Constitution Thursday The Convention - Delegates
Contents 1
2
3
Oliver Ellsworth
1
1.1
Youth and family life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.2
Service during the Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.3
Work on the United States Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.4
Achievements as a legislator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
1.5
The Ellsworth Court and later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1.6
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
Roger Sherman
7
2.1
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.2
Legal, political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
2.3
Constitutional Convention and Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
2.4
Death and burial site
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.5
Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.6
Places and things named in honor of Roger Sherman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
2.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
2.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
George Read (U.S. statesman)
12
3.1
Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.2
Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.3
American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
3.4
Government of Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
i
ii
4
5
CONTENTS 3.5
Federal Government and Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
3.6
Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
3.7
Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.8
Almanac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.10 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
3.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
Gunning Bedford, Jr.
17
4.1
Early life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
4.2
Professional and political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
4.3
The Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
4.4
Later professional and political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.5
Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.6
Almanac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
4.10 Places with more information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware)
20
5.1
Family history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
5.2
Early life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.3
Continental Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
5.4
Return to Poplar Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.5
Drafting of the Articles of Confederation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.6
President of Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
5.7
President of Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
5.8
John and Mary’s College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.9
United States Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.10 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.11 Almanac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
5.12 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.13 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.14 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.15 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
5.16 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
5.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
CONTENTS
iii
6
Richard Bassett (politician)
28
6.1
Early life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
6.2
Professional and political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
6.3
Later issues and Methodism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
6.4
Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
6.5
Almanac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
6.6
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
6.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
6.8
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
6.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
7
8
9
Jacob Broom
31
7.1
Education and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.2
Constitutional convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
7.3
Later career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
7.4
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
7.5
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
7.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
7.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
William Few
33
8.1
Early life
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2
Revolutionary War
8.3
The Statesman
33
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
8.4
Death & Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.5
References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
8.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Abraham Baldwin
37
9.1
Early life, education and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
9.2
Move to Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
9.3
Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
9.4
Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
9.5
Honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
9.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
10 William Houston
39
10.1 Early life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.2 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.2.1 Militia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
iv
CONTENTS 10.2.2 Continental Congress and legal career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.2.3 Constitutional Convention delegate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
10.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
11 William Pierce (politician)
41
11.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
11.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
12 Daniel Carroll
42
12.1 Early life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
12.2 Constitutional Convention of 1787 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
12.3 Political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
12.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
12.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
12.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
13 James McHenry
45
13.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
13.2 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
13.2.1 Military career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
13.3 Political office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
13.4 Later years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
13.5 Legacy and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
13.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
13.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
14 John Francis Mercer
48
14.1 Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
14.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
14.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
15 Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
49
15.1 Early life and colonial career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
15.2 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
15.3 Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
15.4 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
15.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
15.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
CONTENTS 16 Elbridge Gerry
v 52
16.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
16.2 Early political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
16.3 Congress and Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
16.4 Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
16.4.1 Advocating indirect elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
16.4.2 Voting against proposed constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
16.4.3 State ratification; Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
16.5 United States House of Representatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
16.6 XYZ Affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
16.7 Governor of Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
16.8 Vice Presidency and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
16.9 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
16.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
16.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
16.12Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
16.13External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
17 Nathaniel Gorham
62
17.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
17.1.1 Early life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
17.1.2 Marriage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
17.1.3 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
17.1.4 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
17.2 Descendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
17.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
17.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
17.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
18 Rufus King
65
18.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
18.1.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
18.1.2 Education, Career and Early Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
18.1.3 Politics (Constitutional Convention) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
18.1.4 Politics (Post-Constitutional Convention) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
18.1.5 Diplomat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
18.1.6 Anti-slavery activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
18.1.7 Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
18.1.8 Other Accomplishments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
vi
CONTENTS 18.1.9 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
18.1.10 Descendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
18.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
18.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
18.3.1 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
18.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
18.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
19 Caleb Strong
71
19.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
19.2 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
19.3 United States Senator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
19.4 First term as governor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
19.5 Second term and War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
19.6 Family, charity, and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
19.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
19.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
20 William Houstoun (lawyer)
77
20.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
20.2 Role in the Continental Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
20.2.1 Delegate to the Georgia Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
20.3 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
20.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
21 Nicholas Gilman
79
21.1 Family background and early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
21.2 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
21.3 Statesman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
21.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
21.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
21.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
22 John Langdon (politician)
83
22.1 Life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
22.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
22.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
23 David Brearley 23.1 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85 85
CONTENTS
vii
23.2 Government service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
23.3 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
23.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
23.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
24 Jonathan Dayton
87
24.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
24.1.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
24.1.2 Soldier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
24.1.3 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
24.2 Late life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
24.3 Dayton, Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
24.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
24.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
24.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
25 William Livingston
89
25.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
25.2 Law, Politics, and the Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
25.2.1 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
25.3 Later years and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
25.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
25.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
25.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
25.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
26 William Paterson (judge)
92
26.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
26.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
26.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
26.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
26.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
27 Alexander Hamilton
94
27.1 Childhood in the Caribbean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
27.2 Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
27.3 During the Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
27.3.1 Early military career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
27.3.2 George Washington’s staff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
27.3.3 Congress of the Confederation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
viii
CONTENTS 27.3.4 Congress and the army . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
27.3.5 Return to New York . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
27.4 Constitution and The Federalist Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
27.4.1 Constitutional Convention and ratification of the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
27.4.2 The Federalist Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 27.5 Secretary of the Treasury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 27.5.1 Report on Public Credit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 27.5.2 Report on a National Bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 27.5.3 Establishing the U.S. Mint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 27.5.4 Revenue Cutter Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 27.5.5 Whiskey as tax revenue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 27.5.6 Manufacturing and industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 27.5.7 Emergence of parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 27.5.8 Jay Treaty and Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 27.5.9 Second Report on Public Credit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 27.6 Post-Secretary years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 27.6.1 The Reynolds affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 27.6.2 1796 presidential election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 27.6.3 Quasi-War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 27.6.4 1800 presidential election . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 27.7 Burr–Hamilton duel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 27.8 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 27.8.1 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 27.8.2 Hamilton’s religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 27.9 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 27.9.1 Monuments and memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 27.9.2 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 27.9.3 On slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 27.9.4 On economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 27.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 27.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 27.12Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 27.13Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 27.13.1 Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 27.13.2 Specialized studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 27.13.3 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 27.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 28 John Lansing, Jr.
125
CONTENTS
ix
28.1 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 28.2 Disappearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 28.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 28.4 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 28.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 28.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126 29 Robert Yates (politician)
127
29.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 29.2 Brutus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 29.2.1 Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 29.2.2 Arguments against the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 29.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 29.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 30 William Blount
130
30.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 30.2 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 30.3 North Carolina politics and the Continental Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 30.4 Southwest Territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 30.5 Blount Conspiracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 30.6 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 30.7 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 30.8 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 30.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 30.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 31 William Richardson Davie
137
31.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 31.2 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 31.3 Post-war service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 31.4 Founding the University of North Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138 31.5 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 31.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 32 Alexander Martin
141
32.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 32.2 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 32.2.1 Military service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 32.2.2 Political service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
x
CONTENTS 32.3 Constitutional conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 32.4 Later political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 32.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 32.5.1 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
33 Richard Dobbs Spaight
143
33.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 33.2 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 33.3 Political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 33.4 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 33.5 Family and Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 33.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 33.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 34 Hugh Williamson
145
34.1 Early years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 34.2 Military physician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 34.3 Statesman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 34.4 Places named for him . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 34.5 Honors and Memberships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 34.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 34.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 35 George Clymer
149
35.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 35.1.1 Early life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 35.1.2 Career 35.2 Legacy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
35.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 35.4 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
35.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 35.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 36 Thomas Fitzsimons
151
36.1 Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 36.1.1 Revolutionary bent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 36.1.2 Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 36.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 36.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
CONTENTS 37 Benjamin Franklin
xi 153
37.1 Early life in Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 37.2 Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 37.2.1 Junto and library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 37.2.2 Newspaperman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 37.2.3 Freemason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 37.2.4 Common-law marriage to Deborah Read . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 37.2.5 William Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156 37.2.6 Success as an author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 37.3 Inventions and scientific inquiries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 37.3.1 Population studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 37.3.2 Atlantic Ocean currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 37.3.3 Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 37.3.4 Wave theory of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 37.3.5 Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 37.3.6 Traction kiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 37.3.7 Concept of cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 37.3.8 Temperature’s effect on electrical conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 37.3.9 Oceanography findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 37.3.10 Decision-making . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 37.3.11 Science humor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 37.4 Musical endeavors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 37.5 Chess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 37.6 Public life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 37.6.1 Years in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 37.6.2 Defending the American cause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 37.6.3 Hutchinson letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 37.6.4 Coming of revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 37.6.5 Declaration of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 37.6.6 Postmaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166 37.6.7 Ambassador to France: 1776–1785 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 37.6.8 Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168 37.6.9 President of Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 37.7 Virtue, religion, and personal beliefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 37.7.1 Thirteen Virtues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 37.8 Slaves and slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 37.9 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 37.9.1 Bequest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
xii
CONTENTS 37.9.2 Franklin on U.S. postage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 37.9.3 Bawdy Ben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 37.9.4 Exhibitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 37.9.5 Places and things named after Benjamin Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 37.10Ancestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 37.11See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 37.12Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 37.13References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 37.14Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 37.14.1 Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 37.14.2 Scholarly studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 37.14.3 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 37.15External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
38 Jared Ingersoll
186
38.1 Life and career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 38.1.1 Career before the Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 38.1.2 Contributions to the Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 38.1.3 Career after the Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 38.2 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 38.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 38.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 39 Thomas Mifflin
189
39.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 39.2 American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 39.3 Political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 39.4 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 39.4.1 Entities named after Mifflin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 39.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 39.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 39.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 40 Gouverneur Morris
192
40.1 Political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 40.2 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 40.3 Death and legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 40.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194 40.5 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
CONTENTS
xiii
40.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 41 Robert Morris (financier)
196
41.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 41.2 Personal and family life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 41.2.1 Shipping and slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 41.2.2 Conflict with Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 41.3 Continental Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 41.3.1 Financed the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 41.3.2 Superintendent of Finance of the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 41.3.3 Morris House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 41.3.4 Later political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 41.4 Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 41.4.1 Land speculation and bankruptcy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
41.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 41.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 41.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 41.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 41.8.1 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 41.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 42 James Wilson
205
42.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 42.2 Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 42.3 Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 42.4 Supreme Court career and final years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 42.5 Jurisprudence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 42.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 42.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 42.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 42.9 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 42.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 43 Pierce Butler
210
43.1 Marriage and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 43.2 Soldier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 43.3 Politician . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 43.4 Later years, post-politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 43.5 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
xiv
CONTENTS 43.6 Descendants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 43.6.1 Marriage and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 43.6.2 Slave sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 43.6.3 Death of John (Mease) Butler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 43.7 Fourth and later generations
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
43.8 Legacy and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 43.9 References and external links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 43.9.1 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 43.9.2 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 43.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214 44 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
215
44.1 Early life and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 44.2 Early political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 44.3 Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 44.4 Constitutional Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 44.5 XYZ Affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 44.6 Later political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 44.7 Death and burial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 44.8 Memorialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 44.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 44.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 45 Charles Pinckney (governor)
219
45.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 45.2 Marriage and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 45.3 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 45.4 Legacy and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 45.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 45.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 45.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 46 John Rutledge 46.1 Early life and family
222 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
46.2 Pre-Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 46.3 President of South Carolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 46.4 Governor of South Carolina
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
46.4.1 Charleston occupied
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
46.5 The Story of the Tavern Keeper
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
CONTENTS
xv
46.6 Constitutional Convention
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
46.7 Supreme Court Associate Justice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 46.8 Chief Justice of the Supreme Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 46.9 Later years
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
46.10See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 46.11References 46.12Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
46.13Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 46.14External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 47 John Blair, Jr.
229
47.1 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 47.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 47.3 References
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
47.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 48 James Madison
231
48.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 48.1.1 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 48.2 Military service in the Revolutionary War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 48.3 Early political career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 48.4 Father of the Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 48.5 The Federalist Papers and ratification debates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235 48.6 Member of Congress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 48.6.1 Father of the Bill of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 48.6.2 Debates on foreign policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236 48.6.3 Electoral History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 48.7 Founding the Democratic-Republican party . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 48.8 Marriage and family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 48.9 United States Secretary of State 1801–1809 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238 48.10Election of 1808 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 48.11Presidency 1809–1817 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 48.11.1 Bank of United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 48.11.2 Prelude to war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 48.11.3 War of 1812 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 48.11.4 Postwar economy and internal improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 48.11.5 Wilkinson affair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 48.11.6 Indian policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 48.11.7 Administration and cabinet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
xvi
CONTENTS 48.11.8 Judicial appointments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 48.11.9 States admitted to the Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 48.12Later life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 48.13Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 48.14See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 48.15Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 48.16Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 48.16.1 Biographies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 48.16.2 Analytic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 48.16.3 Primary sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 48.17External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
49 George Mason
254
49.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 49.2 Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 49.2.1 Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 49.2.2 Constitutional Convention and Ratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 49.3 Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 49.4 Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 49.4.1 Gunston Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 49.4.2 Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 49.5 Remembrance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 49.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 49.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 49.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 49.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 50 James McClurg
260
50.1 Medical career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 50.2 Public Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 50.3 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 50.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 50.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 50.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 51 George Washington
262
51.1 Early life (1732–1753) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 51.2 French and Indian War (or 'Seven Years’ War', 1754–1758) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264 51.2.1 Braddock disaster 1755 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
CONTENTS
xvii
51.2.2 Commander of Virginia Regiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 51.2.3 Lessons learned . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 51.3 Between the wars: Mount Vernon (1759–1774) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 51.4 American Revolution (1775–1783) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 51.4.1 Commander in chief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 51.4.2 Victory at Boston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 51.4.3 Defeat at New York City and Fabian tactics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 51.4.4 1777 campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 51.4.5 Valley Forge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 51.4.6 Sullivan Massacre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 51.4.7 Victory at Yorktown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 51.4.8 Demobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 51.5 United States Constitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 51.6 Presidency (1789–1797) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 51.6.1 Domestic issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 51.6.2 Foreign affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 51.6.3 Farewell Address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 51.7 Retirement (1797–1799) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 51.7.1 Comparisons with Cincinnatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 51.8 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 51.9 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276 51.9.1 Cherry tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 51.9.2 Monuments and memorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277 51.9.3 Papers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 51.10Personal life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 51.10.1 Slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 51.10.2 Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 51.10.3 Freemasonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 51.11Postage and currency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 51.12See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 51.13Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 51.14References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 51.15Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 51.16External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291 52 George Wythe
293
52.1 Early life and education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 52.2 Career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 52.2.1 Colonial politician, lawyer and mentor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
xviii
CONTENTS 52.2.2 Revolutionary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 52.2.3 Founding father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 52.2.4 Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 52.2.5 Virginia judge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
52.3 Wythe and slavery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 52.3.1 Move to Richmond and manumissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 52.3.2 Judicial decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298 52.4 Death scandal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 52.5 Legacy and honors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 52.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 52.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 52.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 52.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 52.9.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 52.9.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 52.9.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Chapter 1
Oliver Ellsworth 1.2
Oliver Ellsworth (April 29, 1745 – November 26, 1807) was an American lawyer and politician, a revolutionary against British rule, a drafter of the United States Constitution, United States Senator from Connecticut, and the third Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. While at the Federal Convention, Ellsworth moved to strike the word National from the motion made by Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Randolph had moved successfully to call the government the National Government of United States. Ellsworth moved that the government should continue to be called the United States Government.
Service during the Revolutionary War
From a slow start, Ellsworth built up a prosperous law practice. In 1777, he became Connecticut’s state attorney for Hartford County. That same year, he was chosen as one of Connecticut’s representatives in the Continental Congress. He served on various committees until 1783, including the Marine Committee, the Board of Treasury, and the Committee of Appeals. Ellsworth was also active in his state’s efforts during the Revolution, having served as a member of the Committee of the Pay Table that supervised Connecticut’s war expenditures. In 1777 he joined the Committee of Appeals, which can be described as a forerunner of the Federal Supreme Court. While serving on it, he participated in the Olmstead case that first brought state and federal authority into conflict. In 1779, he assumed greater duties as a member of the Council of Safety, which, with the governor, controlled all military measures for the state. His first judicial service was on the Supreme Court of Errors when it was established in 1785, but he soon shifted to the Connecticut Superior Court and spent four years on its bench.
1.1 Youth and family life Ellsworth was born in Windsor, Connecticut, to Capt. David and Jemima (née Leavitt) Ellsworth.[2] He entered Yale in 1762, but transferred to the College of New Jersey (later Princeton) at the end of his second year. He continued to study theology and, while attending, helped found the American Whig–Cliosophic Society along with Aaron Burr and William Paterson.[3] He received his A.B. degree, Phi Beta Kappa[4] after 2 years. Soon afterward, however, Ellsworth turned to the law. After four years of study, he was admitted to the bar in 1771 and later became a successful lawyer and politician.
1.3
In 1772, Ellsworth married Abigail Wolcott, the daughter of Abigail Abbot and William Wolcott, nephew of Connecticut colonial governor Roger Wolcott,[5] and granddaughter of Abiah Hawley and William Wolcott of East Windsor, Connecticut. They had nine children including the twins William Wolcott Ellsworth, who married Noah Webster's daughter, served in Congress and became the governor of Connecticut; and Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, who became the first Commissioner of the United States Patent Office, the mayor of Hartford, president of Aetna Life Insurance and a large benefactor of Yale College. Oliver Ellsworth was the grandfather of Henry L. Ellsworth’s son Henry W. Ellsworth.
Work on the United States Constitution
In May 1787, Ellsworth joined the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia as a delegate from Connecticut along with Roger Sherman and William Samuel Johnson. More than half of the 55 delegates were lawyers, eight of whom, including both Ellsworth and Sherman, had previous experience as judges conversant with legal discourse. Ellsworth in particular played an important role in having participated in the exclusion of judicial review from the Constitution at the Convention and later in having put it into force in the 1789 Judiciary Act Ellsworth took an active part in the proceedings beginning 1
2
CHAPTER 1. OLIVER ELLSWORTH two Carolinas, complementing the small state coalition of the North. It came as no surprise that Ellsworth favored the Three-Fifths Compromise on the enumeration of slaves and opposed the abolition of the foreign slave trade. Stressing that he had no slaves, Ellsworth spoke twice before the Convention, on August 21 and 22, in favor of slavery being abolished.[6]
Along with James Wilson, John Rutledge, Edmund Randolph, and Nathaniel Gorham, Ellsworth served on the Committee of Detail which prepared the first draft of the Constitution based on resolutions already passed by the Convention. All Convention deliberations were interrupted from July 26 to August 6, 1787, while the Committee of Detail completed its task. The two preliminary drafts that survive as well as the text of the Constitution submitted to the Convention were in the handwriting of Wilson or Randolph. However, Ellsworth’s role is made clear by his Oliver and Abigail Ellsworth by Ralph Earl 53 contributions to the Convention as a whole from August 6 to 23, when he left for business reasons. As James Madison tabulated in his Records, only Madison and Gouon June 20, when he proposed the use of the name the verneur Morris spoke more than Ellsworth during those sixUnited States to identify the government under the authority teen days. of the Constitution. The words “United States” had already Though Ellsworth left the Convention near the end of Aubeen used in the Declaration of Independence and Articles gust and didn't sign the final document, he wrote the Letters of Confederation as well as Thomas Paine's The American of a Landholder to promote its ratification. He also played Crisis. It was Ellsworth’s proposal to retain the earlier word- a dominant role in Connecticut’s 1788 ratification convening to sustain the emphasis on a federation rather than a sin- tion, when he emphasized that judicial review guaranteed gle national entity. Three weeks earlier, on May 30, 1787, federal sovereignty. It seems more than a coincidence that Edmund Randolph of Virginia had moved to create a “na- both he and Wilson served as members of the Committee tional government” consisting of a supreme legislative, an of Detail without mentioning judicial review in the initial executive and a judiciary. Ellsworth accepted Randolph’s draft of the Constitution, but then stressed its central imnotion of a threefold division, but moved to strike the phrase portance at their ratifying conventions just a year preceding “national government.” From this day forward the “United its inclusion by Ellsworth in the Judiciary Act of 1789. States” was the official title used in the Convention to designate the government, and this usage has remained in effect ever since. The complete name, “the United States of 1.4 Achievements as a legislator America,” had already been featured by Paine, and its inclusion in the Constitution was the work of Gouverneur Morris when he made the final editorial changes in the Constitu- Along with William Samuel Johnson, Ellsworth served as one of Connecticut’s first two United States senators in the tion. new federal government, and his service extended from Ellsworth played a major role in the passage of the Con- 1789 to 1796. During this period he played a dominant necticut Plan. During debate on the Great Compromise, role in Senate proceedings equivalent to that of Senate Maoften described as the Connecticut Compromise, he joined jority Leaders in later decades. According to John Adams, his fellow Connecticut delegate Roger Sherman in propos- he was “the firmest pillar of [Washington’s] whole adminising the bicameral arrangement in which members of the tration in the Senate."[Brown, 231] Aaron Burr complained Senate would be elected by state legislatures as indicated in that if Ellsworth had misspelled the name of the Deity with Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution. Ellsworth’s version two D’s, “it would have taken the Senate three weeks to of the compromise was adopted by the Convention, but it expunge the superfluous letter.” Senator William Maclay, was later revised by Amendment XVII substituting a pop- a Republican Senator from Pennsylvania, offered a more ular vote similar to that used for the House of Representa- hostile assessment: “He will absolutely say anything, nor tives. can I believe he has a particle of principle in his composiTo gain the passage of the Connecticut Plan its proponents tion,” and “I can in truth pronounce him one of the most needed support of three southern states, Georgia and the candid men I ever knew possessing such abilities.” [Brown,
1.5. THE ELLSWORTH COURT AND LATER LIFE
3 only effective authority over state government at the time. In effect, judicial review supplanted Congressional Review, which Madison had unsuccessfully proposed four times at the Convention to guarantee federal sovereignty. Granting the federal government this much authority was apparently rejected because its potential misuse could later be used to reject the Constitution at State Ratifying Conventions. Upon the completion of these conventions the previous year, Ellsworth was in the position to render the sovereignty of the federal government defensible, but through judicial review instead of congressional review.
Once the Judiciary Act was adopted by the Senate, Ellsworth sponsored the Senate’s acceptance of the Bill of Rights promoted by Madison in the House of Representatives. Significantly, Madison sponsored the Judiciary Act in the House at the same time. Combined, the Judiciary Act and Bill of Rights gave the Constitution the “teeth” that had been missing in the Articles of Confederation. Judicial Review guaranteed the federal government’s sovereignty, whereas the Bill of Rights guaranteed the protection of states and citizens from the misuse of this sovereignty by the federal government. The Judiciary Act and Bill of Rights thus counterbalanced each other, each guaranteeing respite Letter from Ellsworth to George Washington wishing former presifrom the excesses of the other. However, with the passage dent “a most respectful and most cordial farewell,” March 1797 of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1865, seventy-five years later, the Bill of Rights could be brought to bear at all levels of government as interpreted by the judiciary with final 224-25] What seems to have bothered McClay the most appeal to the Supreme Court. Needless to say, this had not was Ellsworth’s emphasis on private negotiations and tacit been the original intention of either Madison or Ellsworth. agreement rather than public debate. Significantly, there was no official record of Senate proceedings for the first Ellsworth was the principal exponent in the Senate of five years of its existence, nor was there any provision to Hamilton’s economic program, having served on at least accommodate spectators. The arrangement was essentially four committees dealing with budgetary issues. `These isthe same as for the 1787 Convention, in contrast to the open sues included the passage of Hamilton’s plan for funding the national debt, the incorporation of the First Bank of the sessions of the House of Representatives. United States, and the bargain whereby state debts were asEllsworth’s first project was the Judiciary Act, described sumed in return for locating the capital to the south (today as Senate Bill No. 1, which effectively supplemented the District of Columbia). Ellsworth’s other achievements Article III in the Constitution by establishing a hierarchiincluded framing the measure that admitted North Carolina cal arrangement among state and federal courts. Years to the Union, devising the non-intercourse act that forced later Madison stated, “It may be taken for certain that the Rhode Island to join the union, and drawing up the bill to bill organizing the judicial department originated in his regulate the consular service. He also played a major role in [Ellsworth’s] draft, and that it was not materially changed in convincing President Washington to send John Jay to Engits passage into law."[Brown, 185] Ellsworth himself probland to negotiate the 1794 Jay Treaty that prevented warably wrote Section 25, the most important component of fare with England, settled debts between the two nations, the Judiciary Act. This gave the Federal Supreme Court and gave American settlers better access to the Midwest. the power to veto state supreme court decisions supportive of state laws in conflict with the U.S. Constitution. All state and local laws accepted by state supreme courts could be appealed to the federal Supreme Court, which was given 1.5 The Ellsworth Court and later the authority, if it chose, to deny them for being unconstitulife tional. State and local laws rejected by state supreme courts could not be appealed in this manner; only the laws accepted by these courts could be appealed. This seemingly mod- On March 3, 1796, Ellsworth was nominated by Presiest specification provided the federal government with its dent George Washington to be Chief Justice of the United
4
CHAPTER 1. OLIVER ELLSWORTH ion in the case and delivered that opinion from the bench. Ellsworth instead encouraged the consensus of the Court to be represented in a single written opinion, a practice which continues to the present day.[7] Outside the Supreme Court Ellsworth was a candidate in the 1796 United States presidential election, receiving eleven votes in the electoral college, sharing with John Adams the distinction of gaining most votes in both New Hampshire and Rhode Island.
As United States Envoy Extraordinary to the Court of France, Ellsworth led a delegation there between 1799 and 1800 in order to settle differences with Napoleon's government regarding restrictions on U.S. shipping that might otherwise have led to military conflict between the two nations. The agreement accepted by Ellsworth provoked indignation among Americans for being too generous to Napoleon. Moreover, Ellsworth came down with a severe illness resulting from his travel across the Atlantic (causing him to tender his resignation from the Supreme Court while still in Europe in 1800), and the Federalist party had fallen into disarray and was easily defeated by Republicans led by Jefferson. As a result, Ellsworth retired from national public An engraving depicting Ellsworth life upon his return to America in early 1801. He was nevertheless able to serve again on the Connecticut Governor’s Council until he died in Windsor in 1807. He was elected States, the seat having been vacated by John Jay. (Jay’s rea Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in placement, John Rutledge, had been rejected by the Senate 1803.[8] the previous December, and Washington’s next nominee, William Cushing, had declined the office in February.) The Although many erroneously believe that he is buried on the following day, Ellsworth was unanimously confirmed by the grounds of the Ellsworth Homestead in Windsor, Connecticut, his remains are in the cemetery behind the First ConUnited States Senate, and received his commission. gregational Church of Windsor overlooking the Farmington Ellsworth served until his resignation due to poor health on River.[9][10][11] September 30, 1800, and his brief contribution was overshadowed by the accomplishments of his successor, John Marshall, who succeeded him in 1801. However, four cases the Ellsworth Court decided were of lasting importance in 1.6 Legacy American jurisprudence. Hylton v. United States (1796) implicitly addressed the Supreme Court’s power of judicial It is entirely a matter of speculation, but Ellsworth’s concilreview in upholding a federal carriage tax (although it would iatory negotiations with Napoleon might have contributed not be until John Marshall succeeded Ellsworth that the to Napoleon’s sudden choice three years later to sell the court addressed this issue head on); Hollingsworth v. Vir- Louisiana Territory to the United States for $15 million. ginia (1798) affirmed that the President had no official role In retrospect, Ellsworth’s role in helping to establish the in amending the Constitution of the United States, and that United States as a viable sovereign nation was important a Presidential signature was therefore unnecessary for rati- but could be easily overlooked. A good part of the reason fication of an amendment; Calder v. Bull (1798) held that for this was that he did not distinguish himself as an orator the Constitution’s Ex post facto clause applied only to crim- but worked as much as possible behind the scenes. He was inal, not civil, cases; and New York v. Connecticut was the said to have been dominant in his eloquence at the January, first exercise by the court of its original jurisdiction in cases 1788, Connecticut Ratifying Convention, but later as the de between two states. facto Senate majority leader he seems to have kept his arEllsworth’s chief legacy as Chief Justice, however, is his guments relatively short and to the point. His written prose discouragement of the previous practice of seriatim opin- could on occasion be tortuous, as best illustrated by the opion writing, in which each Justice wrote a separate opin- erative sentence in Section 25 of the Judiciary Act (the first
1.7. SEE ALSO of only two sentences). Over three hundred words long, this sentence is almost impossible to decipher as an explanation how state courts were answerable to federal authority. But perhaps this opacity was intentional, since the expansion of federal power specified by Section 25 was mostly overlooked in debate both in the Senate and House of Representatives despite having been the most important and potentially controversial portion of the Judiciary Act. That Ellsworth promoted the federal government as a unified confederacy without the limitations imposed by the Articles of Confederation enhanced his popularity during the first several decades of America’s history, especially in the South preceding the Civil War. In 1847, thirteen years before the Civil War, John Calhoun praised Ellsworth as the first of three Founding Fathers (including Sherman and Paterson) who gave the United States “the best government instead of the worst and most intolerable on the earth.”[12] However, rapid industrialization and the centralization of our national government since the Civil War have led to the almost complete neglect of Ellsworth’s pivotal contribution at the inception of our government. Few today know much of anything about him. The one full-length biography by William Garrott Brown, published in 1905 and reprinted in 1970, is excellent but difficult to obtain. Ellsworth’s twin sons followed their father into public service. William Wolcott Ellsworth married a daughter of lexicographer Noah Webster and became Governor of the State of Connecticut, a United States Congressman and a justice of the Connecticut Supreme Court. His twin brother, Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, served as mayor of Hartford, then was appointed the first commissioner of the U.S. Patent Office. He later became president of Aetna Life Insurance Company. Henry Leavitt Ellsworth was instrumental in the creation of the U.S. Agriculture Department, and he was appointed by President Andrew Jackson to oversee the so-called Trail of Tears, the transfer of Cherokee Indians from Georgia to the Oklahoma Territory that cost approximately 4,000 lives. He was a friend and backer of inventors Samuel Colt and Samuel F.B. Morse, and his daughter Annie Ellsworth proposed the first message transmitted by Morse over the telegraph, “What hath God wrought?" Henry Leavitt Ellsworth was a major benefactor to Yale College, his alma mater.
5
1.7
See also
1.8
Notes
[1] “Federal Judicial Center: Oliver Ellsworth”. 2009-12-12. Retrieved 2009-12-12. [2] Jemima Leavitt, born at nearby Suffield, was the daughter of Lieut. Joshua Leavitt and Hannah Devotion, and the sister of Congregationalist minister Rev. Jonathan Leavitt. [3] http://theprince.princeton.edu/princetonperiodicals/ cgi-bin/princetonperiodicals?a=d&d= Princetonian19870727-01.2.95&srpos=1&e= -------en-20-$-$1--txt-IN-----# [4] “Supreme Court Justices Who Are Phi Beta Kappa Members” (PDF). Phi Beta Kappa website. Retrieved February 13, 2012. [5] Abigail Wolcott was the cousin of Connecticut Governor Oliver Wolcott, Jr., for whom Wolcottville, Connecticut, later renamed Torrington was named. [6] The Constitutional Convention and the Formation of the Union, Solberg, Winton ed. 1990, p. 280 [7] “Oliver Ellsworth”. Oyez.org. Retrieved February 13, 2012. [8] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter E” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [9] Oliver Ellsworth at Find a Grave. [10] Christensen, George A. (1983) Here Lies the Supreme Court: Gravesites of the Justices, Yearbook at the Wayback Machine (archived September 3, 2005) Supreme Court Historical Society. [11] Christensen, George A., Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited, Journal of Supreme Court History, Volume 33 Issue 1, Pages 17 - 41 (19 Feb 2008), University of Alabama. [12] Brown, 164–165 [13] Laboratory of Justice, The Supreme Court’s 200 Year Struggle to Integrate Science and the Law, by David L. Faigman, First edition, 2004, p. 34; Smith, Republic of Letters, 15, 501
Even if Ellsworth was viewed as “a valuable acquisition to [14] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Off. p. 118. the Court,” and “a great loss to the Senate,” he resigned after just four years due to his “constant, and at times excruciat- [15] http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/185175/ ing pains,” sufferings made worse by his Europe travels, as Oliver-Ellsworth special envoy to France.[13] In 1800, Ellsworth, Maine was named in his honor.[14] John F. Kennedy authored the Encyclopædia Britannica's article on Ellsworth. This was Kennedy’s only contribution to the Encyclopedia.[15][16]
[16] http://www.britannica.com/bps/user-profile/6282
• Oliver Ellsworth at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
6
CHAPTER 1. OLIVER ELLSWORTH
1.9 References • The Life of Oliver Ellsworth, William Garrott Brown, 1905—repr. by Da Capo Press, 1970 • The Supreme Court in the Early Republic: The Chief Justiceships of John Jay and Oliver Ellsworth, William R. Casto, University of South Carolina Press, 1995 • Oliver Ellsworth and the Creation of the Federal Republic, William R. Casto, Second Circuit Committee on History and Commemorative Events, 1997 • The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787, ed. by Max Farrand, 4 vols., Yale University Press, 1911, 1966
• Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19505835-6. • Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 087187-554-3. • Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1.
1.11
External links
• James Madison’s Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, James Brown Scott, Oxford University Press, 1918
• Oliver Ellsworth at Michael Ariens.com.
• The United States of America: A study in International Organization, James Brown Scott, Oxford University Press, 1920.
• Oliver Ellsworth Homestead
• 1787 Constitutional Convention: The First Senate of the United States 1789-1795, Richard Streb, Bronx Historical Society, 1996 • Connecticut Families of the Revolution, American Forebears from Burr to Wolcott, Mark Allen Baker, The History Press, 2014
• National Archives biography
• Oliver Ellsworth at Supreme Court Historical Society. • Oyez Project, U.S. Supreme Court Media: Oliver Ellsworth • Princeton Companion: Oliver Ellsworth • The Ellsworth Court at Supreme Court Historical Society. •
1.10 Further reading • Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). Oxford, Oxfordshire: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3. • Buchanan, James M., Oliver Ellsworth, Third Chief Justice, Journal of Supreme Court History: 1991, Supreme Court Historical Society. • Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7. • Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books. • Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4.
• Oliver Ellsworth at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Oliver Ellsworth at Find a Grave
Chapter 2
Roger Sherman For other people named Roger Sherman, see Roger Haven County in 1745, and began providing astronomical Sherman (disambiguation). calculations for almanacs in 1759. Roger Sherman (April 19, 1721 – July 23, 1793) was an early American lawyer and politician, as well as a Founding Father of the United States. He served as the first mayor of New Haven, Connecticut, and served on the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence, and was also a representative and senator in the new republic. He was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the U.S.: the Continental Association; the Declaration of Independence; the Articles of Confederation, and; the Constitution.[1]
2.2
Legal, political career
While Sherman was a “terse, ineloquent speaker leaving few memorable quotes”,[2] Thomas Jefferson said this of him: “That is Mr. Sherman, of Connecticut, a man who never said a foolish thing in his life.”[3]
2.1 Early life
The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull depicts the Committee of Five (Sherman is the second person on the left) presenting its work to Congress.
Sherman was born into a farm family located at Newton, Massachusetts near Boston, his family later moved to Stoughton (a town located seventeen miles, or 27 km, south of Boston) when he was two. The part of Stoughton where Sherman grew up became part of Canton in 1797. Sherman’s education did not extend beyond his father’s library and grammar school, and his early career was spent as a shoe-maker. However, he had an aptitude for learning, and access to a good library owned by his father, as well as a Harvard-educated parish minister, Rev. Samuel Dunbar, who took him under his wing.
Sherman is especially notable in United States history for being the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the United States Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Association, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. Robert Morris, who did not sign the Articles of Association signed the other three., John Dickinson also signed three; the Continental Association, Articles of Confederation and the United States Constitution. He was involved with the Declaration In 1743, due to his father’s death, Sherman moved (on foot) of Independence but abstained hoping for a reconciliation with his mother and siblings to New Milford, Connecticut, with Britain. where in partnership with his brother, he opened the town’s Despite the fact that Sherman had no formal legal training, first store. He very quickly introduced himself in civil and he was urged to read for the bar exam by a local lawyer and religious affairs, rapidly becoming one of the town’s leading was admitted to the Bar of Litchfield, Connecticut in 1754, citizens and eventually town clerk of New Milford. Due to during which he wrote A Caveat Against Injustice[4] and his mathematical skill he became county surveyor of New was chosen to represent New Milford in the Connecticut 7
8
CHAPTER 2. ROGER SHERMAN
House of Representatives from 1755 to 1758 and from 1760 In 1790 both Sherman and Richard Law were appointed to 1761. to massively revise the confused and archaic Connecticut Sherman was appointed justice of the peace in 1762, judge statutes, which they accomplished with great success. of the court of common pleas in 1765. During 1766, Throughout his life, Sherman was a major benefactor of Sherman was first elected to the Governor’s Council of Yale College, acting as the university’s treasurer for many the Connecticut General Assembly, where he served until years and promoting construction of a college chapel. 1785. Sherman served as Justice of the Superior Court of Connecticut from 1766 to 1789, when he left to become a member of the United States Congress.
2.3
Constitutional Convention and Congress
A Front View of Yale-College and the College Chapel, Daniel Bowen, 1786.
