Carole Davis

Adult Learning

Instructor: Dr. John Dirkx

EAD 861 Fall 2007

Course Description: The focus of this course was on developing a better understanding of learning and development in adulthood and what implications this knowledge holds for educating adults in higher, adult, continuing, and work-based education settings. In this course, we focused on the nature and characteristics of the adult as learner, including individual differences and developmental influences; motivation to participate and to engage and persist in formal learning programs as an adult; and the major intellectual, cognitive, emotional, spiritual, and socio-cultural processes that characterize learning in adulthood.

Selected Coursework:

My Personal Theory of Adult Learning

By Carole J. Davis

Instructor Comments: A very impressive piece of work! You clearly demonstrate a strong understanding of the key theoretical ideas related to the three questions you chose to address. You make excellent use of research and theory to develop your position, and your ideas are clearly present and articulated, along with those represented in the literature. These essays are all very well written, clearly organized, and the arguments effectively presented with a very creative and interesting analysis of the biological and cognitive factors in early or young adults and older adults. I will have to incorporate some of this material in future classes. Very nice work!

My Perspectives on Adult Learning I first see an adult learner as an individual, a person who is to some degree an independent entity making their own decisions and determining their own direction in life. Seeing adult learning as purposeful is in line with studies which show it is a largely voluntary activity and that most adult learners are consciously seeking a change in their lives, such as a career or personal life transition (Merriam, Caffarella, and Baumgartner, 2007, p.63). It‟s also important to realize that school is just one of many competing factors in adult learners‟ lives and that many of their efforts are associated with focused reasons for participating and goals that they are looking to be fulfilled (Kerka, 1995). This is consistent with the community college students I‟ve worked with, who are in often school to find a new direction in their life. Even though they may be somewhat uncertain and nervous about the steps they are taking, they still want to see results and have some kind of control in their learning and this is one of Knowles central assumptions of Andragogy that “adults need to know the reason that they learn something” (St. Clair, 2002). Jane Vella (1994) also stresses that “adults are in fact decision makers in a large part of their lives…… and resist being treated as objects” (p.12) and I agree that having respect for learners, as well as doing assessments that consider the learners‟ needs, are important principles for effective adult education. It also needs to be considered that most adults bring their own unique identities to the learning process with their own substantial life experiences and that “every experience both takes up something from those which have gone before and modifies in some way the quality of those which come after” (Dewey ,1938). The importance of experience has been widely supported by scholars in adult learning, from the viewpoint “knowledge is continuously derived from and tested out in the experiences of the learner” (Kolb, 1984). It‟s also been noted that the kind of experiences adults have and

the intent of their learning are distinguishing characteristics, especially as more mature learners bring more life experiences to what and how they learn (Kerka, 2002). Knowles further notes how the depth of experience of the adult learner makes their learning process different from that of children, as “adults come into an education activity with both a greater volume and different quality of experience from youths” (Merriam et al, 2007, p.161). Although many teaching strategies may be applied to learners of any age, I see how adults come to college learning with different levels of sophistication in their learning skills and many need guidance in developing from a dependent, child-like learner to a more self-directed human being, so that the concept of andragogy is more situation-specific to the needs of a particular learner than being age specific. Many scholars such as Draper (1998) and Knowles himself have proposed that there is no clear division between pedagogy and andragogy and that instead of assigning a chronological age to learning maturity, there is more likely a continuum based on a learners ability to be self-directed over teacher-directed (Merriam et al, 2007 p.84). In order to attract and retain adult learners, I think it‟s vital to acknowledge they are also persons who have many demands put on their lives, and that the most often cited reasons for non-participation are time and money (Merriam et al, 2007, p. 65). This makes it essential for adults to feel that what they are learning is valuable and worth their time and effort. I like the perspective that Wiodkowski (1999) puts forth for motivating adult learners through connecting learning to the diverse emotional, social and academic needs of the adult students, like those I serve at our community college. Wiodkowski‟s Motivational Conditions of inclusion through respect and connectedness, recognizing students‟ attitudes and predispositions, assisting them in constructing meaningful learning and positively reinforcing their competencies acknowledges the importance of collaboration, social contexts and negotiation in learning for adult

students.

