Comparison of Food Plant Knowledge between Urban Vietnamese Living in Vietnam and in Hawai'i Author(s): My Lien T. Nguyen Source: Economic Botany, Vol. 57, No. 4 (Winter, 2003), pp. 472-480 Published by: Springer on behalf of New York Botanical Garden Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4256733 Accessed: 30/01/2009 12:59 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=nybg. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit organization founded in 1995 to build trusted digital archives for scholarship. We work with the scholarly community to preserve their work and the materials they rely upon, and to build a common research platform that promotes the discovery and use of these resources. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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COMPARISON OF FOOD PLANT KNOWLEDGE BETWEEN URBAN VIETNAMESE LIVING IN VIETNAM AND IN HAWAI'I MY LIEN T. NGUYEN

Nguyen, M. T. (Department of Botany, University of Hawaii, 3190 Maile Way, Honolulu, HI, 96822; Email: [email protected]). COMPARISONOF FOOD PLANT KNOWLEDGEBETWEENURBAN VIETNAMESELIVING IN VIETNAM AND IN HAWAI'I. Economic Botany 57(4):472-480, 2003. Ethnographic interviews using photographs of 10 traditional Vietnamese fruits and vegetables were used to compare the knowledge level and use of traditional food plants between Vietnamese in urban Bien Hoa, Vietnam, and in Honolulu, Hawai'i. In both communities, there was a positive correlation between age and knowledge (as measured by correct identification, and number of food uses for the plants). Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai'i listed more food uses than those in Vietnam due to adoption of multi ethnic foods found in Honolulu. So sdnh sa hieu biet ve rau qua cua ngiaYi Viet sotng a' thanh pho ai Viet Nam va Ha Uy Di. Cdch phbng van dung nhitng tam hinh ve mrntiiloai rau qua truyen thong cua ngaYi Viet cho so sanh su hie2ubiet va cdch dung ve thi?c in thtc vat truyen thoing cua ngltdi Viet at thanh pho Bien Hoa, Viet Nam vai Honolulu, Ha Uy Di. Ca hai cong cong ngtto!i cd tuoi co nhieu sit hieu biet Mwnnga0i tre tuoii (do lhaing nhan ra va boa nhieu cich dung cho thixc vat). Ngia,i nh.ap cm Viet ia Ha Uy Di biet nhtlng thac dn cich diung nhieu hMnngia0i song aF Viet Nam vi chang tiep thu them dilc nhilng thac an cua cic vian hoa at Honolulu. Key Words: urban ethnobotany; immigrants; Vietnamese; Hawai'i; fruits; vegetables; food plant knowledge; plant photographs.

On May 3, 1975, I escaped from Vietnam with my mother, younger brother, and my uncle. Saigon had fallen. Since 1975, approximately 600 000 Vietnamese refugees have likewise immigrated to the United States. Though I was raised in upstate New York, growing up with my mother, I spoke, ate, and lived Vietnamese at home (as much as one can in a transplanted culture). As culture is not genetic, but rather learned and personalized (McClatchey 1999), I now understand how significant that was as an immigrant child to developing my traditional Vietnamese knowledge. However, though many fresh herbs and vegetables used in our cooking were available in the Asian food stores of upstate New York, most of the fruits were not, i.e., Litchi sinensis Sonn. and Garcinia mangostana L. Thus, my experience of Vietnamese or Southeast Asian fruits was usually from canned or processed sources. That all changed when I moved to Honolulu to attend the University of Hawai'i. Visiting the produce markets of Honolulu's Chinatown district, I saw for the first time, the fruits I grew up eating from

cans being sold fresh in all their glorious shapes and colors. Furthermore, although it is called "Chinatown," I saw a large presence of Vietnamese shoppers and vendors and repeatedly found myself conversing with them in Vietnamese. They have educated me about the names and uses of many of the plants-often being able to give only the Vietnamese names. After living and shopping in this community since August 1999, I have come to understand that it is a common perception among residents of Honolulu that the Vietnamese have displaced many Chinese vendors and have made many Vietnamese herbs and vegetables available where once they were not. In fact, Kuebel and Tucker (1988) credit the Vietnamese for introduction or increased availability of twenty to thirty taxa of plants to the United States. Persistence of traditional foods is a powerful symbol in the maintenance of ethnic identity and cultures (Kalick 1978). Modernization of traditional cultures results in the modification of indigenous knowledge systems as people move away from traditional ways and adopt foreign