Sherman was also appointed treasurer of Yale College, and awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree. He was a professor of religion for many years, and engaged in lengthy correspondences with some of the greatest theologians of the time. During February 1776, Sherman, George Wythe, and John Adams were members a committee responsible establishing guidelines U.S. emassy officials in Canada with the committee instructions that included, “You are to declare that we hold sacred the rights of conscience, and may promise to the whole people, solemnly in our name, the free and undisturbed exercise of their religion. And...that all civil rights and the rights to hold office were to be extended to persons of any Christian denomination.” [5]
Painter Ralph Earl's depiction of Sherman was described by Bernard Bailyn as “one of the most striking portraits of the age.”[6]
Roger Sherman was one of the most influential members of the Constitutional Convention. He is not well known for his actions at the Convention because he was a “terse, ineloquent speaker” who never kept a personal record of his experience, unlike other prominent figures at the convention such as James Madison, and at 66 years of age, Sherman was the second eldest member at the convention following Benjamin Franklin (who was 81 years old at the time). Yet as one of the most active members of the Convention, Sherman made motions or seconds in reference to the Virginia Plan 160 times.[7] His opponent Madison made motions or seconds 177 times.[7]
In 1784 he was elected Mayor of New Haven, which office he held until his death. Roger Sherman came into the Convention without the in-
2.3. CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION AND CONGRESS
9
tention of creating a new constitution. Sherman, an original signer or the Articles of Confederation, saw the convention as a means to modify the already existing government. Part of his stance was concerned with the public appeal. He defended amending the articles declaring that it was in the best interest of the people and the most probable way the people would accept changes to a constitution.[8] Sherman saw no reason for a bicameral legislature, as proposed by the Virginia Plan. “The problem with the old government was not that it had acted foolishly or threatened anybody’s liberties, but that it had simply been unable to enforce its decrees”.[9] Sherman further advanced the idea that the national government simply needed a way to raise revenue and regulate commerce.[9] Sherman was a big defender of an unicameral legislature. He defended the unicameral legislature of the Articles of Confederation by stating that the large states had not “suffered at the hands of small states on account of the rule of equal voting”.[9] Ultimately, when Sherman saw his initial goals of the convention as unattainable he organized compromises and deals in order to enact some of his desirable legislation.
into existence to amend the Articles of Confederation, Sherman and Oliver Ellsworth offered what came to be called the Great Compromise or Connecticut Compromise. In this plan, designed to be acceptable to both large and small states, the people would be represented proportionally in one branch of the legislature, called the House of Representatives (the lower legislative house). The states would be represented in another house called the Senate (the upper house). In the lower house, each state had a representative for every one delegate. In the upper house each state was guaranteed two senators, regardless of its size. Sherman is also memorable for his stance against paper money with his authoring of Article I, Section 10 of the United States Constitution and his later opposition to James Madison over the "Bill of Rights" amendments to the U.S. Constitution in his belief that these amendments would diminish the role and power of the states over the people.[12]
Mr. Wilson & Mr. Sherman moved to insert after the words “coin money” the words “nor emit bills of credit, nor make any thing but gold & silver coin a tender in payment of debts” making these prohibitions absolute, instead of making the measures allowable (as in the XIII art) with the consent of the Legislature of the U.S. ... Mr. Sherman thought this a favorable crisis for crushing paper money. If the consent of the Legislature could authorize emissions of it, the friends of paper money would make every exertion to get into the Legislature in order to license it.” [13]
Sherman was from a particularly isolationist state; Connecticut operated almost without much need from other states, using its own ports to trade with the West Indies instead of utilizing ports in Boston.[8] and feared that "...the mass of people lacked sufficient wisdom to govern themselves and thus wished no branch of the federal government to be elected directly by the people”,[10] Sherman, Elbridge Gerry (himself later recognized as the namesake of American political gerrymandering) and others were of the shared opinion that the elected composition of the national government should be reserved for the vote of state officials and not for election by the will of the people. Sherman was wary of allowing ordinary citizen participation in national government and stated that the people “should have as little In terms of the executive Sherman had very little interest to do as may be about the Government They want informa- in giving the executive much authority. Sherman suggested tion and are constantly liable to be misled”.[11] that no constitutional provision needed be made for the exfor The two proposed options for the formation of the legisla- ecutive because it was “ nothing more than an institution [11] carrying he will of the Legislature into effect”. tive branch was to form a bicameral legislature in which both chambers had representation proportional to the population of the states, which was supported by the Virginia plan. The second was to modify the unicameral legislature that had equal representation from all of the states, which was supported by the New Jersey plan. Roger Sherman was a devout supporter of a Unicameral legislature, but when he saw that goal as unattainable he motioned to compromise. In terms of Modes of election “Sherman moved to allow each state legislature to elect its own senators”.[11] Additionally, in the house Sherman originally proposed that the suffrage of the House of Representatives should be figured according to the “numbers of free inhabitants” in each state.[9]
Originally opposed to slavery due to his personal beliefs and puritan views, Sherman used the issue of slavery as a tool for negotiation and alliance. Sherman was of the opinion that slavery was already gradually being abolished and the trend was moving southward.[11] Sherman saw that the issue of slavery could be one that threatened the success of the constitutional convention. Therefore Sherman decided to help pass legislation to benefit slave states in order to obtain unlikely allies from South Carolina. The two forces joined together because they both, due to the economies of their home states, benefitted from their being no export tax.[9]
Sherman opposed appointment of fellow signer Gouverneur Morris as minister to France because he considered that During the Constitutional Convention of 1787, summoned high-living Patriot to be of an “irreligious nature”.[14]
10
CHAPTER 2. ROGER SHERMAN
2.4 Death and burial site Sherman died in his sleep on July 23, 1793 after a twomonth illness diagnosed as typhoid fever.[15] The Gazette of the United States (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania), Aug. 17, 1793, p. 508, reported an alternate diagnosis, “He was taken ill about the middle of May last, and from that time declined till his death. His physician supposed his disorder to be seated in his liver.”
• Town and Village of Sherman, New York • Streets • Sherman Avenue in New Haven, Connecticut • Sherman and Sherman Avenue in Hamden, Connecticut • Sherman Street in Canton, Massachusetts
He was buried in New Haven Green; and in 1821, when that cemetery was relocated, his remains were moved to the Grove Street Cemetery.[16]
• Sherman Avenue in central Madison, Wisconsin. Note: Most of the main streets in downtown Madison are named after signers of the United States Constitution. • Roger Sherman Street in Orange Park, Florida Heritage Hills neighborhood.
2.5 Family Several of Roger Sherman’s children and descendants achieved prominence.
• Statues
A son, Roger Sherman, Jr. (1768–1856), a 1787 graduate of Yale College served in the Connecticut General Assembly in 1810–1811. A daughter, Rebecca Sherman, was married to Simeon Baldwin, whose career included service in the United States Congress (1803–1806), as an Associate Judge of the Connecticut Superior Court, 1806–1817, and who became Mayor of New Haven, Connecticut in 1826. Following the death of Rebecca Sherman, Baldwin married another of Roger Sherman’s daughters, Elizabeth Sherman Burr. Another daughter, Sarah Sherman, married Samuel Hoar, who was a member of the Massachusetts state legislature and the U.S. Congress. Sherman’s daughter Martha was married to Jeremiah Day who was the President of Yale University from 1817 to 1846.
• National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • National Statuary Hall Collection in the United States Capitol (one of two allowed the state of Connecticut in the collection) • Connecticut State Capitol in Hartford. • Other • Roger Sherman House on Howe Street in New Haven • “Roger Sherman Debate Society” - official name of the policy debate team at Western Connecticut State University
Three grandsons, Roger Sherman Baldwin, George F. Hoar, and William M. Evarts served in the U.S. Senate. Baldwin also was Governor of Connecticut. Evarts also was a United States Attorney General, and was succeeded in that office by his first cousin Ebenezer R. Hoar, a brother of George F. Hoar.
• Roger Sherman Elementary School of Fairfield, Connecticut • Roger Sherman Elementary School of Meriden, Connecticut
Direct descendant Archibald Cox served as a U.S. Solicitor General and special prosecutor during President Richard Nixon’s Watergate scandal.
• Roger Sherman Inn of New Canaan, Connecticut • Sherman House, residence hall on University of Connecticut Storrs campus in Mansfield, Connecticut
2.6 Places and things named in honor of Roger Sherman • Towns • Town of Sherman, Connecticut
2.7
See also
U.S. Constitution, floor leader in Convention.
2.9. REFERENCES
2.8 Notes [1] Roger Sherman Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved February 14, 2007. [2] Roger Sherman—The Forgotten Founder http: //www.whatwouldthefoundersthink.com/roger-sherman% E2%80%94the-forgotten-founder [3] Waln, Robert (1824). “Biography of the lobster time of the Declaration of Independence”. Port Folio 18: 450. Retrieved 2009-01-16. [4] Sherman, Roger A Caveat Against Injustice [5] America on the Cusp of God’s Grace: The Biblical Connection to the Stars and Stripes. Dennis G. Hurst, 2010. iUniverse, Bloomington, Indiana. [6] Bailyn, Bernard To Begin the World Anew [7] Robertson, David B. “Madison’s Opponents and Constitutional Design.” The American Political Science Review 99.22 (2005): 225-43. JSTOR. Web. 11 Feb. 2015. [8] Boyd, Julian P. “Roger Sherman: Portrait of a Cordwainer Statesman.” The New England Quarterly 5.2 (1932): 22136. JSTOR. Web. 12 Feb. 2015. [9] Collier, Christopher, and James Lincoln Collier. Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of 1787. New York: Random House, 1986. Print.
11
2.9
References
• Dictionary of American Biography • Boardman, Roger Sherman, Roger Sherman, Signer and Statesman, 1938. Reprint. New York: Da Capo Press, 1971. • Boutell, Lewis Henry, The Life of Roger Sherman, Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1896. • Hall, Mark David, Roger Sherman and the Creation of the American Republic (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013) • Gerber, Scott D., “Roger Sherman and the Bill of Rights.” Polity 28 (Summer 1996): 521-540. • Hoar, George Frisbie, The Connecticut Compromise. Roger Sherman, the Author of the Plan of Equal Representation of the States in the Senate, and Representation of the People in Proportion to Numbers in the House, Worcester, MA: Press of C. Hamilton, 1903. • Rommel, John G., Connecticut’s Yankee Patriot: Roger Sherman, Hartford: American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of Connecticut, 1980.
2.10
External links
• From Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence, 1856
[10] Outline of American History - Chapter 4: The Formation of a National Government http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/ history/ch4.htm
•
[11] Rakove, Jack N. Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1996. Print.
• Sherman Genealogy Including Families of Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, England By Thomas Townsend Sherman
[12] Sherman. http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/clemens/ constitutional1/sherman.html
• Hoar-Baldwin-Foster-Sherman family sachusetts at The Political Graveyard
[13] Farrand, Max, ed. The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787.
• History of Sherman’s boyhood home of Stoughton, Massachusetts
[14] Roger Sherman Connecticut. http://www.history.army.mil/ books/RevWar/ss/sherman.htm
• Roger Sherman at Find a Grave
[15] Rommel, John G. (1979). Connecticut’s Yankee patriot,. Hartford: American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of Connecticut. p. 53. ISBN 0-918676-20-7. [16] Boardman (1938). : Signer and Statesman. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 336.
• Roger Sherman at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
of
Mas-
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sherman, Roger". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 3
George Read (U.S. statesman) George Read (/riːd/; September 18, 1733 – September 21, 1798) was an American lawyer and politician from New Castle in New Castle County, Delaware. He was a signer of the Declaration of Independence, a Continental Congressman from Delaware, a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787, President of Delaware, and a member of the Federalist Party, who served as U.S. Senator from Delaware and Chief Justice of Delaware. Read was one of only two statesmen who signed all three of the great State papers on which our country’s history is based: the original Petition to the King of the Congress of 1774, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.
3.1 Parents George Read was the son of John and Mary (Howell) Read. George’s father was born in Dublin, Ireland, the son of an Englishman of large fortune belonging to the family of Read of Berkshire, Hertfordshire, and Oxfordshire. The death of his beloved having left George’s father bereft, John Read came to the American colonies and, with a view of diverting his mind, entered into extensive enterprises in Maryland and Delaware.[2] Soon after his arrival in America, John Read purchased a large landed estate in Cecil County, Maryland, and founded, with six associates, the city of Charlestown, on the headwaters of Chesapeake Bay, twelve years after Baltimore was begun, with the intention of creating a new market for the northern trade, and thus developing northern Maryland and building up the neighboring iron works of the Principio Company, in which the older generations of the Washington family, and at a later period General George Washington himself, were also largely interested.[2]
on his plantation in New Castle County, Delaware.[2]
3.2
Early life
George Read was born in Cecil County, Maryland, on September 18, 1733. When he was an infant, the family moved to New Castle County, Delaware, settling near the village of Christiana. As he grew up, George Read joined Thomas McKean at the Rev. Francis Allison’s Academy at New London, Pennsylvania and then studied law in Philadelphia with John Moland. He was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar in 1753 and a year later he returned home to establish a practice at New Castle, Delaware. In 1763 he married Gertrude Ross Till, daughter of the Rev. George Ross, the Anglican rector of Immanuel Church in New Castle and widowed sister of George Ross, also a future signer of the Declaration of Independence. They had five children, John, George Jr., William, John, and Mary, who married Matthew Pearce (she is often confused with her paternal aunt, Mary Read, who in 1769 married Gunning Bedford, Sr., a future Governor of Delaware). They lived on The Strand in New Castle and their house was in what is now the garden of the present Read House and Gardens, owned by the Delaware Historical Society. They were members of Immanuel Episcopal Church. In 1763 John Penn, the Proprietary Governor, appointed Read Crown Attorney General for the three Delaware counties and he served in that position until leaving for the Continental Congress in 1774. He also served in the Colonial Assembly of the Lower Counties for twelve sessions, from 1764/65 through 1775/76.
3.3
American Revolution
As an original proprietor of Charlestown, John Read was appointed by the colonial legislature of Maryland one of the Eighteenth century Delaware was politically divided into commissioners to lay it out and govern it. He held various loose factions known as the “Court Party” and the “Country military offices during his life, and in his later years resided Party.” The majority Court Party was generally Anglican, 12
3.5. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND CONGRESS
13 vention, became its President, and guided the passage of the Thomas McKean-drafted document, which became the Delaware Constitution of 1776.
Read was then elected to the first Legislative Council of the Delaware General Assembly and was selected as the Speaker in both the 1776/77 and 1777/78 sessions. At the time of the capture of President John McKinly, Read was in Philadelphia attending Congress, and after narrowly escaping capture himself while returning home, he became President on October 20, 1777, serving until March 31, 1778. During these months the British occupied Philadelphia and were in control of the Delaware River. Read tried, mostly in vain, to recruit additional soldiers and protect the The presentation of the Declaration of Independence to Congress. state from raiders from Philadelphia and off ships in the Delaware River. The Delaware General Assembly session of 1777/78 had to be moved to Dover, Delaware for safety strongest in Kent County and Sussex County, worked well and the Sussex County General Assembly delegation was with the colonial Proprietary government, and was in favor never seated because disruptions at the polls had negated of reconciliation with the British government.The minorthe election results. ity Country Party was largely Ulster-Scot, centered in New Castle County, and quickly advocated independence from After Caesar Rodney was elected to replace him as Presthe British. Read was often the leader of the Court party ident, Read continued to serve in the Legislative Council faction, and as such he generally worked in opposition to through the 1778-79 session. After a one-year rest nursing Caesar Rodney and his friend and neighbor, Thomas McK- ill health, he was elected to the House of Assembly for the 1780/81 and 1781/82 sessions. He returned to the Legislaean. tive Council in the 1782/83 session and served two terms, Read, therefore, like most people in Delaware, was very through the 1787/88 session. On Dec. 5, 1782, he was much in favor of trying to reconcile differences with Great elected Judge of the Court of Appeals in Cases of CapBritain. He opposed the Stamp Act and similar measures of ture.[3] Parliament, and supported anti-importation measures and dignified protests, but was quite reluctant to pursue the option of outright independence. Nevertheless, from 1764 he Government and led the Delaware Committee of Correspondence and was 3.5 Federal elected to serve along with the more radical Thomas McKCongress ean and Caesar Rodney in the First and Second Continental Congress from 1774 through 1777. He was frequently abRead was again called to national service in 1786 when he sent though, and when the Congress voted on American Inrepresented Delaware at the Annapolis Convention. Bedependence on July 2, 1776, Read surprised many by voting cause so few states were represented, this meeting produced against it. This meant Caesar Rodney had to ride overnight only a report calling for a broader convention to be held in to Philadelphia to break the deadlock in Delaware’s delegaPhiladelphia the next year. tion in favor of independence. However, when the Declaration of Independence was finally adopted, Read signed it, At what became the Constitutional Convention, Read again represented Delaware. Quoting from Wright & Morris in joining the cause in spite of his natural caution. their Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution,
3.4 Government of Delaware Anticipating the Declaration of Independence, the General Assembly of the Lower Counties declared its separation from the British government on June 15, 1776 in the New Castle Court House. Once the Declaration of Independence was actually adopted, the General Assembly called for elections to a Delaware constitutional convention to draft a constitution for the new state. Read was elected to this con-
“Read immediately argued for a new national government under a new Constitution, saying 'to amend the Articles was simply putting old cloth on a new garment.' He was a leader in the fight for a strong central government, advocating, at one time, the abolition of the states altogether and the consolidation of the country under one powerful national government. 'Let no one fear the states, the people are with us;' he declared to a Convention shocked by this radical proposal.
14
CHAPTER 3. GEORGE READ (U.S. STATESMAN) Following the adoption of the Federal Constitution of 1787, the Delaware General Assembly elected Read as one of its two U.S. Senators. His term began March 4, 1789, he was reelected in 1791, and resigned September 18, 1793. Read served with the pro-administration majority in the 1st and 2nd Congress, during the administration of U.S. President George Washington. As Senator he supported the assumption of state debts, establishment of a national bank, and the imposition of excise taxes. He resigned as Senator to accept an appointment as Chief Justice of the Delaware Supreme Court and served in that capacity until his death. Read’s resignation from the U.S. Senate was before the first session of the 3rd Congress assembled, but it was not until February 7, 1795, 4 weeks before it adjourned, that Henry Latimer was elected to replace him. One of Delaware’s U.S. Senate seats was, therefore, vacant from September 18, 1793 until February 7, 1795.
3.6
Death and legacy
Read died at New Castle on September 21, 1798, and is buried there in the Immanuel Episcopal Church Cemetery.
With no one to support his motion, he settled for protecting the rights of the small states against the infringements of their larger, more populous neighbors who, he feared, would 'probably combine to swallow up the smaller ones by addition, division or impoverishment.' He warned that Delaware 'would become at once a cipher in the union' if the principle of equal representation embodied in the New Jersey (small-state) Plan was not adopted and if the method of amendment in the Articles was not retained. He favored giving Congress the right to vote state laws, making the federal legislature immune to popular whims by having senators hold office for nine years or during good behavior, and granting the U.S. President broad appointive powers. Outspoken, he threatened to lead the Delaware delegation out of the Convention if the rights of the small states were not specifically guaranteed in the new Constitution.”
William T. Read in his Life and Correspondence described Read as “tall, slightly and gracefully formed, with pleasing features and lustrous brown eyes. His manners were dignified, bordering upon austerity, but courteous, and at times captivating. He commanded entire confidence, not only from his profound legal knowledge, sound judgment, and impartial decisions, but from his severe integrity and the purity of his private character.” However, a fellow delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787 noted that “his legal abilities are said to be very great, but his powers of oratory are fatiguing and tiresome to the last degree; his voice is feeble and his articulation so bad that few can have patience to attend him.” Historians like John Munroe have generally recognized that all in all, Read was the dominating figure in Delaware politics during his career, directly or indirectly providing consistent and reliable leadership to the new state.[4] His home, Stonum, is now a historic landmark. On The Strand in New Castle is the house built by his son, George Read, II. It is owned by the Delaware Historical Society, restored and opened to the public. There is a school named for him in New Castle and a dorm at the University of Delaware.
In the Broadway Musical, 1776, Read is portrayed in a minor role as proper, conservative, somewhat effete, and wealthy planter who has difficulty getting along with the Once those rights were assured, he led the ratification move- other two members of the Delaware contingent who are for ment in Delaware which, partly as a result of his efforts, Independence. Duane Bodin[5] played the character in the original Broadway cast and Leo Leyden[6] appeared in the became the first state to ratify.
3.11. REFERENCES film version.
3.7 Family George Read’s brother Thomas was an officer in the Continental Navy during the Revolution. Another brother, James, was an officer in the Continental Army, and was later active in managing the navy under the Articles of Confederation. George Read’s son George Read, Jr. served as the first U.S. Attorney for Delaware. Another son, John was a noted lawyer and banker of Philadelphia.[2] George Read’s great-granddaughter, Louisa, married Maj. Benjamin Kendrick Pierce, the brother of future President Franklin Pierce.
3.8 Almanac Elections were held October 1 and members of the General Assembly took office on October 20 or the following weekday. The colonial Attorney General was appointed by the Crown. The Legislative Council was created in 1776 and its Legislative Councilmen had a three-year term. State Assemblymen had a one-year term. The whole General Assembly chose the Continental Congressmen for a one-year term and the State President for a three-year term. However, Read served as State President only temporarily, filling the vacancy created by the resignation of Thomas McKean and awaiting the selection of a successor by the General Assembly. The Chief Justice of the state Supreme Court was also selected by the General Assembly for the life of the person appointed. The General Assembly chose the U.S. Senators, who took office March 4 for a six-year term. However, Read’s first term was only two years to establish a rotation.
3.9 See also • U.S. Constitution, man of “original principles” in Convention
3.10 Notes [1] this seat was vacant from September 18, 1793 until February 7, 1795. [2] One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wilson, James
15
Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Read, John, planter". Appletons’ Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton. [3] Library of Congress Journals of the Continental Congress 1774-1789 (Government Printing Office, 1904-1937), Vol. 23, 765. [4] Munroe, John A. (1993). History of Delaware. [5] “1776”. IBDB. Retrieved 2012-07-07. [6] “1776”. IMDb. Retrieved 7 July 2012. [7] Congress met at Baltimore, Maryland from December 20, 1776 - March 4, 1777, at Lancaster, Pennsylvania on September 27, 1777 and at York, Pennsylvania from September 30, 1777 to the end of his term. He did not attend the sessions at Lancaster or York.
3.11
References
• Conrad, Henry C. (1908). History of the State of Delaware, 3 vols. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Wickersham Company. • Hoffecker, Carol E. (2004). Democracy in Delaware. Wilmington, Delaware: Cedar Tree Books. ISBN 1892142-23-6. • Martin, Roger A. (1984). History of Delaware Through its Governors. Wilmington, Delaware: McClafferty Press. • Martin, Roger A. (1995). Memoirs of the Senate. Newark, Delaware: Roger A. Martin. • Munroe, John A. (1954). Federalist Delaware 17751815. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University. • Munroe, John A. (2004). Philadelawareans. Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware Press. ISBN 087413-872-8. • Racino, John W. (1980). Biographical Directory of American and Revolutionary Governors 1607-1789. Westport, CT: Meckler Books. ISBN 0-930466-004. • Scharf, John Thomas (1888). History of Delaware 1609-1888. 2 vols. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards & Co. ISBN 0-87413-493-5.
16
3.12 External links • Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Biography by Russell Pickett • Delaware’s Governors • Find a Grave • The Political Graveyard • Hall of Governors Portrait Gallery; Portrait courtesy of Historical and Cultural Affairs, Dover. • Delaware Historical Society; website; 505 North Market Street, Wilmington, Delaware 19801; (302) 6557161 • University of Delaware; Library website; 181 South College Avenue, Newark, Delaware 19717; (302) 831-2965 • Read House and Gardens; 42 The Strand, New Castle, Delaware (302) 322-8411 • Immanuel Episcopal Church; 100 Harmony St, New Casthuhule, Delaware (302) 328-2413
CHAPTER 3. GEORGE READ (U.S. STATESMAN)
Chapter 4
Gunning Bedford, Jr. For other people named Gunning Bedford, see Gunning Continental Congress, taught him much about the politiBedford (disambiguation). cal and economic vulnerabilities of states like Delaware. Unlike some other small-state representatives who looked Gunning Bedford, Jr. (April 13, 1747 – March 30, to the creation of a strong central government to protect their interests against more powerful neighbors, Bedford 1812) was an American lawyer and politician from Wilmington, in New Castle County, Delaware. He served in the sought to limit the powers of the new government. But when the conflict over representation threatened to wreck Delaware General Assembly, as a Continental Congressman from Delaware and as a delegate to the U.S. Consti- the Constitutional Convention, he laid regional interests aside and, for the good of the country, sought to comprotutional Convention of 1787. He is often confused with his cousin, Gunning Bedford, Sr. an officer in the Continen- mise. tal Army during the American Revolution and Governor of Concerned primarily with the fate of the small states in Delaware. a federal union potentially dominated by powerful, populous neighbors, the fiery Bedford warned the delegates at Philadelphia that the small states might have to seek foreign alliances for their own protection. Bedford’s threat, 4.1 Early life and family “the small ones would find some foreign ally of more honor and good faith, who will take them by the hand and do Bedford was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, raised in them justice” was shouted down as treasonous by the other Delaware and a graduate of Princeton University. delegates.[1] At first he joined with those who sought merely to amend the Articles of Confederation, believing, as one delegate contended, “there is no middle way between a perconsolidation of the states into one nation and a mere 4.2 Professional and political career fect confederacy of the states. The first is out of the question, and in the latter they must continue if not perfectly yet He was first elected to the Legislative Council of the equally sovereign”. Delaware General Assembly, later known as the Delaware House of Representatives. He served 4 terms from 1783/84 But when the idea of drafting a new Constitution was acuntil 1786/87. He then served one term of three years, cepted, he supported the New Jersey Plan, a scheme that 1788/89 through 1790/91, in the Legislative Council, later provided equal representation for the states in the national known at as the State Senate. He was the first Attorney Gen- legislature, a point on which the Delaware legislature had eral of Delaware, serving from 1778 until 1790. He was instructed its delegates not to compromise. He called for also a delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention in strong limitations on the powers of the executive branch and recommended measures by which the states could maintain 1787. close control over the national legislature and judiciary, including the appointment of federal judges by the state legislatures. Bedford’s speeches in support of these ideas led 4.3 The Constitutional Convention Georgia delegate William Pierce to describe him as a “bold” speaker, with “a very commanding and striking manner;" Bedford was the most vocal supporter of giving small states but “warm and impetuous in his temper and precipitate in equal power in the federal government to large states. His his judgement”. experience in local politics, along with his service in the 17
18 Realizing as the Convention sessions went on that unyielding adherence to his position would endanger the union, Bedford adopted a more flexible stance. He agreed to sit on the committee that drafted the Great Compromise, which settled the thorny question of representation and made possible the Convention’s acceptance of the new plan of government.
4.4 Later professional and political career
CHAPTER 4. GUNNING BEDFORD, JR.
4.5
Death and legacy
He died at Wilmington and was buried first in the Presbyterian Cemetery there. This cemetery is now the location of the Wilmington Institute Library and his remains were then moved to the Masonic Home Cemetery at Christiana, Delaware. In 2013, after the sale of the Masonic Home, the monument, Bedford and the remains of his family were relocated by Chesapeake Burial Vault to the Historic Wilmington-Brandywine Cemetery in Wilmington, Delaware. Upon re-intering Bedfords grave, a tooth that was discovered from the previous relocation was placed in the burial vault.
Bedford Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his [2] Bedford was a delegate to Delaware’s ratification conven- honor. tion in 1787. Thanks to his efforts, along with those of John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, and others, Delaware became the first state to approve the Constitution. Widely re- 4.6 Almanac spected for his knowledge of the law, Bedford was asked by Delaware’s senators and fellow signers George Read and Elections were held October 1 and members of the GenRichard Bassett to review a bill, then under consideration, eral Assembly took office on October 20 or the following on the organization of the federal judiciary system. weekday. State Legislative Councilmen had a three-year Bedford praised the document, which would become the term and State Assemblymen had a one-year term. Judiciary Act of 1789, one of the most important pieces of legislation of the period, as a “noble work;" but expressed some concerns as well. He admitted that the common law of 4.7 See also the United States was difficult to define. “Yet”, he claimed, “the dignity of America requires that it [a definition] be as• U.S. Constitution, man of “original principles” in Concertained, and that where we refer to laws they should be vention laws of our own country. If the principles of the laws of any other country are good and worthy of adoption, incorporate them into your own”. He believed the Constitution’s ratification had been the moment of “legal emancipation”, 4.8 Notes declaring that “as the foundation is laid so must the super[1] New Republic, August 7, 2002. structure be built”. On September 24, 1789, Bedford was nominated by President George Washington to be the first judge for the United States District Court for the District of Delaware, a position created by 1 Stat. 73. Bedford was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 26, 1789, and received his commission the same day. He held the position until his death. He resigned his post as Delaware’s attorney general in 1790. Bedford never lost educational interest in his local community. Believing the establishment of schools “is, on all hands, justly acknowledged to be an object of first importance,” he worked for the improvement of education in Wilmington. He was president of the Board of Trustees of Wilmington Academy, and when that institution became Wilmington College, he became its first president. He also served as the first Grand Master of the Delaware Masonic Lodge.
[2] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp
4.9
External links
• Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • • Gunning Bedford, Jr. at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center. • Delaware Members of Congress • Find a Grave • The Political Graveyard
4.10. PLACES WITH MORE INFORMATION • Judges of the United States Courts • National Historic Landmarks Program • Lombardy Hall
4.10 Places with more information • Delaware Historical Society; website; 505 North Market Street, Wilmington, Delaware 19801; (302) 6557161 • University of Delaware; Library website; 181 South College Avenue, Newark, Delaware 19717; (302) 831-2965
19
Chapter 5
John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware) For other people named John Dickinson, see John Dickin- Mary’s College), as well as of the Dickinson School of son (disambiguation). Law of Pennsylvania State University and the University of Delaware's Dickinson Complex. John Dickinson (November 13 or 15, 1732[note 1] – February 14, 1808), a Founding Father of the United States, was a solicitor and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and Wilmington, Delaware known as the “Penman of the Revolution” for his twelve Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, published individually in 1767 and 1768. As a member of the First Continental Congress, where he was a signee to the Continental Association, Dickinson drafted most of the 1774 Petition to the King, and then as a member of the Second Continental Congress wrote the 1775 Olive Branch Petition, two attempts to negotiate with King George III of Great Britain. When these failed, he reworked Thomas Jefferson's language and wrote the final draft of the 1775 Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms. When Congress then decided to seek independence, Dickinson served on the committee that wrote the Model Treaty, and then wrote the first draft of the 17761777 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. Dickinson later served as President of the 1786 Annapolis Convention, which called for the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which Dickinson then attended as a delegate from Delaware.
5.1
Family history
Dickinson was born[2] at Croisadore, his family’s tobacco plantation near the village of Trappe in Talbot County, Maryland.[3] He was the great-grandson of Walter Dickinson who emigrated from England to Virginia in 1654 and, having joined the Society of Friends, came with several co-religionists to Talbot County on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay in 1659. There, with 400 acres (1.6 km2 ) on the banks of the Choptank River, Walter began a plantation, Croisadore, meaning “cross of gold.” Walter also bought 800 acres (3.2 km2 ) on St. Jones Neck in what became Kent County, Delaware.[4] Croisadore passed through Walter’s son, William, to his grandson, Samuel, the father of John Dickinson. Each generation increased the landholdings, so that Samuel inherited 2,500 acres (1,000 ha) on five farms in three Maryland counties and over his lifetime increased that to 9,000 acres (3,600 ha). He also bought the Kent County property from his cousin and expanded it to about 3,000 acres (1,200 ha), stretching along the St. Jones River from Dover to the Delaware Bay. There he began another plantation and called it Poplar Hall. These plantations were large, profitable agricultural enterprises worked by slave labor, until 1777 when John Dickinson freed the enslaved of Poplar Hall.[5]
He also wrote "The Liberty Song" in 1768, was a militia officer during the American Revolution, was President of Delaware, President of Pennsylvania, and was among the wealthiest men in the British American colonies. Upon Dickinson’s death, President Thomas Jefferson recognized him as being “Among the first of the advocates for the rights of his country when assailed by Great Britain” whose “name Samuel Dickinson first married Judith Troth (1689–1729) will be consecrated in history as one of the great worthies on April 11, 1710. They had nine children; William, Walof the revolution.”[1] ter, Samuel, Elizabeth, Henry, Elizabeth “Betsy,” Rebecca, Together with his wife, Mary Norris Dickinson, he is and Rachel. The three eldest sons died of smallpox while the namesake of Dickinson College (originally John and in London seeking their education. Widowed, with two young children, Henry and Betsy, Samuel married Mary 20
5.3. CONTINENTAL CONGRESS Cadwalader in 1731. She was the daughter of Martha Jones (granddaughter of Dr. Thomas Wynne) and the prominent Quaker John Cadwalader who was also grandfather of General John Cadwalader of Philadelphia. Their sons, John, Thomas, and Philemon were born in the next few years. For three generations the Dickinson family had been members of the Third Haven Friends Meeting in Talbot County and the Cadwaladers were members of the Meeting in Philadelphia. But in 1739, John Dickinson’s half-sister, Betsy, was married in an Anglican church to Charles Goldsborough in what was called a “disorderly marriage” by the Meeting. The couple would be the grandparents of Maryland governor Charles Goldsborough. Leaving Croisadore to elder son Henry Dickinson, Samuel moved to Poplar Hall, where he had already taken a leading role in the community as Judge of the Court of Common Pleas of Kent County. The move also placed Mary nearer her Philadelphia relations. Poplar Hall was situated on a now-straightened bend of the St. Jones River. There was plenty of activity delivering the necessities, and shipping the agricultural products produced. Much of this product was wheat that along with other wheat from the region, was milled into a “superfine” flour. Most people at this plantation were servants and slaves of the Dickinsons.
21 estate and personal property (including a 1500 volume library, one of the largest in the colonies at the time) who had been operating her family’s estate, Fair Hill, for a number of years by herself or with her sister. She was the daughter of a wealthy Philadelphia Quaker, and Speaker of the Pennsylvania General Assembly, Isaac Norris and Sarah Logan, the daughter of James Logan, both deceased.[6] She was also cousin to the Quaker poet Hannah Griffitts. Dickinson and Norris had five children, but only two survived to adulthood: Sarah Norris “Sally” Dickinson and Maria Mary Dickinson. Dickinson never formally joined the Quaker Meeting, because, as he explained, he believed in the “lawfulness of defensive war”.[7] He and Norris were married in a civil ceremony. In Philadelphia, he lived at his wife’s property, Fair Hill, near Germantown, which they modernized through their combined wealth. Meanwhile he built an elegant mansion on Chestnut Street but never lived there as it was confiscated and turned into a hospital during his 1776-77 absence in Delaware. It then became the residence of the French ambassador and still later the home of his brother, Philemon Dickinson. Fair Hill was burned by the British during the Battle of Germantown. While in Philadelphia as State President, he lived at the confiscated mansion of Joseph Galloway at Sixth and Market Streets, now established as the State Presidential mansion.
Dickinson lived at Poplar Hall, for extended periods only in 1776-77 and 1781-82. In August 1781 it was sacked by Loyalists and was badly burned in 1804. This home is now 5.2 Early life and family owned by the State of Delaware and is open to the public. After his service as President of Pennsylvania, he returned Dickinson was educated at home, by his parents and by to live in Wilmington, Delaware in 1785 and built a mansion recent immigrants employed for that purpose. Among at the northwest corner of 8th and Market Streets. them was the Presbyterian minister Francis Alison, who later established New London Academy in Chester County, Pennsylvania. Most important was his tutor, William Killen, who became a lifelong friend and who later became 5.3 Continental Congress Delaware’s first Chief Justice and Chancellor. Dickinson was precocious and energetic, and in spite of his love of Dickinson was one of Pennsylvania’s delegates to the First Poplar Hall and his family, was drawn to Philadelphia. Continental Congress in 1774 and the Second ContinenAt 18 he began studying the law under John Moland in Philadelphia. There he made friends with fellow students George Read and Samuel Wharton, among others. By 1753, John went to London for three years of study at the Middle Temple. He spent those years studying the works of Edward Coke and Francis Bacon at the Inns of Court, following in the footsteps of his lifelong friend, Pennsylvania Attorney General Benjamin Chew, and in 1757 was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar beginning his career as barrister and solicitor.
tal Congress in 1775 and 1776. In support of the cause, he continued to contribute declarations in the name of the Congress. Dickinson wrote the Olive Branch Petition as the Second Continental Congress’ last attempt for peace with Britain (King George III did not even read the petition). But through it all, agreeing with New Castle County's George Read and many others in Philadelphia and the Lower Counties, Dickinson’s object was reconciliation, not independence and revolution. He was a proud devotee of the British Constitution and felt the dispute was with Parliament only.