Other considerations that I‟d like to incorporate to help keep my students engaged and purposeful are relating and using course content in real world contexts through immediacy and praxis. Jane Vella (1994) states that “adult learners need to see the immediate usefulness of new learning…..most adults have no time to waste” which can be additionally supported with reflection and action, or praxis. Other theories, such as situated learning, also support that subject matter should relate to the needs and concerns of learners to create meaning in context of real-world challenges (Stein, 1998)

These principles can also be employed using Kolb‟s learning cycle of experiential learning through concrete experience, observation and reflection, the formation of abstract concepts and then testing ideas in new situations for the production of knowledge (Kolb, 1984). This importance of experiential learning was well illustrated in the Cusick (2005) biographies of eminent Americans. His subjects like Ben Franklin and Jane Addams became major forces of their time because they took control of their learning, used it for action and then critically reflected on their experience to begin new cycles of learning.

Cusick (2005) also notes that his subject‟s success relied on the learners being “open to learning, open to participating fully and open to creating the person one becomes” (p. 162) through open and genuine dialogue, which is something I also strive for in my classrooms. Vella (1994) suggest that engagement itself is a manifestation of an adult learners openness and trust that arises from a safe, non-judgmental environment which can further cycle back to inviting adult learners to question, to argue, and to edit in the light of their own life experiences (p.73). I think these principles are further reflected in the experiences of collaborating in our teams in this course. Our

group initially began our chats a bit guarded and the learning process was more stifled, but as we began to feel safe and trust one another, our dialogue and creativity blossomed. We bounced ideas off one another and came to new learning because of our openness and trust in one another. Connecting personally with learners is also vital because each person brings with them a unique perspective on the world around them, so it‟s essential that we teach to people as individuals, not as seat warmers or through filters of descriptions of a student based on course placement or institutionally defined demographics. It‟s been noted that differences based on race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and disability can limit adults' autonomy and ability to be self-directed (Kerka, 2002). Although each person‟s learning will be deeply shaped by many social factors I still hold that the best way to reach them is by seeing them as individuals first with added consideration of the barriers that may be in their way to becoming successful learners. It‟s vital that we acknowledging that a person‟s thinking and emotions are inseparable from each other and the social context in which they learn (Wiodkowski, 1999), that we build authentic relationships with our learners as even adults “need to feel accepted, respected, and supported with a spirit of mutuality with teachers “ (Knowles,1980). I believe the most important aspect of adult education is enabling each learner is able to build their own learning through meaning-making and finding relevance of the subject matter within the context of their everyday life. This constructivist perspective is broadly supported by a variety of theories and studies, based on the understanding that adults have a wealth of experiences that are rich learning resources, that they are intrinsically motivated and that their learning must be meaningful. (Kerka, 2002). A number of theories that reflect these assumptions include Experience Based Learning, Situated Learning and Self-Directed Learning.

For instance, Experienced-Based Learning (EBL) places an emphasis on a learner-centered approach using direct engagement, rich learning events and the construction of meaning by learners through analysis of their experience, both individually and collectively, by drawing meaning from reflection and evaluation (Andresen, Boud and Cohen, nd). Situated learning focuses on relating subject matter to the needs and concerns of learners by collaborative learning through activities in which participants will experience the complexity and ambiguity of learning in the real world, including social processes that encompass ways of thinking, perceiving, problem solving, and interacting (Stein, 1998), while Self-Directed Learning (Grow, 1991/1996) places more emphasis on the development of an autonomous, personally-motivated learner without necessarily excluding the importance of interpersonal relationships and collaboration in the process (Merriam et al, 2007, p. 117). With so many possible frameworks to use for adult education, I think the best strategy is acknowledging that each learner has their own identity and own life experiences making it impossible for a single “cookie-cutter” approach tol best address the wide variety of learners needs. Effective teaching takes flexible use of a variety of processes, because each classroom and student is unique. For instance, EBL demands that we not only recognize a learner‟s life experiences, but the involvement of the whole person—intellect, feelings and senses in the learning proves (Andresen et al, n.d.) while SDL emphasizes the learner's own personal empowerment as a mature creator and evaluator of knowledge, but with possibilities for emancipatory learning and social action (Kerka, 1999). I can see how an EBL approach may be more effective for a more outgoing, social student or group, while SDL may be more effective for learners who are more individualistic. Seeing that many of my adult students are coming to education during a transitional point in their lives, there is also the potential that their learning could be