Economic Botany 57(4) pp. 472-480. 2003 ? 2003 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

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ideals (Balick and Cox 1996). Indigenous knowledge includes knowledge of traditional foods. In the wake of unprecedentedworld development,careful yet expeditiousstudies of indigenous knowledge are imperativeto biological and culturaldiversity(Cox 1997). This is crucial in Vietnamdue to the new marketopportunities and the people's desire for culturally foreign items. It is an equally importantissue among populations that have immigrated from their home countries. This has been investigatedfor Iranian (Ghaffrarian1998), Korean and Vietnamese immigrantsin the United States (Pyke 2000), Portugueseimmigrantsin Canada(Lanca et al. 1994), and Vietnameseimmigrantsin Australia (Marino, Stuart, and Minas 2000). The process of acculturationreduces traditionalcultural traits such as usage of ethnic foods (Airriess and Clawson 1994). Althoughethnic food traditionsare amongthe culturaltraits most resistantto change (Airriess and Clawson 1994; Kalick 1978), acculturation still affects the Vietnamesein the United States. While older Vietnamesepeople still prefera traditional diet, many parents complain that their childreneat poorly,preferringwesternfast foods with few fruits and vegetables (Internet site "ethnomed"). Immigrant children acculturate faster than older immigrants(Ghaffrarian1998) and quickly adopt American standards (Pyke 2000). What is a traditionalVietnamese food plant? For example, Capsicumfructescens L., is native

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tive surveys of plants used by the Vietnamese communityin Hawai'i, nor of those availablein the markets of Chinatown. Reports on Asian food plant use in Hawai'i are available for individualplants(Staplesand Woolliams1996), as brief accounts in popular local newspapers (Kendrick1999), telecasts (KHET 1999), tourist guides (Carter 1988), and in ethnic culinary guides (Bonk 1993; Staples and Kristiansen 1999). More extensive surveys of Chinese and Japanese utilization of food plants in Hawai'i have been completed but are outdated (Chung and Ripperton 1929; Miller 1933). In view of the changes to Vietnamese traditionalknowledge, I comparedcurrentfood plant knowledge within and between urbanVietnameseliving in Vietnamwith those in Hawai'i. Knowledgewas measuredas the ability to identify and list uses of fruits and vegetables that are used in traditional Vietnamese cuisine. Additionally,the effect of immigrationon knowledge was analyzed for the Vietnamesein Hawai'i. STUDYSITES This researchwas conductedin Bien Hoa, Vietnam duringJuly 2000 and Honolulu,Hawai'i, from April 2000 through January 2001. Bien Hoa is in southernVietnam, approximately30 kilometersnorthof Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon). Many Vietnamese that immigratedto the United Stated, including those in Honolulu, are originally from southernVietnam (Nguyen 1977). In 1975, the Vietnamese population in Hawai'i increasedfrom almost none to over 2500 (Nguyen 1977). According to 2000 population census, there were approximately7900 Vietnamese people living in Hawai'i (U.S. Census Bureau2001), the majorityresidingin Honolulu (ca. 6000). Many Vietnamesehave expressed the importance of the availability of Vietnamese food plants to their well being and satisfactionof living in Hawai'i. The Asian marketsoffer a source for traditionalvegetables(Hutton1996). Besides the Chinatownmarkets, many food plants that are used in Vietnamesecuisine are sold in Honolulu's mainstream commercial and farmer's producemarkets,and grown in home and community gardens(Staples and Kristiansen1999).

to the Americas, but since its introductionto SoutheastAsia, it has become incorporatedinto and now is an indispensableingredientin Vietnamese, and many other Southeast Asian cuisines. Withoutthe chili, there would be no nddc chaiim,the fermentedfish sauce and chili blend that is as ubiquitousas rice in Vietnamesecuisine. Thus, in this investigation,I define traditional Vietnamesefood plantsas those my mother introducedto me as a young child as being Vietnamese and which are characteristically found in Vietnamesefood and cookbooks. Ethnobotanicalissues in Vietnam are understudied,yet needed (Donovanet al. 1997). There have been few studies of the Vietnamesein Hawai'i (Barker 1977; Ferguson 1979; Nguyen 1977). Although these studies investigate some METHODOLOGY social status variables of the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai'i, there are no ethnobotanical In order to have identical plants used for the discussions. In fact, there have been no exhaus- interviews in Vietnam and Hawai'i, ratherthan