On July 19, 1770, Dickinson married Mary Norris, known When the Continental Congress began the debate on the as Polly, a prominent and well educated thirty-year-old Declaration of Independence on July 1, 1776, Dickinson woman in Philadelphia with a substantial holding of real reiterated his opposition to declaring independence at that
22
CHAPTER 5. JOHN DICKINSON (PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE)
time. Dickinson believed that Congress should complete the Articles of Confederation and secure a foreign alliance before issuing a declaration. Dickinson also objected to violence as a means for resolving the dispute. He abstained or absented himself from the votes on July 2 that declared independence and absented himself again from voting on the wording of the formal Declaration on July 4. Dickinson understood the implications of his refusal to vote stating, “My conduct this day, I expect will give the finishing blow to my once too great and, my integrity considered, now too diminished popularity.” Dickinson refused to sign the Declaration and since a proposal had been brought forth and carried that stated, “for our mutual security and protection,” no man could remain in Congress without signing, Dickinson voluntarily left and joined the Pennsylvania militia.
workers remained obligated to service for a considerable additional time. Dickinson was the only founding father to free his slaves in the period between 1776 and 1786.[8]
5.5
Drafting of the Articles of Confederation
Dickinson prepared the first draft of the Articles of Confederation in 1776, after others had ratified the Declaration of Independence over his objection that it would lead to violence, and to follow through on his view that the colonies would need a governing document to survive war against Following the Declaration of Independence, Dickinson was them. given the rank of brigadier general in the Pennsylvania militia, known as the Associators. He led 10,000 soldiers to At the time he chaired the committee charged with draftElizabeth, New Jersey, to protect that area against British at- ing the Articles Dickinson was serving in the Continental tack from Staten Island. But because of his unpopular opin- Congress as a delegate from Pennsylvania. The Articles ion on independence, two junior officers were promoted of Confederation he drafted are based around a concept of “person”, not “man” as was used in the Declaration of Inabove him. dependence, although they do refer to “men” in the context of armies.[9]
5.4 Return to Poplar Hall Dickinson resigned his commission in December 1776 and went to stay at Poplar Hall in Kent County. While there he learned that his home on Chestnut Street in Philadelphia had been confiscated and converted into a hospital. He stayed at Poplar Hall for more than two years. The Delaware General Assembly tried to appoint him as their delegate to the Continental Congress in 1777, but he refused. In August 1777 he served as a private with the Kent county Militia at Middletown, Delaware under General Caesar Rodney to help delay General William Howe's march to Philadelphia. In October 1777, Dickinson’s friend, Thomas McKean, appointed him Brigadier General of the Delaware Militia, but again Dickinson declined the appointment. Shortly afterwards he learned that the British had burned down his and his wife’s Fairhill property during the Battle of Germantown. These years were not without accomplishment however. In 1777, Dickinson, Delaware’s wealthiest farmer and largest slaveholder, decided to free his slaves. While Kent County was not a large slave-holding area, like farther south in Virginia, and even though Dickinson had only 37 slaves, this was an action of some considerable courage. Undoubtedly, the strongly abolitionist Quaker influences around them had their effect, and the action was all the easier because his farm had moved away from tobacco to the less labor-intensive crops like wheat and barley. Furthermore, manumission was a multi-year process and many of the
5.6
President of Delaware
On January 18, 1779, Dickinson was appointed to be a delegate for Delaware to the Continental Congress. During this term he signed the Articles of Confederation, having in 1776 authored their first draft while serving in the Continental Congress as a delegate from Pennsylvania. In August 1781, while still a delegate in Philadelphia he learned that Poplar Hall had been severely damaged by a Loyalist raid. Dickinson returned to the property to investigate the damage and once again stayed for several months. While there, in October 1781, Dickinson was elected to represent Kent County in the State Senate, and shortly afterwards the Delaware General Assembly elected him the President of Delaware. The General Assembly’s vote was nearly unanimous, the only dissenting vote having been cast by Dickinson himself.[10] Dickinson took office on November 13, 1781 and served until November 7, 1782. Beginning his term with a “Proclamation against Vice and Immorality,” he sought ways to bring an end to the disorder of the days of the Revolution. It was a popular position and enhanced his reputation both in Delaware and Pennsylvania. Dickinson then successfully challenged the Delaware General Assembly to address lagging militia enlistments and to properly fund the state’s assessment to the Confederation government. And recognizing the delicate negotiations then underway to end the American Revolution, Dickinson se-
5.7. PRESIDENT OF PENNSYLVANIA
23 Proprietary and Popular parties divided equally in thirds over the issue of independence, as Loyalists, Moderate Whigs who later became Federalists, and Radicals or Constitutionalists. The old Pennsylvania General Assembly was dominated by the Loyalists and Moderates and, like Dickinson, did little to support the burgeoning Revolution or independence, except protest. The Radicals took matters into their own hands, using irregular means to write the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776, which by law excluded from the franchise anyone who would not swear loyalty to the document or the Christian Holy Trinity. In this way all Loyalists, Moderate Whigs, and Quakers were kept out of government. This peremptory action seemed appropriate to many during the crises of 1777 and 1778, but less so in the later years of the Revolution, and the Moderate Whigs gradually became the majority.
Dickinson as President of Delaware.
cured the Assembly’s continued endorsement of the French alliance, with no agreement on a separate peace treaty with Great Britain. He also introduced the first census. However, as before, the lure of Pennsylvania politics was too great. On October 10, 1782, Dickinson was elected to the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. On November 7, 1782 a joint ballot by the Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly elected him as president of the Council and thereby President of Pennsylvania. But he did not actually resign as State President of Delaware. Even though Pennsylvania and Delaware had shared the same governor until very recently, attitudes had changed, and many in Delaware were upset at seemingly being cast aside so readily, particularly after the Philadelphia newspapers began criticizing the state for allowing the practice of multiple and non resident office holding. Dickinson’s constitutional successor, John Cook, was considered too weak in his support of the Revolution, and it was not until January 12, 1783, when Cook called for a new election to choose a replacement, that Dickinson formally resigned.
5.7 President of Pennsylvania When the American Revolution began, Dickinson fairly represented the center of Pennsylvania politics. The old
Dickinson’s election to the Supreme Executive Council was the beginning of a counterrevolution against the Constitutionalists. He was elected President of Pennsylvania on November 7, 1782, garnering 41 votes to James Potter's 32. As president he presided over the intentionally weak executive authority of the state, and was its chief officer, but always required the agreement of a majority to act. He was re-elected twice and served the constitutional maximum of three years; his election on November 6, 1783 was unanimous. On November 6, 1784 he defeated John Neville, who also lost the election for Vice-President the same day. Working with only the smallest of majorities in the General Assembly in his first two years and with the Constitutionalists in the majority in his last year, all issues were contentious. At first he endured withering attacks from his opponents for his alleged failure to fully support the new government in large and small ways. He responded ably and survived the attacks. He managed to settle quickly the old boundary dispute with Virginia in southwestern Pennsylvania, but was never able to satisfactorily disentangle disputed titles in the Wyoming Valley resulting from prior claims of Connecticut to those lands. An exhausted Dickinson left office October 18, 1785. On that day a special election was held in which Benjamin Franklin was unanimously elected to serve the ten days left in Dickinson’s term. Perhaps the most significant decision of his term was his patient, peaceful management of the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783. This was a violent protest of Pennsylvania veterans who marched on the Continental Congress demanding their pay before being discharged from the army. Somewhat sympathizing with their case, Dickinson refused Congress’s request to bring full military action against them, causing Congress to vote to remove themselves to Princeton, New Jersey. And when the new Congress agreed to return in 1790, it was to be for only 10 years, until a permanent capital was found elsewhere.
24
CHAPTER 5. JOHN DICKINSON (PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE)
5.8 John and Mary’s College
clude a prohibition of slavery in the document, believing the General Assembly was the proper place to decide that issue. In 1784, Dickinson and Mary Norris Dickinson bequeathed The new Constitution was approved June 12, 1792. Dickmuch of their combined library to John and Mary’s College, inson himself had freed his slaves conditionally in 1776 and named in their honor by its founder Benjamin Rush and later fully by 1787. renamed Dickinson College.[11][12][13] The Dickinsons also Once more Dickinson was returned to the State Senate for donated 500 acres (2 km²) in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, land the 1793 session, but served for just one year before resignoriginally inherited and managed by Mary Norris, to the ing due to his declining health. In his final years, he worked new college. to further the abolition movement, and donated a considerable amount of his wealth to the “relief of the unhappy”. In 1801, Dickinson published two volumes of his collected works on politics. 5.9 United States Constitution
5.10
Death and legacy
Dickinson died at Wilmington, Delaware and was buried in the Friends Burial Ground.[14][15] In an original copy of a letter discovered November 2009 from Thomas Jefferson to Joseph Bringhurst, caretaker of Dickinson in his later years, Jefferson responded to news of Dickinson’s death: “A more estimable man, or truer patriot, could not have left us. Among the first of the advocates for the rights of his country when assailed by Great Britain, he continued to the last the orthodox advocate of the true principles of our new government and his name The Signing of the Constitution of the United States. will be consecrated in history as one of the great worthies [1][16] After his service in Pennsylvania, Dickinson returned to of the revolution.” Delaware, and lived in Wilmington. He was quickly ap- He shares with Thomas McKean the distinction of serving pointed to represent Delaware at the Annapolis Conven- as Chief Executive of both Delaware and Pennsylvania after tion, where he served as its President. In 1787, Delaware the Declaration of Independence. Dickinson College and sent him as one of its delegates to the Constitutional Con- Dickinson School of Law (now of the Pennsylvania State vention of 1787, along with Gunning Bedford, Jr., Richard University), separate institutions each operating a campus Bassett, George Read, and Jacob Broom. There, he sup- located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on land inherited and ported the effort to create a strong central government but managed by his wife Mary Norris, were named for them. only after the Great Compromise assured that each state, Dickinson College was originally named “John and Mary’s regardless of size, would have an equal vote in the future College” but was renamed to avoid an implication of royUnited States Senate. As he had done with the Articles, he alty by confusion with “William and Mary.” And along with also carefully drafted it with the term “Person” rather than his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, Dickinson also “Man” as was used in the Declaration of Independence. He authored The Liberty Song. prepared initial drafts of the First Amendment. Following Dickinson Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his the Convention he promoted the resulting Constitution in a honor,[17] as is John Dickinson High School in Millseries of nine essays, written under the pen name Fabius. town, Delaware, and Dickinson Hall at the University of In 1791, Delaware convened a convention to revise its ex- Delaware. isting Constitution, which had been hastily drafted in 1776. Dickinson was elected president of this convention, and although he resigned the chair after most of the work was complete, he remained highly influential in the content of 5.11 Almanac the final document. Major changes included the establishment of a separate Chancery Court and the expansion of Delaware elections were held October 1 and members of the the franchise to include all taxpayers, except blacks and General Assembly took office on October 20 or the followwomen. Dickinson remained neutral in an attempt to in- ing weekday. The State Legislative Council was created in
5.13. SEE ALSO 1776 and its Legislative Councilmen had a three-year term. Beginning in 1792 it was renamed the State Senate. State Assemblymen had a one-year term. The whole General Assembly chose the State President for a three-year term. Pennsylvania elections were held in October as well. Assemblymen had a one-year term. The Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council was created in 1776, and counsellors were popularly elected for three-year terms. A joint ballot of the Pennsylvania General Assembly and the Council chose the President from among the twelve Counsellors for a one-year term. Both Assemblies chose the Continental Congressmen for a one-year term as well as the delegates to the U.S. Constitution Convention.
25
5.13
See also
• U.S. Constitution, slavery debate in Convention, executive debates
5.14
Notes
[1] These are Gregorian calendar dates. They are November 2 or 4 in the Julian calendar.
5.15
References
[1] “UD Library discovers Thomas Jefferson letter”. University of Delaware. December 3, 2009. Retrieved December 5, 2009.
5.12 In popular culture Dickinson is a prominent character in the musical drama 1776, billed third after the parts of Adams and Franklin. He was originally portrayed on stage by Paul Hecht, and in the 1972 film adaptation by Donald Madden. Michael Cumpsty portrayed him in the 1997 revival. His portrayal in this musical differs substantially from reality: instead of abstaining from voting and debating, he acts as John Adams’ primary antagonist in the debates over independence, to the point where the two men come to blows. His motivation in the musical is to convince the delegates to come to peace terms with Britain, rather than to seek reforms through civil disobedience and other nonviolent measures and for the colonies to mature before seeking independence. Also his wife Mary Norris does not appear in the musical at all, despite being present in Philadelphia at the time, whereas Abigail Adams and Martha Jefferson are heavily depicted, despite being in Boston and Virginia, respectively, at the time. In Part II of the 2008 HBO series John Adams, based on the book by David McCullough, the part of Dickinson is played by Zeljko Ivanek.
[2] Various sources indicate a birth date of November 8, November 12 or November 13, but his most recent biographer, Flower, offers November 2 without dispute. [3] National Archives and Records Administration: “America’s Founding Fathers: Delegates to the Constitutional Convention.” [4] The Duke of York Record 1646-1679, Printed by order of the General Assembly of the State of Delaware, 1899 [5] “John Dickinson: timeline”. Historyhome.co.uk. January 5, 2011. Retrieved September 12, 2012. [6] Stillé, Charles Janeway, The Life and Times of John Dickinson. 1732-1808 (Philadelphia, 1891). [7] Flower, Milton Embick (1983). John Dickinson: Conservative Revolutionary. University of Virginia Press. p. 301. ISBN 978-0-8139-0966-0. [8] Calvert, Jane E. "http://dickinsonproject.rch.uky.edu/ biography.php". University of Kentucky: The John Dickinson Writings Project. Retrieved February 10, 2013. [9] “Journals of the Continental Congress - Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union; July 12, 1776”. The Avalon Project of Yale Law School. Retrieved February 7, 2013.
As portrayed in the 2015 miniseries Sons of Liberty Dickin[10] Bushman, Claudia L.; Hancock, Harold Bell; Homsey, Elizson is shown continually speaking out against prematurely abeth Moyne (1988). Proceedings of the House of Assembly fighting the British and voting on the idea of a Declaration of the Delaware State, 1781-1792, and of the Constitutional of Independence. He suggests a request first be made from Convention of 1792. Newark, DE: University of Delaware the Continental Congress to the King of England, in the Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-87413-309-7. Retrieved June 10, form of the Olive Branch Petition. The program gives no 2013. indication that Dickinson would author the petition. As the Congress votes on independence, the miniseries portrays [11] McKenney, Janice E. (2012). Women of the Constitution: Wives of the Signers. Dickinson getting up and leaving the room without explanation, and no summary was given of his overall contributions [12] “The Books of Isaac Norris at Dickinson College”. The to the American Revolution or what would become of him Dickinson Electronic Initiative in the Liberal Arts. Retrieved February 10, 2013. later.
26
CHAPTER 5. JOHN DICKINSON (PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE)
[13] Butterfield, L.H. (1948). Benjamin Rush and the Beginning of John and Mary’s College Over the Susquehanna. Oxford Journals: Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. p. 427.
• Racino, John W. (1980). Biographical Directory of American and Revolutionary Governors 1607-1789. Westport, CT: Meckler Books. ISBN 0-930466-004.
[14] Ehrlich, Eugene and Gorton Carruth. The Oxford Illustrated Literary Guide to the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982: 217. ISBN 0-19-503186-5
• Rodney, Richard S. (1975). Collected Essays on Early Delaware. Wilmington, Delaware: Society of Colonial Wars in the State of Delaware.
[15] John Dickinson at Find a Grave
• Scharf, John Thomas (1888). History of Delaware 1609-1888. 2 vols. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards & Co.
[16] “Student finds letter 'a link to Jefferson' - CNN.com”. CNN. December 8, 2009. Retrieved May 6, 2010. [17] “Odd Wisconsin Archives”. Wisconsinhistory.org. March 29, 2006. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
5.16 Sources • Calvert, Jane E. (July 2007). “Liberty Without Tumult: Understanding the Politics of John Dickinson”. The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography (Philadelphia: Historical Society of Pennsylvania). CXXXI (3): 233–262. • Calvert, Jane E. (2008). Quaker Constitutionalism and the Political Thought of John Dickinson. Cambridge, England, and New York: Cambridge University Press. • Conrad, Henry C. (1908). History of the State of Delaware. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Wickersham Company. • Flower, Milton E. (1983). John Dickinson- Conservative Revolutionary. Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-0966-X. • Hoffecker, Carol E. (2004). Democracy in Delaware. Wilmington, Delaware: Cedar Tree Books. ISBN 1892142-23-6. • Martin, Roger A. (1984). History of Delaware Through its Governors. Wilmington, Delaware: McClafferty Press.
• Stillé, Charles J. (1891). The life and times of John Dickinson. • Ward, Christopher L. (1941). Delaware Continentals, 1776-1783. Wilmington, DE: Historical Society of Delaware. ISBN 0-924117-21-4. • Bushman, Claudia L.; Hancock, Harold Bell; Homsey, Elizabeth Moyne (1988). Proceedings of the House of Assembly of the Delaware State, 1781-1792, and of the Constitutional Convention of 1792. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press. ISBN 978-0-87413-309-7. Retrieved June 10, 2013.
5.17
External links
• Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Delaware’s Governors • Delmarva Heritage Series • Revolution to Reconstruction • Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution • University of Pennsylvania Archives • ExplorePAHistory.com • The R.R. Logan Collection of John Dickinson Papers are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
• Martin, Roger A. (1995). Memoirs of the Senate. Places with more information Newark, Delaware: Roger A. Martin. • Munroe, John A. (2004). Philadelawareans. Newark, Delaware: University of Delaware Press. ISBN 087413-872-8.
• Delaware Historical Society; website; 505 North Market Street, Wilmington, Delaware 19801; (302) 6557161
• Munroe, John A. (1954). Federalist Delaware 17751815. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University.
• University of Delaware; Library website; 181 South College Avenue, Newark, Delaware 19717; (302) 831-2965
5.17. EXTERNAL LINKS • Historical Society of Pennsylvania; website; 1300 Locust Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; (215) 7326200 • John Dickinson Plantation; website; 340 Kitts Hummock Road, Dover, Delaware (302) 739-3277 • Wilmington Quaker Meeting House (burial site); 401 North West Street, Wilmington, Delaware; (302) 6524491
27
Chapter 6
Richard Bassett (politician) Richard Bassett (April 2, 1745—September 15, 1815) was an American lawyer and political figure from the state of Delaware who, as a veteran of the Revolutionary War and delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, is considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. A member of the Federalist Party, he served in the Delaware General Assembly, as Governor of Delaware, and as U.S. Senator from Delaware. He holds the Senate Rank of 1, as the most senior United States Senator during the First Congress of the United States.[1]
6.1 Early life and family Bassett was born at Bohemia Ferry in the Province of Maryland's Cecil County. His mother, Judith Thompson, had married part-time tavern-owner and farmer Arnold Bassett who deserted the family during Richard’s childhood. Since Judith Thompson was the great granddaughter and heiress of Augustine Herrman, the original owner of Cecil County’s massive estate of Bohemia Manor, her family raised young Richard. Eventually this heritage provided him with inherited wealth, including the Bohemia Manor plantation as well as much other property in Delaware’s New Castle County.
Province of Maryland’s Dorchester County and, in 1770, Richard was admitted to the Bar. He moved to Delaware and began a practice in Kent County's court town of Dover, which, in 1777, became the newly independent state’s capital city. By concentrating on agricultural pursuits as well as religious and charitable concerns, he quickly established himself amongst the local gentry and “developed a reputation for hospitality and philanthropy.”[2] In 1774, at the age of 29, Richard married Ann Ennals and they had three children, Richard Ennals, Ann (known as Nancy) and Mary. After Ann Ennals’ death he married Betsy Garnett in 1796. They were active members of the Methodist Church, and gave the church much of their time and attention.
6.2
Professional and political career
Bassett was a reluctant revolutionary, more closely in tune with the approach of George Read than with his neighbors from Kent County, Caesar Rodney and John Haslet. Nevertheless, in 1774 he was elected to the local Boston Relief Committee. When the new government of Delaware was organized, Bassett served on the 1776 Delaware Council of Safety, and was a member of the convention responsible for drafting the Delaware Constitution of 1776, which was adopted September 20, 1776. He was then one of the conservatives elected to 1st Delaware General Assembly, and served for four sessions, from 1776/77 through 1779/80. Subsequently, he was a member of the House of Assembly for the 1780/81 and 1781/82 sessions, and returned to the Legislative Council, for three sessions from 1782/83 through 1784/85. He concluded his state legislative career with a final term in the House of Assembly during the 1786/87 session. He thereby represented Kent County in all but one session of the Delaware General Assembly from independence to the adoption of the U.S. Constitution of 1787.
However, Bassett’s most notable contributions during the American Revolution were his efforts to mobilize the state’s Bassett studied law under Judge Robert Goldsborough of military. Some sources credit him with developing the Richard Bassett House in Dover, Delaware
28
6.4. DEATH AND LEGACY plans for raising and staffing the 1st Delaware Regiment, with his neighbor, John Haslet at its command. Known as the “Delaware Continentals” or “Delaware Blues”, they were from the smallest state, but at some 800 men, were the largest battalion in the Continental Army. In his book 1776, historian David McCullough describes them as “turned out in handsome red trimmed blue coats, white waistcoats, buckskin breeches, white woolen stockings, and carrying fine, 'lately imported' English muskets”. Raised in early 1776, they went into service in July and August 1776. Bassett also participated in the recruitment of the reserve militia that served in the “Flying Camp” of 1776, and the Dover Light Infantry, led by another neighbor, Thomas Rodney.
29 on February 20, 1801, and received his commission the same day. But the legislation was repealed by the new Jeffersonian 7th Congress, and his tenure ended quickly on July 1, 1802. He never again held public office.
In addition to his high profile in government, Bassett was a devout and energetic convert to Methodism. Having met Francis Asbury in 1778 at the home of their mutual friend, Judge Thomas White, Bassett soon had a conversion experience, and for the remainder of his life devoted much of his attention and wealth to the promotion of Methodism. He and Asbury remained lifelong friends. This association caused him to become linked in many people’s minds to the loyalists, as both White and Asbury were viewed to be When the British Army marched through northern New opposed to the war. But it also led to a strong abolitionist Castle County, on the way to the Battle of Brandywine belief, which led him to free his own slaves and advocate and the capture of Philadelphia, Bassett “appears to have the emancipation of others. joined his friend Rodney in the field as a volunteer”. Once the Delaware militia returned home after the British retired from the area, Bassett continued as a part-time soldier, as6.4 Death and legacy suming command of the Dover Light Horse, Kent County’s militia cavalry unit. in 1799 Bassett was elected governor Bassett died at Bohemia Manor and was first buried there. of Delaware and held his position until 1801. In 1865 his remains were moved to a Bassett and Bayard mausoleum in the Wilmington and Brandywine Cemetery in Delaware’s largest city, Wilmington. 6.3 Later issues and Methodism Bassett was a stout man of medium build. He was very fashionable and influential in society. At the Constitutional Convention of 1787 he was described as “gentlemanly, a religious enthusiast and a man of plain sense” with “modesty enough to hold his tongue”. Bassett’s daughter, Anne married James A. Bayard, a U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator, and they were the ancestors of the branch of the Bayard family that has played a prominent role in Delaware politics ever since. His niece and adopted daughter, Rachel McCleary, married Governor Joshua Clayton of yet another family long prominent in Delaware politics.
Bassett was one of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention and, without supplying much input, signed the Constitution. Meanwhile, the Delaware Constitution of 1776 was in need of revision, and Bassett once again joined with another of Delaware’s Founding Fathers, John Dickinson in leading the convention to draft a revision, which became the Delaware Constitution of 1792. Upon his retirement from the United States Senate in 1793, Bassett began a sixyear term as the first Chief Justice of the Delaware Court of Common Pleas. At the time it was a court of general civil jurisdiction and the predecessor of the present Delaware Bassett Street in Wisconsin's capital, Madison, is named in Superior Court. By this time Bassett was formally a mem- his honor.[3] ber of the Federalist Party, and as such was elected Governor of Delaware in 1799. It was during his time in office that Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours first came to 6.5 Almanac Delaware to begin his gunpowder business. However, it was also during his term that Thomas Jefferson was elected President of the United States, causing great concern for the future of the country among the Federalists. The retiring President John Adams, rushed the Judiciary Act of 1801 through the Federalist 6th Congress, creating a number of new judgeships on the United States circuit courts. Being a staunch Federalist and old political ally, Adams, on his last day in office, February 18, 1801, appointed Bassett, as part of the so-called “midnight judge” appointments, to one of the positions, judge of the Third Circuit. He was confirmed by the United States Senate
Elections were held October 1 and members of the General Assembly took office on October 20 or the following weekday. State Legislative Councilmen had a three-year term and State Assemblymen had a one-year term. The General Assembly chose the U.S. Senators, who took office March 4 for a six-year term. However, Bassett’s term was only four years to establish a rotation. Beginning in 1792 elections were held the first Tuesday of October. The State President became the Governor and was popularly elected. He takes office the third Tuesday in Jan-
30 uary and had a three-year term. Judges of the Courts of Common Pleas were also selected by the General Assembly for the life of the person appointed. U.S. Circuit Court Judges were appointed by the President and approved by the U.S. Senate.
CHAPTER 6. RICHARD BASSETT (POLITICIAN) • Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Biography by Russell Pickett • Delaware’s Governors • Find a Grave
6.6 Notes
• The Political Graveyard • Judges of the United States Courts
[1] SENATORS OF THE UNITED STATES 1789-2012 at the website for United States Senate [2] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. “Richard Bassett”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. Call #E302.5.W85 1987. [3] Origins of Madison Street Names at the website for Wisconsin Historical Society
6.7 References • Conrad, Henry C. (1908). History of the State of Delaware. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Wickersham Company. • Hoffecker, Carol E. (2004). Democracy in Delaware. Wilmington, Delaware: Cedar Tree Books. ISBN 1892142-23-6. • Munroe, John A. (1954). Federalist Delaware 17751815. Rutgers University, New Brunswick. • Martin, Roger A. (1984). History of Delaware Through its Governors. Wilmington, Delaware: McClafferty Press. • Martin, Roger A. (1995). Memoirs of the Senate. Newark, Delaware: Roger A. Martin. • Scharf, John Thomas (1888). History of Delaware 1609-1888. 2 vols. Philadelphia: L. J. Richards & Co. ISBN 0-87413-493-5.
6.8 Images • National Portrait Gallery; portrait courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery.
6.9 External links • Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States
• National Archives • Biography of Bassett in Soldier-Statesman of the Constitution at the United States Army Center of Military History
Chapter 7
Jacob Broom This article is about the Delaware politician. For the Penn- a surveyor at the disposal of the Continental Army, preparsylvania Congressman, see Jacob Broom (congressman). ing detailed maps of the region for General Washington shortly before the Battle of Brandywine. Broom’s political horizons expanded after the Revolution when his commuJacob Broom (October 17, 1752—April 25, 1810) was an nity sent him as their representative to the state legislature American businessperson and politician from Wilmington, (1784–86 and 1788), which in turn chose him to represent in New castle County, Delaware. As a delegate to the U.S. the state at the Annapolis Convention. Like many other Constitutional Convention of 1787, he was a signer of the delegates, Broom was unable to attend the sessions of the United States Constitution. He was also appointed as a deleshort meeting, but he likely sympathized with the convengate to the Annapolis Convention (1786) but did not attend, tion’s call for political reforms.[1] and he served in the Delaware General Assembly. He was the father of Congressman James M. Broom and grandfather of Congressman Jacob Broom. His father was James Broom, a blacksmith turned prosper7.2 Constitutional convention ous farmer, and his mother was Esther Willis, a Quaker. In 1773 he married Rachel Pierce, and together they raised eight children.[1] Despite his lack of involvement in national politics prior to the Constitutional Convention, Broom was a dedicated supporter of strong central government. When George Washington visited Wilmington in 1783, Broom urged him to 7.1 Education and career “contribute your advice and influence to promote that harmony and union of our infant governments which are so After receiving his primary education at Wilmington’s old essential to the permanent establishment of our freedom, Academy, he became prosperous farmer, surveyor, and happiness and prosperity.” finally, a prosperous local politician. Even as a young Broom carried these opinions with him to Philadelphia, man Broom attracted considerable attention in Wilming- where he consistently voted for measures that would aston’s thriving business community, a prominence that pro- sure a powerful government responsive to the needs of the pelled him into a political career. He held a variety of local states. He favored a nine-year term for members of the offices, including borough assessor, president of the city’s Senate, where the states would be equally represented. He “street regulators;" a group responsible for the care of the wanted the state legislatures to pay their representatives in street, water, and sewage systems, and justice of the peace Congress, which, in turn, would have the power to veto state for New Castle County. He became assistant burgess (vice- laws. He also sought to vest state legislatures with the power mayor) of Wilmington in 1776 at the age of 24, winning re- to select presidential electors, and he wanted the President election to this post six times over the next few decades. He to hold office for life. Broom faithfully attended the sessions also served as chief burgess (Mayor) of the city four times. of the Convention in Philadelphia and spoke out several He never lost an election. He was an attorney-general until times on issues that he considered crucial, but he left most he died. of the speechmaking to more influential and experienced Although the strong pacifist influence of his Quaker friends and relatives kept him from fighting in the Revolution, Broom was nevertheless a Patriot who contributed to the cause of independence. For example, he put his abilities as
delegates. Georgia delegate William Pierce described him as “a plain good Man, with some abilities, but nothing to render him conspicuous, silent in public, but cheerful and conversible in private.”[1]
31
32
7.3 Later career After the convention, Broom returned to Wilmington, where in 1795 he erected a home near Brandywine Creek on the outskirts of the city. Broom’s primary interest remained in local government. In addition to continuing his service in Wilmington’s government, he became the city’s first postmaster (1790–92). For many years, he chaired the board of directors of Wilmington’s Delaware Bank. He also operated a cotton mill, as well as a machine shop that produced and repaired mill machinery. He sold his mill property in 1802 to the DuPonts and it became the center of the DuPont manufacturing empire. Broom was also involved in an unsuccessful scheme to mine bog iron ore. A further interest was internal improvements: toll roads, canals, and bridges. A letter to his son James in 1794 touches upon a number of these pursuits. Broom also found time for philanthropic and religious activities. His long-standing affiliation with the Old Academy led him to become involved in its reorganization into the College of Wilmington, and to serve on the college’s first Board of Trustees. Broom was also deeply involved in his community’s religious affairs as a lay leader of the Old Swedes Church. He died at the age of 58 in 1810 while in Philadelphia on business and was buried there at Christ Church Burial Ground.[1]
7.4 Legacy His home near the Brandywine, the Jacob Broom House, was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974. Broom Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his honor.[2]
7.5 Further reading • National Archives Delaware Founding Fathers • Life & Character of Jacob Broom, by Rev. William W. Campbell, Delaware Historical Society, Wilmington, 1909 • Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution, by Robert K. Wright, Jr. and Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., Center of Military History, United States Army, Washington, D.C., 1987 • McCullough Family notes.
CHAPTER 7. JACOB BROOM
7.6
References
[1] The Founding Fathers: Delaware, National Archives, accessed 2010-11-21 [2] “Odd Wisconsin Archives”. Wisconsinhistory.org. 200603-29. Retrieved 2013-04-22.
7.7
External links
• Delaware Historical Society website; 505 North Market Street, Wilmington, Delaware 19801; (302) 6557161 • University of Delaware Library website, 181 South College Avenue, Newark, Delaware 19717; (302) 831-2965
Chapter 8
William Few This article is about the Founding Father of the United States. For the former president of Duke University, see William Preston Few. William Few, Jr. (June 8, 1748 – July 16, 1828) was an American politician and a farmer, and a businessman and a Founding Father of the United States. William represented the U.S. state of Georgia at the Constitutional Convention. Born into a poor yeoman farming family, Will Russell Few achieved both social prominence and political power later in life. Exhibiting those characteristics of self-reliance vital for survival on the American frontier, he became an intimate of the nation’s political and military elite. The idea of a rude frontiersman providing the democratic leaven within an association of the rich and powerful has always excited the American imagination, nurtured on stories of Davy Crockett. In the case of the self-educated Few, that image was largely accurate. Few’s inherent gifts for leadership and organization, as well as his sense of public service, were brought out by his experience in the American Revolutionary War. Important in any theater of military operations, leadership and organizational ability were particularly needed in the campaigns in the south where a dangerous and protracted struggle against a determined British invader intimately touched the lives of many settlers. Few’s dedication to the common good and his natural military acumen quickly brought him to the attention of the leaders of the Patriot cause, who eventually invested him with important political responsibilities as well. The war also profoundly affected Few’s attitude toward the political future of the new nation, transforming the rugged frontier individualist into a forceful exponent of a permanent union of the states. Men of his stripe came to realize during the years of military conflict that the rights of the individual, so jealously prized on the frontier, could be nurtured and protected only by a strong central government accountable to the people. This belief became the hallmark of his long public service.
8.1
Early life
Descendant of Quaker shoemaker Richard Few from the county of Wiltshire, England, and his son Isaac Few, a cooper, who emigrated to Pennsylvania in the 1680s, the Few family lived in northern Maryland, where they eked out a modest living raising tobacco on small holdings. When a series of droughts struck the region in the 1750s, the Fews and their neighbors—actually a sort of extended family consisting of cousins and distant relations—found themselves on the brink of ruin. The whole community decided to abandon its farms and try its luck among the more fertile lands on the southern frontier. In time the Few family achieved a measure of prosperity, emerging political leaders in rural Orange County. Like many other western settlers, however, the family became involved with the Regulators, a populist movement that grew up in reaction to the political and economic restrictions imposed on the frontier or back-country farmers by the merchants and planters of the tidewater area and by the local politicians and lawyers. By 1771 protest had become confrontation, and a large group of mostly unarmed westerners gathered to clash with North Carolina militia units at the “battle” of the Alamance. The uneven fight ended in total victory for the militia, although most of the Regulator’s demands for political representation and economic relief eventually would be met by the state legislature. More immediately, one of Few’s brothers, James Few,[1] was hanged for his part in the uprising,[2] and the Few family farm just east of Hillsborough was ransacked by Tryon’s militia troops. The rest of the family fled to Wrightsboro, Georgia leaving William behind to settle the family’s affairs and sell their property.[3] These antagonisms within North Carolina began to evaporate as American opinion turned against the imperial measures instituted by Great Britain in the 1770s. Both the eastern planters and the new settlers found new taxes and restrictions on western expansion at odds with their idea of self-government, and Patriot leaders were able to unite the state against what they could portray as a threat to the lib-
33
34 erties of all parties. Few participated in this training as one of the first men to enlist in the volunteer militia or “minute men” company formed in Hillsborough. Typically, Few’s unit received its tactical instruction from a veteran of the colonial wars, in this case a former corporal in the British Army who was hired by the company as its drill sergeant. Citing the press of family business, Few rejected the offer of a captaincy in one of the first units North Carolina raised for the Continental Army in the summer of 1775. But when he finally settled the family’s accounts the next year and joined his relatives in Georgia, where he opened a law office, he quickly placed his newly acquired military knowledge at the service of the Patriot cause in his new state
8.2 Revolutionary War Georgia organized its citizen-soldiers on a geographical basis, forming local companies into a regiment in each county. Few joined the Richmond County Regiment, which his older brother, Benjamin, commanded. For the next two years Few’s military duties consisted of attending military assemblies where he instructed his friends and neighbors in the skills he had acquired in the North Carolina militia. Only in 1778, when Georgia faced the threat of invasion by a force of Loyalist militia and British regulars based in Florida, was Few finally called to active duty. The Georgians’ first military campaign ended in disaster. A force of state and Continental units successfully combined to repulse an enemy raid on Sunbury near the states southeastern border, but a counterattack orchestrated by Major General Robert Howe of the Continental Army and Governor John Houstoun bogged down before the Patriots could reach St. Augustine. Few, now in command of a company of Georgia Militia, watched the collapse of the campaign’s logistical support and then the disintegration of the force itself, as senior officers bickered among themselves and as disease began to decimate the units. Only half of the American soldiers survived to return home. At the end of the year a sudden amphibious invasion by British forces resulted in the capture of Savannah, Georgia, and the destruction of the rest of the Continental units under Howe and most of the eastern militia formations. Armed resistance to the British continued in the western part of the state, led by the Richmond County Regiment. Throughout 1779 the regiment, with Few now second in command, frequently turned out to skirmish with probing British units, eventually forcing the enemy to abandon Augusta, which the British had captured soon after the fall of Savannah.
CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM FEW prompting the new Continental commander in the region, Major General Benjamin Lincoln, to take the offensive. Lincoln combined his continentals and militia units from Georgia and South Carolina with a French force newly arrived from the Caribbean to lay siege to Savannah. He immediately encountered difficulty, however, in coordinating the efforts of his diverse forces. The French, under pressure to terminate operations quickly in order to move on to other assignments, persuaded Lincoln to launch a full frontal attack. The result was a bloody defeat, but Few’s militiamen participated in a successful rear-guard action that shielded the retreat of the American units. In the aftermath of the battle his regiment was posted to the frontier where the Creek Indians, interpreting the defeat before Savannah as proof of the Georgians’ weakness, had taken to the field in support of British forces. Enemy operations in Georgia in 1779 were part of a new “southern strategy” by which the British planned to use the state as a base for conquering the rebellious colonies in a sweep up from the south. Few’s military service in the later years of the war proved critical both in frustrating this strategy and in enhancing his credentials as a state leader. The western forces, in which Few’s regiment played a prominent role, kept the British from consolidating their position. The area never developed into a secure Loyalist base, and British troops needed for subsequent operations against the Carolinas and Virginia had to be diverted to counter the threat posed by the frontier militia units. Few emerged as a gifted administrator and logistics expert in this demanding and difficult effort to maintain a viable military force in Georgia. He also turned into a bold, innovative partisan commander. Experience and innate common sense enabled him to develop patience, preserve his forces for key attacks, and then pick his time and place to defeat small enemy parties without unduly risking the safety of his men. Most important, he displayed the raw physical stamina required to survive the serious hardships of guerrilla warfare.