transformational and lead to more sophisticated, dialectical thinking. Jack Mezirow‟s Transformative Learning supports that critically reflecting on „disorienting dilemmas” and life changes can foster individuals to change their frames of reference on their assumptions and beliefs that bring about new ways of defining their worlds (Imel, 1998). This theory is also in line with my more empirical science teaching style, as it describes a learning process that is primarily "rational, analytical, and cognitive" with an "inherent logic" that perceptions can be highly subjective and changeable by seeking out dialogue and a variety of opinions. I believe that in this time of globalization and rapid develop of technology, the importance of adult learning has become clear and our studies strongly support the importance of establishing dialogue and understanding alternative points of view if we are to work and live together in our rapidly changing world.

Age-Related Changes and their Impact on Adult Learning As a community college instructor of students with a diverse spread of ages, I sometimes encounter learning difficulties that leave me wondering if they stem from individual differences or age-related. In exploring the biological, intellectual, cognitive and psychosocial factors that may affect learning as we get older, I hope to expand and clarify my thinking about these difficulties.

Biological Factors: We may not like to admit it, but as long as we are of this earth, we are all prisoners of our biology. As we age our cells become more oxidized, our chromosomal telomeres shorten and we will ultimately have declining function both physically and cognitively. When considering the challenges of advancing years, most people think of the more obvious learning

difficulties between younger and older adults such as slower reaction times along with vision and hearing loss (Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner, 2007, p.305). However, as a college instructor, it is also essential that I recognize the biological changes that young adults‟ brains are still undergoing when they enter college, particularly in the higher, „executive‟ functions of the frontal lobe, which are still under-construction until the mid-20‟s and sometimes cause a stark contrast in approaches to learning between my younger and older students.

Researchers have found measurable physiological differences between the levels of myelination of the dorsal-lateral prefrontal cortex of post-adolescents in their late teens and early 20s versus more mature, over 30 adults. This region, found just behind the brow of humans, is known to distinguish us from other animals, and scientists believe it is used in making “judgments and values, longterm goals, the weighing of risks and consequences -- what parents call common sense and what science calls executive functions" (Williamson, 2005). Interestingly, functional MRIs have also shown that as teens grow older, activities shift from the amygdala, the more primitive, emotional center of the brain, to the frontal lobe, leading to more reasoned perceptions and measured decision making. This biological change may be reflected in King and Kitchener reflective judgment model for decision making of complex problems, where they found older, more educated participants scored higher than younger, less educated students, and even though mature adults could access feelings in the process of decision making, they aren‟t ruled by their feelings as strongly as younger adults tend to be (Merriam et al, 2007, p. 334).

Another interesting correlation that researchers found between biology and age- related behavior was that younger adults consistently took more chances when friends were present, while those 24 and older behaved equally cautiously, regardless of whether friends were watching (NIH, 2007).

These

differences in neurological development may have important implication in my community college classrooms as I‟ve often noticed how younger, just out of high school students are strikingly more influenced by peer attitudes and modeling. This can sometimes lead to chatty, distracted group of young adults (usually in the back of the room) who are more concerned with socializing than concentrating on the course material.

The interesting dynamic is how the older students can become very irritated by such unfocused behavior, and are often quite vocal in their disgust of those who are „immature‟ and „don‟t know anything about real life yet‟. These types of responses are especially interesting in light of new findings that although the adult brain may lose 1 gram of weight every year to cell death or pruning, the remaining neurons strengthen existing connections, a process which is mostly shaped by outside stimuli, in other words, experience (OHSU, 2007). So it seems the biological premise that students learn in different ways due to their previous experiences, perceptions, and prior knowledge about the subject (Clemons, 2005) is also responsible for some of the emotional and personal decision making disparities I see between younger and older adults (which may make for interesting discussion in on of my science classrooms!)

