American Indian Material Culture Library of Congress Teaching with Primary Sources Program at the Collaborative for Educational Services http://EmergingAmerica.org/TPS Michael Barton, Greater Lowell Technical High School Ashleigh Pyecroft, Belchertown High School Primary Source Set Created for History in Motion, Summer 2015

Introduction The following primary source set focuses on material culture produced about and by American Indians. The information and materials in the set can be used as a jumping off point for teachers looking to access resources provided by the Library of Congress related to the topic. Historical Background: The subject of American Indian history and culture is generally not emphasized significantly in American history curriculum and classrooms. In many cases, students of American history only study American Indians as they encounter and relate to white settlers, and the vestiges of the US and State governments. Without more focused study on the culture, history, politics, and society of the indigenous first peoples of the United States, a truly holistic history of America is impossible. An examination of the dynamic nature of media and other material culture related to American Indians can provide a small window into the history of the the Native American people and their rich heritage. As US policy and perception around American Indians has changed, so too has the material culture.Students and educators may ask questions such as: Do these changes represent changing attitudes towards American Indians? What can we learn from these images? Federal policy related to American Indians has been nothing if not dynamic. Policies evolved with the expansion of the American frontier, and the encounters between the Indigenous peoples and white settlers. While American Indian culture and society has endured through enormous adversity but unfortunately these encounters did not end up well for for the Native American people. Resulting from these encounters is a large collection of material culture.

The Indigenous peoples of North America,numbering in the millions by the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus, were diverse in their nature and organization. Most were semi-nomadic, though many lived in settled villages by as early as the 2nd millennium BC. By the time they began to encounter Europeans in their midst, they had established a variety of lifestyles. Generally, these encounters began genially, and ended tragically. Shared experiences include altruism, cooperation, and sensational violence on both sides. Massacres of Spanish missionaries and settlers by the Pueblo Indians of the South West in the sixteenth century was one factor (another being that Pueblo land was seen as undesirable by the Spanish) contributing to this society’s ability to maintain their way of life and culture. Seventeenth century English encounters with American Indians at Roanoke, Jamestown and Plymouth began friendly, but turned fierce. Powhatan and Pocahontas’ encounters with English settlers at Jamestown are excellent examples of this dynamic. Wampanoag encounters with English settlers in Massachusetts run the gamut from the beauty and cooperation of the First Thanksgiving to the horrors of King Philip’s War. From these first encounters come the first material culture produced by Europeans. John White, a sixteenth century English artist at Roanoke provides some of our first images of American Indians. English newspapers from the sixteenth century published images of Pocahontas. After the revolution and establishment of the United States, Federal Indian policy started and began to evolve. American Indians were players in the Revolutionary War as well as the War of 1812, and suffered or gained as a result of the sides they chose. The Shawnee, under the skilled leadership of Tecumseh, formed an alliance of diverse American Indian forces to fight alongside the British in the war of 1812. Tecumseh understood that a British victory may lead to less American encroachment on tribal lands. With the British loss, this confederation of tribes watched as their land was ceded to American settlers. Tecumseh’s words are a poignant statement on the differing views about land and culture held by Americans trying to negotiate treaties and the Indians whose lands and power were lessened by these treaties. “Sell a country!” He said, “Why not sell the air, the clouds and the great sea? Did not the Great Spirit make them all for the use of his children?” During the nineteenth century, especially in the years surrounding the American Civil War, westward expansion by American settlers was in full swing. Federal and state policies during this era varied widely as settlers and American Indians vied for control of land and resources. In 1824, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), which worked closely with the US Army, was formed. This organization at times recognized the sovereignty of American Indian tribal lands, but more often, expected American Indians to surrender not only their lands, but to assimilate to American society, surrendering also their identities and culture. This painful process of forced assimilation was seen as a path towards dealing with the “Indian Problem,” the idea being to “kill the Indian, but save the man.” The Library of Congress and other media have collections of photos and documents showing this process of acculturation. 2