8.3
The Statesman
Military was a success that went hand in hand with political service. During the late 1770s Few also won election to the House of Representatives in the Georgia General Assembly, sat on the state’s Executive Council, acted as state surveyor-general, represented Georgia in negotiations with the Indians that succeeded in minimizing the danger of frontier attacks, and served as Richmond County’s senior magistrate. Few’s growing political prominence and undisputed talent for leadership prompted the state legislature in 1780 to appoint him to represent Georgia in the Continental [4] The success of the citizen-soldiers in defending their own Congress. homes began to reverse the fortunes of war in Georgia, Few served in Congress less than a year when, in the wake
8.4. DEATH & LEGACY
35 Few retired in 1815 to his country home in Fishkill, New York in Dutchess County where he died on July 16, 1828.[6]
8.4
Few’s signature on early American currency from Georgia (1778).
of General Nathanael Greene's successful effort to drive the British out of most of Georgia, Congress sent him home to help reassemble Georgia’s scattered government. This task accomplished, Few returned to Congress in 1782, where he remained to serve throughout most of the decade. While a member of that body, Few was asked by his state to serve concurrently in the Constitutional Convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787. This dual responsibility caused him to split his time between the two bodies and therefore to miss portions of the constitutional proceedings. Nevertheless, Few firmly supported the effort to create a strong national government and worked hard to secure the Continental Congress’ approval of the new instrument of government. He also participated in the Georgia convention in 1788 that ratified the document. Georgia promptly selected Few to serve as one of its original United States senators. Planning to retire from politics at the expiration of his term in 1793, he bowed instead to the wishes of his neighbors and served yet another term in the state legislature. In 1796 Few was appointed as a federal judge for the Georgia circuit.[5] During this three-year appointment he not only consolidated his reputation as a practical, fair jurist but became a prominent supporter of public education. He was a founding trustee of the University of Georgia (UGA) in Athens in 1785. Few’s efforts to establish UGA as the first state-chartered university in the United States indicated the importance this self-educated man gave to formal instruction.
Death & Legacy
Few died at age 80 in 1828 in Fishkill-on-Hudson (present day Beacon, NY),[7] survived by his wife Catherine Nicholson and three daughters. He was buried in the yard of the Reformed Dutch Church of Fishkill Landing. In 1973, at the request of the state of Georgia, his remains were removed and reinterred at Saint Paul’s Church, Augusta, Georgia.[8] James Marshall said of William Few, “He was one of those men, 'few and far between,' who effect more by solid weight of character than many can by eloquent speech or restless action.”[9] Few Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in Few’s honor[2] and the William Few Parkway was constructed near his Augusta homestead in Columbia County, Georgia.[10]
8.5
References
[1] Orange County, North Carolina history. ancestry.com. Retrieved July 18, 2013. [2] Origins of Madison Street Names. wisconsinhistory.org. Retrieved July 18, 2013. [3] William Few, Jr. “Founding Father of America” from Georgia. fewgenealogy.net. Retrieved July 18, 2013. [4] A Biography of William Few 1748-1828. rug.nl. Retrieved July 18, 2013. [5] William Few Writings and Biography. lexrex.com. Retrieved July 18, 2013. [6] Few, William, (1748 - 1828). congress.gov. Retrieved July 18, 2013. [7] http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_ founding_fathers_georgia.html
At the urging of his wife, a native New Yorker, Few left [8] America’s Founding Fathers: William Few / Georgia. Georgia in 1799 and moved to Manhattan. There, he emarchives.gov. Retrieved July 18, 2013. barked on yet another career of public service, while supporting his family through banking and the occasional prac- [9] William Few 1748-1828. colonialhall.com. Retrieved July 18, 2013. tice of law. He served as director of the Manhattan Bank (known as Citigroup as of 2013) from 1804–14, becoming [10] Paschal, Barry L. (February 7, 2013). Projects will ease its President in 1814. His new neighbors promptly elected William Few Parkway traffic. augusta.com. Retrieved July 18, 2013. him to represent them in the New York State Assembly from 1802–05 and later as a city alderman from 1813–14. • Initial article adapted from public domain U.S. miliHe also served as New York’s inspector of prisons 1802–10 tary text. and as the United States Commissioner of Loans in 1804.
36 • • William Few at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
8.6 External links • The Few family farm
CHAPTER 8. WILLIAM FEW
Chapter 9
Abraham Baldwin For his nephew, see Abraham Dudley Baldwin.
9.2
Move to Georgia
Abraham Baldwin (November 22, 1754 – March 4, 1807) was a Connecticut-born and raised minister, Patriot, American politician, and Founding Father. A graduate of Yale University and its divinity school, after the Revolutionary War he became a lawyer. He moved to the U.S. state of Georgia in the mid-1780s to work under the governor and develop its educational system. Baldwin is noted as the developer and founding president of the University of Georgia (1785-1801), the first state-chartered public institution of higher education in the United States.
Baldwin was recruited by Governor Lyman Hall of Connecticut to work for the Georgia governor in developing a state education plan. He moved to Georgia, where he became active in politics to build support for a college. He was appointed as a delegate to the Confederation Congress and the Constitutional Convention, and was one of the state’s two signatories to the U.S. Constitution.
Baldwin was appointed in 1785 to serve as the first president of the University of Georgia during its initial planning phase to 1801. During this period, he also worked with the After serving in the state Assembly, Baldwin was elected as legislature on the college charter. a Georgia representative in the Continental Congress and In 1801, Franklin College, UGA’s initial college, opened one of two signatories from Georgia of the United States to students. Josiah Meigs was hired to succeed Baldwin as Constitution. He served in the United States House of Reppresident and oversee the inaugural class of students. The resentatives for five terms and in the Senate from 1799 until first buildings of the college were architecturally modeled his death in office in Washington, DC. on Baldwin’s alma mater of Yale. (Later the university sports team adopted as its mascot, the bulldog, also in tribute to Baldwin, as it is the mascot of Yale.)
9.1 Early life, education and career Abraham Baldwin was born in 1754 in Guilford, Connecti- 9.3 Politics cut in a large family. His father was a blacksmith. After attending a local village school, Baldwin attended Yale Uni- Baldwin was elected to the Georgia Assembly, where he versity in nearby New Haven, Connecticut, where he was a became very active, working to develop support for the colmember of the Linonian Society. He graduated in 1772. lege. He was able to mediate between the rougher frontiersThree years later after theological study, he became a men, perhaps because of his childhood as the son of a blackminister. He also served as a tutor at the college. He held smith, and the aristocratic planter elite who dominated the that position until 1779. During the American Revolution- coastal Lowcountry. He became one of the most prominent ary War, he served as a chaplain in the Connecticut Contin- legislators, pushing significant measures such as the educagent of the Continental Army. He did not see combat while tion bill through the sometimes split Georgia Assembly.[1][2] with the Continental troops.[1] He was elected as representative to the US Congress in Two years later at the conclusion of the war, Baldwin declined an offer from Yale for a divinity professorship. Instead of resuming his ministerial or educational vocation after the war, he turned to the study of law. In 1783 he was admitted to the bar.
1788. The Georgia legislature elected him as US Senator in 1798 (this was the practice until popular election in 1913.) He served as President pro tempore of the United States Senate from December 1801 to December 1802. He was re-elected and served in office until his death.
37
38
9.4 Death and legacy On March 4, 1807, at age 52, Baldwin died while serving as a U.S. senator from Georgia. Later that month the Savannah Republican and Savannah Evening Ledger reprinted an obituary that had first been published in a Washington, D.C., newspaper: “He originated the plan of The University of Georgia, drew up the charter, and with infinite labor and patience, in vanquishing all sorts of prejudices and removing every obstruction, he persuaded the assembly to adopt it.”[3] His remains are interred at Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, DC.
9.5 Honors • The United States Postal Service made a 7¢ Great Americans series postage stamp in his honor. • Numerous places and institutions were named for him: • Baldwin County in Alabama and Georgia; • Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College in Tifton, Georgia; • Abraham Baldwin Middle School in Guilford, Connecticut; and • Baldwin streets in Madison, Wisconsin[4] and Athens, Georgia. • The University of Georgia erected a statue of Baldwin on the historic North Campus quad in his honor as its founding father.[5]
9.6 References [1] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. (1987). “Abraham Baldwin”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. LCCN 87001353. OCLC 15549460. CMH Pub 71-25. Retrieved 9 November 2013. [2] Rowe, H.J. (2000). History of Athens & Clarke County. Southern Historical Press. [3] “Abraham Baldwin (1754-1807)", New Georgia Encyclopedia (2009-01-06), Retrieved on 2013-07-21 [4] Odd Wisconsin Archives. Wisconsinhistory.org (2006-0329). Retrieved on 2013-07-21. [5] “Special Report on the Abraham Baldwin Statue Initiative”. UGA’s External Affairs. n.d. Retrieved 10 February 2013.
CHAPTER 9. ABRAHAM BALDWIN • Abraham Baldwin at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Chapter 10
William Houston This article is about the statesman. For the lawyer, see 10.2.2 William Houstoun (lawyer). For other people, see William Houston (disambiguation). William Churchill Houston (c. 1746 – August 12, 1788) was an American teacher, lawyer, and statesman. He was a delegate to both the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention for New Jersey. Houston was elected in 1785 to the American Philosophical Society.
Continental Congress and legal career
He was elected to represent Somerset County in the New Jersey General Assembly in 1777. In 1778 he served on the state’s Committee of Safety. Then from 1779 to 1781 New Jersey sent him as a delegate to the Continental Congress. His work in Congress was largely directed to issues of finance and supply. He began to study law at this time. He returned to the college, and was admitted to the bar in 1781. Houston also opened a law office in Trenton. During these years he was also named as clerk of the New Jersey Supreme Court. In 1783, he resigned from the college to devote himself to his legal career. He returned to the Continental Congress in 1784 and 1785.
10.1 Early life and career
Houston was born in the Sumter District of central South Carolina. His parents, Archibald and Margaret Houston, were farmers who had emigrated to the then British colony 10.2.3 Constitutional Convention delegate from Ireland. He attended the College of New Jersey (later Princeton) After his graduation in 1768 he stayed on as a tutor, becoming a Professor of Mathematics and Natural In 1786, Houston was appointed to a commission to study the defects in the Articles of Confederation which joined Philosophy (science) in 1771. the states. He went to the Annapolis Convention to discuss the problem. Instead of proposing changes to the articles, this Convention called for a full Constitutional Convention. When the United States Constitutional Convention assembled in 1787, he went to Philadelphia as a delegate. Hous10.2 American Revolution ton only remained at the convention for a week before his failing health caused him to withdraw.
10.2.1
Militia
When British forces occupied Princeton in 1776 at the outset of the Revolution the college was closed and the students and professors returned home. Houston then joined with the militia of nearby Somerset County and saw action in the area. He was later elected Captain of one of their companies. When the British withdrew from New Jersey in 1777 and the college reopened, he returned to his teaching post.
10.3
Death
He died of tuberculosis the following year in Frankford, Pennsylvania (now part of Philadelphia) and was buried at the Second Presbyterian Church Cemetery in Philadelphia. Later, the burials from the Second Presbyterian Church were moved to Mount Vernon Cemetery in Philadelphia.
39
40
10.4 External links • • William Houston at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
CHAPTER 10. WILLIAM HOUSTON
Chapter 11
William Pierce (politician) William Pierce (c. 1753 – December 10, 1789) was an army officer during the American Revolutionary War and a member of the United States Constitutional Convention of 1787. Little is known about Pierce’s early life or background. He was born in York County, Virginia in 1753. He served in the Continental Army through most of the War of Independence. He was commissioned a captain in the 1st Continental Artillery Regiment on November 30, 1776. Due to failing health, he left the artillery to serve as an aide-decamp to General John Sullivan during Sullivan’s expedition against the Iroquois in 1779. He returned to Virginia and attended the College of William and Mary, but in December 1780 he became an aide-de-camp to General Nathanael Greene. He served with Greene throughout the tumultuous southern campaign, and was recognized by Congress for his bravery at the Battle of Eutaw Springs on September 8, 1781. He received brevet promotion to major at the end of the war.
original member and vice president of the Georgia chapter of the Society of the Cincinnati, and served as a trustee of the Chatham County Academy until his death on December 10, 1789.
11.1
References
• Fore, Samuel K. “William Pierce”. New Georgia Encyclopedia November 2008. • Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Revolution. New York: Facts on File, 1993. ISBN 0-8160-2107-4. • Weir, Robert M. “Pierce, William Leigh”. American National Biography Online February 2000.
11.2
After his military service, Pierce sought to establish himself as a merchant in the Caribbean. He eventually settled in Savannah, Georgia, and partnered with fellow officers Richard Call and Anthony Walton White. In 1783, he married Charlotte Fenwick, the daughter of a wealthy South Carolina planter, with whom he had a son, noted author William Leigh Pierce. Pierce represented Chatham County in the Georgia State Legislature, which in 1786 elected him to the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention the following year. At the Convention he kept notes on the proceedings and, more importantly, wrote character sketches of his fellow delegates. It is these sketches for which he is remembered. Pierce left the Convention in July to attend business matters and did not sign the Constitution. Pierce had business troubles and substantial debts, and sought but did not receive appointment to a position in the federal government. He was unsuccessful in a bid for the United States House of Representatives in 1789. He was an
41
External links
• William Leigh Pierce at the National Archives • The Framers of the Constitution: sketches by William Pierce
Biographical
Chapter 12
Daniel Carroll For other people named Daniel Carroll, see Daniel Carroll the Patriot cause. As a friend and ally of George Washing(disambiguation). ton he worked for a strong central government and fought Daniel Carroll (July 22, 1730 – July 5, 1796) was a in the Constitutional Convention for a government directly responsible to the people of the country.[1]
12.1
Early life and career
Carroll was born in Upper Marlboro, county seat of Prince Georges County, Maryland on July 22, 1730 to a wealthy family.[2] He spent his early years at his family’s home, a large estate of thousands of acres which his mother, Eleanor Darnall Carroll, had inherited. Several of those acres are now associated with the house museum known as Darnall’s Chance, listed on the National Register of Historic Places). Carroll was sent abroad for his education. Between 1742 and 1748 he studied under the Society of Jesus, ("Jesuits") at the College of St. Omer (along with his brother Bishop Carroll) in French Flanders, established for the education of English Catholics after the Protestant Reformation, instituted there by King Henry VIII. Then, after a tour of Europe, he sailed home and soon married Eleanor Carroll, apparently a first cousin of another cousin, Charles Carroll of Carrollton.[3] Carroll gradually joined the Patriot cause. A planter, slaveholder, and large landholder, he was concerned that the Daniel Carroll Revolution might fail economically and bring about not only politician and one of the Founding Fathers of the United his family’s financial ruin, but mob rule.[1] States. He was a prominent member of one of the United At the time, colonial laws excluded Roman Catholics from States’ great colonial Catholic families, whose members holding public office. Once these laws were nullified by included his younger brother, Archbishop John Carroll, the Maryland Constitution of 1776, Carroll was elected (1735-1815), the first Roman Catholic bishop in the United to the Maryland State Senate of the General Assembly of States (1790), (as Archbishop of Baltimore) and founder of Maryland (1777–1781). At the end of his term, Carroll Georgetown University; and their cousin Charles Carroll of was elected to the Confederation Congress (1781–1784), Carrollton, (1737-1832), who signed the Declaration of In- towards the end of the American Revolution. In 1781, dependence. Daniel Carroll was one of five men to sign he signed the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual both the "Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union" Union", which Maryland finally agreed to sign after holding (1778) and the United States Constitution (1787). up the process for several years until the larger states with Carroll was a planter. He supported the cause of American western land claims beyond the Appalachian Mountains exindependence, risking his social and economic position for tending to the Mississippi River, ceded their claims to the 42
12.3. POLITICAL CAREER new central government in Congress. His involvement in the Revolution, like that of other Patriots in his extended family, was inspired by the family’s motto: “Strong in Faith and War”.[1]
12.2 Constitutional Convention of 1787
43 roll, seconded by Wilson, moved that the words “by the legislature” be replaced with “by the people”. He and Thomas Fitzsimons were the only Roman Catholics to sign the Constitution, a symbol of the continued advancement of religious freedom in America during the Revolutionary period. At the Constitutional Convention, Daniel Carroll played an essential role in formulating the limitation of the powers of the federal or central government. He was the author of the presumption — enshrined in the Constitution as a closing article — that powers not specifically delegated to the federal government were reserved to the states or to the people.[4] Carroll spoke about 20 times during the summer of debates at the Constitutional Convention and served on the Committee on Postponed Matters. Returning to Maryland after the Convention, he campaigned for ratification of the Constitution, but was not a delegate to the Maryland state convention for ratification.[3]
12.3
Political career
Following the Convention, Carroll continued to be involved in state and national affairs. He was a key participant in the Maryland ratification struggle of 1787-1788.[5] He defended the Constitution in the pages of the “Maryland Journal”, published in Baltimore, most notably in his response to the arguments advanced by the well-known Anti-federalist, another Patriot delegate Samuel Chase. After ratification was achieved in Maryland, Carroll was elected as a Representative (“congressman”) to the Sixth Congressional District of Maryland to the First Congress of 1789, meeting in New York City. Given his concern for economic and fiscal stability, he voted for the assumption of state debts accumulated during the war by the federal government to establish a new level of financial confidence of credible public debts as proposed by the new U.S. Secretary of the TreaArms of Carroll sury, Alexander Hamilton as part of a “grand bargain” with Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, for Northerners to Carroll was a member of the Constitutional Convention. support locating the new national capital in the upper South, Like his good friend James Madison of Virginia, Carroll along the Potomac River. was convinced that a strong central government was needed One of three commissioners appointed to survey the newly to regulate commerce among the states and with other na- designated District of Columbia and acquire land for the tions. He also spoke out repeatedly in opposition to the new federal capital in the District, Carroll was related to payment of members of the United States Congress by the two major land owners whose land was taken by the governstates, reasoning that such compensation would sabotage ment, his brother-in-law Notley Young and nephew Daniel the strength of the new government because "...the depen- Carroll of Duddington. The new United States Capitol was dence of both Houses on the state Legislatures would be to be built on the wooded hill owned by his nephew.[6] One compleat .... The new government in this form is nothing of his first official acts as commissioners occurred on 15th more than a second edition of [the Continental] Congress April 1791 when with fellow commissioner David Stuart of in two volumes, instead of one, and perhaps with very few Virginia, he laid the cornerstone for the beginning boundamendments.”[1] ary line survey of the ten-square mile District of Columbia When it was suggested that the President (executive branch) at Jones Point along the southern shore of the Potomac should be elected by the Congress (legislative branch), Car- River, near the river port town of Alexandria, formerly in
44
CHAPTER 12. DANIEL CARROLL
Virginia.[5] He served as a commissioner until 1795 when he retired because of his poor health.
[6] “Carroll, Daniel ((1730 - 1796)", Biographical Dictionary of the United States Congress
He later was elected to the Maryland Senate, the upper house of the state’s General Assembly. He had many interests in his state and region including the "Patowmack Company", a business enterprise intended to link the East with the expanding West by means of a Potomac River canal, a long-time hope and project of George Washington since his western explorations and military campaigns against the French. This pre-dated the surveying and construction thirty years later of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and its subsequent competition of the use of iron railroad tracks united with the steam engine and locomotive to connect over the Eastern mountains connections between the Atlantic coast and the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers interior heartland, tying the nation, with one of the largest territories then in the world.[3]
[7] “Signers of the Constitution”, National Park Service
Daniel Carroll died at the age of 65 at his home near Rock Creek in the present village of Forest Glen, Maryland. He was buried there in St. John’s Catholic Cemetery.[7]
12.4 Legacy Carroll Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his honor.[8]
12.5 See also • Carroll family
12.6 References [1] Robert K. Wright, Jr.; Morris J. MacGregor, Jr. (1987). “Daniel Carroll”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. Retrieved 2007-10-02. [2] Geiger, Mary Virginia. Daniel Carroll, A Framer of the Constitution, Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America, 1943 [3] “Delegates to the Constitutional Convention” United States National Archives and Records Administration [4] Carter, Charles Carroll. “The Carroll Family”, Catholic Education Resource Center [5] Meehan, Thomas. “Daniel Carroll.” The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 5 Jul. 2013
[8] Wisconsin Historical Society
12.7
External links
• • Daniel Carroll at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Chapter 13
James McHenry James McHenry (November 16, 1753 – May 3, 1816) was an Irish-born American statesman. McHenry was a signer of the United States Constitution from Maryland and the namesake of Fort McHenry. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress from Maryland, and the third United States Secretary of War (1796–1800), under the first and second presidents, George Washington, (administration: 1789-1797) and John Adams, (administration: 17971801).
fort was taken by Sir William Howe. While there, he observed that prisoners were given very poor medical attention and initiated reports to that effect, to no avail.[1] He was paroled in January 1777, and released from parole in March 1778. Having sufficiently impressed George Washington, he was appointed aide as secretary to the commander-in-chief in May 1779. McHenry was present at the Battle of Monmouth. In August 1780 he was transferred to major-general Lafayette's staff, where he remained until he retired from the army in the autumn of 1781.[1][3]
13.1 Early life and education McHenry was born into a Scots-Irish family in Ballymena, County Antrim, Ireland in 1753. Alarmed that he became sick from excessive studying, his family in 1771 sent him at age 17 to North America to recuperate. Recent scholarship suggests that the family may have also sent him to the colonies as an “advanced scout” to see if the entire family would wish to relocate, which they did a year later. Upon arrival, McHenry lived with a family friend in Philadelphia before deciding to finish his preparatory education at Newark Academy. Returning to Philadelphia, McHenry then apprenticed under Dr. Benjamin Rush and became a physician.[1][2]
13.2 Career McHenry practiced medicine and became a surgeon.
13.2.1
Military career
McHenry served as a skilled and dedicated surgeon during the American Revolutionary War. On August 10, 1776 he was appointed surgeon at the age of 22 of the Fifth Pennsylvania Battalion stationed at Fort Washington (New York). He was taken prisoner the following November when the
13.3
Political office
Following the war, McHenry was one of three physicians (others were Hugh Williamson and James McClurg) who participated in the Constitutional Convention to create the new Constitution of the United States.[1] He was elected by the legislature to the senate of Maryland on September 17, 1781, and elected as delegate to congress by the Maryland legislature on December 2, 1784. After a controversial campaign, he was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates on October 10, 1788. Two years later he retired from public life and spent a year actively engaged in mercantile business. On November 15, 1791 he accepted a second term in the Maryland senate where he served for 5 years.[1] During this time, president Washington had difficulties with his second administration, as his cabinet officers Hamilton and General Knox resigned. In addition, he had a vacancy after appointing Timothy Pickering to the State Department. After a few of Washington’s preferred cabinet selections declined the position, his friend McHenry’s name surfaced.[1] Washington appointed McHenry Secretary of War in 1796 and immediately assigned him the task of facilitating the transition of Western military posts from Great Britain’s control to that of the United States, under the terms of the Jay Treaty.
45
46
CHAPTER 13. JAMES MCHENRY
Grave of James McHenry at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore
Letter from James Mchenry to Israel Shreve, 1779
McHenry advised the senate committee against reducing military forces. He was instrumental in reorganizing the United States Army into one of four regiments of infantry, a troop of dragoons, and a battery of artillery.[1] He is credited with establishing the United States Department of the Navy, based on his recommendation that the "War Department should be assisted by a commissioner of marine.” on March 8, 1798.[1] During President John Adams's administration (17971801), he also appointed McHenry as his Secretary of War, as he had decided to keep the newly established institution of the presidential cabinet intact. There was no precedent to follow in the new constitutional government. Adams gradually found that three members of the cabinet: McHenry, Pickering (the Secretary of State), and Oliver Wolcott (the Secretary of the Treasury), became a drag on his administration and programs. They appeared to listen more to Alexander Hamilton than to the president. The three publicly disagreed with Adams about his foreign policy, particularly with regard to France, and, instead of resigning, stayed in office working against his official policy. It is un-
known if Adams knew they were being disloyal. Although many liked McHenry personally, Washington, Hamilton, and Wolcott were said to have complained of his incompetence as an administrator.[4] McHenry attributed Adams’s troubles as chief executive to the president’s long and frequent absences from the Capital, leaving business in the hands of secretaries who bore responsibility without the power to properly conduct it.[1] After a stormy meeting with his cabinet in May 1800, Adams requested McHenry’s resignation, which he submitted on May 13. To replace McHenry, Adams first considered John Marshall, but, when Pickering’s departure left a vacancy in the office of Secretary of State, Adams named Marshall to that post. To succeed McHenry, Adams named Samuel Dexter. When Pickering refused to resign, Adams dismissed him. During the election of 1800, McHenry goaded Hamilton into releasing his indictment against the President. It questioned Adams’s loyalty and patriotism, sparking public quarrels over the major candidates and eventually paving the way for Thomas Jefferson to be elected as the next President.[5] The pamphlet leaked past its intended audience, giving the people reason to doubt the Federalists, because that group seemed to be dividing into bitter factions. Thus, Adams lost re-election in the Fall of 1800 (to third President, Thomas Jefferson).
13.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
13.4 Later years In 1792, McHenry purchased a 95-acre tract from Ridgely’s Delight and named it Fayetteville in honor of his friend Lafayette; he spent his remaining years there. During that time, McHenry continued frequent correspondence with his friends and associates, in particular Timothy Pickering and Benjamin Tallmadge, with whom he maintained Federalist ideals and exchanged progress of the war.[1] An attack of paralysis in 1814, left him with severe pain and complete loss of the use of his legs. He died two years later.[1] Upon the death of her beloved husband, Mrs. McHenry wrote: “Here we come to the end of a life of a courteous, high-minded, keen-spirited, Christian gentleman. He was not a great man, but participated in great events and great men loved him, while all men appreciated his goodness and purity of soul. His highest titles to remembrance are that he was faithful to every duty and that he was the intimate and trusted friend of Lafayette, of Hamilton, and of Washington).”[1]
13.5 Legacy and honors • Elected member of the American Philosophical Society in January 1786.[1] • Elected president of the Bible Society of Baltimore in 1813[1] (later known as the Maryland Bible Society). • McHenry is memorialized at Independence Hall and the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia. • Fort McHenry in Baltimore, Maryland was named after him. A battle there during the War of 1812 inspired Francis Scott Key to write what became the national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner". • Henry Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his honor.[6] • McHenry, Maryland in Garrett County, Maryland was named after him.[7] • Keith McHenry is a direct descendent of James McHenry.
13.6 References [1] Bernard C. Steiner and James McHenry, The Life and Correspondence of James McHenry (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers Co., 1907)1-4.
47
[2] Karen E. Robbins, James McHenry, Forgotten Federalist (Athens and London: The University of Georgia Press, 2013) 9, 12-16. [3] Edward G. Lengel, General George Washington: A Military Life (New York: Random House, 2007). [4] Lengel, General George Washington [5] John Patrick Diggins, John Adams, New York: Times Books, 2003 [6] “Origins of Madison Street Names”. Wisconsin Historical Society. Retrieved 24 June 2011. [7] “Historical Markers”.
13.7
External links
• • James McHenry at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • “James McHenry: Soldier-Statesman of the Constitution”, A Bicentennial Series, U.S. Army Center of Military History, National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior
Chapter 14
John Francis Mercer For other people of the same name, see John Mercer (disambiguation).
14.2
Notes
[1] William and Mary College Quarterly Historical Magazine XVII, College of William and Mary, July 1908, p. 90, retrieved 2008-11-30
John Francis Mercer (May 17, 1759 – August 30, 1821) was an American lawyer, planter, and politician from Virginia and Maryland.
14.3
External links
• • John Francis Mercer at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
14.1 Life Born in 1759 in Marlborough, Stafford County, Virginia, to John Mercer and Ann Roy Mercer, he graduated from the College of William and Mary in 1775 and was a delegate for Virginia to the Continental Congress in 1783 and 1784. He married Sophia Sprigg February 3, 1785.[1] During the American Revolutionary War, Mercer was commissioned a captain in the 3rd Virginia Regiment in the Continental Army. He was wounded at the Battle of Brandywine. In 1778 he became an aide-de-camp with the rank of major to General Charles Lee. He resigned from the army when Lee did, but reentered the war as a lieutenant colonel in the Virginia militia. He served briefly under Lafayette in Virginia and was present at the siege of Yorktown. After the war, Mercer moved to Anne Arundel County, Maryland, and was a Maryland delegate to the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, but withdrew before signing the Constitution. He would represent Maryland in the United States House of Representatives from the second and third districts from 1792 to 1794, and served as the tenth Governor of Maryland from 1801 to 1803. Illness plagued Mercer in his later years, and went to Pennsylvania to seek medical attention. On August, 1821 Mercer died in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He is buried in Cedar Park, Anne Arundel County, Maryland. He was the brother of George Mercer and James Mercer. 48
• Mercer biography at the University of Groningen, Netherlands
Chapter 15
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer financial agent for the last two proprietors of Maryland. Jenifer served as justice of the peace for Charles County and later for the western circuit of Maryland. He sat on a commission that settled a boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Delaware[2] (1760) and on the Governor’s Council, the upper house of the Maryland legislature that also served as the colony’s court of appeals and as a board of senior advisers to the governor (1773–76).
15.2
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer painted by John Hesselius, c. 1760– 70.
Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer[1] (1723 – November 16, 1790) was a politician and a Founding Father of the United States. Born long before conflicts with Great Britain emerged, he was a leader for many years in Maryland’s colonial government. However, when conflict arose with Great Britain, he embraced the Patriot cause.
15.1 Early life and colonial career Jenifer, born at Coates Retirement (now Ellerslie), an estate west of Port Tobacco in Charles County, Maryland, was the son of a colonial planter of Swedish and English descent. As a young man, he acted as a receiver-general, the local
American Revolution
Despite his close ties with the colonial government, Jenifer strongly resented what he and most of the colonial gentry saw as Parliament’s arbitrary interference with the colonies’ affairs, especially its laws concerning taxation and trade regulation. Years before the struggle for independence began, he had defended the proprietors of Maryland against those who sought to make Maryland a Royal colony. When the Revolution came, Jenifer lent his considerable support as a wealthy landowner to the Patriot cause, despite the fact that many leading Patriots had been his enemies in the proprietorship struggle. Jenifer became the president of Maryland’s Council of Safety, the Patriot body established to organize Maryland’s military forces for the Revolution (1775–77). When, in 1776, a new constitution was framed for the state of Maryland, Jenifer commented on the document’s neglect of popular sovereignty: “The Senate does not appear to me to be a Child of the people at Large, and therefore will not be Supported by them longer than there Subsists the most perfect Union between the different Legislative branches.” During and after the war, Jenifer became increasingly concerned about national affairs. He represented his state in the Continental Congress (1778–82) while simultaneously serving as president of Maryland’s first senate (1777–80). As manager of his state’s finances between 1782 and 1785, Jenifer drew on his experiences as a landholder to help the state survive the critical postwar economic depression. Along with James Madison, John Dickinson, George Ma-
49
50
CHAPTER 15. DANIEL OF ST. THOMAS JENIFER
son and his good friend George Washington, Jenifer began to explore ways to solve the economic and political problems that had arisen under the weak Articles of Confederation. Consequently, he attended the Mount Vernon Conference, a meeting that would lead eventually to the Constitutional Convention.
15.3 Constitutional Convention
named after his great-uncle. Daniel Jenifer, like his uncle, also served as magistrate in Charles County, as well as three terms in the U.S. House of Representatives. His family home, Retreat, was also located in Charles County, Maryland, near one of the largest slave-trading ports of the era, Port Tobacco (which exported Maryland slaves once the trans-Atlantic trade became illegal in 1808); it was built in the last quarter of the 18th century and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[5]
Jenifer Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in honor of [6] Like his old friend Benjamin Franklin, Jenifer enjoyed the this elder Jenifer. status of elder statesman at the Convention, which took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Jenifer, one of Convention’s oldest delegates 15.5 References like Franklin, used his prestige (as well as humor and reputation as pleasant company) to work for a strong and perma- [1] Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer’s surname is Jenifer. According to Bro. C. Edward Quinn in Roots of the Republic: The nent union of the states by reconciling opposing views and Signers of the Constitution of the United States (Danbury, CT: formulating the compromises that made the Convention a Grolier Educational, 1996. p. 70.), the origin of Jenifer’s success. Jenifer took stands on several important issues, although his advanced age restricted his activity in the day-to-day proceedings. Business experience gained while managing a large plantation had convinced him that an active central government was needed to ensure financial and commercial stability. To that end, Jenifer favored a strong and permanent union of the states in which a Congress representing the people had the power to tax. Concerned with continuity in the new government, he favored a three-year term for the United States House of Representatives. Too frequent elections, he concluded, might lead to indifference and would make prominent men unwilling to seek office. Jenifer was outvoted on this point, but his reaction was to marvel at the delegates’ ability to come to agreement on a plan of government: “The first month we only came to grips, and the second it seemed as though we would fly apart forever, however we came as close as friends of eighty years in but days.” When Maryland’s other delegate, Luther Martin, said that he feared being hanged if the people of Maryland approved the Constitution, Jenifer quipped that Martin should stay in Philadelphia, so that he would not hang in his home state.
unusual given name is unknown but it appears frequently in his family. His ancestors included great-grandfather Captain Daniel Jenifer (1637–1692/3) who was a loyalist sheriff in Accomack County, Virginia during Bacon’s Rebellion and who later moved to the Eastern Shore of Maryland, grandfather Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer (1672–1730), and father, Dr. Daniel Jenifer (c. 1699–1729). Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer had a brother named Daniel Jenifer (1727– 1795) who himself had two sons, one named Daniel of St. Thomas who died unmarried and one Dr. Daniel Jenifer (1756–1809). Dr. Daniel Jenifer in turn had sons named Daniel of St. Thomas (1789–1822) and Col. Daniel Jenifer (1791–1855; Congressman and ambassador). This Daniel Jenifer also had a son named Daniel and one named Daniel of St. Thomas (1814–1843).
[2] “The Founding Fathers: Maryland”. National Archives. [3] http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr& GRid=4926 [4] Papenfuse, Edward C., et al., “Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer (Jennifer),” in A Biographical Dictionary of the Maryland Legislature 1635–1789, Vol. I, I-Z (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985), 485–486. [5] “Maryland Historical Trust”. Retreat, Charles County. Maryland Historical Trust. 2008-06-08.
15.4 Death and legacy After the Convention, Jenifer retired to Stepney, his great plantation near Annapolis, where he died in 1790. He may be buried at Ellerslie, the plantation at which he was born, and now on the National Register of Historic Places.[3] 2
[6] Odd Wisconsin Archives. Wisconsinhistory.org (2006-0329). Retrieved on 2011-10-18.
15.6
External links
In his will, Jenifer passed his roughly 16,000-acre (65 km ) land holdings to his nephew, Daniel Jenifer, and instructed This article incorporates public domain material from the that all his slaves be freed six years after his death.[4] The United States Army Center of Military History document following year the younger Jenifer had a son, who was “Daniel of St. Thomas Jennifer”.