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/~~~~~~~ -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N

:

'S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N

Fig. 1. Food plant photo card set used for interviews.

using fresh specimens, a plant photo card set was produced(Fig. 1). Only ten fruits and vegetables (Table 1) were used to preventinterviewee fatigue and loss of interest,much as ten plants were also used in a photo card set for a study in Thailandby Wester and Yongvanit(1995). The following criteria were used to choose the plants: 1) Availabilityin both study sites; 2) Example with many varieties (i.e., Musa sp.), to compare ability to name varieties; 3) Inclusion of leafy vegetables (Perilla sp., Piper sp.); 4) Plants usually seen cut or processed,ratherthan whole (Phyllostachyssp.); 5) Very common and less common (based on observed availabilityin TABLE 1.

Chinatown,Honolulu, produce markets).Additionally, Vietnamese cookbooks (Ngo and Zimmerman1979; Trieu 1998) and tropicalfruit and vegetable books (Eiseman 1988; Hutton 1996) were used to check the plant use and availability in the two sites. Plants used in the study were found in the produce markets of Chinatown, Honolulu, and photographedusing a SONY Cyber-shot3.3 megapixel digital camera. Some plants were photographedwhole, while others were cut in cross or long section to display different views (Fig. 2). The pictureset was producedby printingthe photographson a Hewlett Packard(HP) DeskJet

PLANT SPECIES USED IN PHOTO CARDS FOR INTERVIEWS.

Botanicalname

Family

Vernacular name (Vietnamese,English)

Litchi sinensis Sonn. Mangiferaindica L. Musa acuminataColla x balbisianaColla Garcinia mangostanaL. Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton Piper lolot C. DC. Nelumbonucifera Gaertn. SolanummelongenaL. Capsicumfrutescens L. Phyllostachyssp.

Sapindaceae Anacardiaceae Musaceae Guttiferae Labiatae Piperaceae Nymphaeaceae Solanaceae Solanaceae Poaceae

vai, litchee xoai, mango chuoi, banana mang ckit,mangosteen la tia to, perilla la lot, betel leaf cusen, lotus root ca tim, eggplant ot, chilies mang, bamboo shoots

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Fig. 2. Photo cardexample showing fruit of Garcinia mangosteen(cross section) to display differentviews.

932C printer,using HP premium photo glossy paper,to 5.5 cm. X 9.0 cm. size, on a picture card of 6.0 cm x 10.5 cm size, numbered 1 through 10, laminated, hole punched, and attached with a ring. Due to the natureof specimens used in this study (photographsas opposed to actual specimens), food plant pictures were printedto produceherbariumspecimens and are deposited in the herbariumof the University of Hawai'i at Manoa (HAW). Informedconsent (Alexiades 1996) was obtainedprior to all interviews using an informed consentstatementthatwas providedin Vietnamese and in English (Appendix). Structuredplant interviews were conducted in Vietnam and Hawai'i with informantsintroducedthroughfamily, friends, referralsby those previously interviewed, or solicited randomlythroughthe University of Hawai'i telephone directory.The age and sex of all informants were recorded. For Vietnameseimmigrantsin Hawai'i, the name of the areawhere they originally lived in Vietnam, and the year and their age when they left Vietnam was recorded. With consent, interviews (Spradley1979) were recordedon audiotapeusing a handheld SONY tape-recorderwith Max-

ell UR, Type 1 90 minutetapes. Each interviewee was shown the standardset of food plantphotographsand asked a set of questionspertaining to each plant. Responses were recordedin Vietnamese or English depending on the language used by the interviewee. Questions and pictures were tested in trial interviews with eight Vietnamese from Hawaii. These data are not included in the final analysis. Responses for plant identificationwere determined to be correct if the interviewee gave either the Vietnamese or English common name, includingdifferentvarietyname(s), for the plant. These names were cross-checked in various plant and food books (Eiseman 1988; Hutton 1996; Nguyen 1993; Staples and Kristiansen 1999; Trieu 1998). Interviewdatawere analyzed using the SPSS 7.5 for Windows Student Version graphingand statisticalprogram. RESULTS The results representinterview data from 40 people in Vietnam and 33 people in Hawai'i. Intervieweeswere groupedby age rangefor data analysis. There were no interviewees between the ages of 20-29 from Vietnam.Results of cor-

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10

9

9

-1

202!