Intellectual Factors: Although there are a wide number of approaches that address intelligence, there is no universal agreement on what constitutes it. When measured as a comparison of test scores or cognitive tasks, research tends to confirm that intelligence does decline with age (Merriam et al, 2007, p. 367). but when intelligence is viewed more comprehensively, such as taking into account real-world intelligence with multiple domains such as thinking analytically, creatively and practically leads to plasticity that fosters „successful‟ intelligence as a resource as adults get older (Sternberg, 1997). In addition, if the idea of intelligence is considered to overlap with wisdom, where a person can make objective, clear, sensible and fair judgments, then it may be viewed that older adults are more successful intellectually, depending on the context of culture, social class and ethnicity (Sternberg, 1997) Therefore, even though there may be a decline in psychometric measures as a person ages, life‟s rich experiences can lead to more pragmatic, reflective and creative judgments (Merriam et al, p.356). This can certainly be seen in the American biographies documented by Cusick (2005) where many of his subjects had to grow into their wisdom through life experiences. For instance, while the experiences of the Civil War were deeply emotionally and physically draining on Abraham Lincoln, they also let him grow to the wisdom to push his mind into unfamiliar territory and the realization that slaves, as fellow human beings, had to be emancipated as the only way to save, and ultimately heal, America as a nation (p.45-46).

Cognitive Factors: The foundation of cognitive development is widely regarded to have been laid by Jean Piaget, who developed his four stages from innate reflexes of infancy up to the ability to reason hypothetically and logically, but it is a theory that stops at approximately age 15 (Perry,1999). Therefore, in my own work with community college students, I find much relevance in the later, foundational work of William Perry and his studies into the cognitive development in traditional college students as they progress from a dualistic, right-wrong views of the world to a relativistic perspective that knowing is contextual and subject to multiple, but equally true perspectives (Perry,1999). What I find especially interesting is that contradictory results were produced when looking at older adults found that as age increased, relativism seemed to decrease. This could be applied to the resistant ideas which some of my non-traditional, returning students hold on to, such as not wanting to listen to arguments in favor of evolution, reinforcing the stereotype perhaps older people are more set in their ways (Merriam et al, p. 331). However, this is in line with the discussion above on the biological basis of brain development, that post-adolescent pruning of neurons leads to reinforcement of more commonly used communication networks, leading to a resistance to novel neural connections and new ways of thinking (OSHU, 2007). But these difficulties could possibly be overcome if it‟s remembered that experience is a powerful tool for new learning (Kolb, 1984) and that in addition to the cognitive, we can also use the affective (feeling) and psychomotor factors to reach new understanding. For instance, Jane Vella (1994) was faced with a

daunting task of teaching “old dogs new tricks”, when working with authoritative Jesuit priests and their Zambian brothers in faith. Through interactive exercises and an emotional simulation, she was able to break through traditional church thinking and cultural boundaries to guide them to new concepts of equality and respect.

Psychosocial Factors: In our community college setting, we have a student body from diverse cultural, socioeconomic and educational backgrounds. This makes it imperative to be cognizant of the many factors that may affect a students perspective on learning, especially since many of our learners are returning, older adults with a variety of life experiences. Because so many of my students are women who are returning to school to better their lives, I‟m particularly interested in applying the Women‟s Way of Knowing (WWK) framework of cognitive development to my classrooms. The WWK model is overviewed in Merriam et al (2005, p. 336) as five major stages of development, from silence ( a passive position where women feel incompetent and defined by others) through stages of received knowledge (open to receiving new knowledge) and subjective knowledge (where women begin to gain a voice), to procedural and constructed knowledge (where all knowledge is contextual and they have an authentic voice) This progression of knowing can be seen throughout our base readings, such as Vella (1994) demonstrating the problem-solving skills of the village women in Tanzania when they were allowed to construct their own knowledge (p. 60-62)

Cusick‟s 2005 biographies on Eminent Americans also demonstrated the emancipation in ways of knowing in the life journeys of Eleanor Roosevelt and Jane Addams. Many other women of their time may were subjugated into the Silence stage of a passive woman, but both Jane and Eleanor were encouraged by their families to at least enrich their minds with reading and conversation, which started them out as young women at the second stage of Received Knowledge. Both had subjective stages of making her knowledge and truths personal, for Jane it was questioning the practicality of Christianity and the “manufactured busyness” of her privileged lifestyle while for Eleanor it was questioning her narrow role as a dutiful wife. They found purpose through addressing the social inequities of the time to come to the highest WWK stage of Constructed Knowledge, that knowing was relativistic and subjective strategies were needed to find solutions. These women‟s lives also reflect Perry‟s assertion that development is propelled by transitions and crises, just as many of my students are compelled to return to school due to their own life events. It see how many women, especially those less educated, come in with a more Dualistic mindset of established absolutes (such as an abhorrence of the concept of evolution), but with new experiences and understanding they begin to transition to a viewpoint of Multiplicity and maybe even to Relativism, where they can see that the facts are not always clear cut, and that they can consider opposing views to be simultaneously true.