15.6. EXTERNAL LINKS • • Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer at Find a Grave
51
Chapter 16
Elbridge Gerry This article is about the fifth vice president of the US. For year and a half into his term. He is the only signer of the other uses, see Elbridge Gerry (disambiguation). Declaration of Independence who is buried in Washington, D.C. Elbridge Thomas Gerry (/ˈɛlbrɪdʒˈɡɛri/; July 17, 1744 (O.S. July 6, 1744) – November 23, 1814) was an American statesman and diplomat. As a Democratic-Republican he was selected as the fifth Vice President of the United States (1813–1814), serving under James Madison. He is known best for being the namesake of gerrymandering, a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power, although its initial “g” has softened to /dʒ/ from the hard /ɡ/ of his name.[2] Born into a wealthy merchant family, Gerry vocally opposed British colonial policy in the 1760s, and was active in the early stages of organizing the resistance in the American Revolutionary War. Elected to the Second Continental Congress, Gerry signed both the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. He was one of three men who attended the Constitutional Convention in 1787 but refused to sign the United States Constitution because it did not then include a Bill of Rights. After its ratification he was elected to the inaugural United States Congress, where he was actively involved in drafting and passage of the Bill of Rights as an advocate of individual and state liberties. Gerry was at first opposed to the idea of political parties, and cultivated enduring friendships on both sides of the political divide between Federalists and DemocraticRepublicans. He was a member of a diplomatic delegation to France that was treated poorly in the XYZ Affair, in which Federalists held him responsible for the breakdown in negotiations. Gerry thereafter became a DemocraticRepublican, running unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts several times before winning the office in 1810. During his second term, the legislature approved new state senate districts that led to the coining of the word “gerrymander"; he lost the next election, although the state senate remained Republican. Chosen by Madison as his vice presidential candidate in 1812, Gerry was elected, but died a
16.1
Early life
Elbridge Gerry was born on July 17, 1744, in Marblehead, Massachusetts. His father, Thomas Gerry, was a merchant operating ships out of Marblehead, and his mother, Elizabeth (Greenleaf) Gerry, was the daughter of a successful Boston merchant.[3] Gerry’s first name came from John Elbridge, one of his mother’s ancestors.[4] Gerry’s parents had eleven children in all, although only five survived to adulthood. Of these, Elbridge was the third.[5] He was first educated by private tutors, and entered Harvard College shortly before turning fourteen. After receiving a B.A. in 1762 and an M.A. in 1765, he entered his father’s merchant business. By the 1770s the Gerrys numbered among the wealthiest Massachusetts merchants, with trading connections in Spain, the West Indies, and along the North American coast.[3][6] Gerry’s father, who had migrated from England in 1730, was active in local politics and had a leading role in the local militia.[7]
16.2
Early political career
Gerry was from an early time a vocal opponent of Parliamentary efforts to tax the colonies after the French and Indian War ended in 1763. In 1770 he sat on a Marblehead committee that sought to enforce importation bans on taxed British goods. He frequently communicated with other Massachusetts opponents of British policy, including Samuel Adams, John Adams, Mercy Otis Warren, and others.[3] In May 1772 he won election to the General Court of the Province of Massachusetts Bay (its legislative assembly). There he worked closely with Samuel Adams to advance
52
16.3. CONGRESS AND REVOLUTION
53
colonial opposition to Parliamentary colonial policies. He was responsible for establishing Marblehead’s committee of correspondence, one of the first to be set up after that of Boston.[8] However, an incident of mob action prompted him to resign from the committee the next year. Gerry and other prominent Marbleheaders had established a hospital for performing smallpox inoculations on Cat Island; because the means of transmission of the disease were not known at the time, fears amongst the local population led to protests which escalated into violence that wrecked the facilities and threatened the proprietors’ other properties.[9] Gerry reentered politics after the Boston Port Act closed that city’s port in 1774, and Marblehead became a port to which relief supplies from other colonies could be delivered. As one of the town’s leading merchants and Patriots, Gerry played a major role in ensuring the storage and delivery of supplies from Marblehead to Boston, interrupting those activities only to care for his dying father. He was elected as a representative to the First Continental Congress in September 1774, but refused, still grieving the loss of his father.[10]
16.3 Congress and Revolution Gerry was elected to the provincial assembly, which reconstituted itself as the Massachusetts Provincial Congress after Governor Thomas Gage dissolved the body in October 1774.[11] He was assigned to its committee of safety, responsible for assuring that the province’s limited supplies of weapons and gunpowder remained out of British Army hands. His actions were partly responsible for the storage of weapons and ammunition in Concord; these stores were the target of the British raiding expedition that sparked the start of the American Revolutionary War with the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775.[12] (Gerry was staying at an inn at Menotomy, now Arlington, when the British marched through on the night of April 18.)[13] During the Siege of Boston that followed, Gerry continued to take a leading role in supplying the nascent Continental Army, something he would continue to do as the war progressed.[14] He leveraged business contacts in France and Spain to acquire not just munitions, but supplies of all types, and was involved in the transfer of financial subsidies from Spain to Congress. He sent ships to ports all along the American coast, and dabbled in financing privateering operations.[15] Unlike some merchants, there is no evidence that Gerry profiteered from this activity (he spoke out against it, and in favor of price controls), although his war-related merchant activities notably increased the family’s wealth.[16] His gains were tempered to some extent by the precipitous decline in the value of paper currencies, which he held in large quan-
John Adams (portrait by John Trumbull) held Gerry in high regard.
tities and speculated in.[17] Gerry served in the Second Continental Congress from February 1776 to 1780, when matters of the ongoing war occupied the body’s attention. He was influential in convincing a number of delegates to support passage of the United States Declaration of Independence in the debates held during the summer of 1776; John Adams wrote of him, “If every Man here was a Gerry, the Liberties of America would be safe against the Gates of Earth and Hell.”[18] He was implicated as a member of the so-called "Conway Cabal", a group of Congressmen and military officers who were dissatisfied with the performance of General George Washington during the 1777 military campaign. However, Gerry took Pennsylvania leader Thomas Mifflin, one of Washington’s critics, to task early in the episode, and specifically denied knowledge of any sort of conspiracy against Washington in February 1778.[19] Gerry’s political philosophy was one of limited central government, and he regularly advocated for the maintenance of civilian control of the military. He held these positions fairly consistently throughout his political career (wavering principally on the need for stronger central government in the wake of the 1786–87 Shays’ Rebellion) and was well known for his personal integrity.[20] In later years he was against the idea of political parties, remaining somewhat distant from the developing Federalist and DemocraticRepublican parties until later in his career. It was not until 1800 that he would formally associate with the Democratic-
54 Republicans in opposition to what he saw as attempts by the Federalists to centralize too much power in the national government.[21] In 1780 he resigned from the Continental Congress over the issue, and refused offers from the state legislature to return to the Congress.[22] He also refused appointment to the state senate, claiming he would be more effective in the state’s lower chamber, and also refused appointment as a county judge, comparing the offer by Governor John Hancock to those made by royally appointed governors to benefit their political allies.[23] He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1781.[24]
CHAPTER 16. ELBRIDGE GERRY on a narrow vote in which the Massachusetts delegation was divided, Gerry and Caleb Strong voting in favor.[31] Gerry further proposed that senators of a state, rather than casting a single vote on behalf of the state, instead vote as individuals.[32] Gerry was also vocal in opposing the ThreeFifths Compromise, which counted slaves as 3/5 of a person for the purposes of apportionment in the House of Representatives and gave southern states a decided advantage.[33] Gerry’s preference for a more highly centralized government throughout most of the Convention was not motivated by a desire for great social changes, but was intended rather to restrain such popular excesses as were evidenced in Shays’ Rebellion. ... [H]e defended popular rights when the people appeared to be threatened by some powerful interest groups, and he called for restraints on popular influence when the people seemed to be gaining the upper hand too much.
Gerry was convinced to rejoin the Confederation Congress in 1783, when the state legislature agreed to support his call for needed reforms.[25] He served in that body until September 1785, during which time it met in New York City. The following year he married Ann Thompson, the daughter of a wealthy New York merchant who was twenty years his ju- —George Athan Billias[34] nior; his best man was his good friend James Monroe.[18][26] The couple had ten children between 1787 and 1801, straining Ann’s health.[18] The war made Gerry sufficiently wealthy that when it ended he sold off his merchant interests, and began investing in land. In 1787 he purchased the Cambridge, Massachusetts estate of the last royal lieutenant governor of Massachusetts, Thomas Oliver, which had been confiscated by the state. This 100-acre (40 ha) property, known as Elmwood, became the family home for the rest of Gerry’s life.[27] He continued to own property in Marblehead, and bought a number of properties in other Massachusetts communities. He also owned shares in the Ohio Company, prompting some political opponents to characterize him as an owner of vast tracts of western lands.[28]
16.4.1
16.4 Constitutional Convention
16.4.2
Gerry played a major role in the U.S. Constitutional Convention, held in Philadelphia during the summer of 1787.[29] In its deliberations he consistently advocated for a strong delineation between state and federal government powers, with state legislatures shaping the membership of federal government positions. Gerry’s opposition to popular election of representatives was rooted in part by the events of Shays’ Rebellion, a populist uprising in western Massachusetts in the year preceding the convention. Despite this position, he also sought to maintain individual liberties by providing checks on government power that might abuse or limit those freedoms.[30] He supported the idea that the Senate composition should not be determined by population; the view that it should instead be composed of equal numbers of members for each state prevailed in the Connecticut Compromise. The compromise was adopted
Advocating indirect elections
Because of his fear of demagoguery and belief the people of the United States could be easily misled, Gerry also advocated indirect elections. Although he was unsuccessful in obtaining them for the lower house of Congress, Gerry did obtain such indirect elections for the U.S. Senate, whose members were to be elected by the state legislatures. Gerry also advanced numerous proposals for indirect elections of the President of the United States, most of them involving limiting the right to vote to the state governors and electors.[35]
Voting against proposed constitution
Gerry was also unhappy about the lack of expression of any sort of individual liberties in the proposed constitution, and generally opposed proposals that strengthened the central government. He was one of only three delegates who voted against the proposed constitution in the convention (the others were George Mason and Edmund Randolph), citing a concern about the convention’s lack of authority enact such major changes to the nation’s system of government, and to the constitution’s lack of "federal features".[36]
16.4.3
State ratification; Bill of Rights
During the ratification debates that took place in the states following the convention, Gerry continued his opposition, publishing a widely circulated letter documenting his objections to the proposed constitution.[37] In this document he
16.5. UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
55
cited the lack of a Bill of Rights as his primary objection, but also expressed qualified approval of the constitution, indicating that he would accept it with some amendment.[38] Strong pro-Constitution forces attacked him in the press, comparing him unfavorably to the Shaysites. Henry Jackson was particularly vicious: "[Gerry has] done more injury to this country by that infamous Letter than he will be able to make atonement in his whole life”,[37] and Oliver Ellsworth, a convention delegate from Connecticut, charged him with deliberately courting the Shays faction.[39] One consequence of the furor over his letter was that he was not selected as a delegate to the Massachusetts ratifying convention,[40] although he was later invited to attend by the convention’s leadership. The convention leadership was dominated by Federalists, and Gerry was not given any formal opportunity to speak; he left the convention after a shouting match with convention chair Francis Dana.[41] The state ratified the constitution by a vote of 187 to 168.[42] The debate had the result of estranging Gerry from a number Gerry supported the economic policies of Federalist Alexander of previously friendly politicians, including chairman Dana Hamilton (portrait by Ezra Ames). and Rufus King.[43]
16.5 United States House of Representatives Anti-Federalist forces nominated Gerry for governor in 1788, but he was predictably defeated by the popular incumbent John Hancock.[44] Following ratification, Gerry recanted his opposition to the Constitution, noting that a number of state ratifying conventions had called for amendments that he supported.[45] He was nominated by friends (over his own opposition to the idea) for a seat in inaugural House of Representatives, where he then served two terms.[46] In June 1789 Gerry proposed that Congress consider all of the proposed constitutional amendments that various state ratifying conventions had called for (notably those of Rhode Island and North Carolina, which had at the time still not ratified the constitution).[47] In the debate that followed, he led opposition to some of the proposals, arguing that they did not go far enough in ensuring individual liberties. He successfully lobbied for inclusion of freedom of assembly in the First Amendment, and was a leading architect of the Fourth Amendment protections against search and seizure.[48] He sought unsuccessfully to insert the word “expressly” into the Tenth Amendment, which might have more significantly limited the federal government’s power.[49] He was successful in efforts to severely limit the federal government’s ability to control state militias.[50] In tandem, with this protection, he had once argued against the idea of the federal government controlling a large standing army, comparing it – most memorably and mischievously
– to a standing penis: “An excellent assurance of domestic tranquility, but a dangerous temptation to foreign adventure.”[51] Gerry vigorously supported Alexander Hamilton's reports on public credit, including the assumption at full value of state debts, and supported Hamilton’s new Bank of the United States, positions consistent with earlier calls he had made for economic centralization.[52] Although he speculated in depreciated Continental bills of credit (the IOUs at issue), there is no evidence he participated in large-scale speculation that attended the debate when it took place in 1790, and he became a major investor in the new bank.[53] He used the floor of the House to speak out against aristocratic and monarchical tendencies he saw as threats to republican ideals, and generally opposed laws and their provisions that he perceived as limiting individual and state liberties. He opposed any attempt to give officers of the executive significant powers, specifically opposing establishment of the Treasury Department because its head might gain more power than the President.[54] He opposed measures that strengthened the Presidency (such as the ability to fire cabinet officers), seeking instead to give the legislature more power over appointments.[55] Gerry did not stand for re-election in 1792, returning home to raise his children and care for his sickly wife.[56] He agreed to serve as a presidential elector for John Adams in the 1796 election.[57] During Adams’ term in office, Gerry maintained good relations with both Adams and Vice President Thomas Jefferson, hoping that the divided executive might lead to less friction. His hopes were not realized: the split between Federalists (Adams) and Democratic-
56 Republicans (Jefferson) widened.[58]
16.6 XYZ Affair Main article: XYZ Affair President Adams appointed Gerry to be a member of a special diplomatic commission sent to Republican France in 1797.[59] Tensions had risen between the two nations after the 1796 ratification of the Jay Treaty, made between the US and Great Britain. It was seen by French leaders as signs of an Anglo-American alliance, and France had consequently stepped up seizures of American ships.[60] Adams chose Gerry, over his cabinet’s opposition (on political grounds that Gerry was insufficiently Federalist), because of their long-standing relationship; Adams described Gerry as one of the “two most impartial men in America” (Adams himself being the other).[59]
CHAPTER 16. ELBRIDGE GERRY Affair”) who demanded substantial bribes from the commissioners before negotiations could continue.[62] The commissioners refused, and sought unsuccessfully to engage Talleyrand in formal negotiations.[63] Believing Gerry to be the most approachable of the commissioners, Talleyrand successively froze first Pinckney and then Marshall out of the informal negotiations, and they left France in April 1798.[64] Gerry, who sought to leave with them, stayed behind because Talleyrand threatened war if he left.[65] Gerry refused to make any significant negotiations afterward and left Paris in August.[66] By then dispatches describing the commission’s reception had been published in the United States, raising calls for war.[67] The undeclared naval QuasiWar (1798–1800) followed.[68] Federalists, notably Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, accused Gerry of supporting the French and abetting the breakdown of the talks, while Adams and Republicans such as Thomas Jefferson supported him.[69] The negative press damaged Gerry’s reputation, and he was burned in effigy by protestors in front of his home. He was only later vindicated, when his correspondence with Talleyrand was published.[58] In response to the Federalist attacks on him, and because of his perception that the Federalist-led military buildup threatened republican values, Gerry formally joined the DemocraticRepublican Party in early 1800, standing for election as Governor of Massachusetts.[70]
16.7
Governor of Massachusetts
For four years Gerry unsuccessfully sought the governorship of Massachusetts. His opponent in these races, Caleb Strong, was a popular moderate Federalist, whose party dominated the state’s politics despite a national shift toward the Republicans.[71] In 1803 Republicans in the state were divided, and Gerry only had regional support of the party. He decided not to run in 1804, returning to semiretirement[72] and to deal with a personal financial crisis. His brother Samuel Russell had mismanaged his own business affairs, and Gerry had propped him up by guaranteeing a loan that was due. The matter ultimately ruined Gerry’s finances for his remaining years.[73]
Charles Maurice de Talleyrand (portrait by François Gérard) insisted Gerry remain in Paris after negotiations failed.
Gerry joined co-commissioners Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and John Marshall in France in October 1797 and met briefly with Foreign Minister Talleyrand.[61] Some days after that meeting, the delegation was approached by three French agents (at first identified as “X”, “Y”, and “Z” in published papers, leading the controversy to be called the “XYZ
Republican James Sullivan won the governor’s seat from Strong in 1807, but his successor was unable to hold the seat in the 1809 election, which went to Federalist Christopher Gore.[74] Gerry stood for election again in 1810 against Gore, and won a narrow victory. Republicans cast Gore as an ostentatious British-loving Tory who wanted to restore the monarchy (his parents had remained Loyal during the Revolution), and Gerry as a patriotic American, while Federalists described Gerry as a “French partizan” and Gore as an honest man devoted to ridding the government of foreign influence.[75] A temporary lessening in the threat of
16.8. VICE PRESIDENCY AND DEATH
57
war with Britain aided Gerry.[76] The two battled again in In 1812 the state adopted new constitutionally mandated 1811, with Gerry once again victorious in a highly acrimo- electoral district boundaries. The Republican-controlled nious campaign.[77][78] legislature had created district boundaries designed to enhance their party’s control over state and national offices, leading to some oddly shaped legislative districts.[83] Although Gerry was unhappy about the highly partisan districting (according to his son-in-law, he thought it “highly disagreeable”), he signed the legislation. The shape of one of the state senate districts in Essex County resembled a salamander, leading a local Federalist newspaper to print a political cartoon calling it a “Gerry-mander”.[84] Ever since, the creation of such districts has been called gerrymandering.[83] Gerry also engaged in partisan investigations of potential libel against him by elements of the Federalist press, further damaging his popularity with moderates. The redistricting controversy, along with the libel investigation and the impending War of 1812, contributed to Gerry’s defeat in 1812 (once again at the hands of Caleb Strong, whom the Federalists had brought out of retirement).[85][86] The gerrymandering of the state senate was a notable success in the 1812 election: the body was thoroughly dominated by Republicans, even though the house and the governor’s seat went to Federalists by substantial margins.[87] The word gerrymander (originally written Gerry-mander) was used for the first time in the Boston Gazette newspaper on March 26, 1812.[79] Appearing with the term, and helping spread and sustain its popularity, was this political cartoon, which depicts a state senate district in Essex County as a strange animal with claws, wings and a dragon-type head, satirizing the district’s odd shape.
Gerry’s first year as governor was less controversial than his second, because the Federalists controlled the state senate. He preached moderation in the political discourse, noting that it was important that the nation present a unified front in its dealings with foreign powers.[80] In his second term, with full Republican control of the legislature, he became notably more partisan, purging much of the state government of Federalist appointees. The legislature also enacted “reforms” of the court system that resulted in an increase in the number of judicial appointments, which Gerry filled with Republican partisans. Infighting within the party and a shortage of qualified candidates, however, played against Gerry, and the Federalists scored points by complaining vocally about the partisan nature of the reforms.[81] Other legislation passed during Gerry’s second year included a bill broadening the membership of Harvard’s Board of Overseers to diversify its religious membership, and another that liberalized religious taxes. The Harvard bill had significant political slant because the recent split between orthodox Congregationalists and Unitarians also divided the state to some extent along party lines, and Federalist Unitarians had recently gained control over the Harvard board.[82]
16.8
Vice Presidency and death
Gerry’s financial difficulties prompted him to ask President James Madison for a federal position after his loss in the 1812 election (which was held early in the year).[86] He was chosen by the Democratic-Republican party congress to be Madison’s vice presidential running mate in the 1812 presidential election, although the nomination was first offered to John Langdon. He was viewed as a relatively safe choice who would attract Northern votes but not pose a threat to James Monroe, who was thought likely to succeed Madison. Madison easily won reelection, and Gerry took the oath of office at Elmwood in March 1813.[88] At that time the office of vice president was largely a sinecure; Gerry’s duties included advancing the administration’s agenda in Congress and dispensing patronage positions in New England.[89] Gerry’s actions in support of the War of 1812 had a partisan edge: he expressed concerns over a possible Federalist seizure of Fort Adams (as Boston’s Fort Independence was then known) as a prelude to Anglo-Federalist cooperation, and sought the arrest of printers of Federalist newspapers.[90] On November 23, 1814, he fell seriously ill while visiting Joseph Nourse of the treasury department,[91] and died not long after returning to his home in the Seven Buildings.[92] He is buried in the Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D. C.,[93] with a memorial by John Frazee.[94] He is the only
58 signer of the Declaration buried in the nation’s capital.[95] The estate he left his wife and children was rich in land and poor in cash; he had managed to repay his brother’s debts with his pay as vice president.[92]
16.9 Legacy
CHAPTER 16. ELBRIDGE GERRY to its present name after the town submitted a petition in 1812, citing Democratic-Republican support for the War of 1812.[105] Gerry’s Landing Road in Cambridge, Massachusetts is located near the Eliot Bridge not far from Elmwood. The area was known as Gerry’s Landing during the 19th century, and was used by a Gerry relative for a short time as a landing and storehouse.[106][107] The supposed house of his birth, the Elbridge Gerry House (it is uncertain whether he was born in the house currently standing on the site or an earlier structure) stands in Marblehead, and that town’s Elbridge Gerry School is named in his honor.[108][109] [Elbridge Gerry] was consistently motivated by a desire to do what he thought was right to create the most moral, virtuous, and stable American nation possible. —Sarah J. Purcell[110]
16.10 Elbridge Gerry House in Marblehead
Gerry is generally remembered for the use of his name in the word gerrymander, for his refusal to sign the United States Constitution, and for his role in the XYZ Affair. His path through the politics of the age has been difficult to characterize; early biographers, including his sonin-law James T. Austin and Samuel Eliot Morison, struggled to explain his apparent changes in position. Biographer George Athan Billias posits that Gerry was a consistent advocate and practitioner of republicanism as it was originally envisioned,[96] and that his role in the Constitutional Convention had a significant impact on the document it eventually produced.[97] Gerry’s grandson, Elbridge Gerry (1813–1886), was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Maine.[98][99] and another grandson Elbridge Thomas Gerry became a distinguished lawyer and philanthropist in New York. His great-grandson, Peter G. Gerry (1879–1957), was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives and a United States Senator from Rhode Island.[100]
Notes
[1] Austin, James Trecothick (1829). The Life of Elbridge Gerry: With Contemporary Letters. To the Close of the American Revolution. Wells and Lilly. pp. 308–. Retrieved 18 December 2013. [2] Elster, p. 224 [3] Purcell, p. 46 [4] Greenleaf, p. 77 [5] Billias, p. 5 [6] Billias, p. 4 [7] Billias, p. 3 [8] Austin, pp. 6–27 [9] Gilje, pp. 44–45 [10] Billias, pp. 42–44 [11] Billias, p. 46 [12] Billias, p. 49 [13] Billias, p. 52 [14] Billias, pp. 55–56
Gerry is depicted in John Trumbull’s Declaration of Independence.[101] The painting was reproduced on the reverse [15] Billias, pp. 124–130 of the two-dollar bill beginning in 1976.[102] [16] Billias, pp. 56, 123
The upstate New York town of Elbridge is believed to have been named in his honor, as is the western New York [17] Billias, pp. 134–135 town of Gerry, in Chautauqua County.[103][104] The town [18] Hatfield, Mark. “Vice Presidents of the United States: Elof Phillipston, Massachusetts was originally incorporated in bridge Gerry (1813–1814)" (PDF). Senate Historical Of1786 under the name Gerry in his honor, but was changed fice. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
16.10. NOTES
59
[19] Billias, pp. 76–77
[50] Billias, p. 232
[20] Billias, pp. 140, 152, 192 [21] Billias, p. 105
[51] Isaacson, Walter (2003). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. p. 456. ISBN 0-684-80761-0.
[22] Billias, p. 101
[52] Billias, pp. 223, 237
[23] Billias, p. 102
[53] Billias, pp. 240, 242
[24] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter G” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[54] Billias, p. 225
[25] Billias, p. 103
[56] Billias, p. 243
[26] Ammon, p. 61
[57] Billias, p. 245
[27] “National Register Nomination for Elmwood” (PDF). National Park Service. Retrieved 2012-10-24.
[58] Purcell, pp. 51–52
[28] Billias, p. 137
[60] Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 537–538
[29] Billias, p. 158
[61] Stinchcombe, pp. 596–597
[30] Billias, pp. 153–154
[62] Billias, pp. 268–269
[31] Billias, p. 178
[63] Billias, pp. 272–275
[32] Billias, p. 182
[64] Stinchcombe, pp. 598–613
[33] Billias, p. 168
[65] Billias, p. 280
[34] Billias, p. 203
[66] Billias, p. 283
[35] http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/ spring/gerry.html “A Founding Father in Dissent Elbridge Gerry Helped Inspire Bill of Rights in His Opposition to the Constitution”. National Archives.
[67] Ferling, pp. 354–357
[36] Billias, p. 159, 200 [37] Billias, p. 209
[55] Billias, p. 226
[59] Ferling, p. 345
[68] Smith, p. 130 [69] Billias, pp. 289–293 [70] Billias, pp. 289, 301 [71] Buel, pp. 39–44
[38] Billias, pp. 207–208
[72] Billias, pp. 304–305
[39] Billias, p. 212
[73] Billias, pp. 305–306
[40] Billias, p. 211
[74] Buel, pp. 73–82, 103–104
[41] Billias, p. 213
[75] Billias, p. 313
[42] Billias, p. 214
[76] Buel, pp. 104–107
[43] Billias, pp. 207–208, 213
[77] Buel, pp. 116–117
[44] Billias, p. 215
[78] Formisano, p. 74
[45] Billias, p. 207
[79] Griffith, pp. 72–73
[46] Billias, pp. 216, 243
[80] Buel, pp. 107–108
[47] Billias, p. 229
[81] Buel, pp. 144–147
[48] Billias, p. 231
[82] Formisano, p. 76
[49] Billias, pp. 233–234
[83] Hart, p. 3:458
60
[84] Billias, p. 317 [85] Buel, pp. 148–149 [86] Billias, p. 323 [87] Griffith, pp. 72–73 [88] Billias, p. 324 [89] Billias, p. 327 [90] Morison, p. 2:57 [91] “To John Adams from Rufus King, 23 November 1814”. archive.gov. Retrieved 12 May 2015. [92] Billias, p. 329 [93] Purcell, p. 53 [94] [95] Roberts and Schmidt, p. 47 [96] Billias, p. 2 [97] Billias, p. 204 [98] Political Register and Congressional Directory, p. 408 [99] “Biographical Abstract of Elbridge Gerry”. United States Congress. Retrieved 2012-12-08. [100] “Biographical Abstract of Peter G. Gerry”. United States Congress. Retrieved 2012-12-08. [101] Weir, pp. 66–67 [102] “Currency Notes” (PDF). United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Retrieved 2012-12-08. [103] Beauchamp, p. 361 [104] Downs and Hedley, p. 187 [105] Marvin, pp. 220–221 [106] Publications of the Cambridge Historical Society, p. 85 [107] Bethell et al, p. 62 [108] “MACRIS Inventory: Elbridge Gerry House”. Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Retrieved 2012-12-08. [109] “MACRIS Inventory: Eldridge[sic] Gerry School”. Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Retrieved 2012-12-08. [110] Purcell, p. 45
CHAPTER 16. ELBRIDGE GERRY
16.11
References
• Ammon, Harry (1990) [1971]. James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 9780813912660. OCLC 20294950. • Austin, James (1828–29). Life of Elbridge Gerry. Boston: Wells and Lily. OCLC 3672336. Volume 2 Austin was Gerry’s son-in-law. • Bethell, John; Hunt, Richard; Shenton, Robert (2004). Harvard A to Z. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674012882. OCLC 492735502. • Beauchamp, William (1908). Past and Present of Syracuse and Onondaga County, Volume 1. New York: S. J. Clark. OCLC 3151469. • Billias, George (1976). Elbridge Gerry, Founding Father and Republican Statesman. McGraw-Hill Publishers. ISBN 0-07-005269-7. • Buel, Richard (2005). America on the Brink. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403962386. OCLC 55510543. • Downs, John Phillips; Hedley, Frederick (1921). History of Chautauqua County and its People, Volume 1. Boston: American Historical Society. OCLC 1215442. • Elkins, Stanley; McKitrick, Eric (1993). The Age of Federalism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195068900. OCLC 26720733. • Elster, Charles (2005). The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780618423156. OCLC 317828351. • Ferling, John (1992). John Adams: A Life. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0870497308. • Formisano, Ronald (1983). The Transformation of Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, 1790s– 1840s. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195035094. OCLC 18429354. • Gilje, Paul (1999). Rioting in America. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253212627. OCLC 185656124. • Greenleaf, James (1910). Genealogy of the Greenleaf Family. Boston: F. Wood. OCLC 4652345. • Griffith, Elmer (1907). The Rise and Development of the Gerrymander. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co. OCLC 45790508.
16.13. EXTERNAL LINKS • Hart, Albert Bushnell (ed) (1927). Commonwealth History of Massachusetts. New York: The States History Company. OCLC 1543273. (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century) • Marvin, Abijah (1879). History of Worcester County, Volume 2. Boston: C. F. Jewett. OCLC 1804192. • Morison, Samuel Eliot (2006) [1913]. The Life and Letters of Harrison Gray Otis. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 9781428606494. OCLC 706649803. • Purcell, L. Edward (2010). Vice Presidents: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 9781438130712. OCLC 650307529. • Roberts, Rebecca Boggs; Schmidt, Sandra K (2012). Historic Congressional Cemetery. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9780738592244. OCLC 769988285. • Smith, Jean Edward (1996). John Marshall: Definer Of A Nation. New York: Henry, Holt & Company. ISBN 9780805055108. OCLC 248101402. • Stinchcombe, William (October 1977). “The Diplomacy of the WXYZ Affair”. William and Mary Quarterly (34:590–617). JSTOR 2936184. • Trees, Andy (2000). “Private Correspondence for the Public Good: Thomas Jefferson to Elbridge Gerry, 26 January 1799”. The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography (Virginia Historical Society) 108 (3): 217– 254. ISSN 0042-6636. JSTOR 4249849. Shows that Gerry ignored Jefferson’s 1799 letter inviting him to switch parties. • Weir, John (1901). John Trumbull: A Brief Sketch of his Life. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. OCLC 2103628. • Political Register and Congressional Directory. Boston: Houghton, Osgood. 1878. OCLC 1466601. • Publications of the Cambridge Historical Society. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Historical Society. 1920. OCLC 6177743.
16.12 Further reading • Kramer, Eugene F (1956). “Some New Light on the XYZ Affair: Elbridge Gerry’s Reasons for Opposing War with France”. New England Quarterly (Volume 29, No. 4): 509–513. ISSN 0028-4866. Billias, George. Elbridge Gerry: Founding Father and Republican Statesman. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1976.
61
16.13
External links
• Official Commonwealth of Massachusetts Governor Biography • • Elbridge Gerry at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 • A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 • Delegates to the Constitutional Convention: Massachusetts (Brief Biography of Gerry) • Gerry family archive at Hartwick College
Chapter 17
Nathaniel Gorham Nathaniel Gorham (May 27, 1738 – June 11, 1796, his first name is sometimes spelled Nathanial) was a politician and merchant from Massachusetts. He was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, and for six months served as the presiding officer of that body. He also attended the Constitutional Convention and was one of the signers of the United States Constitution on September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
17.1 Biography 17.1.1
Early life and family
Gorham was born in Boston, Massachusetts, and was the son of Captain Nathaniel Gorham and his father’s wife Mary Soley.[1] He was a descendant of John Howland, (c. 1599–1673) who was one of the Pilgrims who traveled from England to North America on the Mayflower, signed the Mayflower Compact, and helped found the Plymouth Colony.[2][3] His sister, Elizabeth Gorham, who married John Leighton, was the ancestor of Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt the second wife of Theodore Roosevelt who served as First Lady of the United States during his presidency from 1901 to 1909.[4]
ber 18, 1812 in Charlestown, Massachusetts. She was the daughter of Caleb Call and Rebecca Stimson.[5] Nathaniel and Rebecca were the parents of nine children.[1]
17.1.3
Career
Starting at 15, he served an apprenticeship with a merchant in New London, Connecticut, after which he opened a merchant house in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1759.[6] He took part in public affairs at the beginning of the American Revolution: he was a member of the Massachusetts General Court (legislature) from 1771 until 1775, a delegate to the Provincial congress from 1774 until 1775, and a member of the Board of War from 1778 until its dissolution in 1781. In 1779 he served in the state constitutional convention. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1782 until 1783, and also from 1785 until 1787, serving as its president for five months from June 6 to November 5, 1786 after the resignation of John Hancock. Gorham also served a term as judge of the Middlesex County, Massachusetts Court of Common Pleas.[7]
For several months in 1787, Gorham served as one of the Massachusetts delegates to the United States Constitutional Convention.[7] Gorham frequently served as Chairman of the Convention’s Committee of the Whole, meaning that he (rather than the President of the Convention, George Washington) presided over convention sessions during the delegates’ first deliberations on the structure of the new gov17.1.2 Marriage ernment in late May and June 1787. After the convention, He married Rebecca Call, who was descended from he worked hard to see that the Constitution was approved Anglican vicar and the first minister of Dorchester, Mas- in his home state. sachusetts, John Maverick and his royally descended wife, In connection with Oliver Phelps, he purchased from the Mary Gye Maverick. Rev. John Maverick was born in state of Massachusetts in 1788 pre-emption rights to an Awliscombe, Devon, baptized there on Dec. 28, 1578, and immense tract of land in western New York State which enrolled at Oxford Oct. 24, 1595, age 18. He was the son straddled the Genesee River, all for the sum of $1,000,000 of Rev. Peter Maverick (spelled Mavericke in old English (about $13.9 million today) (the Phelps and Gorham Purrecords), the vicar of Awliscombe. on September 6, 1763 chase).[8][9] The land in question had been previously ceded in Charlestown, Massachusetts. She was born on May 14, to Massachusetts from the state of New York under the 1744 in Charlestown, Massachusetts and died on Novem- 1786 Treaty of Hartford. The pre-emption right gave them 62
17.3. NOTES the first or preemptive right to obtain clear title to this land from the Indians. They soon extinguished the Indian title to the portion of the land east of the Genesee River, as well as a 185,000 acres (750 km2 ) tract west of the Genesee, the Mill Yard Tract, surveyed all of it, laid out townships, and sold large parts to speculators and settlers. Nathaniel Gorham, Jr., (died October 22, 1836, Canandaigua, New York) was a pioneer settler of this tract, having been placed in charge of his father’s interests there.[10] In 1790, after Gorham and Phelps defaulted in payment, they sold nearly all of their unsold lands east of the Genesee to Robert Morris, who eventually resold those lands to The Pulteney Association. Phelps and Gorham were unable to fulfill their contract in full to Massachusetts, so in 1790, they surrendered back to Massachusetts that portion of the lands which remained under the Indian title, namely, the land west of the Genesee. It also was eventually acquired by Robert Morris, who resold most of it to The Holland Land Company. Morris did keep 500,000 acres (2,000 km2 ) of land that became known as The Morris Reserve.
17.1.4
Death and legacy
Gorham died in Charlestown, Massachusetts, in 1796. A eulogy was delivered in his memory by Dr. Thomas Welch of Charlestown.[11] He is buried in the Phipps Street Cemetery in Charlestown, Massachusetts.[8][12] Gorham Street in Madison, Wisconsin, is named in his honor.[13] The Town of Gorham, New York, is also named in his honor.[14]
17.2 Descendants Nathaniel Gorham’s descendants number in the thousands today.[15] Some of his notable descendants include: • Bishop Phillips Brooks was an American clergyman and author, who briefly served as Bishop of Massachusetts in the Episcopal Church during the early 1890s. He is best known for authoring the Christmas carol "O Little Town of Bethlehem". • Charles Francis Adams, Jr., was a member of the prominent Adams family, and son of Charles Francis Adams, Sr.. He served as a colonel in the Union Army during the American Civil War and was a railroad executive following the war. • John Quincy Adams II was an American lawyer and politician, the son of Charles Francis Adams and the grandson and namesake of president John Quincy Adams.
63 • Charles Francis Adams III was the United States Secretary of the Navy under President Herbert Hoover and a well-known yachtsman. • Charles Francis Adams IV was a U.S. electronics industrialist. He served as the first president of the Raytheon Company. • Nathaniel’s son Benjamin Gorham was a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts. • Brooks Adams was an American historian and a critic of capitalism. • Henry Adams was an American journalist, historian, academic and novelist. He is best known for his autobiographical book, The Education of Henry Adams. • William Everett was the son of Charlotte Gray Brooks and orator Edward Everett who spoke at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania • Octavius Brooks Frothingham was an American clergyman and author. • Catherine Lovering Adams married Henry Stugis Morgan, who was an American banker. He was the son of John Pierpont (“Jack”) Morgan Jr. and the grandson of renowned banker John Pierpont Morgan, Sr., founder of J.P. Morgan & Co.. • Catherine Bartlett was the wife of James Walker, who was the President of Harvard College from 1853 to 1860. Walker was also a Unitarian minister and religious philosopher. • Charlotte Gray Brooks was the wife of Edward Everett, an American politician and educator from Massachusetts. He served as president of Harvard College. • Peter Bulkeley Greenough was an American journalist and editor. He was the husband of opera singer Beverly Sills. • Gorham Parks was a U.S. Representative from Maine, and a Democratic Party candidate for Maine Governor.
17.3
Notes
[1] Morton, p.117 [2] Haxtun, p.34 [3] The Pilgrim John Howland Society: Famous Descendants
64
[4] MMOA, p.184 [5] Waters, p.366 [6] Ronald J. Lettieri (1999). “Gorham, Nathaniel”. American National Biography. New York: Oxford University Press. [7] Morton, p.118 [8] Morton, p.120 [9] McKeveley, Blake (January 1939). “Historic Aspects of the Phelps and Gorham Treaty of July 4–8, 1788” (PDF). Rochester History (Rochester Public Library) 1 (1). ISSN 0035-7413. Retrieved 2010-04-29. [10] Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Gorham, Nathaniel". Appletons’ Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton. [11] Dr. Welch was a 1772 graduate of Harvard College. He served as a surgeon in the American Revolutionary War. [12] Nathaniel Gorham at Find A Grave [13] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp [14] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Off. p. 140. [15] Roberts, Gary Boyd (2001). "#54 Royal Descents, Notable Kin, and Printed Sources: Harvard, Its Presidents, and Kings”. New England Ancestors.org. New England Historic Genealogical Society. Retrieved 2012-07-05.
17.4 References • Haxtun, Annie Arnoux. Signers of the Mayflower Compact . Publisher: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 0-8063-0173-2. • MMOA.The bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Volume 17. Publisher: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1922. • Morton, Joseph C. Shapers of the great debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: a biographical dictionary Volume 8 of Shapers of the great American debates. Publisher: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006 ISBN 0-313-33021-2. • Waters, Henry Fitz-Gilbert The New England historical and genealogical register, Volume 59. Publisher: New England Historic Genealogical Society, 1905.
CHAPTER 17. NATHANIEL GORHAM
17.5
External links
• Phelps & Gorham Treaty of July 4-8, 1788, Historical Aspects of the, Rochester History magazine, by Blake McKelvey Vol 1 No(s)1 (January 1939) (PDF format) • The Field Notes of Col. Hugh Maxwell’s Pre-emption Line Survey in the Phelps and Gorham Purchase transcribed by John M. Robortella • For Animations of these Land Acquisitions click Map Scene 5 Map animation by Dr. Robert Spiegelman • Presidential Biography by Stanley L. Klos • • Nathaniel Gorham at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Chapter 18
Rufus King This article is about the Federalist candidate for president. traction and Horror of this Family cannot be described by For other persons of the same name or the high school, see Words or painted upon Canvass. It is enough to move a Rufus King (disambiguation). Statue, to melt an Heart of Stone, to read the Story...”.[3] It was not surprising that Richard King became a loyalist. All of his sons, however, became patriots in the American War Rufus King (March 24, 1755 – April 29, 1827) was an [2] American lawyer, politician, and diplomat. He was a del- of Independence. egate for Massachusetts to the Continental Congress. He also attended the Constitutional Convention and was one of the signers of the United States Constitution on September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He represented New York in the United States Senate, served as Minister to Britain, and was the Federalist candidate for both Vice President (1804 and 1808) and President of the United States (1816).