/04

/03

0

97

0

B ag

gru

in

1-9

/0+

10-19

20-29

30-39

40+

Age left Vietnam (years old)

Fig. 3. Data from

Hawai'i

and Vietnam

sholwai

Fig. 5. Ability of Vietnamesein Hawaiito identify plants versus their age at the time they left Vietnam.

age~~~~~~g grouups+ plants they identified correctly. The arrival age category of "B" denotes interviewees born in Hawai'i. Persons who immigrated to the United 20 / / States as adults (greater than age 20) most corinrte showna uset plan ideplntifiction byaersroup rectly identified the plants compared with those coffelation between who were born in the U.S. or immigrated as age adaiiyt agpoup.Itivnrl,te 14~~~~~4 plantsuae,ssiia cofctyidnifdh excldingthoberveddfor children or teenagers. Figure 6 shows the relationship between the 12 ageoad plant identifiedbyageigoup. Inteptfrvhiewee percentage of life spent by the interviewee in the United States and their ability to identify the plants. In this comparison, persons who lived less than 30% of their lives in the United States number of responses from persons between 40could identify almost all ten plants. This average 49 from Vietnam. dropped progressively as the percentage of life For Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai'i, Fig. spent in the United States increased. S displays the relationship between the age when the interviewee left Vietnam and the number of nevees fig. 3uCofctpln identificaio by agegroup. ofroHawai'i vruVidetnam-baedinretervnumeweesfoo

10.0

9 8.0

E

CJ00

7.0 <10 0-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-69

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50s

70+

Age Groups

Fig. 4. Number of food uses identified by age groups of Hawaii versus Vietnam-basedinterviewees.

Percentageof Life in US (%)

Fig. 6. Abilityof Vietnamesein Hawaiito identify plantsversusthe percentageof life lived in the United States.Greaterpercentage= longerresidencein the U.S.

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OFPLANTS SELECTION Due to the subjective natureof the plant selection used in this study it is likely that a different researcherwould produce a different set of food plants.Informantsfrom differentregions of Vietnam or the United States might discuss differentplants familiaror importantto them in their uniqueenvironment.The list of plantsused in this study is not exhaustive of those deemed importantto Vietnamesecuisine, but it is a starting point. PLANT KNOWLEDGEIN BIEN HOA, VIETNAM

The results show that the level of traditional food plant knowledge among Vietnamese in Bien Hoa varies regardingability to identify and recall uses of the plants. Persons in the age group 50-69 correctly identified all ten plants most often. This groupalso identifiedthe highest number of varieties for Musa acuminata X balbisiana, Mangifera indica, Capsicum fructescens, and Phyllostachys sp. However, individu-

als in the age group40-49 identifiedthe highest numberof uses for each plant.Two factorscould contributeto this. Firstly, persons in the 40-49 age group most often had families for which they preparedmeals. Thus, they are practicing their knowledge and perhapsactively acquiring new knowledge. Secondly, this group includes men and women who participatedin wars in Vietnam and Cambodia.During these wars, poverty, survival in the jungles, and a lack of food forced them to learn more uses for food plants that were available. It is interestingto note that the eldest age group did not have the greatest knowledge. This could be due to their inactivity in acquiring and preparingfoods as seniors in households.Additionally,there were individuals in this group who had difficulty identifying the plants on the photo cards due to poor eye sight. PLANT KNOWLEDGEIN HONOLULU,HAWAI'I

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IMMIGRATION AND TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE

It is interestingto note that the Vietnamesein Hawai'i reporteda greaternumberof food uses over the group in Vietnam. Based on literature describingacculturationamong immigrants,this was an unexpected result. The Hawai'i group reporteduses that were seldom mentionedin Vietnam. In particularwere food uses of pickling, drying, and making of desserts. This illustrates that the Vietnamese in Hawai'i have retained food uses similarto those in Vietnam(traditional) and have adoptednew uses they encountered in Hawai'i. Adoption of new food habits was also observedby Story and Harris(1989) among Cambodian and Hmong immigrants and by Grivettiand Paquette(1978) among Chineseimmigrants.Alternatively,the Vietnamese in Hawai'i may have added a greatervariety of uses as their standardof living improved,known as income elasticity of demandin economic theory (Kohler 1990). It has been shown that acculturationis greater in youngerversus older immigrants(Ghaffrarian 1998; Marino et al. 2000). The results comparing the ability to identify plants versus the age at leaving Vietnamindicatethatpersonswho left Vietnam when they were adults (> age 20) had obtained enough knowledge of the food plants in Vietnamto identify the plants more correctly than those who immigratedin their youth (Fig. 5). The data also suggests thatthe youngerVietnamese show greater acculturation,as defined by their lower correctidentificationmeans. Acculturationis positively correlatedwith the amountof time an individualhas been exposed to the host country's customs and habits, increased acculturationbeing proportionalto the increased time in host country (Marino, Stuart, and Minas 2000). Rather than length of residence in the United States, the percentageof the interviewee'slife spent in the United States was computed to take into account their different ages at the beginningof residence in the United States. In this case, the comparisonof percentage of life spent in the United States vs. correct plant identification (Fig. 6), suggests that the longer the Vietnamese has lived in the United States, the lower theirabilityto identifythe food plants.

Similarto the results in Vietnam,persons5069 years old in Hawai'i scored highest in plant identification. This group also provided the greatestnumberof uses for the plants. The age group 30-39 year old reportedfewer food uses than the younger 18-29 year olds. This differs CONCLUSIONS from the Vietnamdata, which showed the group younger than 30 years old reportingfewer food This study illustratesa positive correlationbeuses. tween age and the ability to identify a group of

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fruits and vegetables among southernVietnamese who live in Bien Hoa, Vietnam and those who immigratedto Honolulu, Hawai'i. The results are surprisingin thatthe Vietnamesein Hawai'i list more food uses for the given plants than those in Vietnam. This is possibly due to adoptionof differentculturalinfluencesor greater availabilityof choices as a result of a higher standardof living. Airriess and Clawson (1994) and Pyke (2000) point to immigrationas a contributingfactor for a decreasein traditionalfood plant knowledge and acculturation.However, due to the negative connotationof acculturation, in this study of the Vietnamese immigrantsin Hawai'i, I reject this conclusion and the term acculturation. Instead, the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai'i have demonstratedan adoption (Story and Harris 1989) and continuity of their cultureto a new environment;particularly in Hawai'i, where one finds blending of traditional knowledge from many ethnicitiesand cultures including Asian, Pacific, and American. I believe this studyhas shown the use of plant photographsto be applicable in plant identification interviews when a control plant group is needed between distant study groups. In future studies, the use of a magnifying glass (or larger pictures) for those elders in Vietnam with poor eyesight would be helpful. Furthermore,as people are more accustomedto seeing and holding fresh plant material,instead of pictures of food plants, the use of fresh plants may generatedifferent results. Given that urban ethnobotanyis often supported by the community because it maintains and gives value to cultural ties (Balick et al. 2000), an extensive survey of plantsused by the Vietnamesecommunityand available in Chinatown would contribute to the conservation of traditionalknowledge not only of the Vietnamese, but also of otherethnic groupsin Honolulu. This work also has applicationsfor in situ conservationof food plants within theirculturalenvironmental setting (Miller 1933, Wester and Yongvanit 1995). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank my family and interviewees from Bien Hoa, Vietnam, and Honolulu, Hawai'i, for cooperating and sharing their knowledge in this research. I thank Dung Tran for helping with the Vietnamese translation for the informed consent statement. Special thanks to Will McClatchey for assistance with improving the manuscript. This research was funded in part by the Bank of Hawai'i Scholarship for Educational Enhancement and the Department of Botany, University of Hawai'i at Manoa.