In the second half of the nineteenth century, Eastern newspapers often ran sensational stories and published images of cruel, savage Indian attacks on American settlers. While attacks on settlers did occur, they were extremely rare. In reality, several American Indian tribes had signed the Treaty of Ft Laramie in 1854. This treaty established tribal territories. American Indians agreed to never attack settlers and to allow roads and forts to be built by the US Government. In return, the Government agreed to honor territorial integrity, and make annual payments to the tribes. However, as more settlers pushed in, and it was found that these lands were fertile or full of resources, the treaty agreement was violated again and again. American Indians found themselves forced onto smaller “Reservations” within the territories that had been granted. At this point, the BIA was put in charge of providing food, livestock, household goods, tools, and protection to Indians on the Reservations. Government Indian agents, however, were notoriously corrupt and inept, leaving American Indians on the reservations vulnerable and lacking supplies. American laws like the Dawes Act(1887), which attempted to force American Indians to farm their lands in individual or family units, and others that forced them to abandon their traditional way of life further, chipped away at the integrity of American Indian communities. Of course there was resistance. Between the years of 1861 and 1891, over 1000 fights and skirmishes broke out in the disputed lands West of the Mississippi river. Chief among the groups fighting to keep their lands and identity were the Cheyenne, the Arapaho, the Sioux, and the Comanches. During this dark time, American Indian communities suffered from depravity and starvation, and endured such infamous events as the horrific massacres of entire communities by US forces at Sand Creek, Wounded Knee and Washita. It was during these years that several notable Americans emerged to create a trove of material culture about American Indians. Photographer Edward Sheriff Curtis (1868-1952), felt he was in a race against time to document American Indian culture before it was destroyed by white expansion and federal policy. His resulting volume: The North American Indian 1907-1930 was called “The most ambitious enterprise in publishing since the King James Bible” by the New York Herald. George Catlin (1796-1872) painted hundreds of images of individuals, rituals and landscapes related to dozens of American Indian tribes. His work represented an attempt to preserve the appearance and customs of “the vanishing races of native man in America.” Seth Eastman (1808-1875), a “soldier artist” used his time stationed at the Frontier Fort Snelling to explore American Indian culture. There, he created hundreds of illustrations documenting the tribes of the Great Plains. Then, of course, there is Buffalo Bill and his Wild West Show. While the show promoted the false ideology of “savage” and cruel Indian attacks on settlers, it also respectfully employed several notable American Indians including Chief Sitting Bull and shaman Black Elk. The evolution and amassing of material culture during this era reflects a new awareness and attention to American Indians during a time when their culture and lives were being obliterated.

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In the twentieth century, federal policy became a bit more progressive. The Dawes Act was overturned by the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. This act moved tribal ownership and administration of reservation lands back into the hands of American Indians and provided reparations for government malpractice. American Indians took part in many of the major events of the twentieth century, serving key roles in both world wars, and becoming active during the civil rights era of the 1960s and 70s. It was during the Civil Rights Era that the American Indian Movement (AIM) formed. This activist group brought the strife and mistreatment of American Indians into the light of American consciousness through acts of civil disobedience including marches and occupations of Alcatrez and Wounded Knee. Committed proponents of their own history, agenda, and rights, this group is also a wellspring of authentic material culture, producing writings and visual pieces to promote and educate the Native America people. Another authentic form of material culture produced by American Indians is ledger art. This practice began in the late 1800s when American Indians confined in prison or on reservations were encouraged to and began using storekeeper’s ledgers, accounting books, and other documents available to them to create art with colored pencils, crayons, watercolors. The pictorial histories and stories told through these images reflect the experience of American Indians during this difficult era of their history. Today, many American Indian artists have revived this practice and continue the tradition of ledger art. While the collection of material culture related to American Indians amassed here is by no means exhaustive, it is a starting point for students of American History. Explorations of material culture in classrooms and studies is a compelling way to approach American Indian history. These documents represent evidence of American Indian society and also provide a window on how encounters between Indians and the peoples and policies of the United States have shaped American History. Recommended Secondary Sources General American Indian History Online Resources: Victoriana-This encyclopedia provides comprehensive history of the American Indian experience from Colonial times through 1900) http://www.victoriana.com/history/nativeamericans.html History World.net- This site provides an extensive history of the American Indian experience from prehistoric times all the way through the 20th century http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=1091&HistoryID=ab 05>rack=pthc Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show- ​This PBS site provides detailed history and information about Buffalo Bill’s Show http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/oakley-show/ 4

Classroom Activity Ideas ● Gallery Activity: Students can observe the images in small groups which rotate to different “exhibits” around the room. They can fill out the Library of Congress Primary Source Analysis tool for each station, then compare notes when gathered together as a class ● Class Discussion: Students could view the sources in the context of a short unit on American Indian History and then discuss: What is one thing you learned, one thing you found interesting, and one question you have from these sources? ● Project/Investigation: Students will be assigned one particular image and use it as a piece of evidence related to a particular topic. They will act as detectives-finding out as much about the image as they are able, then solving some sort of mystery related to it.

Primary Sources from the Library of Congress Overview:​ Nearly all of the sources listed below are images created by European Americans about Native Americans. An interesting relation between these sources is how they evolved over time. It would be simplistic (and wrong) to say that the material sources become more respectful of American Indians as time passed. It is safe to say that sources from later years do display at least some positive and more authentic aspects of American Indian Life. The following collection represents a fraction of what is available online and elsewhere related to this topic. That said, it is also a collection that has representative documents from many different time periods and perspectives. The collection is a small (but relatively holistic) look at material culture related to American Indians. Library of Congress Teacher Blog posts identifying photos of Native Americans. http://blogs.loc.gov/teachers/2015/10/images-of-native-americans-exploring-changing-vi sual-representations/?loclr=eatlcb

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Primary Sources:

Source Title: ​Buffalo Bill and Sitting Bull, 1885 Date:​ 1897 Creator: ​Barry, D. F. (David Francis), 1854-1934, copyright claimant Permalink:​ ​https://www.loc.gov/item/2007675831/

Annotation:​ In 1885 Sitting Bull joined Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show for four months. He was allowed to leave the reservation and was paid $50.00 - a significant amount - a week to ride once around an arena.This photograph was among the most popular souvenirs sold at the Wild West Show. This photograph will allow students see the origins of some of the “popular” images that have endured of cowboys and Indians. It also will allow students and teachers to discuss the stereotypes of cowboys and Indians by examining the clothing and posture of Buffalo Bill and Sitting Bull. Source Title: ​Buffalo Bill's Wild West and congress of rough riders of the world A congress of American Indians Date: ​1899 Creator: ​Unavailable Permalink: ​http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2001696164/

Annotation: ​In 1883, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show launched the genre of outdoor entertainment that featured shooting galleries, mock cowboy and Indian fights, and displays of Indians in “authentic” Indian clothing with an accompanying gallery of Caitlin's paintings. This poster will be helpful for teachers and students to compare the depiction of aggressive Indians with western settlers who are being attacked. It is also interesting to discuss the portrayal of Buffalo Bill who is singled out on the right side of the frame.

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Source Title:​ Carlisle Indian School, Carlisle, Pa. Date: ​1901 Creator: ​Johnston, Frances Benjamin, 1864-1952, photographer

Permalink: ​http://cdn.loc.gov/service/pnp/cph/3a20000/3a27000/3a27500/3a27583r.jpg Annotation: ​The Carlisle Indian Industrial Boarding School was founded in 1879. As the first first federally funded Indian Boarding School, designed to “Americanize” Indians. From 1879 to 1910, over 10,000 Native Americans attended Carlisle and less than 158 actually graduated. This photograph illustrates the school’s main mission, as students play musical instruments. Source Title:​ [Painting portraits of Native Americans] Date: ​1936 Creator:​ Harris & Ewing, photographer Permalink: ​https://www.loc.gov/item/hec2013011255/

Annotation: ​This studio painting serves as a contrast to the plain air paintings of the nineteenth century. This image is probably the most recognizable image the typifies the stereotypically image of twentieth century images of Native Americans. Source Title:​ [First Thanksgiving] Date: ​1900-1920 Creator:​ Ferris, Jean Louis Gerome, 1863-1930, artist

Permalink: ​https://www.loc.gov/item/det1994023455/PP/ Annotation: ​This image of the Pilgrims Thanksgiving Day Dinner serves to reinforce the mythology of the first American dinner. The clothing, furniture, Native American headdress, and seating arrangement, all serve to misrepresent actual historical circumstances. 7

Source Title:​ Planning a Raid Date: ​1907 Creator:​ Edward S. Curtis Permalink:​ ​http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/coll/067b_img.html

Annotation: ​Curtis often portrayed indigenous people and their cultural practices in ways that obscured the ongoing process of assimilation. Here, a party of Oglala Sioux reenact their former days as warriors. Source Title:​ Wi-Jun-Jon - The Pigeon's Egg Head Going to Washington: Returning to his home Date: ​Currier & Ives Catlin, George, 1796-1872, artist Creator: ​New York : Published by Currier & Ives, [between 1837 and 1839] Permalink:​ ​http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/98507921/

Annotation: ​Two views of Wi-Jun-Jon, first, on his way to Washington wearing traditional Native Americans dress and carrying a calumet, then, on his return to his village wearing a uniform with a top hat and a fan and an umbrella. Source Title: ​American Progress Date: ​1873 Creator: ​Crofutt, George A., Permalink: ​http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/97507547/

Annotation: ​Print shows an allegorical female figure of America leading pioneers westwards, as they travel on foot, in a stagecoach, and by railroads, where they encounter Native Americans and herds of bison.

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Source Title:​ Meda Songs Date: ​1851 Creator:​ ​Ackerman, James, 1815 or 1816-1864​, lithographer & ​ Eastman, Seth, 1808-1875​ , artist Permalink:​ ​http://loc.gov/pictures/item/2001695727/ Annotation: ​Pictorial notation of an Ojibwa music board. Source Title:​ Ball-play Date: ​1844 Creator:​ Catlin, George

Permalink: ​https://www.loc.gov/item/2001696051/ Annotation: ​Native men and boys playing a game similar to lacrosse, near Fort Gibson, Oklahoma.

Source Title: ​Americae sive qvartae orbis partis nova et exactissima descriptio Date: ​1562 Creator: ​Gutiérrez, Diego, active 1554-1569

Permalink: ​https://www.loc.gov/item/map49000970/ Annotation: ​Map of North and South America created in 1562.

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Source Title: ​In a Piegan lodge Date: ​1910 Creator:​ Curtis, Edward S., 1868-1952, photographer Permalink:​ ​http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2002722455/

Annotation: ​Little Plume and son Yellow Kidney seated on the ground inside lodge with a pipe between them.

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