Significance of Spirituality and Post-Modernism in Adult Learning As a science teacher, I certainly have a lot of stock in the rationalities of Enlightenment, that the universe is mechanistic and can ultimately be understood by measurements, logic and reasoning. However, as a human being, I have experienced the value of looking beyond the empirical to connect with the things we don‟t necessarily understand, that there is a powerful, undefinable presence to acknowledge in our lives. I‟ve found professionally and personally that there is much to be gained by opening ourselves to new experiences and ways of knowing that we may not be able to fully explain. This often means turning from traditional Western empiricism to perspectives that consider our spiritual, collective and mutable selves, and spirituality in adult learning is the first thread I‟d like to explore. Carl Jung had the insight to recognize that as an adult moves toward midlife, there is an inward turning to contemplate the spiritual aspects of oneself, and studies have shown that irrespective of gender and cohort, that spirituality increases significantly between late middle and older adulthood (Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner, 2007, p.199). Whether it is through more private, personal beliefs and deeper understanding of the self or through a more outward focus on interpersonal connections, there seems to be wide agreement that spiritual knowing is about meaning-making, which also qualifies it as a way of learning given it‟s prevalence as a way of knowing among adults (Tisdell, 2001) I particularly like the definition of spirituality per Court and Milton (Merriam et al, p. 201), who see it being made of three components of having a sense of

connectedness, meaning-making and an awareness of a transcendent force or energy. Although I believe there are understandings we can come to by solitary contemplation, it seems we can‟t ignore that humans are largely social creatures and that much of our learning and understanding comes from connecting to those around us. A common theme in Cusick‟s 2005 biographies of eminent American is how they came to much of their knowledge and wisdom through their experiences and interactions with others. Benjamin Franklin came to much of his knowledge and advancement through observing others, conversing, asking questions, reflecting and being mindful that his own behavior made it a pleasure for others to be around him, even when they may have disagreed on a topic. Likewise, Eleanor Roosevelt was able to defy conventions of a woman‟s place and expand the role of a first lady to achieve great gains in social justice by connecting personally with people through courtesy and respect. It seems that many historical figures were known for their charisma, which is one of those qualities that no one can quite define but they „know it when they see it‟. It‟s a phenomenon that goes beyond learning the rules of being personable and courteous, to having an intangible factor that draws others to them in an inexplicable, spiritual way. It should also be noted that spirituality is considered something related to, but different than religion. Whereas religion is associated with more organized, communities of faith with written doctrine, codes of behavior and higher powers, spirituality is a more informal honoring of the sacred in our lives, whether individually or communally (Tisdell, 2001). However, it should be noted that most

world religions do have an emphasis on collectively sharing the spirit and interdependent learning, whether through life long learning for the sacred benefit of the community as in Islam, by reverence for wisdom and sages in Confucianism or the rich storytelling of Hinduism. This is contrast to Western perspectives, such as Knowles‟ Andragogy or Mezirow‟s Transformational Learning that see the ultimate goal of adult development as producing a more independent, self-directed learner (Merriam et al, 2007, Chapter 9). However, Western emphasis on autonomy in adulthood is in contrast to the previously mentioned observations that adults becoming increasingly spiritual as they get older, especially toward middle age (Merriam et al, 2007, p.199). It could be argued by rationalists that this is a defense mechanism to the impending „doom‟ of our own mortality, but couldn‟t it just as equally be attributed to a richness of moving life experiences that reinforce the presence of spirit? After all, this would tie into neurological studies that support that out thought patterns are mostly shaped by outside stimuli, in other words, experience that strengthens and builds new physical connections between neurons to promote learning (OHSU, 2007). In my classroom, I‟ve experienced the benefits of connecting with my students in ways that don‟t keep the traditional interpersonal distances of teacher and students. I‟ve seen that the more I build relationships with my students, the more we become invested in each other‟s well-being, which includes seeing positive outcomes academically. Jane Vella (1994) strongly supports the importance of building learning relationships through dialogue, as she did with