LITERATURE CITED Alexiades, M. N. 1996. Selected guidelines for ethnobotanicalresearch:a field manual.Advances in Economic Botany 10:i-xx, 1-306. Airriess, C. A., and D. L. Clawson. 1994. Vietnamese marketgardensin New Orleans.GeographicalReview. 84(1):16-31. Balick, M. J., and P. A. Cox. 1996. Plants, people, and culture:the science of ethnobotany.Scientific AmericanLibrary.W. H. Freeman,New York. , F. Kronenberg, A. L. Ososki, M. Reiff, A. Fugh-Berman, B. O'Connor, M. Roble, P. Lohr, and D. Atha. 2000. Medicinalplants used by Latino healersfor women's healthconditionsin New YorkCity. Economic Botany 54(3):344-357. Barker, J. N. 1977. The Vietnameserefugees:an assimilation study of the Vietnamese refugees in Honolulu.Master'sthesis, School of Social Work, Universityof Hawai'i, Honolulu,HI. Bonk, S. K. F. 1993. The farmer'smarketis cookin' in Hilo, Hawai'i. MountainView, Hawaii. Carter, F. 1988. Exploring Honolulu's Chinatown. Bess Press, Honolulu,HI. Chung, H. L. and J. C. Ripperton. 1929. Utilization and compositionof orientalvegetablesin Hawai'i. Hawai'i AgriculturalExperimentStation Bulletin. No. 60. Cox, P. A. 1997. Indigenouspeoples andconservation. Pages 209-220 in F Grifo and J. Rosenthal,eds., Biodiversityand humanhealth.IslandPress,Washington, D.C. Donovan, D., A. T. Rambo, J. Fox, L. T. Cuc, and T. D. Vien. 1997. Development trends in Vietnam's northernmountainregion. Vol 1. National Political PublishingHouse, Hanoi, Vietnam. Eiseman, F. 1988. Fruits of Bali. PeriplusEditions, Hong Kong. Ferguson, B. 1979. Vietnameserefugee adjustmentin Honolulu.Master'sthesis, School of Social Work, Universityof Hawai'i. Ghaffrarian, S. 1998. The acculturationof Iranianimmigrantsin the United States and the implications for mental health. Journal of Social Psychology 138(5):645-654. Grivetti, L. E,and M. B. Paquette. 1978. Nontraditional ethnic food choices among first generation Chinese in California.Journalof NutritionEducation. 10:109 015-111. Hutton, W. 1996. Tropicalvegetables. PeriplusEditions, Hong Kong. Kalcik, S. 1984. Ethnicfoodways in America:symbol and the performanceof identity.Pages 37-65 in L. K. Brownand K. Mussell,eds., Ethnicandregional foodways in the U.S. performanceof group identity. Universityof TennesseePress, Knoxville. Kendrick, S. 1999. Chinatownfood walk. October6, 1999. Star Bulletin Newspaper,Honolulu.

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KHET Television Station. 1999. Two chefs in Chinatown. Hawaii cooks with Roy Yamaguchi. KHET,Honolulu. Kuebel, K. R., and A. 0. Tucker. 1988. Vietnamese culinaryherbsin the United States.EconomicBotany 42(3):413-419. Kohler, H. 1990. Intermediatemicroeconomics:theory and application.3rd ed. Scott, Foresman,Glenview, IL. Lanca, M., C. Alksnis, N. J. Roese, and R. C. Gardner. 1994. Effects of languagechoice on acculturation: a study of Portugueseimmigrantsin a multiculturalsetting. Journalof Languageand Social Psychology 13(3):315-330. Marino, R., G. W. Stuart, and I. H. Minas. 2000. Acculturationof values and behavior:a study of Vietnameseimmigrants.Measurementand Evaluation in Counselingand Development.33: 21-41. McClatchey, W. 1999. Introductoryethnobotany:lesson notes. Kendall/Hunt,Dubuque,IA. Miller, C. D. 1933. Japanesefoods commonlyused in Hawaii. Hawai'i AgriculturalExperimentStation. Bulletin No. 68, Honolulu,HI. Ngo, B. and G. Zimmerman. 1979. The classic cuisine of Vietnam.Barrons,New York. Nguyen, C. 1977. Researchpaperon the resettlement of Vietnamese refugees in the State of Hawai'i. Vietnamese & Indochinese VolunteerAssistance, Honolulu,HI. Nguyen, V. D. 1993. Medicinal plants of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos. Mekong Printing. [United States?]. Pyke, K. 2000. "The normalAmericanfamily" as an interpretivestructureof family life among grown children of Korean and Vietnamese immigrants. Journalof Marriageand the Family 62:240-255. Spradley, J. P. 1979. The ethnographicinterview. Holt, Rinehart,and Winston,New York,NY. Staples, G. W., and M. S. Kristiansen. 1999. Ethnic culinary herbs: a guide to identificationand cultivation in Hawai'i. University of Hawai'i Press, Honolulu,HI. , and K. R. Woolliams. 1996. An overlooked naturalizedaroid for the Hawaiian flora. Bishop MuseumOccasionalPapers.Recordsof the Hawaii Biological Survey For 1996, Part2: Notes (49):1317. Story, M. and L. J. Harris. 1989. Food habits and dietarychange of SoutheastAsian refugeefamilies living in the United States.Journalof the American Dietetic Association.89(6):800-803. Trieu, C. T. 1998. The food of Vietnam:authentic recipes from the heartof Indochina.PeriplusEditions, Hong Kong. U.S. Census Bureau. 2001. 2000 census of population and housing:Hawaii. United States Departmentof Commerce.Washington,D.C. Wester, L., and S. Yongvanit. 1995. Biological di-