18.1 Biography 18.1.1
Early life
He was born on March 24, 1755 at Scarborough which was then a part of Massachusetts but is now in the state of Maine.[1] He was a son of Isabella Bragdon and Richard King, a prosperous farmer-merchant, “lumberman, and sea captain”[1] who had settled at Dunstan Landing in Scarborough, near Portland, Maine, and had made a modest fortune by 1755, the year Rufus was born. His financial success aroused the jealousy of his neighbors, and when the Stamp Act 1765 was imposed, and rioting became almost respectable, a mob ransacked his house and destroyed most of the furniture. Nobody was punished, and the next year the mob burned down his barn.[2] This statement proves true as John Adams once reference this moment discussing limitations of the “mob” for the Constitutional Convention writing a letter to his wife Abigail and describing the scene as: “I am engaged in a famous Cause: The Cause of King, of Scarborough vs. a Mob, that broke into his House, and rifled his Papers, and terrifyed him, his Wife, Children and Servants in the Night. The Terror, and Distress, the Dis-
18.1.2
Education, Career and Early Politics
King attended Dummer Academy (now The Governor’s Academy) at the age of twelve, located in South Byfield, MA.[4] Later on he attended Harvard College, where he graduated in 1777.[5] He began to read law under Theophilus Parsons, but his studies were interrupted in 1778 when King volunteered for militia duty in the American Revolutionary War. Appointed a major, he served as an aide to General Sullivan [4][6] in the Battle of Rhode Island. [5] After the campaign, King returned to his apprenticeship under Parsons. He was admitted to the bar in 1780 and began a legal practice in Newburyport, Massachusetts. .[4][7] King was first elected to the Massachusetts state assembly in 1783, and returned there each year until 1785. Massachusetts sent him to the Confederation Congress from 1784 to 1787.[4][8] He was one of the youngest at the conference.
18.1.3
Politics (Constitutional Convention)
In 1787, King was sent to the constitutional convention held at Philadelphia. King held a significant position at the convention. Despite his youthful stature, “he numbered among the most capable orators”. Along with James Madison, “he became a leading figure in the nationalist causus”. King’s “views underwent a startling transformation during the debates” originally changing a mindset supporting Articles of Confederation and utterly throwing out the idea that it could be sustained.[4] King’s major involvements included involvement with serving on the Committee on Postponed Matters and the Committee of Style.[4] In 1787, King was
65
66
CHAPTER 18. RUFUS KING
sent to the Federal constitutional convention at Philadelphia where he worked closely with Alexander Hamilton on the Committee of Style and Arrangement to prepare the final draft. At age 32, King was not only one of the most youthful of the delegates at Philadelphia, but was also one of the most important. “He numbered among the most capable orators. Furthermore, he attended every session. Although he came to the convention unconvinced that major changes should be made in the Articles of Confederation, his views underwent a startling transformation during the debates. With Madison, he became a leading figure in the nationalist caucus. He served with distinction on the Committee on Postponed Matters and the Committee of Style.[4] The more prominent of these committees was when he worked with Alexander Hamilton during the “Committee of Style and Arrangement” to prepare a final draft of the constitution. King is one of the more prominent delegates namely because of playing “a major role in the laborious crafting of the fundamental governing character.[9] The constitution was signed on September 17th, only needing to be ratified by each of the subsequent states.[9] After the signing the Constitution, he returned home and went to work to get the Constitution ratified and to position himself to be named to the U.S. Senate.[10] The ratification passed by the narrow margin of 187-168 votes.[9] With the ratification passed, Massachusetts “became the sixth state to ratify [the] constitution in early February 1788.[9] Rufus is indirectly responsible for the passing of this ratification seeing that his “learned, informative, and persuasive speeches” were able to convince a “popular, vain merchant and prince-turnedpoliticians to abandon his anti-federalism and approve the new organic law”.[9]
18.1.4
serving his “second tenure on Senate” from 1813-1825.[11] In between those years, in 1819, he ran for re-election as a Federalist in the Senate, but the party was already disbanding and had only a small minority in the New York State Legislature. Due to the split of the DemocraticRepublicans, no successor was elected to the U.S. Senate, and the seat remained vacant until January 1820 when King was elected again. Trying to attract the former Federalist voters to their side at the next gubernatorial election in April 1820, both factions of the Democratic-Republican Party supported King, who served another term in the U.S. Senate until March 4, 1825. He was also nominated in 1816 to be the presidential candidate for the dying and unpopular Federalist Party (only to lose to James Monroe).[11] King would be the last presidential candidate to be nominated by the Federalists before their collapse at the end of the First Party System of the United States.Eventually he would retired from the senate due to failing health.[11]
18.1.5
Diplomat
Politics (Post-Constitutional Convention)
After his early political experiences during the constitutional convention, King decided to switch his vocational calling by “[abandoning] his law practice [in 1788], [and] moved from the Bay State to Gotham, and entered the New York political forum”.[4] At Hamilton’s urging, he moved to New York City, and was elected to the New York State Assembly in 1789.[8] He was re-elected in 1795 but resigned on May 23, 1796, having been appointed U. S. Minister by George Washington to Great Britain.[4][8][11] “Even though King was an outspoke Federalist politically, Republican President Thomas Jefferson, upon his elevation to the presidency, refused to recall him. In 1803, King voluntarily relinquished....” this position.[11] In 1804 and 1808 King and fellow-signer [Charles Cotesworth Pinckney] were the Federalist candidates for Vice President and President, respectively, but were decisively defeated.[4] After this, King returned to politics by
King’s nomination to be Minister to the UK (1825)
.[12] King played a major diplomatic role as Minister to the Court of St. James from 1796 to 1803, and again from 1825 to 1826.[13] Although he was a leading Federalist, Thomas Jefferson kept him in office until King asked to be relieved.[11] Some prominent accomplishments that King had from his time as a national diplomat include a term of friendly relations with Britain and the United States (at least until it became hostile in 1805).[4] With that in mind, he was able to successfully reach a compromise on the passing of the Jay Treaty being an avid supporter of it.[4] Also, while in Britain, he was in close personal contact with South American revolutionary Francisco de Miranda and facilitated Miranda’s trip to the United States in search of support for his failed 1806 expedition to Venezuela.
18.1. BIOGRAPHY
18.1.6
Anti-slavery activity
67
18.1.7
Library
At the time of his death in 1827, King had a library of roughly 2,200 titles in 3,500 volumes. In addition, King had roughly 200 bound volumes containing thousands of pamphlets. King’s son John Alsop King inherited the library and kept them in Jamaica, Queens, until his death in 1867. The books then went to John’s son Dr. Charles Ray King of Bucks County, Pennsylvania. They remained in Pennsylvania until donated to the New-York Historical Society in 1906, where most of them currently reside. Some books have extensive marginalia. In addition, six commonplace books survive in his papers at the New-York Historical Society.
18.1.8
Oil painting of King by Charles Willson Peale (1818)
King had a long history of opposition to the expansion of slavery and the slave trade. This stand was a product of moral conviction which coincided with the political realities of New England federalism. While in Congress, he successfully added provisions to the 1785 Northwest Ordinance which barred the extension of slavery into the Northwest Territory. [7] But he also said he was willing “to suffer the continuance of slaves until they can be gradually emancipated in states already overrun with them.” He did not press the issue very hard at this time. At the Constitutional Convention, he indicated that his opposition to slavery was based upon the political and economic advantages it gave to the South, but he was willing to compromise for political reasons. In 1817, he supported Senate action to abolish the domestic slave trade and, in 1819, spoke strongly for the antislavery amendment to the Missouri statehood bill. In 1819, his arguments were political, economic, and humanitarian; the extension of slavery would adversely affect the security of the principles of freedom and liberty. After the Missouri Compromise, he continued to support gradual emancipation in various ways. [14]
Other Accomplishments
In his lifetime, King had been an avid supporter of Hamilton and his Fiscal programs and unsurprisingly that he would find himself also become one of the directors of the Hamilton-sponsored first bank of the United States.[4][11] Among other prominent things that occurred in King’s life, he was first elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1805,[15] and was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.[16] Contrary to his previous position on the national bank of the United States, King found himself denying the reopening of a second national bank of the United States in 1816.[11] Finally, in 1822 he also found himself admitted as an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati.
18.1.9
Family
Many of King’s family were also involved in politics and he had a number of prominent descendants. His brother William King was the first governor of Maine and a prominent merchant, and his other brother, Cyrus King, was a U. S. Representative from Massachusetts. His wife Mary Alsop was born in New York on October 17, 1769, and died in Jamaica, New York, on June 5, 1819. She was the only daughter of John Alsop, a wealthy merchant and a delegate for New York to the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776.[17] She was also a great niece of Governor John Winthrop of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. She married Mr. King in New York City on March 30, 1786, he being at that time a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress then sitting in that city.[17] Mrs. King was a lady of remarkable beauty, gentle and gracious manners, and well cultivated mind, and adorned the high station, both in England and at home, that her husband’s official positions and their own social relations entitled them to occupy.[17] A King family member once wrote to their wife of Mrs.
68
CHAPTER 18. RUFUS KING
King’s beauty and personality as, "'Tell Betsy King [Rufus’s half-sister] her sister is a beauty. She is vastly the best looking woman I have seen since I have been in this city....She is a good hearted woman, and, I think, possesses all that Benevolence and kind, friendly disposition, that never fail to find respectable admirers’".[17] As mentioned earlier the he “remarkable beauty” and “well cultivated manner” seems to help the Kings in the type of lifestyle they lives, one where the Kings found themselves in “fashionable circles and entertained frequently”...(potentially helped by how "[Mrs. King] was widely admired in New York society; her retiring nature set her apart.”).[17] The Kings found themselves having 7 children (of which 5 managed to live to adulthood).[17] On June 5, 1819, Mrs. King died. “She was buried in the old churhyard of Grace Church”. Rufus King remarked on her death regarding his wife, “The example of her life is worhty of the imitation of us all”.[18]
He is well known for being a Confederate brigadier general during the American Civil War and for his death during the Siege of Petersburg. • Archibald Gracie IV was an American writer, amateur historian, real estate investor, and survivor of the sinking of the RMS Titanic. • Fleet Admiral William Frederick Halsey, Jr., USN,[21] (called “Bill Halsey” and sometimes known as “Bull” Halsey), was a U.S. Naval officer and the commander of the United States Third Fleet during part of the Pacific War against Japan. Earlier, he had commanded the South Pacific Theater during desperate times. • Isabella Beecher Hooker (1822–1907) was a leader in the women’s suffrage movement and an author.
Rufus King died on April 29, 1827, and his funeral was held at his N Y in Jamaica, Queens. He is buried in the Grace Church Cemetery in Jamaica, Queens, New York. [19] The home that King purchased in 1805 and expanded thereafter and some of his farm make up King Park in Queens. The home, called King Manor, is now a museum and is open to the public.
• Charles King (academic) was an American academic, politician, newspaper editor and the ninth president of Columbia College (now Columbia University).
The Rufus King School, also known as P.S. 26, in Fresh Meadows, New York, was named after King, as was the Rufus King Hall on the CUNY Queens College campus and King Street[20] in Madison, Wisconsin.
• James G. King was an American businessman and Whig Party politician who represented New Jersey’s 5th congressional district in the United States House of Representatives. His daughter, Frederika Gore King, married Bancroft Davis.
Confusingly, Rufus King International School – High School Campus, formerly Rufus King High School, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, is named after his grandson, Rufus King, a general in the American Civil War.
18.1.10
Descendants
Rufus King’s descendants number in the thousands today. Some of his notable descendants include; • Dr. C. Loring Brace IV was a noted Biological anthropologist. • Gerald Warner Brace (1901–1978) was an American writer, educator, sailor and boat builder. • Charles Loring Brace (1826–1890) was a philanthropist and was most renowned for founding The Children’s Aid Society.
• Charles King was a United States soldier and a distinguished writer.
• John Alsop King was an American politician who served as governor (1857–1859) of New York. • Rufus King was a newspaper editor, educator, U.S. diplomat, and a Union brigadier general in the American Civil War. • Rufus King, Jr. was an artillery officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War, and a Medal of Honor recipient. • Hon. Rufus Gunn King III (retired) was the Chief Judge, Superior Court of the District of Columbia • Ellin Travers Mackay was the 2nd wife of composer and lyricist Irving Berlin. • Alice Duer Miller was an American writer and poet.
• Wolcott Gibbs was an American editor, humorist, theater critic, playwright and author of short stories.
• Halsey Minor[22] is a technology entrepreneur who founded CNET in 1993.
• Archibald Gracie III was a career United States Army officer, businessman, and a graduate of West Point.
• Mary Alsop King Waddington was an American author.
18.4. FURTHER READING
18.2 See also
69
[14] Arbena
• List of United States political appointments that [15] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter K” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, crossed party lines 2014.
• U.S. Constitution, ratification debates, judiciary de[16] American Antiquarian Society Members Directory bates • A More Perfect Union (film)
18.3 Notes [1] Passos, John Dos (2011). The Men Who Made the Nation: Architects of the Young Republic 1782-1802. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing. p. 480. [2] Ernst, pp. 1–15. [3] Adams, John (July 7, 1774). “John Adams to Abigail Adams, 7 July 1774” (WEB). Founders Online. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
[17] McKenney, Janice E. (2012). Women of the Constitution: Wives of the Signers. Lanham: Rrowman & Littlefield. p. 98. [18] McKenney, Janice E. (2012). Women of the Constitution: Wives of the Signers. Lanham: Rrowman & Littlefield. p. 100. [19] Rufus King at Find A Grave [20] Wisconsin Historical Society (2011). “Origins of Madison Street Names”. Wisconsinhistory.org. Retrieved November 22, 2011. [21] “Halsey”, ArlingtonCemetery.net.
[4] “The Founding Fathers: Massachusetts”. The Charters of Freedom. Archives.gov. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
[22] Halsey Minor Read the Hook November 27, 2008
[5] Steven E. Siry. “King, Rufus"; American National Biography Online, February 2000.
18.3.1
[6] John Vinci (2008). “Biography of Rufus King”. Colonialhall.com. Retrieved November 22, 2011. [7] Purvis, Thomas L. (1997). A Dictionary of American History. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-57718-099-9. Retrieved November 23, 2011. [8] “KING, Rufus, (1755 - 1827)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. Congress. Retrieved 2 February 2015. [9] Morton, Joseph C. (2006). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary. Berkeley: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 160. [10] Morton, Joseph C. (2006). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary. Berkeley: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 160– 161. [11] Morton, Joseph C. (2006). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary. Berkeley: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 161. [12] Morton, Joseph C. (2006). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary. Berkeley: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 162. [13] Morton, Joseph C. (2006). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary. Berkeley: Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 161– 162.
Primary sources
• Arbena, Joseph L. “Politics or Principle? Rufus King and the Opposition to Slavery, 1785–1825.” Essex Institute Historical Collections (1965) 101(1): 56–77. ISSN 0014-0953 • Ernst, Robert. Rufus King: American Federalist. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1968. • King, Charles R. The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, 4 vol. 1893–1897. • Perkins, Bradford. The First Rapprochement: England and the United States, 1795–1805. University of California Press, 1967.
18.4
Further reading
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "King, Rufus". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Brush, Edward Hale. Rufus King and His Times. New York: Nicholas L. Brown, 1926. Ernst, Robert. Rufus King: American Federalist. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press, 1968.
70
18.5 External links • Rufus King at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • King Manor Museum • Historic House Trust of New York, King Manor Museum • A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 • The members of the 1st United States Congress (took seat on July 25, 1789) • The members of the 4th United States Congress (resigned on May 23, 1796)
CHAPTER 18. RUFUS KING
Chapter 19
Caleb Strong Caleb Strong (January 9, 1745 – November 7, 1819) was a Massachusetts lawyer and politician who served as the sixth and tenth Governor of Massachusetts between 1800 and 1807, and again from 1812 until 1816. He assisted in drafting the Massachusetts State Constitution in 1779 and served as a state senator and on the Massachusetts Governor’s Council before being elected to the inaugural United States Senate. A leading member of the Massachusetts Federalist Party, his political success delayed the decline of the Federalists in Massachusetts. A successful Northampton lawyer prior to 1774, Strong was politically active in the rebel cause during the American Revolutionary War. He played an influential role in the development of the United States Constitution at the 1788 Philadelphia Convention, and, as a US Senator, in the passage of its 11th Amendment. He also played a leading role in the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established the federal court system. Adept at moderating the sometimes harsh political conflict between Federalists and Democratic-Republicans and popular in Massachusetts, he navigated the state in a Federalist direction through the early years of the 19th century as the rest of the country became progressively more Republican. Although he sought to retire from politics after losing the 1807 governor’s race, the advent of the War of 1812 brought him back to the governor’s office as a committed opponent of the war. He refused United States Army requests that state militia be placed under army command, and in 1814 sought to engage Nova Scotia Governor John Coape Sherbrooke in peace talks. The state and federal government’s weak defense of Massachusetts’ northern frontier during Strong’s tenure contributed to the successful drive for Maine's statehood, which was granted in 1820.
Connecticut River in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. His parents were Phebe Lyman Strong and Caleb Strong, the latter a descendant of early Massachusetts settlers such as John Strong, a 1630 immigrant to Massachusetts who was one of the founders of Northampton and the lead elder of the church for many years.[1][2] Caleb was their only son. He received his early education from Rev. Samuel Moody, and entered Harvard College in 1760, graduating four years later with high honors. He was shortly thereafter afflicted with smallpox, which temporarily blinded him and prevented him from engaging in the study of law for several years. He studied law with Joseph Hawley, was admitted to the bar in 1772, and began the practice of law in Northampton.[3] Hawley was also a political mentor, shaping Strong’s views on relations between the colonies and Great Britain.[4]
19.2
American Revolution
Strong and Hawley were both elected to the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1774. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775, Strong was unable to serve in the military because of his damaged sight, but he was otherwise active in the Patriot cause. He served on the Northampton Committee of Safety and in other local offices, but refused service in the Continental Congress.[5][6] He was a delegate to the 1779 Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, and was elected to the committee that drafted the state constitution, ratified in 1780.[6] He then served on the first governor’s council and in the state senate from 1780 to 1789.[7]
Strong’s legal practice thrived during the tumultuous war years, and was one of the most successful in Hampshire County. He became a judge of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775, and was appointed county attorney of Hampshire 19.1 Early years County the following year, a post he held until 1800. On more than one occasion he was offered a seat on the state’s Caleb Strong was born on January 9, 1745, in Northampton, supreme court, but rejected the position on account of its inone of the principal towns of Hampshire County on the adequate salary.[8] Strong was described by a contemporary 71
72
CHAPTER 19. CALEB STRONG
as meticulously detailed in his preparation of legal paperwork and a persuasive advocate when speaking to a jury.[9]
19.4
In 1781 Strong was one of the lawyers (another was Worcester lawyer and future United States Attorney General Levi Lincoln, Sr.) who worked on a series of legal cases surrounding Quock Walker, a former slave seeking to claim his freedom. One of the cases, Commonwealth of Massachusetts v. Nathaniel Jennison, firmly established that slavery was incompatible with the new state constitution.[10]
In the election of 1800 Strong was nominated by the Federalists as their candidate for governor; his principal opponent was Elbridge Gerry, nominated by the DemocraticRepublicans. Strong was criticized by his opponents for his lack of military service and for the fact that he was a lawyer; he countered by asserting his patriotism through his association with Joseph Hawley. His popularity in the western part of the state was decisive: the wide margin by which he won there overcame the smaller advantage by which Gerry carried the east.[23] Acting Governor Moses Gill died ten days before Strong took office at the end of May.[24]
19.3 United States Senator
First term as governor
Strong was elected as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the U.S. Constitution in 1787.[11] A committed Federalist, Strong opposed the idea of the Electoral College as a means of electing the president, instead supporting the idea that the legislature should choose him.[12] Although he initially opposed proposals that the number of senators should be equal for all states, he eventually changed his mind, enabling passage of the Connecticut Compromise.[13] To temper the power of the states, he introduced language requiring tax legislation to originate in the House of Representatives.[14] Illness of his wife forced him to return to Massachusetts before the work was completed, so he did not sign the document.[12][15] He was a vocal supporter of its adoption by the state’s ratifying convention.[12] When the Constitution came into force in 1789, Strong was chosen by the state legislature to serve in the United States Senate.[16] As what is now known as a Class 2 Senator he came up for reelection in 1792, when he was again chosen.[17] He was one of the principal drafters of the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established the federal courts. He was also instrumental in 1793 and 1794 in the development and passage by Congress of the 11th Amendment to the United States Constitution.[18] This measure was enacted in response to Chisholm v. Georgia, a Supreme Court decision in which a private individual sued the state of Georgia. The amendment expanded the sovereign immunity of states to limit suits against them by private individuals from other states.[19]
Bust of Elbridge Gerry, Strong’s frequent gubernatorial opponent (Herbert Adams, 1892)
Strong won annual reelection to the governor’s seat until 1807. During this tenure the state introduced a new penitentiary system and reformed the judiciary, reducing the number of judges.[25] Strong’s time as governor was also marked by virulent political debate in the state, principally over foreign policy related to British interference with Massachusetts maritime trade. That interference was a consequence of the ongoing Napoleonic Wars engulfing Europe. Over the years of Strong’s tenure the Republicans gradually gained in power both nationally and in Massachusetts.[26]
Strong was also one of a small group of senators who convinced President George Washington in 1794 that a special envoy should be sent to Britain in order to avert war, and who convinced John Jay to accept that role.[20] Jay ended up negotiating what became known as the Jay Treaty, which resolved a number of issues between the two nations, but also angered the leadership of Revolutionary France and was widely disliked, criticized, and opposed by Republicans.[21] In the 1806 election the Republicans secured a majority Strong resigned his seat in 1796 and returned to private life in the Massachusetts assembly, and the gubernatorial elecin Northampton.[22] tion was notably close. Running mainly against James Sul-
19.5. SECOND TERM AND WAR OF 1812 livan, Strong barely received a majority of the votes cast. With fewer than 200 votes in the balance, the Republicancontrolled legislature scrutinized the returns in a partisan manner, discarding ballots that had misspelled Strong’s name while retaining those that misspelled Sullivan’s and performing tallies in ways that favored their candidate. This process concluded with a finding that Strong in fact lacked a majority of votes, which was what was then required to carry the election, as opposed to the modern plurality requirement. Strong’s Federalist allies in the legislature were able to publicize the partisan nature of the analysis, resulting in a hostile public backlash. He was proclaimed the winner after further, less biased, analysis corrected the count in his favor.[27] However, in the 1807 election the rising tide of Republicanism swept Strong (along with other New England Federalists) out of office.[28] Federalists asked him to run in 1808, but he refused, noting that he had “done his part” and that his home base in Hampshire County was strongly Federalist.[29]
19.5 Second term and War of 1812 Further information: War of 1812 In 1812 Strong was convinced by Massachusetts Federalist leaders to come out of retirement to run once again for governor. War with Britain was imminent, and the Federalists sought a strong candidate to oppose Elbridge Gerry, who had been victorious against Christopher Gore in the previous two elections.[30] Gerry, who had originally been somewhat moderate, became increasingly partisan during his tenure, and Federalists viewed Strong’s earlier success in office and relatively modest demeanor as assets. Strong’s victory in the election, which saw the Federalists also regain control of the legislature, was attributed to several factors: Federalists capitalized on the partisanship of the recent redistricting of the state that resulted in the coining of the term "gerrymander", and there was strong antiwar sentiment in the state.[31] Strong was reelected by wide margins in the following war years.[32] Strong took a principled stand against the War of 1812, generally refusing to assist federal government efforts to prosecute the war. Strong was part of a chorus of Massachusetts (and more broadly New England) Federalists who complained that in "Mr. Madison’s War” the federal government was trampling state and individual rights.[34] He adhered to the view that state militia could not be required to serve under regular army command.[35] When the first such requests were made by U. S. Army General Henry Dearborn, Strong, with the backing of not just the Governor’s Council but also the Supreme Judicial Court, refused, arguing that there was no need to call out the militia because
73
Fort Adams, the principal defense of Boston Harbor, in 1789. It was later rededicated Fort Independence.[33]
invasion was not imminent.[36] Because of his stance against regular army command, the state was denied a shipment of arms that was instead diverted to frontier areas and the war theater.[37] Strong also took no particular actions to prevent widespread smuggling along the state’s frontiers with the neighboring British provinces.[38] Strong’s opposition to regular army control was more nuanced than that of neighboring Connecticut Governor John Cotton Smith, who ensured that his militia always remained under state command.[39] Strong was more concerned that the state militia not be used except in defense of the state’s borders, and compromised on the issue of command. In 1812, not long after refusing General Dearborn’s request, he authorized the dispatch of militia companies to the state’s eastern district (now Maine) under United States Army command.[40] With the British naval blockade tightening and threatening the state’s coastal communities in early 1814, Strong authorized U. S. Brigadier General Thomas H. Cushing to command militia forces in the defenses of Boston Harbor, subject to reasonable limitations. Cushing was transferred to Connecticut, and General Dearborn again commanded the regular army forces in Massachusetts. Dearborn interpreted the agreement Strong had made with Cushing to apply statewide, and began reorganizing militia companies to conform to regular army practices.[41] This engendered ill will among the militia, and Strong refused to place additional levies under Dearborn’s command.[42] The defense of Maine, however, proved problematic. Strong’s aide William H. Sumner negotiated an agreement with the Army command for the defense of Portland, but the ironically Republican-dominated district militia objected, first to the idea of serving under any regular army leadership, and then to serving under a relatively low-ranked officer (a lieutenant colonel) who was given command of Portland after the agreement was signed. Several units of
74
CHAPTER 19. CALEB STRONG Governor Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, essentially offering a separate peace in exchange for the return of the seized territory.[49] He also refused to authorize temporary Massachusetts funding for a federally led expedition to recover Castine, leading to further cries of indignation from Maine’s Republicans.[50] The Treaty of Ghent ended the war before the Nova Scotia negotiations went anywhere.[49] Strong’s policies during the war are credited as one of the reasons for Maine’s drive for statehood, which came to a successful conclusion in 1820.[51] In 1816, with the war at an end, Strong elected once again to retire from politics.[52] Strong died in Northampton on November 7, 1819, and was buried in its Bridge Street Cemetery.[53]
19.6
Family, charity, and legacy
In 1777 Strong married Sarah Hooker, the daughter of a local pastor. They had nine children, four of whom survived the couple.[52] Strong was active in his church and was a leading member of local missionary and Bible societies.[54] He was a founding member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and a member of the Massachusetts Historical Society.[55] In 1813, Strong was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.[56]
British General Sir John Coape Sherbrooke, Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia and leader of the expedition that in 1814 occupied Castine[43]
local militia refused the perform their assigned duties.[44] One consequence of the dispute was that most militia in the state remained under state control, and were thus paid for from state coffers at a cost that ran to $200,000 per month.[45] This further strained the state economy, which was already suffering due to the British blockade.[46] Following the British seizure of Castine in September 1814, Strong called the legislature into session early in October to respond to the occupation.[47] Given that the federal government was unwilling to fund militia not under its control, the legislature authorized Strong to borrow money to fund a major expansion of the militia, but most of the funds acquired were spent improving Boston’s defenses.[48] Another result of the special session was a call for a meeting of states opposed to the war, which became known as the Hartford Convention.[47] Around the time of the convention, which was held in Hartford, Connecticut beginning in December 1814, Strong secretly wrote to Nova Scotia Lieutenant-
In World War II, the United States liberty ship SS Caleb Strong was named in his honor. The town of Strong, Maine, incorporated in 1801, was named for Strong[57] and Windham Township, Portage County, Ohio was originally named Strongsburg in his honor.[58] The Strongsburg land had been allocated to Strong as part of his ownership share in the Ohio Company, and was sold by him and several minority partners in 1810.[59]
19.7
Notes
[1] Trumbull, p. 594 [2] Dwight, Benjamin W. (1871). The History of the Descendants of Elder John Strong of Northampton Massachusetts. [3] Trumbull, p. 594 [4] Lodge, p. 293 [5] Lodge, p. 294 [6] Trumbull, p. 596 [7] Lodge, p. 295 [8] Trumbull, pp. 594–595 [9] Trumbull, p. 595
19.8. REFERENCES
75
[10] Higginbotham, pp. 90–95
[44] Hickey, pp. 596–597
[11] Lodge, p. 296
[45] Hickey, p. 598
[12] Lodge, p. 297
[46] Hickey, pp. 599–600
[13] Zelizer, p. 16
[47] Buel, p. 212
[14] Morton, p. 281
[48] Banks, p. 60
[15] Graham, p. 34
[49] Morison, pp. 362–370
[16] Bradford, p. 16
[50] Banks, pp. 61–62
[17] Lodge, pp. 298–299
[51] Clark, pp. 60–69
[18] Wheeler and Harrison, p. 3
[52] Trumbull, p. 600
[19] Marcus, p. 597 [20] Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 389–395
[53] Caleb Strong at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
[21] Elkins and McKitrick, pp. 406–426, 502
[54] Trumbull, p. 601
[22] Trumbull, p. 598
[55] Bradford, p. 17
[23] Morse, pp. 178–180
[56] American Antiquarian Society Members Directory
[24] Hart, p. 3:455
[57] “Strong, a Mussul Unsquit Village”. Maine Memory/Maine Historical Society. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
[25] Hart, pp. 3:455–456 [26] Hart, pp. 3:456–457
[58] “Windham Historical Society”. Portage County Historical Society. Retrieved 2012-11-30.
[27] Morison, p. 272
[59] Brown and Norris, p. 567
[28] Hart, p. 3:457 [29] Lodge, p. 304
19.8
References
[30] Buel, p. 147 [31] Buel, pp. 147–149 [32] Buel, pp. 175, 202 [33] Butler et al, p. 10 [34] Stuart, p. 109 [35] Buel, p. 166 [36] Hickey, p. 590 [37] Buel, p. 176 [38] Stuart, pp. 89–90 [39] Hickey, p. 592–593 [40] Hickey, p. 594 [41] Hickey, p. 595 [42] Hickey, p. 596 [43] “Biography of John Coape Sherbrooke”. Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online. Retrieved 2013-02-12.
• Banks, Ronald (1973) [1970]. Maine Becomes a State. Portland, ME: Maine Historical Society. ISBN 9780819540287. OCLC 98910. • Bradford, Alden (1820). Biography of the Hon. Caleb Strong. Boston: West, Richardson and Lord. OCLC 13336932. • Brown, Robert; Norris, J. E (1885). History of Portage County, Ohio. Chicago: Warner, Beers. OCLC 3080072. • Buel, Richard (2005). America on the Brink. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403962386. OCLC 55510543. • Butler, Gerald; Shaner, Mary and Richard (2001). The Guns of Boston. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. ISBN 9780759647305. • Clark, Charles (1990) [1977]. Maine: A History. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England. ISBN 9780874515206. OCLC 21336521.
76 • Elkins, Stanley; McKitrick, Eric (1993). The Age of Federalism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195068900. OCLC 26720733. • Graham, John (2009). Free, Sovereign, and Independent States: The Intended Meaning of the American Constitution. Gretna, LA: Pelican Publishing. ISBN 9781589805897. OCLC 297149574. • Hart, Albert Bushnell (ed) (1927). Commonwealth History of Massachusetts. New York: The States History Company. OCLC 1543273. (five volume history of Massachusetts until the early 20th century) • Hickey, Donald (December 1977). “New England’s Defense Problem and the Genesis of the Hartford Convention”. The New England Quarterly (Volume 50, No. 4): 587–604. JSTOR 364248. • Higginbotham, A. Leon (1980). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process : the Colonial Period. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195027457. OCLC 219923586. • Lodge, Henry Cabot (April 1820). “Memoir of Hon. Caleb Strong LLD”. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society. • Marcus, Maeva (1994). Suits Against States. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231088725. OCLC 258275261. • Morison, Samuel Eliot (1913). Harrison Gray Otis, 1765–1848: The Urbane Federalist, Volume 1. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 823677. • Morse, Anson (1909). The Federalist Party in Massachusetts to the Year 1800. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. OCLC 718724. • Morton, Joseph (2006). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 : a Biographical Dictionary. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313060328. OCLC 70207421. • Robinson, William (1916). Jeffersonian Democracy in New England. New Haven: Yale University Press. OCLC 1550209. • Stuart, Reginald (2009). Civil-Military Relations During the War of 1812. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780275982003. • Trumbull, John (1902). History of Northampton, Volume 2. Northampton, MA: Gazette Printing Co. OCLC 2772422.
CHAPTER 19. CALEB STRONG • Wheeler, Russell; Harrison, Cynthia (1994). Creating the Federal Judicial System. Washington, DC: Federal Judicial Center. ISBN 9781428992511. OCLC 31457478. • Zelizer, Julian (2004). The American Congress: The Building of Democracy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 9780618179060. OCLC 269285921.
Chapter 20
William Houstoun (lawyer) This article is about the lawyer. For the statesman, see egates. He stayed for only a short time, from June 1 unWilliam Houston. For other people, see William Houstoun. til about July 23, but he was present during the debate on the representation question. Houstoun split Georgia’s vote on equal representation in the Senate, voting “nay” against William Houstoun, also spelled Houston, (/ˈhaʊstən/ [1] HOW-stən) (c. 1755—March 17, 1813 ) was an Abraham Baldwin's “aye.” His fellow Georgian delegate William Pierce wrote of him: “As to his legal or political American planter, lawyer, and statesman. He served knowledge he has very little to boast of. Nature seems to Georgia as a delegate to the Continental Congress and to have done more for his corporeal than mental powers. His [1] the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787. Person is striking, but his mind very little improved with useful or elegant knowledge.”[2]
20.1 Early life William Houstoun was the son of Sir Patrick Houstoun, a 20.3 Later life member of the council under the royal government of Georgia. He was born in 1755 in Savannah, Georgia. Houstoun Houstoun married Mary Bayard, the daughter of Nicholas received a liberal education, which included legal training Bayard (baptized 1736[3] ), a member of the prominent New York city Bayard family. Houston Street, originally part of at Inner Temple in London. his father-in-law’s estate in the New York City borough of Manhattan was named for Houstoun,[4] using an alternate 20.2 Role in the Continental spelling. Houstoun died in Savannah on March 17, 1813, and was interred in St. Paul’s Chapel in New York City.[1]
Congress The American Revolution cut short his training, and Houstoun returned home to Georgia. For many years members of Houstoun’s family had been high officials in the colony. With the onset of war, many remained loyal to the crown, but William, a zealous advocate of colonists’ rights, was among the first to counsel resistance to British aggression.
20.4
Houstoun represented Georgia in the Continental Congress from 1783 through 1786. He was chosen as one of Georgia’s agents to settle a boundary dispute with South Carolina in 1785 and was one of the original trustees of the University of Georgia at Athens.
20.2.1
Delegate to the Georgia Convention
When the Constitutional Convention convened in 1787, Houstoun presented his credentials as one of Georgia’s del77
References
[1] William Houstoun at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress [2] Pierce, William (1911). “CXIX. William Pierce: Character Sketches of Delegates to the Federal Convention.”. In Farrand, Max. The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787. Vol. 3. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press. p. 97. LCCN 11005506. OCLC 349356. Retrieved November 24, 2011. [3] Bulloch, Joseph Gaston Baillie (1919). A History and Genealogy of the Families of Bayard, Houstoun of Georgia, and the Descent of the Bolton Family from Assheton, Byron and Hulton of Hulton Park. J. H. Dony.
78
[4] Cohen, Marjorie. “The meaning behind the city’s bestknown streets”. 2 February 2012. AM New York. Retrieved 12 October 2012.
CHAPTER 20. WILLIAM HOUSTOUN (LAWYER)
Chapter 21
Nicholas Gilman Nicholas Gilman, Jr. (August 3, 1755 – May 2, 1814) was a soldier in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, a delegate to the Continental Congress, and a signer of the U.S. Constitution, representing New Hampshire. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives during the first four Congresses, and served in the U.S. Senate from 1804 until his death in 1814. His brother John Taylor Gilman was also very active in New Hampshire politics, serving as Governor of New Hampshire for 14 years, as well as a principal benefactor of Phillips Exeter Academy. Their childhood home in Exeter is now the American Independence Museum.
21.1 Family background and early life Gilman was the second son in a family of eight children. Born during the French and Indian War, he was soon aware of the military responsibilities that went with citizenship in a New England colony. After attending local public schools, he became a clerk in his father’s trading house, but the growing rift between the colonies and Great Britain quickly thrust Gilman into the struggle for independence. New England merchants in particular resented Parliament’s attempt to end its “salutary neglect” of the financial and political affairs of the colonies by instituting measures to raise and to enforce the raising of revenue-measures that many Americans considered violations of their rights as British Order by Nicholas Gilman, Treasurer of New Hampshire, Exeter, citizens. Gilman’s father, along with Nathaniel Folsom and 1781 Enoch Poor, emerged as a leader of the Patriot cause in Exeter. He represented his community in the New Hampshire Provincial Congresses, which met just after hostilities broke out at Lexington and Concord in 1775 and which later drafted the one hundred and thirty eight state constitution. During the American Revolution he served as the state’s treasurer. His oldest son, John, was a sergeant in Exeter’s company of militia that marched to fight the Redcoats
around Boston. Nicholas remained behind, but already an ardent supporter of the Patriot cause, he likely trained with the local militia regiment. He was thirty-two at the constitutional convention. The state he represented is New Hampshire.