her grad student Margie, as well as establishing safety, trust and respect. She also underscores that learning is an interaction of mind, emotions and muscle (p. 14),and others such as Graves note learning is a process that connects to a person‟s entire being, that through dialogue, discussion and sharing,. Collaboration especially offers opportunities to connect with others and their inner selves, which further encourages meaning making (Merriam et al, 2007, p.205). The second thread I would like to explore is that of post-modernism, which recognizes the usefulness of multiple views, through a rejection of Western practices and empiricism and particularly it‟s reliance on “facts” and established thinking (Merriam et al, 2007, p.259). New and creative ways of thinking are vital in the 21st century, which is being driven and challenged by globalization, environmental stress, rapid technology advancement and information dissemination (Allen et al, 1998). Openness to diversity and alternative ways of thinking will be essential and Post-modernism offers a path to understanding our changing world as it celebrates diversity among people, ideas and institutions (Merriam et al, p. 261). However, a more hard-core perspective of post-modernism is criticized for its rejection of any single essential meaning, where learning is seen as a process of continuous deconstruction of knowledge, of playing with contradictions, and of creatively and productively opening the discourse of a field to an eclectic mosaic of many truths (Wonacott, 2001). The paradox is that if all knowledge is subjective, then there are no truths, and everyone is free to construct their own

knowledge, even to the point of ignoring the self-evident nature of the world around us and the vast store of knowledge science has made in understanding and utilizing its findings. With this viewpoint, it would seem any mention of postmodernistic science education would be an oxymoron. But I do think there is an important and central place for post-modernist thought in my science classroom. As its emphasis is on being open to alternative viewpoints, it actually touches on a foundational principle of the nature of science, that making new advancements in our understanding requires questioning previous constructs and testing new ones. Where many may view science as being rigid, immutable “facts” and “laws”, a little reflection reveals how it has been shifting and morphing throughout history, from the discovery that the world is not flat to Einstein‟s mind-bending ideas of a space-time continuum to the demotion Pluto from full planet to a planetary body. In fact, much of science education today strives for conscious efforts to promote alternative, more creative ways of thinking over the traditional perspective that science is all about “facts” and “laws”. The organization Science for All Americans (1990) advocates for lifelong learning through science literacy, with recommendations that learners have opportunities to conduct active inquiries that require them to reflect critically, construct and analyze alternative explanations then communicate scientific arguments through dialogue that is based on integrity, diligence, fairness, curiosity, openness and informed skepticism. It was a process much like this that made J. Robert Oppenheimer a “success” as he used informal, open group dialogue to explore alternative ideas

that maximized the Manhattan‟s Project collaborative spirit and productivity (Cusick, 2005). Collaborative learning with openness to alternative ideas can also be beneficial in a science classroom as it helps to build relationships beyond academic learning and can foster respect and reflection on other ways of knowing that will help students make even more of their own meaning. Techniques that I could use in my classroom to encourage such connections could be narratives as “a good story both enlightens and engages it helps us to remember and connect” (Wiggins and McTighe,2005). By allowing students to articulate ideas and connections through their own life experiences, concepts not only become more easily accessible and cognitively interesting for students, but lead them to become emotionally invested in their learning. I believe one of the most important perspectives that I can foster in my science classrooms is that studying science does not mean you dismiss anything you do not understand. Western traditions tend to view the world in a more dualistic manner of black versus white, seeing dichotomies of mind-body, naturenurture, emotion-reason and human-animal (Merriam et al, p. 221) and I would add it also positions science and the study of nature against anything supernatural. This is reflected in comments I often encounter that as a science teacher I must be an atheist. There seems to be little consideration by some that we can seek to understand the natural world without automatically dismissing our curiosity of what is currently, and possibly forever, beyond human comprehension.

I hope by exploring concepts openly and authentically with my students, by building relationships that close the distance between lecture hall desks and the lectern that I can to spiritually connect us on our journey of learning that I can also develop more post-modern perspectives in my students. Rather than leaving my course with their heads stuffed full of facts, I would much rather have students be able to consider multiple perspectives, explore alternatives to their thinking and maybe even create new solutions. And above all, I hope they have genuine awe, wonderment and a spiritual appreciation for our beautiful planet and the miracle of life.

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