
By continuous engagement in war, he killed two birds with one stone: The legions were kept busy and financed themselves by war booty. Augustus made certain that the senate vested him with the power over those provinces whose borders provided potential for armed conflict. Thus he could be sure that both war booty and revenue from newly acquired sources would end up lining his pockets.
Augustus of Prima Porta, Vatican Museums, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons / Till Niermann / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
11
Augustus buys Rome
Important conquests
Many prosperous territories were annexed to the Roman Empire under Augustus. Just think of the Alpine region or northern Spain with its vast gold mines. Even the conquest of Germania had been on the agenda, but ended – as we all know – with the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.
Roman Empire under Augustus: Italy and the Roman provinces (dark green), client states and dependent territories (light green) and Germania (pale green). Source: Wikicommons / Louis le Grand / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
12
Augustus buys Rome
A monarch’s revenue
Leasing land, proscriptions and confiscations earned Augustus enormous sums. Plus, he inherited more and more money over time: According to the records of Suetonius, the revenue from inheritances alone amounted to no less than 1.3 billion sesterces in 20 years, a sum which equals government spending of two to three years.
Roman bronze scale, an important tool in the administration of inheritances. Gäubodenmuseum, Straubing. Photo: Foto: Wikicommons / Wolfgang Sauber / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/bysa/3.0/deed.de
13
Augustus buys Rome
Generous gifts
Augustus used his booty to finance construction programmes, lavish games and payments of all sorts. In his statement of accounts, the ‘Res Gestae’, he lists all payments made to Roman citizens in the form of money or grain.
14
Augustus buys Rome
The temple to Augustus inscribed with the ‘Res Gestae’
The most complete copy of his report, the so-called Monumentum Ancyranum, is inscribed on the walls of the temple to Augustus and Roma in modern-day Ankara. Here, Augustus describes his rise to power from his own perspective.
Section of the Monumentum Ancyranum. Photo: Wikicommons / KlausPeter Simon / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
15
Augustus buys Rome
The marble city
His financial commitment – visible in donations, in sponsoring public construction works – rendered him patron of the Roman people and the entire people his clients. Money bought Augustus the loyalty of the people’s assembly.
Forum of Augustus model. Photo: Wikicommons / BruceMcAdam / http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/deed.de
16
Augustus buys Rome
Augustus as first patron
Augustus single-handedly paid for everything that had previously been paid by the whole of the Roman aristocracy. He decided who paid taxes and how much, and who received his financial support. Thus Augustus – and all of his successors – became not only sole ruler but also the most important economic power in the Roman Empire.
Statue of Augustus, found near the Via Labicana, Palazzo Massimo alle Terme, Rome. Photo: Wikicommons / Mari-Lan Nguyen.