79
80
CHAPTER 21. NICHOLAS GILMAN
21.2 Revolutionary War In November 1776, a committee of the state legislature appointed young Nicholas Gilman to serve as adjutant, or administrative officer, of the 3rd New Hampshire Regiment. That unit was in the process of a complete reorganization under the direction of its commander, Colonel Alexander Scammel. A superb combat officer, Scammell made good use of Gilman’s administrative talents in the task of creating a potent fighting force out of the limited manpower resources at hand-a combination of raw recruits from around the state and ragged veterans of the Trenton-Princeton campaign. In time the 3rd New Hampshire would be recognized as one of the mainstays of General Washington’s Continental Army. Because New Hampshire lay along the major invasion route from Canada to New York, George Washington assigned its regiments a key role in the strategic defense of the northern states. In the spring of 1777 Gilman and the rest of the officers and men of the 3d New Hampshire marched to Fort Ticonderoga on Lake Champlain to participate in an attempt by American forces to halt the advance of a powerful army of British and German regulars and Indian auxiliaries under General John Burgoyne. Difficulties in coordinating Portrait miniature of Gilman painted by John Ramage, c. 1790. the efforts of several different states turned Gilman’s first Winterthur Museum military experience into one of defeat. The veteran British troops outflanked the fort, and only at the last minute did the garrison, including the 3d New Hampshire, escape capture by making a dangerous night . The American retreat lasted through the early summer, until a combination of British transportation difficulties and delaying tactics employed by the continentals finally slowed the enemy advance. This delay allowed time for a mass mobilization of New England militia, including a New Hampshire Regiment of volunteers led by John Langdon and Gilman’s father. It also provided Major General Horatio Gates with time to establish new positions near Saratoga, New York, to block Burgoyne’s further advance, and then, once Gates had a numerical advantage, to cut off the British line of withdrawal to Canada. During this campaign Gilman was busily employed in supervising the training and readiness of Scammell’s men. He participated with his unit in two important battles at Freeman’s Farm, where Burgoyne’s units were so pummeled that “Gentleman Johnny” was eventually forced to surrender his whole army. Neither Gilman nor Scammell was granted a respite after this great victory. Less than a week after the British surrender, the 3rd New Hampshire set out to reinforce Washington’s main army near Philadelphia. The American capital had recently fallen to a larger British force, and the New Englanders had to spend a harsh winter in the snows of Valley Forge. That winter encampment put the units of the
Continental Army to their supreme test, a time of suffering and deprivation from which they emerged as a tough, professional combat team. Gilman’s administrative skills came to the fore at this time. When Washington selected Colonel Scammell to serve as the Continental Army’s Adjutant General, Scammell made Gilman his assistant. Promotion to the rank of captain followed in June 1778. For the remainder of the war Gilman found himself in close proximity to the military leaders of the Continental Army. His duties in carrying out the myriad tasks necessary to keep a force in the field placed him in daily contact with Washington, Steuben, Knox, Greene, and others. He personally saw action in the remaining battles fought by Washington’s main army, including Monmouth and Yorktown, while continuing to hold his captain’s commission in the New Hampshire Line. The death of Colonel Scammell, however, during the preliminary skirmishing before Yorktown robbed him of much of the joy of that great victory. Following the death of his father in late 1783, he retired from military service and returned to Exeter to assume control of the family’s business.
21.3. STATESMAN
81 approval in every state and region.
Exeter, New Hampshire, home of Hon. Nicholas Gilman
21.3 Statesman Gilman’s career as merchant proved short-lived. His career as statesman continued for decades. Gilman’s service as a Continental Army officer had exposed him to many of the ideas of such prominent nationalists as Washington and Alexander Hamilton. Their influence, his family’s own tradition of service, and his special skill at organization all combined to divert the young veteran into a political career. In 1786 the New Hampshire legislature appointed Gilman to the Continental Congress. He was also selected in 1786 to represent the state at the Annapolis Convention. Although he was unable to attend, his selection recognized Gilman’s emergence as a nationalist spokesman, since the convention had been called specifically to address the country’s serious economic problems and the inability of the separate states or Congress to solve them.
General orders of George Washington: The bottom section (24 May 1779) names Captain Nicholas Gilman, of the Third New Hampshire Regiment as assistant to the adjutant general
During the subsequent struggle to secure New Hampshire’s ratification of the Constitution, Gilman remained in New York as a member of the Continental Congress, but he kept in close touch with his brother, John, who was one of the leaders of the states ratification forces. Working in tandem, the brothers used all of their considerable political influence to engineer a narrow 57-47 margin of victory in the final vote. When the First Congress of the new United States of America convened in New York in 1789, Gilman was in attendance as a member of the House of Representatives, a seat he filled for four terms. During this period the Gilman brothers became a feature of New Hampshire politics. John Gilman became governor, a post he would hold for fourteen terms, while a younger brother embarked on a career in the state legislature. After returning to Exeter, Nicholas Gilman resumed his own political career in 1800, serving a term as state senator.
The outbreak of unrest and latent insurrection in western Massachusetts in late 1786 further strengthened Gilman’s commitment to changing the Articles of Confederation. He was pleased to serve his state as a representative at the Constitutional Convention that met in July 1787. Although he and fellow New Hampshire delegate John Langdon, his father’s former commanding officer, reached Philadelphia after the proceedings were well under way, they both im- During this time Gilman’s political loyalties began to mediately joined in the debates and helped hammer out the change. Ever a staunch nationalist, he had supported the compromises needed to produce a document that might win Federalists while that party led the fight for a more binding
82 union of the states. But once that concept was firmly established, Gilman became increasingly concerned with the need to protect the common man from abuses of power by government. As a consequence, he gave his support to the Democratic-Republican party that was beginning to form around Thomas Jefferson. In 1801 he accepted appointment from Jefferson as a federal bankruptcy commissioner. Following one unsuccessful attempt, he was then elected to the United States Senate in 1804 as a Jeffersonian. On June 17, 1812, the Senate voted 19 to 13 for war against Britain, but Gilman was one of the 13 who voted against the war. Although the New Hampshire Yankee rarely spoke at length in legislative debate, his peers recognized his political prowess. He remained an influential member of the Senate until his death in 1814, which occurred while he was returning home from Washington during a recess. Gilman summarized his belief in the importance of a strong national government on the day after he signed the Constitution. He called the new supreme law of the land “the best that could meet the unanimous concurrence of the States in Convention; it was done by bargain and Compromise, yet, notwithstanding its imperfections, on the adoption of it depends (in my feeble judgment) whether we shall become a respectable nation, or a people torn to pieces ... and rendered contemptible for ages.” These modest words typified this eminently practical Soldier-Statesman. Yet his modesty failed to mask the justifiable pride he obviously felt in the accomplishment of the Founding Fathers. Gilman himself had played no small part.
21.4 See also • Ladd-Gilman House
21.5 References This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army Center of Military History. • Nicholas Gilman at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
21.6 External links • Gilman’s biography at U.S. Congress website • American Independence Museum, Exeter, New Hampshire
CHAPTER 21. NICHOLAS GILMAN • The Gilmans of Exeter, SeacoastNH.com • Portrait of Nicholas Gilman by Ramage, Passion for the Past, now in Winterthur Museum, Phillips Exeter Academy • State Builders: An Illustrated Historical and Biographical Record of the State of New Hampshire. State Builders Publishing Manchester, NH 1903 • The Gilmans of America, Searches into the History of the Gillman or Gilman Family, Alexander William Gillman, Elliot Stock, London, 1895 • Grave of Nicholas Gilman, Sr., Winter Street Burial Ground, Exeter, shipbuilder, merchant, owner, Ladd Gilman house, first New Hampshire state treasurer, father of founding father Nicholas Gilman Jr. and Gov. John Taylor Gilman, gravematter.smugmug.com • Framers of Freedom: The Gilman Family
Chapter 22
John Langdon (politician) John Langdon (June 26, 1741 – September 18, 1819), a Founding Father of the United States who, as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention signed the United States Constitution, was a politician from Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and one of the first two United States senators from that state. Langdon was an early supporter of the Revolutionary War and served in the Continental Congress. After being in Congress for 12 years, including serving as the first president pro tempore of the Senate, Langdon became governor of New Hampshire. He turned down a nomination for vice presidential candidate in 1812.
22.1 Life and career His father was a prosperous farmer and local ship builder, whose family had emigrated to America before 1660 from Sheviock, Caradon, Cornwall, and was among the first to settle near the mouth of Piscataqua River, a settlement which became Portsmouth, one of New England's major seaports. Langdon attended the local grammar school, run by a veteran of the 1745 Siege of Louisbourg against the French at Fortress Louisbourg in New France. After finishing his primary education, Langdon served an apprenticeship as a clerk. He and his older brother, Woodbury Langdon, rejected the opportunity to join in their father’s successful agricultural pursuits, and went to sea instead, apprenticed themselves to local naval merchants. By age 22, Langdon was captain of a cargo ship called the Andromache, sailing to the West Indies. Four years later he owned his first merchantman, and would continue over time to acquire a small fleet of vessels, engaged in the triangular trade between Portsmouth, the Caribbean, and London. His older brother was even more successful in international trade, and by 1777 both young men were among Portsmouth’s wealthiest citizens.
prominent supporter of the revolutionary movement in the 1770s. He served on the New Hampshire Committee of Correspondence and a nonimportation committee, and also attended various Patriot assemblies. In 1774, he participated in the seizure and confiscation of British munitions from Fort William and Mary. Langdon served as a member of the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1776. He resigned in June 1776 to become agent for the Continental forces against the British and superintended the construction of several warships including the Raleigh, the America, and the Ranger, which was captained by John Paul Jones. In 1777, he equipped an expedition against the British, participating in the Battle of Bennington and commanding Langdon’s Company of Light Horse Volunteers at Saratoga and in Rhode Island. In 1784, he built at Portsmouth the mansion now known as the Governor John Langdon House. Langdon was elected to two terms as President of New Hampshire, once between 1785 and 1786 and again between 1788 and 1789. He was a member of the Congress of the Confederation in 1787 and became a delegate to the Constitutional Convention in 1787, serving as a member of the New Hampshire delegation. Langdon was elected to the U.S. Senate and served from March 4, 1789, to March 4, 1801. He was elected the first President pro tempore of the Senate on April 6, 1789, and also served as president pro tempore during the second Congress. During the 1787 constitutional debates in Philadelphia, Langdon spoke out against James Madison's proposed “negative” on state laws simply because he felt that should the Senate be granted this power and not the House of Representatives, it would “hurt the feelings” of House members.[1] In 1798, Langdon assisted Oney Judge to evade Burwell Bassett, the nephew of George and Martha Washington, who had intended to kidnap Judge and return her to slavery with the Washingtons.[2]
British control of the shipping industries greatly hurt Lang- Langdon later served as a member of the New Hampshire don’s business, motivating him to become a vigorous and 83
84
CHAPTER 22. JOHN LANGDON (POLITICIAN) • “The Founding Fathers: New Hampshire.” U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. • Wright, Jr., Robert K; MacGregor, Jr., Morris J. (1987). “John Langdon”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. • State Builders: An Illustrated Historical and Biographical Record of the State of New Hampshire. State Builers Publishing Manchester, NH 1903 Mayo, Lawrence Shaw. John Langdon of New Hampshire. Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press, 1937.
Governor John Langdon House at Portsmouth, New Hampshire
22.3 Legislature (1801–05), with the last two terms as speaker; he served as governor from 1805 to 1812, except for a year between 1809 and 1810. In 1808, his niece, Catherine Whipple Langdon, married Edmund Roberts.[3] Langdon declined the nomination to be a candidate for vice president with James Madison in 1812, and later retired. He died in his hometown of Portsmouth in 1819, and was interred at the Langdon Tomb in the North Cemetery. The town of Langdon, New Hampshire is named after him,[4] as well as Langdon Street in Madison, Wisconsin, a town with several streets named after founding fathers.[5]
22.2 References [1] http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/debates_710.asp [2] Eva Gerson, “Ona Judge Staines: Escape from Washington”, 2000, Black History, SeacoastNH [3] “Calvin Howard Bell Family”. extract from Bell Family History. Access Genealogy. April 23, 2012. Retrieved April 19, 2012. Judge Woodbury Langdon, of Portsmouth , N. H.; Delegate to the Continental Congress, 1779; President of N. H. Senate, 1784; Judge of the Superior Court of N. H., 1782-91....(a) Catherine Whipple Langdon: m. 1808, Edmund Roberts, of Portsmouth, N. H. [4] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 181. [5] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp
• • John Langdon at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
External links
• Governor John Langdon House, Historic New England • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Langdon, John". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chapter 23
David Brearley rank of colonel in Nathaniel Heard's New Jersey militia brigade. From 1776 to 1779 he served in the New Jersey Line of the Continental Army, seeing action at Brandywine, Germantown, and Monmouth.
23.2
Government service
Brearley resigned from the army in 1779 to serve as the New Jersey Supreme Court Chief Justice, succeeding Robert Morris. He decided on the famous Holmes v. Walton case where he ruled that the judiciary had the authority to declare whether laws were unconstitutional or not.[1] He held the seat until 1789.
David Brearley
David Brearley (often spelled Brearly) (June 11, 1745 – August 16, 1790) was a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention and signed the U.S. Constitution on behalf of New Jersey.
23.1 American Revolution With the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, Brearley was at first a captain in the Monmouth County militia after having spent many years speaking out against the Parliamentary absolutism.[1] He eventually rose to the
While at the Constitutional Convention in 1787, he chaired the Committee on Postponed Parts, which played a substantial role in shaping the final document.[2] The committee addressed questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with Indian tribes, and Franklin’s compromise to require money bills to originate in the house. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee’s input.[3] They adopted the earlier plan for choosing the president by electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be “nineteen times out of twenty”. The committee also shorted the president’s term from seven years to four years, freed him to seek reelection, and moved impeachment trials from the courts to the Senate. They also created the vice president, whose only role was to succeed the president and preside over the senate. This also transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, who was given the power (which had been given to the senate by Rutledge’s committee) to make treaties and appoint ambassadors.[4] After signing the Constitution in 1787, he headed up the New Jersey committee that approved the Constitution. In 1789, he was a Presidential elector and on September 25, 1789 he was nominated by President George Washington to be the first federal district judge for the United States Dis-
85
86 trict Court for the District of New Jersey, a newly created seat. He was confirmed by the Senate on September 25, 1789, and received his commission the following day. He died in that office a few months later.[1]
23.3 Legacy Brearley was the first Grand Master of the New Jersey Masonic Lodge. He is buried in the churchyard of Saint Michael’s Episcopal Church in Trenton, New Jersey. David Brearley High School in Kenilworth, New Jersey, was named in his honor. Brearly Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his honor.[5] Brearly Crescent in Waldwick, NJ is named in his honor.[6]
23.4 References [1] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. “David Brearly”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. [2] Stewart, David. “The Summer of 1787”. p207 [3] Stewart, David. “The Summer of 1787”. p209 [4] Stewart, David. “The Summer of 1787”. p212 [5] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp [6] Waldwick, New Jersey
23.5 External links • David Brearley at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center. • Biography • From NARA • Colonial Hall Biography • David Brearley at Find a Grave
CHAPTER 23. DAVID BREARLEY
Chapter 24
Jonathan Dayton This article is about the early American politician. For the tion in New Jersey into the Safety of New York City.[1] In film and music video director, see Jonathan Dayton and October 1780, along with an uncle were captured by loyValerie Faris. alists who held him captive for the winter, released in the coming year. Again served under his father, Elias, in the Jonathan Dayton (October 16, 1760 – October 9, 1824) New Jersey Brigade. Now only 19, was promoted to rank of captain on March 30, 1780, and transferred to the second was an American politician from the U.S. state of New JerYorktown sey. He was the youngest person to sign the United States New Jersey, where he took part in the ensuing Campaign fighting at the Battle of Yorktown.[1] The RevoConstitution and a member of the U.S. House of Representatives, serving as the fourth Speaker of the United States lutionary War Pension files also states that he served as AidHouse of Representatives, and later the U.S. Senate. Day- de-Camp to Genenal Sullivan on his expedition against the ton was arrested in 1807 for treason in connection with Indians from May 1 to Nov 30, 1779. On 19 Jul. 1799, Aaron Burr’s conspiracy, he was never put on trial, but his Dayton was offered a commission of Major General in the Provisional United States Army, but declined. national political career never recovered.
24.1.3
24.1 Biography 24.1.1
Career
After the war, Dayton studied law and created a practice, dividing his time between land speculation, law, and politics. After serving as a New Jersey delegate to the Continental Congress and Constitutional Convention (which he was the youngest member of, at the age of 26[2] ), he became a prominent Federalist legislator. He was a member of the New Jersey General Assembly from 1786–1787, and again in 1790, and served in the New Jersey Legislative Council (now the New Jersey Senate) in 1789.[1]
Early life
Dayton was born in Elizabethtown (now known as Elizabeth) in New Jersey. He was the son of Elias Dayton, a merchant who was prominent in local politics and had served as a militia officer in the French and Indian War. He graduated from the local academy, run by Tapping Reeve and Francis Barber, where he was classmates with Alexander Hamilton. He then attended the College of New Dayton was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives Jersey (now known as Princeton University). He left the in 1789, but he did not take his seat until he was chosen College of New Jersey in 1775 to fight in the revolution, again in 1791. He served as speaker for the Fourth and Fifth though he would later receive an honorary degree in 1776.[1] Congress. Like most Federalists, he supported the fiscal policies of Alexander Hamilton, and helped organize the suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion. He supported the 24.1.2 Soldier Louisiana Purchase and opposed the repeal of the Judiciary [1] During the Revolutionary War, 15 at the outbreak in 1775, Act of 1801. served under his father (Elias ) in the 3rd New Jersey Regiment as an ensign. On Jan. 1, 1777 he was commissioned a lieutenant and served as paymaster. He saw service under Washington, fighting at the battles of Brandywine Creek and Germantown. The son remained with Washington at Valley Forge, and helped push the British from their posi-
Wealthy from his heavy investments in Ohio where the city of Dayton would later be named after him, Dayton lent money to Aaron Burr becoming involved by association in the alleged conspiracy in which Burr was accused of intending to conquer parts of what is now the Southwestern United States. Dayton was exonerated, but his association
87
88 with Burr effectively ended his political career.[1]
24.2 Late life and family He married Susan Williamson and had two daughters. Susan’s Revolutionary War Pension Application W.6994 states that the marriage occurred on the twenty-eighth day of March, in the year seventeen hundred and seventy nine. A supporting letter, written by Aaron Ogden, a Captain in the New Jersey Brigade, states that he “was present at the marriage of the said Jonathan Dayton and Susan his wife ; which marriage ceremony was performed by the Reverent Mr. Hoyt, a Presbyterian Clergyman... in the fore part of spring of the year seventeen hundred and seventy nine (1779) while the New Jersey Brigade lay at Elizabethtown in the Borough of Elizabeth and state of new Jersey;" After resuming his political career in New Jersey, he died Oct. 9, 1824 in his hometown and was interred in an unmarked grave now under the present St. John’s Episcopal Church in Elizabeth which replaced the original church in 1860. Shortly before his death, Lafayette visited him, as reported in an obituary: In New-Jersey, Hon. JONATHAN DAYTON, formerly Speaker of the House of Representatives of Congress, and a Hero of the Revolution. When the Nation’s Guest lately passed New-Jersey, he passed the night with General Dayton, and such were the exertions of this aged and distinguished federalist, to honor the Guest, and gratify the wishes of his fellow citizens to see, that he sunk under them ; and expired, without regret, a few days after (Columbian Centinel (Boston, MA), Oct 20, 1824, p. 2).
24.3 Dayton, Ohio The city of Dayton, Ohio, was named after Jonathan Dayton. While he never set foot in the area, he was a signatory to the constitution and, at the time the city was established in 1796, he owned (in partnership with Arthur St. Clair, James Wilkinson and Israel Ludlow) 250,000 acres (1,011 km²) in the Great Miami River basin.[3][4]
24.4 Legacy The Jonathan Dayton High School in Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey, the Dayton neighborhood of Newark, New Jersey, Dayton Street[5] in Madison, Wisconsin, and Dayton, Ohio are named in his honor.
CHAPTER 24. JONATHAN DAYTON
24.5
Notes
[1] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. “David Brearly”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. [2] Abeka United States History: Heritage of Freedom, page 126 [3] Brief History of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio. Accessed January 13, 2010. [4] Important Daytonians, Preservation Dayton. Accessed January 13, 2010. [5] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp
24.6
External links
• Jonathan Dayton at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Jonathan Dayton at The Political Graveyard • Jonathan Dayton at Find A Grave
Chapter 25
William Livingston For other people named William Livingston, see William in 1769.[1] Livingston (disambiguation). William Livingston (November 30, 1723 – July 25, 1790) 25.2.1 New Jersey served as the Governor of New Jersey (1776–1790) during the American Revolutionary War and was a signer of the He moved to Elizabethtown, today Elizabeth, New Jersey, in 1770, where he built a large country home to United States Constitution. house his growing family. The house, known as Liberty Hall, still stands today.[1] After attaining considerable influence amongst the local patriots, Livingston was elected 25.1 Early life to serve as one of New Jersey’s delegates to the Continental Congress. He served from July 1774 to June 1776. In OcLivingston was the son of Philip Livingston and was born in tober 1775, he was commissioned a brigadier general of the Albany. Livingston received his early education from local New Jersey Militia. schools and tutors. At age 14, Livingston was sent to live In August 1776 he was elected Governor of New Jersey for a year with an Anglican missionary among the Iroquois and was reelected to the office each year until his death Indians in the Mohawk Valley. He enrolled at Yale College in 1790.[1] For much of the time between 1776 and 1779, upon his return in 1738 and graduated in 1741. He went on the family was located in Parsippany for safety. Liberty to New York City, where he studied law and became a law Hall was frequently visited by British troops or naval forces clerk for James Alexander and William Smith.[1] Livingston since there was a substantial reward for Livingston’s capmarried Susannah French[2] in New Jersey in 1745. They ture. The family returned in 1779 to begin restoring their went on to have 13 children. looted home. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1782.[3]
25.2 Law, Politics, and the Revolution 25.3 He was admitted to the bar in 1748 and began his practice in New York City. In 1752, along with William Smith and John Morin Scott he founded a weekly journal, the Independent Reflector. The Reflector was New York’s first serial non-newspaper publication and the only one being published in British North America at the time. It was used as a platform for challenging the powerful De Lancey/Anglican faction, most notably over the founding of King’s College. Publication of the Reflector ceased with the fifty-second issue after political pressure was brought to bear upon its printer, James Parker. Livingston served one-term in the New York Assembly, but he remained politically active in its affairs until his political allies lost power
Later years and death
Livingston led the New Jersey Delegation to the 1787 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and was one of the signers of the Constitution.[1] Livingston died in Elizabeth, New Jersey, and was originally buried in Trinity Church, New York, but was reinterred at GreenWood Cemetery, Brooklyn on May 7, 1844.
25.4
Legacy
In 1747, Livingston wrote and published a long pastoral poem entitled, “Philosophic Solitude, or the Choice of a
89
90
CHAPTER 25. WILLIAM LIVINGSTON ners for the diplomatic corps and other guests in the U.S. capital city of New York. Sarah would go on to serve in her hospitality role as the wife of the first U.S. Chief Justice and First Lady of New York. Livingston’s other daughter, Susannah, married John Cleves Symmes in 1780 and became the stepmother-in-law of President William Henry Harrison. Another descendant of William Livingston was Julia Kean, wife of United States Secretary of State and New York Governor Hamilton Fish. The township of Livingston, New Jersey was given its name in his honor,[5] as was Governor Livingston High School in Berkeley Heights, New Jersey. The Livingston campus of Rutgers University New Brunswick also was given its name in his honor.
25.5
See also
• Livingston family • Isaac Collins (printer)
25.6
References
[1] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. “William Livingston”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. Letter from Governor William Livingston to Israel Shreve, 1778
Rural Life”. One of the first successful original poems written by an American colonist, it was anthologized numerous times into the 19th century. In 1754, Livingston also played a key role in founding the New York Society Library, which is still in existence over a quarter of a millennium later. Livingston’s daughter Sarah, born in 1756 and was educated at home in penmanship, English grammar, the Bible, and classic literature. At a time when women were usually relegated to the kitchen, she was brought up to be politically aware, even serving at times as her father’s secretary.[4] She married John Jay at the age of 17 and became United States First Lady (age 22) while Jay served as the President of the Continental Congress from 1778-1779. Sarah accompanied John Jay to Spain and then Paris where he, along with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Henry Laurens negotiated the Treaty of Paris. She is credited with writing the celebratory Treaty of Paris dinner toast. When Sarah and John return to New York, Jay was appointed U.S. Foreign Secretary, and her Parisian training came in handy, as she and her husband established the custom of weekly din-
[2] William Nelson (1834). Biographical Sketch of William Colfax, Captain of Washington’s Body Guard. [3] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter L” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [4] About Sarah Livingston Jay. Accessed October 13, 2014. [5] About Livingston. Accessed March 9, 2007.
25.7
External links
• • William Livingston at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • William Livingston at Find a Grave • William Livingston in 1911 Britannica • Biography of William Livingston, New Jersey State Library • Sarah Livingston Jay in Historic.us websites
25.7. EXTERNAL LINKS • Documents Relating to the Revolutionary History of the State of New Jersey • New Jersey Governor William Livingston, National Governors Association • “PHILOSOPHIC SOLITUDE” (1747) by William Livingston • Green-Wood Cemetery Burial Search
91
Chapter 26
William Paterson (judge) William Paterson (December 24, 1745 – September 9, 1806) was a New Jersey statesman, a signer of the U.S. Constitution, and Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, who served as the 2nd governor of New Jersey, from 1790 to 1793.
26.1 Biography William Paterson was born in County Antrim, now in Northern Ireland, moved to what is now the United States at the age of two, and entered the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) at age 14. After graduating, he studied law with the prominent lawyer Richard Stockton and was admitted to the bar in 1768. He also stayed connected to his alma mater, helping found the Cliosophic Society with Aaron Burr.[1] He was selected as Somerset County, New Jersey delegate for the first three provincial congresses of New Jersey, where, as secretary, he recorded the 1776 New Jersey State Constitution. After Independence, Paterson was appointed as the first Attorney General of New Jersey, serving from 1776 to 1783, maintaining law and order and establishing himself as one of the state’s most prominent lawyers. He was sent to the 1787 Philadelphia Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania where he proposed the New Jersey Plan for a unicameral legislative body with equal representation from each state. After the Great Compromise (for two legislative bodies: a Senate with equal representation for each state, and a House of Representatives with representation based on population), the Constitution was signed. Paterson went on to become one of New Jersey’s first US. senators (1789–90). He was a strong nationalist who supported the Federalist party. As a member of the Senate Judiciary Committee, he played an important role in drafting the Judiciary Act of 1789 that established the federal court system. The first nine sections of this very important law are in his handwriting.
He resigned from the U.S. Senate in 1790 in order to succeed fellow signer William Livingston as governor of New Jersey. As governor, he pursued his interest in legal matters by codifying the English statutes that had been in force in New Jersey before the Revolution in Laws of the State of New Jersey. He also published a revision of the rules of the chancery and common law courts in Paterson, later adopted by the New Jersey Legislature. George Washington nominated Paterson for the Supreme Court on February 27, 1793, to the seat vacated by Thomas Johnson. The nomination was withdrawn by the President the following day – Washington had realized that since the law creating the Supreme Court had been passed during Paterson’s current term as a Senator, the nomination was a violation of Article I, Section 6 of the Constitution. Washington re-nominated Paterson to the Court on March 4, 1793, after his term as Senator had expired. He was immediately confirmed by the Senate, and received his commission. He resigned the governorship to become an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (1793–1806). On circuit he presided over the trials of individuals indicted for treason in the Whiskey Rebellion, a revolt by farmers in western Pennsylvania over the federal excise tax on whiskey, the principal product of their cash crop. Militia sent out by President George Washington successfully quelled the uprising, and for the first time the courts had to interpret the provisions of the Constitution in regard to the use of troops in civil disturbances. Here, and in fact throughout his long career, Paterson extolled the primacy of law over governments, a principle embodied in the Constitution he helped write.[2] He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1801.[3] Paterson served on the Supreme Court until his death (from the lingering effects of a coach accident suffered in 1803 while on circuit court duty in New Jersey) on September 9, 1806, aged 60. He was on his way to Ballston Springs, New York to “take the waters” when he died at the Albany, New York home of his daughter and Van Renssalaer son-in-law. He was laid to rest in the Van Renssalaer family vault in
92
26.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 1806, and remained until the property was acquired by the city. His remains were relocated to Albany Rural Cemetery Menands, Albany County, New York, United States of America. He shares this cemetery with Associate Justice Rufus W. Peckham and President Chester A. Arthur.[4][5][6]
93 • Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4.
Paterson, New Jersey, and William Paterson University are named after him.
• Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6.
26.2 See also
• Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 087187-554-3.
26.3 References [1] “Daily Princetonian Special Class of 1991 Issue 27 July 1987 — Princeton Periodicals”. princeton.edu. [2] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor, Jr., Morris J. (1987). Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Center of Military History. p. 166. LCCN 87001353. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [3] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter P” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014. [4] William Paterson at Find a Grave. [5] Christensen, George A. (1983) Here Lies the Supreme Court: Gravesites of the Justices, Yearbook at the Wayback Machine (archived September 3, 2005) Supreme Court Historical Society at Internet Archive. [6] See also, Christensen, George A., Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited, Journal of Supreme Court History, Volume 33 Issue 1, Pages 17 – 41 (Feb 19, 2008), University of Alabama.
26.4 Further reading • Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3. • Bibliography on William Patterson at Supreme Court Historical Society. • Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7. • Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books.
• Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1. • Warren, Charles. (1928) The Supreme Court in United States History, 2 vols. at Google books. • Wright, Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. (1987). “William Paterson”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25.
26.5
External links
• • William Paterson at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • William Paterson at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center. • New Jersey Governor William Paterson, National Governors Association • Oyez Project, U.S. Supreme Court media, William Paterson.
Chapter 27
Alexander Hamilton For other people named Alexander Hamilton, see stallments of the The Federalist Papers. To this day, it is Alexander Hamilton (disambiguation). the single most important reference for Constitutional interpretation.[1] Alexander Hamilton (January 11, 1755 or 1757 – July 12, 1804) was a founding father of the United States, chief staff aide to General George Washington, one of the most influential interpreters and promoters of the U.S. Constitution, the founder of the nation’s financial system, and the founder of the Federalist Party, the world’s first voterbased political party. As Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the primary author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. Hamilton took the lead in the funding of the states’ debts by the Federal government, the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs, and friendly trade relations with Britain. He led the Federalist Party, created largely in support of his views; he was opposed by the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison; it despised Britain and feared that Hamilton’s policies of a strong central government would weaken the American commitment to Republicanism. Born out of wedlock and raised in the West Indies, local wealthy men helped Hamilton get a college education after he was orphaned as a child. Recognized for his abilities and talent, he was sent to King’s College (now Columbia University), in New York City. Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he organized an artillery company. He soon became the senior aide to General Washington, the American forces’ commander-in-chief. Washington sent him on numerous important missions to tell generals what Washington wanted. After the war, Hamilton was elected to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned, to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York. Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention, in order to create a new constitution. He was an active participant at Philadelphia; and he helped achieve ratification by writing 51 of the 85 in-
Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. Hamilton was a nationalist, who emphasized strong central government and successfully argued that the implied powers of the Constitution provided the legal authority to fund the national debt, assume states’ debts, and create the government-owned Bank of the United States. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, and later also by a highly controversial tax on whiskey. Facing well-organized opposition from Jefferson and Madison, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen. It became the Federalist Party. A major issue splitting the parties was the Jay Treaty, largely designed by Hamilton in 1794. It established friendly economic relations with Britain to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a central role in the Federalist party, which dominated national and state politics until it lost the election of 1800 to Jefferson’s Democratic Republicans. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York. He tried to control the policies of President Adams (1797– 1801). In 1798 and 99, Hamilton called for mobilization against France after the XYZ Affair and became commander of a new army, which he readied for war. However, the Quasi-War, while hard-fought at sea, was never officially declared and did not involve army action. In the end, Adams found a diplomatic solution which avoided a war with France. Hamilton’s opposition to Adams’ reelection helped cause his defeat in the 1800 election. When Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied for the presidency in the electoral college in 1801, Hamilton helped to defeat Burr, whom he found unprincipled, and to elect Jefferson despite philosophical differences. Hamilton continued his legal and business activities in New York City, but lost much of his national prominence within the Federalist party. When Vice President Burr ran for governor of New York state in 1802, Hamilton crusaded against him as unworthy. Taking
94
27.1. CHILDHOOD IN THE CARIBBEAN
95
offense at some of Hamilton’s comments, Burr challenged birth being used: If 1755 is correct, Hamilton may have him to a duel in 1804 and mortally wounded Hamilton, who been trying to appear younger than his college classmates died the next day. or perhaps wished to avoid standing out as older; if 1757 Hamilton’s reputation over the centuries has been politi- is correct, the probate document indicating a birth year of cized; Republicans have praised him, and Democrats have 1755 may have been in error, or Hamilton may have been in order to be more employable reviled him. The partisanship has died down in the 21st attempting to pass as 13, [4] after his mother’s death. century, and Hamilton is recognized as one of the key Founders of the strong national government.
27.1 Childhood in the Caribbean
The Hamilton House, Charlestown, Nevis. The current structure was rebuilt from the ruins of the house where Alexander Hamilton was born and lived as a young child.