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versity and communitylore in northeasternThailand. Journalof Ethnobiology15(l):71-87. http:/H ethnomed.org/ethnomed/cultures/vietnamese/ vietnamese-cp.html#food APPENDIX INFORMED STATEMENT CONSENT (VIETNAMESE):

T6i Ia m6t tien si hQc6 tny6ngdai hoc Ha Uy Di muon tim hieu ve cach suydung rau cai va trai cay ciia nguo6iViet Nam. T6i hien dang lam viec tai tieu bang Ha Uy Di va Viet Nam d&nghien cuiuve cay trai ciungnhFrngcach dung thuan tuy. T6i muon hoc h6i ve su'hieu biet cua 6ng ba ve rau cai va trai cay, ten ggi, cach dung cuingnhuingy nghia lien he. T6i dang thu thaptai lieu nay bang cach phong van nhu?ng phu nit va nam gidi 6 cac lIa tuoi khac nhau. Nhu?ngcau h6i t6i se h6i bao gom: 1. Lich s6tca nhan: * Ong ba difgc bao nhieu tuoi? * Ong ba da Idn len tai dau? * Ong bairoi kh6i Viet Nam lic nao? 2. T6i se dtra ong ba xem nhang tam hinh cua cac loai trai cay va se h6i: * Ong ba ggi n6 la gi? * Ong ba c6 biet ten gqi nao khac cufan6 kh6ng? * Ong ba surdu.ngrau/trainay de lam gi? T6i xin phep dtnycph6ng van ong ba ve rau cai va cach dung de lam thtucpham trong gia d2inh.Ong ba co san long cho phep t6i duQccdang trinhket qua cua styhoc tap nay kh6ng? Bat c*i luc nao trong suyhoc tap cua t6i, neu t6i h6i 6ng ba nhutngcau h6i nao hoac nho Ongba lam dieu gi ong ba kh6ng cam thay du*ngdan hoac lam 6ng ba thay kh6 chiu, xin cho t6i biet, t6i se ngurnglai. T6i muon ton trqngcai nhin ca nhan va cai nhin van h6a rieng cua ong ba, va t6i biet la t6i c6 the kh6ng hieu di.nycnhurngvan de dM. INFORMEDCONSENT STATEMENT(CONTINUED) (ENGLISH)

I am a graduatestudentfrom the Universityof Hawai'i with interestin Vietnameseuses of plants. I am workingin Hawai'i and Viet Nam on studies of food plantsand otherculturaluses of plants.I am interested in learningabout your knowledge of fruits and vegetables, what you call (name)it, the way you use it and other meanings about it. I am gatheringthis type of informationthroughinterviews with women and men of differentages. The kinds of questionsI would be asking aboutinclude: 1. Yourbackground: * How old are you? * Where did you live in Viet Nam? (for Honolulu interviewies) * When did you leave Viet Nam? (for Honolulu interviewies)

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2. I will show you picturesof fruits/vegetablesandask you:

* What do you call it? * Do you have other names for it? * What is it used for? May I have permissionto interviewyou aboutfood plants and the usage of these plants in your family?

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Would you be willing to allow me to publish the results of these studies? If at any time duringthe course of my research,I ask you questionsor ask you to do somethingthatyou do not feel is appropriateor makes you feel uncomfortable,please let me know and I will stop. I want to be respectfulof your personaland culturalviews and recognizethat I may not understandthem.