Alexander Hamilton was born in and spent part of his childhood in Charlestown, the capital of the island of Nevis, in the Leeward Islands; Nevis was one of the British West Indies. Hamilton was born out of wedlock to Rachel Faucette, a married woman of partial French Huguenot descent, and James A. Hamilton, the fourth son of the Scottish laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange, Ayrshire.[2] His mother moved with the young Hamilton to St. Croix in the Virgin Islands, then ruled by Denmark. It is not certain whether the year of Hamilton’s birth was 1757 or 1755; most historical evidence after Hamilton’s arrival in North America supports the idea that he was born in 1757, and many historians had accepted this birth date. But, Hamilton’s early life in the Caribbean was recorded in documents which were first published in Danish in 1930; this evidence has caused historians since then to favor a birth year of 1755.[3] Hamilton listed his birth year as 1757 when he first arrived in the Thirteen Colonies. He celebrated his birthday on January 11. In later life, he tended to give his age only in round figures. Probate papers from St. Croix in 1768, after the death of Hamilton’s mother, list him as then 13 years old, a date that would support a birth year of 1755. Historians have posited reasons for the different dates of
Hamilton in his youth
Hamilton’s mother had been married previously to Johann Michael Lavien of St. Croix.[2][5] [note 1] Rachel left her husband and first son, Peter, traveling to St. Kitts in 1750, where she met James Hamilton.[6] Hamilton and Rachel moved together to Rachel’s birthplace, Nevis, where she had inherited property from her father.[3] The couple’s two sons were James Jr. and Alexander. Because Alexander Hamilton’s parents were not legally married, the Church of England denied him membership and education in the church school. Hamilton received “individual tutoring”[3] and classes in a private school led by a Jewish headmistress.[7] Hamilton supplemented his education with a family library of 34 books.[8] James Hamilton abandoned Rachel and their sons, allegedly to “spar[e] [Rachel] a charge of bigamy ..... after finding out that her first husband intend[ed] to divorce her under Danish law on grounds of adultery and desertion.”[2] Thereafter, Rachel supported her children in St. Croix, keeping a small store in Christiansted. She contracted a severe fever and died on February 19, 1768, 1:02 am, leaving Hamilton orphaned. This may have had severe emotional consequences for him, even by the standards of an 18thcentury childhood.[9] In probate court, Rachel’s “first hus-
96 band seized her estate”[2] and obtained the few valuables Rachel had owned, including some household silver. Many items were auctioned off, but a friend purchased the family’s books and returned them to the young Hamilton.[10] Hamilton became a clerk at a local import-export firm, Beekman and Cruger, which traded with New England; he was left in charge of the firm for five months in 1771, while the owner was at sea. He and his older brother James Jr. were adopted briefly by a cousin, Peter Lytton; but when Lytton committed suicide, the brothers were separated.[11] James apprenticed with a local carpenter, while Alexander was adopted by a Nevis merchant, Thomas Stevens. According to the writer Ron Chernow, some evidence suggests that Stevens may have been Alexander Hamilton’s biological father; his son, Edward Stevens, became a close friend of Hamilton. The two boys were described as looking much alike, were both fluent in French, and shared similar interests.[12] Hamilton continued clerking, but he remained an avid reader, later developing an interest in writing, and began to desire a life outside the small island where he lived. He wrote an essay published in the Royal Danish-American Gazette, a detailed account of a hurricane which had devastated Christiansted on August 30, 1772. His biographer says that, “Hamilton’s famous letter about the storm astounds the reader for two reasons: for all its bombastic excesses, it does seem wondrous the 17-year old self-educated clerk could write with such verve and gusto. Clearly, Hamilton was highly literate and already had considerable fund of verbal riches.”[13] The essay impressed community leaders, who collected a fund to send the young Hamilton to the North American colonies for his education.[14]
27.2 Education
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON In the autumn of 1772, Hamilton arrived at Elizabethtown Academy, a grammar school in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. In 1773 he studied with Francis Barber at Elizabethtown in preparation for college work. He came under the influence of William Livingston, a leading intellectual and revolutionary, with whom he lived for a time at his Liberty Hall.[15] Hamilton matriculated at King’s College in New York City (now Columbia University) in late 1773 or early 1774.[16] In what is credited as his first public appearance, on July 7, 1774 at the liberty pole at King’s College, Hamilton’s friend Robert Troup spoke glowingly of Hamilton’s ability to clearly and concisely explain the rights and reasons the patriots have in their case against the British.[17] When the Church of England clergyman Samuel Seabury published a series of pamphlets promoting the Loyalist cause in 1774, Hamilton responded anonymously with his first political writings, A Full Vindication of the Measures of Congress and The Farmer Refuted. Seabury essentially tried to provoke fear into the colonies and his main objective was to stopgap the potential of a union among the colonies.[18] Hamilton published two additional pieces attacking the Quebec Act[19] as well as fourteen anonymous installments of “The Monitor” for Holt’s New York Journal. Although Hamilton was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause at this prewar stage, he did not approve of mob reprisals against Loyalists. On May 10, 1775, Hamilton won credit for saving his college president Myles Cooper, a Loyalist, from an angry mob by speaking to the crowd long enough for Cooper to escape.[20]
27.3
During the Revolutionary War
27.3.1
Early military career
In 1775, after the first engagement of American troops with the British in Boston, Hamilton joined a New York volunteer militia company called the Hearts of Oak, which included other King’s College students. He drilled with the company, before classes, in the graveyard of nearby St. Paul’s Chapel.[21] Hamilton studied military history and tactics on his own and achieved the rank of lieutenant. Under fire from HMS Asia, he led a successful raid for British cannon in the Battery, the capture of which resulted in the Hearts of Oak becoming an artillery company thereafter.[22] Through his connections with influential New York patriots such as Alexander McDougall and John Jay, he raised the New York Provincial Company of Artillery of sixty men in 1776, and was elected captain.[23] It took part in the campaign of 1776 around New York City, particularly at the Battle of White Plains; at the Battle of Trenton, it Statue of Hamilton outside Hamilton Hall overlooking Hamilton was stationed at the high point of town, the meeting of Lawn at his alma mater, Columbia University in New York City the present Warren and Broad Streets, to keep the Hessians
27.3. DURING THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR
97
Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown by John Trumbull, oil on canvas, 1820
and to John Laurens, employing the sentimental literary conventions of the late eighteenth century and alluding to Greek history and mythology,[31] have been read by Jonathan Katz as revealing a homosocial or perhaps homosexual relationship, but few historians agree.[32] While on Washington’s staff, Hamilton long sought command and a return to active combat. As the war drew nearer to an end, he knew that opportunities for military glory were diminishing. In February 1781, Hamilton was mildly repriAlexander Hamilton in the Uniform of the New York Artillery by manded by Washington and used this as an excuse to reAlonzo Chappel (1828–1887) sign his staff position. He asked Washington and others for a field command. This continued until early July 1781, when Hamilton submitted a letter to Washington with his pinned in the Trenton Barracks.[24] commission enclosed, “thus tacitly threatening to resign if he didn't get his desired command.”[33]
27.3.2
George Washington’s staff
Hamilton was invited to become an aide to Nathanael Greene and to Henry Knox;[25] however, he declined these invitations, believing his best chance for improving his station in life was glory on the battlefield. Hamilton eventually received an invitation he felt he could not refuse: to serve as Washington’s aide, with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.[26] Washington felt, “Aides de camp are persons in whom entire confidence must be placed and it requires men of abilities to execute the duties with propriety and dispatch.”[27] Hamilton served for four years as Washington’s chief staff aide. He handled letters to Congress, state governors, and the most powerful generals in the Continental Army; he drafted many of Washington’s orders and letters at the latter’s direction; he eventually issued orders from Washington over Hamilton’s own signature.[28] Hamilton was involved in a wide variety of high-level duties, including intelligence, diplomacy, and negotiation with senior army officers as Washington’s emissary.[29]
On July 31, 1781, Washington relented and assigned Hamilton as commander of a New York light infantry battalion.[34] In the planning for the assault on Yorktown, Hamilton was given command of three battalions, which were to fight in conjunction with the allied French troops in taking Redoubts No. 9 and No. 10 of the British fortifications at Yorktown. Hamilton and his battalions fought bravely and took Redoubt No. 10 with bayonets in a nighttime action, as planned. The French also fought bravely, suffered heavy casualties, and took Redoubt No. 9. These actions forced the British surrender of an entire army at Yorktown, Virginia, effectively ending their major British military operations in North America.[35]
27.3.3
Congress of the Confederation
After the Battle of Yorktown, Hamilton resigned his commission. He was appointed in July 1782 to the Congress of the Confederation as a New York representative for the During the war, Hamilton became close friends with several term beginning in November 1782.[36] Before his appointfellow officers. His letters to the Marquis de Lafayette[30] ment to Congress in 1782, Hamilton was already sharing
98
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
his criticisms of Congress. He expressed these criticisms in his letter to James Duane dated September 3, 1780. In this letter he wrote, “The fundamental defect is a want of power in Congress…the confederation itself is defective and requires to be altered; it is neither fit for war, nor peace.”[37] While on Washington’s staff, Hamilton had become frustrated with the decentralized nature of the wartime Continental Congress, particularly its dependence upon the states for voluntary financial support. Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress had no power to collect taxes or to demand money from the states. This lack of a stable source of funding had made it difficult for the Continental Army both to obtain its necessary provisions and to pay its soldiers. During the war, and for some time after, Congress obtained what funds it could from subsidies from the King of France, from aid requested from the several states (which were often unable or unwilling to contribute), and from European loans.[38] An amendment to the Articles had been proposed by Thomas Burke, in February 1781, to give Congress the power to collect a 5% impost, or duty on all imports, but this required ratification by all states; securing its passage as law proved impossible after it was rejected by Rhode Island in November 1782. Madison joined Hamilton in persuading Congress to send a delegation to persuade Rhode Island to change its mind. Their report recommending the delegation argued the federal government needed not just some level of financial autonomy, but also the ability to make laws that superseded those of the individual states. Hamilton transmitted a letter arguing that Congress already had the power to tax, since it had the power to fix the sums due from the several states; but Virginia’s rescission of its own ratification ended the Rhode Island negotiations.[39]
27.3.4
Congress and the army
While Hamilton was in Congress, discontented soldiers began to pose a danger to the young United States. Most of the army was then posted at Newburgh, New York. Those in the army were paying for much of their own supplies, and they had not been paid in eight months. Furthermore, the Continental officers had been promised, in May 1778, after Valley Forge, a pension of half their pay when they were discharged.[40] By the early 1780s, due to the structure of the government under the Articles of Confederation, it had no power to tax to either raise revenue or pay its soldiers.[41] In 1782 after several months without pay, a group of officers organized sent a delegation to lobby Congress, led by Capt. Alexander MacDougall. The officers had three demands: the Army’s pay, their own pensions, and commutation of those pensions into a lump-sum payment if Congress were unable to afford the half-salary pensions for life. Congress rejected the proposal.[41]
Several Congressmen, including Hamilton, Robert Morris and Gouverneur Morris, attempted to use this Newburgh Conspiracy as leverage to secure support from the states and in Congress for funding of the national government. They encouraged MacDougall to continue his aggressive approach, threatening unknown consequences if their demands were not met, and defeated proposals that would have resolved the crisis without establishing general federal taxation: that the states assume the debt to the army, or that an impost be established dedicated to the sole purpose of paying that debt.[42] Hamilton suggested using the Army’s claims to prevail upon the states for the proposed national funding system.[43] The Morrises and Hamilton contacted Knox to suggest he and the officers defy civil authority, at least by not disbanding if the army were not satisfied; Hamilton wrote Washington to suggest that Hamilton covertly “take direction” of the officers’ efforts to secure redress, to secure continental funding but keep the army within the limits of moderation.[44] Washington wrote Hamilton back, declining to introduce the army;[45] after the crisis had ended, he warned of the dangers of using the army as leverage to gain support for the national funding plan.[46] On March 15, Washington defused the Newburgh situation by giving a speech to the officers.[42] Congress ordered the Army officially disbanded in April 1783. In the same month, Congress passed a new measure for a twenty-fiveyear impost—which Hamilton voted against[47] —that again required the consent of all the states; it also approved a commutation of the officers’ pensions to five years of full pay. Rhode Island again opposed these provisions, and Hamilton’s robust assertions of national prerogatives in his previous letter were widely held to be excessive.[48] In June 1783, a different group of disgruntled soldiers from Lancaster, Pennsylvania, sent Congress a petition demanding their back pay. When they began to march toward Philadelphia, Congress charged Hamilton and two others with intercepting the mob.[49] Hamilton requested militia from Pennsylvania’s Supreme Executive Council, but was turned down. Hamilton instructed Assistant Secretary of War William Jackson to intercept the men. Jackson was unsuccessful. The mob arrived in Philadelphia, and the soldiers proceeded to harangue Congress for their pay. The President of Congress, John Dickinson, feared that the Pennsylvania state militia was unreliable, and refused its help. Hamilton argued that Congress ought to adjourn to Princeton, New Jersey. Congress agreed, and relocated there.[50] Frustrated with the weakness of the central government, Hamilton while in Princeton drafted a call to revise the Articles of Confederation. This resolution contained many features of the future US Constitution, including a strong federal government with the ability to collect taxes and raise
27.4. CONSTITUTION AND THE FEDERALIST PAPERS
99
an army. It also included the separation of powers into the Executive, Legislative, and Judicial branches.[51]
27.3.5
Return to New York
Hamilton resigned from Congress, and in July 1783 was authorized to practice law in New York after several months of self-directed education.[52] He practiced law in New York City in partnership with Richard Harison. He specialized in defending Tories and British subjects, as in Rutgers v. Waddington, in which he defeated a claim for damages done to a brewery by the Englishmen who held it during the military occupation of New York. He pleaded for the Mayor’s Court to interpret state law consistent with the 1783 Treaty of Paris which had ended the Revolutionary War.[53] In 1784, he founded the Bank of New York, now the oldest ongoing bank in the United States. Hamilton was one of the men who restored King’s College, which had been suspended since 1776 and severely damaged during the War, as Columbia College. Long dissatisfied with the weak Articles of Confederation, he played a major leadership role at the Annapolis Convention in 1786. He drafted its resolution for a constitutional convention, and in doing so brought his longtime desire to have a more powerful, more finan- Hamilton shortly after the American Revolution cially independent federal government one step closer to reality.[54] York’s vote, to ensure that there was no major alterations to the Articles of Confederation.[59]
27.4 Constitution and The Federalist Papers Main articles: United States Constitution and The Federalist Papers
27.4.1
Constitutional Convention and ratification of the Constitution
In 1787, Hamilton served as assemblyman from New York County in the New York State Legislature and was chosen as a delegate for the Constitutional Convention by his father-in-law Philip Schuyler.[55][56] Even though Hamilton had been a leader in calling for a new Constitutional Convention, his direct influence at the Convention itself was quite limited. Governor George Clinton's faction in the New York legislature had chosen New York’s other two delegates, John Lansing, Jr. and Robert Yates, and both of them opposed Hamilton’s goal of a strong national government.[57][58] Thus, whenever the other two members of the New York delegation were present, they decided New
Early in the Convention he made a speech proposing a President-for-Life; it had no effect upon the deliberations of the convention. He proposed to have an elected President and elected Senators who would serve for life, contingent upon “good behavior” and subject to removal for corruption or abuse; this idea contributed later to the hostile view of Hamilton as a monarchist sympathizer, held by James Madison.[60] According to Madison’s notes, Hamilton said in regards to the executive, “The English model was the only good one on this subject. The hereditary interest of the king was so interwoven with that of the nation, and his personal emoluments so great, that he was placed above the danger of being corrupted from abroad…Let one executive be appointed for life who dares execute his powers.”[61] Hamilton argued, “And let me observe that an executive is less dangerous to the liberties of the people when in office during life than for seven years. It may be said this constitutes as an elective monarchy…But by making the executive subject to impeachment, the term ‘monarchy’ cannot apply…”[62] During the convention, Hamilton constructed a draft for the Constitution based on the convention debates, but he never presented it. This draft had most of the features of the actual Constitution. In this draft, the Senate was to be elected in proportion to the population, being two-fifths the
100
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
size of the House, and the President and Senators were to 27.4.2 be elected through complex multistage elections, in which chosen electors would elect smaller bodies of electors; they would hold office for life, but were removable for misconduct. The President would have an absolute veto. The Supreme Court was to have immediate jurisdiction over all law suits involving the United States, and state governors were to be appointed by the federal government.[63] At the end of the Convention, Hamilton was still not content with the final form of the Constitution, but signed it anyway as a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation, and urged his fellow delegates to do so also.[64] Since the other two members of the New York delegation, Lansing and Yates, had already withdrawn, Hamilton was the only New York signer to the United States Constitution.[65] He then took a highly active part in the successful campaign for the document’s ratification in New York in 1788, which was a crucial step in its national ratification. He first used the popularity of the Constitution by the masses to compel George Clinton to sign, but was unsuccessful. The state convention in Poughskeepsie in June 1788 pitted Hamilton, Jay, James Duane, Robert Livingston, and Richard Morris against the Clintonian faction led by Melancton Smith, Lansing, Yates, and Gilbert Livingston.[66] Hamilton’s faction were against any conditional ratification, under the impression that New York would not be accepted into the Union, while Clinton’s faction wanted to amend the Constitution, while maintaining the state’s right to secede if their attempts failed. During the state convention, New Hampshire and Virginia becoming the ninth and tenth states to ratify the Constitution, respectively, had ensured any adjournment would not happened and a compromised would have to be reached.[66][67] Hamilton’s arguments used for the ratifications were largely iterations of work from The Federalist Papers, and Smith eventually went for ratification, though it was more out of necessity than Hamilton’s rhetoric.[67] The vote in the state constitution was ratified 30 to 27, on 26 July 1788.[68] In 1788, Hamilton served yet another term in what proved to be the last session of the Continental Congress under the Articles of Confederation. When the term of Phillip Schuyler was up in 1791, elected in his place was the attorney general of New York, one Aaron Burr. Hamilton blamed Burr for this result, and ill characterizations of Burr appear in his correspondence thereafter. The two men did work together from time to time thereafter on various projects, including Hamilton’s army of 1798 and the Manhattan Water Company.[69]
The Federalist Papers
Hamilton recruited John Jay and James Madison to write a series of essays defending the proposed Constitution, now known as The Federalist Papers, and made the largest contribution to that effort, writing 51 of 85 essays published (Madison wrote 29, Jay only five). Hamilton supervised the entire project, enlisted the participants, wrote the majority of the essays, and oversaw the publication. During the project each person was responsible for their areas of expertise; Jay covered foreign relations, Madison covered the history of republics and confederacies, along with the anatomy of the new government and Hamilton covered the branches of government most pertinent to him: the executive and judicial branches, with some aspects of the Senate, as well as covering military matters and taxation.[70] The papers first appeared in The Independent Journal in October 27, 1787.[71] Hamilton wrote the first paper signed as Publius, and all of the subsequent papers were signed under the name.[72] Jay wrote the next four papers to elaborate on the confederation’s weakness and the necessary for unity against foreign aggression and splitting into rival confederacies, and except for Number 64, was not further involved.[73][74] Hamilton’s highlights included discussion that although republics have been culpable for disorders in the past, advances in the “science of politics” had fostered principles that ensured that those abuses could be prevented, such as the division of powers, legislative checks and balances, an independent judiciary, and legislators that were represented by electors Numbers 7–9).[75] Hamilton also wrote an extensive defense of the constitution (No. 23–36), and discussed the Senate and executive and judicial branches in Numbers 65– 85. Hamilton and Madison worked to describe the anarchic state of the confederation in numbers 15–22, and have been described as not being entirely different in thought during this time period in contrast to their stark opposition later in life.[76] Subtle differences appeared with the two when discussing the necessity of standing armies.[77]
27.5. SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY
27.5 Secretary of the Treasury
101 prise in Hamilton’s project of an administrative republic is the establishment of stability.[80]
27.5.1
Report on Public Credit
Before the adjournment of the House in September 1789, they requested Hamilton to make a report on suggestions to improve the public credit by January 1790.[81] Hamilton had written to Robert Morris as early as 1781 that fixing the public credit will win their objective of independence.[81] The sources that Hamilton used ranged from Frenchmen such as Jacques Necker and Montesquieu to British writers such as Hume, Hobbes, and Malachy Postlethwayt.[82] While writing the report he also sought out suggestions from contemporaries such as John Knox Witherspoon, and Madison. Although they agreed on additional taxes such as distilleries and duties on imported liquors and land taxes, Madison feared that the securities from the government debt would fall in foreign hands.[82][83]
File:HAMILTON, Alexander-Treasury (BEP engraved portrait).jpg
Bureau of Engraving and Printing portrait of Hamilton as Secretary of the Treasury. President George Washington appointed Hamilton as the first United States Secretary of the Treasury on September 11, 1789. He left office on the last day of January 1795. Much of the structure of the government of the United States was worked out in those five years, beginning with the structure and function of the cabinet itself. Biographer Forrest McDonald argues that Hamilton saw his office, like that of the British First Lord of the Treasury, as the equivalent of a Prime Minister; Hamilton would oversee his colleagues under the elective reign of George Washington. Washington did request Hamilton’s advice and assistance on matters outside the purview of the Treasury Department. In 1791 while Secretary, Hamilton was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1791.[78] Hamilton submitted various financial reports to Congress. Among these are the First Report on the Public Credit, Operations of the Act Laying Duties on Imports, Report on a National Bank, On the Establishment of a Mint, Report on Manufactures, and the Report on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit.[79] So, the great enter-
In the report, Hamilton felt that the debt that the United States had accrued during the Revolutionary War was the price it paid for its liberty. He argued that liberty and property security were inseparable and that the government should honor the contracts, as they formed the basis of public and private morality. To Hamilton, the proper handling of the government debt would also allow America to borrow at affordable interest rates and would also be a stimulant to the economy.[84] Hamilton divided the debt into national and state, and further divided the national debt into foreign and domestic debt. While there was agreement on how to handle the foreign debt (especially with France), there was not with regards to the national debt held by domestic creditors. During the Revolutionary War, affluent citizens had invested in bonds, and war veterans had been paid with promissory notes and IOUs that plummeted in price during the Confederation. In response, the war veterans sold the securities to speculators for as little as fifteen to twenty cents on the dollar.[85][86] Hamilton felt the money from the bonds should not go to the soldiers, but the speculators that had bought the bonds from the soldiers, as they had little faith in the country’s future. The process of attempting to track down the original bond holders along with the government showing discrimination among the classes of holders if the war veterans were to be compensated also weighed in as factors for Hamilton. As for the state debts, Hamilton suggested to consolidate it with the national debt and label it as federal debt, for the sake of efficiency on a national scale.[87] The last portion of the report dealt with eliminating the debt by utilizing a sinking fund that would retire five percent of the debt annually until it was paid off. Due to the bonds being traded well below their face value, the purchases would benefit the government as the securities rose in price.[88]
102
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
When the report was submitted to the House of Representatives, detractors soon began to speak against it. The notion of programs that resembled British practice were wicked along with the power of balance being shifted away from the Representatives to the executive branch were some of the prejudices that resided within the House. William Maclay suspected that that several congressmen were involved in government securities, saw Congress in an unholy league with New York speculators.[89] Congressman James Jackson also spoke against New York with allegations of speculators attempting to swindle those who had yet heard about Hamilton’s report.[90] The involvement of those in Hamilton’s circle such as Schuyler, William Duer, James Duane, Gouverneur Morris, and Rufus King as speculators was not favorable to those against the report, either, though Hamilton personally did not own or deal a share in the debt.[91][92] Madison eventually spoke against it by February 1790. Although he was not against current holders of government debt to profit, he wanted the windfall to go to the original holders. Madison did not feel that the original holders had lost faith in the government, but sold their securities out of desperation.[93] The compromise was seen as egregious to both Hamiltonians and their dissidents such as Maclay, and Madison’s vote was defeated 36 votes to 13 on February 22.[93][94]
past eleven years. These included theories from Adam Smith,[100] extensive studies on the Bank of England, the blunders of the Bank of North America and his experience in establishing the Bank of New York.[101] His also used American records from James Wilson, Pelatiah Webster, Gouverneur Morris, and from his assistant Treasury secretary Tench Coxe.[101]
Hamilton suggested that Congress should charter the National Bank with a capitalization of $10 million, onefifth of which would be handled by the Government. Since the Government did not have the money, it would borrow the money from the bank itself, and repay the loan in ten even annual installments.[102] The rest was to be available to individual investors.[103] The bank was to be governed by a twenty-five member board of directors that was to represent a large majority of the private shareholders, which Hamilton considered essential for his being under a private direction.[99] Hamilton’s bank model had many similarities to that of the Bank of England, except Hamilton wanted to exclude the Government from being involved in public debt, but provide a large, firm, and elastic money supply for the functioning of normal businesses and usual economic development, among other differences.[104] For tax revenue to ignite the bank, it was the same as he had previously proposed; increases on imported spirits: rum, liquor, and The fight for the national government to assume state debt whiskey.[105] was a longer issue, and lasted over four months. During the The bill passed through the Senate practically without a period, the resources that Hamilton was to apply to the pay- problem, but objections of the proposal increased by the ment of state debts was requested by Alexander White, and time it reached the House of Representatives. It was generwas rejected due to Hamilton’s not being able to prepare ally held by critics that Hamilton was serving the interests information by March 3, and was even postponed by his of the Northeast by means of the bank,[106] and those of own supporters in spite of configuring a report the next day the agrarian lifestyle would not benefit from it.[107] Among (which consisted of a series of additional duties to meet the those critics was James Jackson of Georgia, who also atinterest on the state debts).[95] Some of the other issues intempted to refute the report by quoting from The Federalist volving Hamilton was bypassing the rising issue of Slavery Papers.[107] Madison and Jefferson also opposed the bank in the United States in Congress after Quakers petitioned bill; however, the potential of the capital not being moved for its abolition (though he returned to the issue the follow- to the Potomac if the bank was to have a firm establishment ing year),[96] having Duer resign as Assistant Secretary of in Philadelphia (the current capital of the United States) the Treasury, and the vote of assumption being voted down was a more significant reason, and actions that Pennsylvania 31 votes to 29 on April 12.[97] The temporary location of members of Congress took to keep the capital there made the capital from New York City also played a role, as Tench both men anxious.[108] Madison warned the Pennsylvania Coxe was sent to speak to Maclay to bargain about the cap- congress members that he would attack the bill as unconital being temporarily located to Philadelphia, as a single stitutional in the House, and followed up on his threat.[109] vote in the Senate was needed and five in the House for the Madison argued his case of where the power of a bank could bill to pass.[98][note 2] The bill passed in the Senate on July be established within the Constitution, but he failed to sway 21 and in the House 34 votes to 28 on July 26, 1790.[98] members of the House, and his authority on the constitution
27.5.2
Report on a National Bank
Hamilton’s Report on a National Bank was a projection from the first Report on the Public Credit. Although Hamilton had been forming ideas of a national bank as early as 1779,[99] he gathered ideas in various ways over the
was questioned by a few members.[110] The bill eventually passed in an overwhelming fashion 39 to 20, on February 8, 1791.[111] Washington hesitated to sign the bill, as he received suggestions from Attorney-General Edmund Randolph and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson dismissed the 'necessary and proper' clause as reasoning for the creation of a national
27.5. SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY
103
bank, stating that the enumerated powers “can all be carried into execution without a bank.”[112] Along with Randolph and Jefferson’s objections, Washington’s involvement in the movement of the capital from Philadelphia is also thought to be a reason for his hesitation.[113] In response to the objection of the 'necessary and proper' clause, Hamilton stated that “Necessary often means no more than needful, requisite, incidental, useful, or conductive to”, and the bank was a “convenient species of medium in which they (taxes) are to be paid.”.[114] Washington would eventually sign the bill into law.[114]
Indies.[116] Hamilton desired the minting of small value coins such as silver ten-cent, copper, and half-cent pieces, for reducing the cost of living for the poor.[101][121] One of his main objectives was for the general public to become accustomed to handling money on a frequent basis.[121]
27.5.3
27.5.4
Establishing the U.S. Mint
By 1792, Hamilton’s principles were adopted by Congress, resulting in the Coinage Act of 1792, and the creation of the United States Mint. There was to be a ten dollar Gold Eagle coin, a silver dollar, and fractional money ranging from onehalf to fifty cents.[119] The coining of silver and gold was issued by 1795.[119]
Revenue Cutter Service
Smuggling off American coasts was an issue before the Revolutionary War, and after the Revolution it was more problematic. Along with smuggling, lack of shipping control, pirating, and a revenue unbalance were also major problems.[122] In response, Hamilton proposed to Congress to enact a naval police force called revenue cutters in order to patrol the waters and assist the custom collectors with confiscating contraband.[123] This idea was also proposed to assist in tariff controlling, boosting the American economy, and promote the merchant marine.[122] It is thought that his experience obtained during his apprenticeship with Nicholas Kruger was influential in his decision-making.[124]
Turban Head eagle, one of the first gold mints following the Coinage Act of 1792.
In 1791, Hamilton submitted Report on the Establishment of a Mint to the House of Representatives. Most of Hamilton’s ideas for this report were from European economists, resolutions from Continental Congress meetings from 1785 and 1786, and from people such as Gouverneur Morris and Thomas Jefferson.[115][116] Due to the Spanish coin being the most circulated coin in the United States at the time, Alexander Hamilton proposed that the minting of the United States dollar weighing almost as much as the Spanish peso would be the simplest way to introduce a national currency.[117] Hamilton wanted the U.S. dollar system to be set for decimals rather than the eights like the Spanish mint.[118] In spite of preferring a monometallic gold standard,[119] he issued a bimetallic currency at ratio that was to be similar to most European countries.[116][120] What was different from the European currencies was his desire to overprice the gold on the grounds that the United States would always receive an influx of silver from the West
Concerning some of the details of the “System of Cutters”,[125] [note 3] Hamilton wanted the first ten cutters in different areas in the United States, from New England to Georgia.[123][126] Hamilton also wanted those cutters to be armed with ten muskets and bayonets, twenty pistols, two chisels, one broad-ax and two lanterns. Hamilton also wanted the fabric of the sails to be domestically manufactured.[123] Hamilton was also concerned of the employees’ food supply and etiquette when boarding ships, and made provisions for each.[123] Congress established the Revenue Cutter Service on August 4, 1790, which is viewed as the birth of the United States Coast Guard.[122]
27.5.5
Whiskey as tax revenue
One of the principal sources of revenue Hamilton prevailed upon Congress to approve was an excise tax on whiskey. In his first Tariff Bill in January of 1790, Hamilton proposed to raise the three million dollars needed to pay for government operating expenses and interest on domestic and foreign debts by means of an increase on duties on imported wines, distilled spirits, tea, coffee, and domestic spirits. It failed, with Congress complying with most recommendations excluding the excise tax on Whiskey (Madison’s tariff of the same year was a modification of Hamilton’s that involved only imported duties and was passed in
104
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
September).[127] In response of diversifying revenues, as three-fourths of revenue gathered was from commerce with Great Britain, Hamilton attempted once again during his Report on Public Credit when presenting it in 1790 to implement an excise tax both imported and domestic spirits.[128][129] The taxation rate was graduated in proportion to the whiskey proof, and Hamilton intended to equalize the tax burden on imported spirits with imported and domestic liquor.[129] In lieu of the excise on production citizens could pay 60 cents by the gallon of dispensing capacity, along with an exemption on small stills used exclusively for domestic consumption.[129] He realized the loathing that the tax would receive in rural areas, but thought of the taxing of Statue of Hamilton by Franklin Simmons, overlooking the Great spirits more reasonable than land taxes.[128] Falls of the Passaic River in Paterson, New Jersey, where Hamilton Opposition initially came from Pennsylvania’s House of Representatives protesting the tax. William Maclay had noted that not even the Pennsylvanian legislators had been able to enforce excise taxes in the western regions of the state.[130] Hamilton was aware of the potential difficulties and proposed inspectors the ability to search buildings that distillers were designated to store their spirits, and would be able to search suspected illegal storage facilities to confiscate contraband with a warrant.[131] Although the inspectors were not allowed to search houses and warehouses, they were to visit twice a day and file weekly reports in extensive detail.[132] Hamilton cautioned against expedited judicial means, and favored a jury trial with potential offenders.[131] As soon as 1791 locals began to shun or threaten inspectors, as they felt the inspection methods were intrusive.[132] Inspectors were also tarred and feathered, blindfolded, and whipped. Hamilton had attempted to appease the opposition with lowered tax rates, but it did not suffice.[133]
envisioned using the falls to power new factories
mitted until December 5, 1791.[135] In the report, Hamilton quoted from Wealth of Nations and used the French physiocrats as an example for rejecting agrarianism and the physiocratic theory; respectively.[136] Hamilton also refuted Smith’s ideas of government noninterference, as it would have been detrimental for trade with other countries.[137] Hamilton also thought of the United States being a primarily agrarian country would be a disadvantage in dealing with Europe.[138] In response to the agrarian detractors, Hamilton stated that the agriculturists’ interest would be advanced by manufactures,[139] and that agriculture was just as productive as manufacturing.[136][139] Among the ways that the government could assist in manufacturing, Hamilton mentioned levying protective duties on imported foreign goods that were also manufactured in the United States,[140] to withdraw duties levied on raw materials needed for domestic manufacturing,[140][141] pecuniary boundaries,[141] and encouraging immigration for people to better themselves in similar employment opportunities.[140][142] Congress shelved the report without much debate (except for Madison’s objection to Hamilton’s formulation of the General Welfare clause, which Hamilton construed liberally as a legal basis for his extensive programs).[143]
Strong opposition to the whiskey tax by cottage producers in remote, rural regions erupted into the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794; in Western Pennsylvania and western Virginia, whiskey was the basic export product and was fundamental to the local economy. In response to the rebellion, believing compliance with the laws was vital to the establishment of federal authority, Hamilton accompanied to the rebellion’s site President Washington, General Henry “Light Horse Harry” Lee, and more federal troops than were ever assembled in one place during the Revolution. This overwhelming Subsequently in 1791, with his ideas for manufacturing display of force intimidated the leaders of the insurrection, being a major influence, Hamilton, along with Coxe and ending the rebellion virtually without bloodshed.[134] several entrepreneurs from New York and Philadelphia helped form the Society for the Establishment of Useful Manufactures, a private industrial corporation. The 27.5.6 Manufacturing and industry location at Great Falls of the Passaic River in New Jersey was selected due to access to raw materials, it being Hamilton’s next report was his Report on Manufactures. densely inhabited, and having access to water power from Although he was requested by Congress on January 15, the falls of the Passaic.[144] The factory town was named 1790 for a report for manufacturing that would expand Paterson after New Jersey’s Governor William Paterson, the United States’ independence, the report was not sub- who signed the charter.[145][146] The profits were to derive
27.5. SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY from specific corporates rather than the benefits to be conferred to the nation and the citizens, which was unlike the report.[147] Hamilton also suggested the first stock to be offered at $500,000 and to eventually increase to $1 million, and welcomed state and national government subscriptions alike.[147][148] The company never materialized any success as numerous shareholders reneged on stock payments, some of the Society’s members were soon bankrupt, while William Duer, the governor of the program, wounded up in debtors’ prison.[146][148] In spite of Hamilton’s efforts to mend the disaster, the company would expire by 1796.[146]
27.5.7
105 The quarrel between Hamilton and Jefferson is the best known and historically the most important in American political history. Hamilton’s and Jefferson’s incompatibility of was heightened by the unavowed wish of each to be Washington’s principal and most trusted advisor”.[154]
27.5.8
Jay Treaty and Britain
Main article: Jay Treaty When France and Britain went to war in early 1793, all four
Emergence of parties
During Hamilton’s tenure as Treasury Secretary, political factions began to emerge. A Congressional caucus, led by James Madison and William Branch Giles, began as an opposition group to Hamilton’s financial programs, and Thomas Jefferson joined this group when he returned from France. Hamilton and his allies began to call themselves Federalists. The opposition group, now called the Democratic-Republican Party by political scientists, was at the time known as Republicans,.[149][note 4] Hamilton assembled a nationwide coalition to garner support for the Administration, including the expansive financial programs Hamilton had made Administration policy and especially the president’s policy of neutrality in the European war between Britain and France. Hamilton’s public relations campaign attacked the French minister EdmondCharles Genêt (he called himself “Citizen Genêt”) who tried to appeal to voters directly, which Federalists denounced as foreign interference in American affairs.[150] If Hamilton’s administrative republic was to succeed, Americans had to see themselves as nation citizens, and they would have to experience an administration that proved firm, less a threat and more an aid to the conceptions of government rooted in interest that prevailed within the United States Constitution.[151] The Federalists did impose some internal direct taxes but they departed from the most implications of the Hamilton administrative republic as risky.[152] The Jeffersonian Republicans opposed banks and cities, and favored France. They built their own national coalition to oppose the Federalists. Both sides gained the support of local political factions; each side developed its own partisan newspapers. Noah Webster, John Fenno, and William Cobbett were energetic editors for the Federalists; Benjamin Franklin Bache and Philip Freneau were fiery Republican editors. All the newspapers were characterized by intense personal attacks, major exaggerations and invented claims. In 1801, Hamilton established a daily newspaper, the New York Evening Post and brought in William Coleman as editor. It is still publishing (as the New York Post).[153]
members of the Cabinet were consulted on what to do. They and Washington unanimously agreed to remain neutral, and to send Genêt home.[155] However, in 1794 policy toward Britain became a major point of contention between the two parties. Hamilton and the Federalists wished for more trade with Britain, the new nation’s largest trading partner. The Republicans saw Britain as the main threat to republicanism and proposed instead a trade war.[156] To avoid war, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British; Hamilton largely wrote Jay’s in-
106
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
and Mrs. Reynolds.[162] The first letter was Maria warning of her husband’s knowledge and of James attempting to blackmail Hamilton. By this point Hamilton contemplated ending the tryst, and briefly ceased to visit, but both apparently were involved in the blackmailing scheme as both sent letters,[162] and at one point James Reynolds requested to 'befriend' her.[163] By May of 1792, James Reynolds had requested for Hamilton to no longer see his wife, but not before receiving fifty and two hundred dollars out of [164] Hamilton possibly was aware Several European nations had formed a League of Armed over $1300 in blackmail. of both Reynolds’ being involved before the blackmailing Neutrality against incursions on their neutral rights; the [165] Cabinet was also consulted on whether the United States indicent. should join it, and decided not to. It kept that decision se- When under suspicion of illegal actions while Secretary of cret, but Hamilton revealed it in private to George Ham- Treasury by associating with William Duer from John J. mond, the British Minister to the United States, without Beckley and Jacob Clingman, the latter also had alleged evtelling Jay or anyone else. (His act remained unknown un- idence of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton’s, til Hammond’s dispatches were read in the 1920s). This with accompanying letters gathered from Maria Reynolds “amazing revelation” may have had limited effect on the ne- that were from Hamilton. This information was relayed gotiations; Jay did threaten to join the League at one point, to James Monroe, who consulted with Congressmen Muhbut the British had other reasons not to view the League as lenberg and Venable on what actions to take. When it a serious threat.[160] was suggested by Clingman that James Reynolds had evidence that would incriminate Hamilton, after both were arrested for counterfeiting and Clingman was released, Mon27.5.9 Second Report on Public Credit roe and the Congressmen soon confronted Hamilton on 15 December 1792. After Hamilton discussed the affair, the Before leaving his post in 1795, Hamilton submitted Re- trio were to keep the documents privately with the utmost port on a Plan for the Further Support of Public Credit to confidence.[162] Congress to curb the debt problem. Hamilton grew dissatisfied with what he viewed as a lack of a comprehensive In 1797, however, when James T. Callender published A plan to fix the public debt. He wished to have new taxes History of the United States for the Year 1796, it contained passed with older ones made permanent and stated that the accusations of James Reynolds being an agent of Hamilton any surplus from the excise tax on liquor would be pledged using documents from the confrontation on December 15, to lower public debt. His proposals were included into a bill 1792. On July 5, 1797 he wrote to all three men to conby Congress within slightly over a month after his departure firm that there was nothing that would damage the perception of his integrity while Secretary of Treasury. All comas treasury secretary.[161] plied but Monroe, and the two almost resorted to a duel. When Hamilton did not obtain an explicit response from Monroe, he published a pamphlet in order to preserve his 27.6 Post-Secretary years public reputation, and discussed the affair in exquisite detail. His wife forgave him, but not Monroe. Though he faced ridicule from the Democratic-Republican faction, he 27.6.1 The Reynolds affair maintained his availability for public service.[166] Main article: Hamilton–Reynolds sex scandal structions. The result was Jay’s Treaty. It was denounced by the Republicans but Hamilton mobilized support up and down the land.[157] The Jay Treaty passed the Senate in 1795 by exactly the required two-thirds majority. The Treaty resolved issues remaining from the Revolution, averted war, and made possible ten years of peaceful trade between the United States and Britain.[158] Historian George Herring notes the “remarkable and fortuitous economic and diplomatic gains” produced by the Treaty.[159]
In 1791, Hamilton became involved in an affair with Maria Reynolds over a nine-month period that would be revealed to the public several years afterward. Reynolds appeared to Hamilton as a woman who had been abandoned by her husband, James, at New York and wished to return to there.[162] Hamilton did not have any money on his person, so he retrieved her address in order to deliver the funds in person. After the brief dialogue in Reynold’s bedroom, he had frequent meetings with her. Hamilton then received two letters on December 15, 1791, one from both Mr.
27.6.2
1796 presidential election
Hamilton’s resignation as Secretary of the Treasury in 1795 did not remove him from public life. With the resumption of his law practice, he remained close to Washington as an advisor and friend. Hamilton influenced Washington in the composition of his Farewell Address by writing drafts for Washington to compare with the latter’s draft, although when Washington contemplated retirement in 1792, he had consulted James Madison for a draft that was used in a sim-
27.6. POST-SECRETARY YEARS
107
ilar manner to Hamilton’s.[167][168] In the election of 1796, under the Constitution as it stood then, each of the presidential electors had two votes, which they were to cast for different men. The one who received most votes would become President, the second-most, Vice President. This system was not designed with the operation of parties in mind, as they had been thought disreputable and factious. The Federalists planned to deal with this by having all their Electors vote for John Adams, the Vice President, and all but a few for Thomas Pinckney of South Carolina.[169] Adams resented Hamilton’s influence with Washington and considered him overambitious and scandalous in his private life; Hamilton compared Adams unfavorably with Washington and thought him too emotionally unstable to be President.[169] Hamilton took the election as an opportunity: he urged all the northern electors to vote for Adams and Pinckney, lest Jefferson get in; but he cooperated with Edward Rutledge to have South Carolina’s electors vote for Jefferson and Pinckney. If all this worked, Pinckney would have more votes than Adams, Pinckney would become President, and Adams would remain Vice President, but it did not work. The Federalists found out about it (even the French minister to the United States knew), and northern Federalists voted for Adams but not for Pinckney, in sufficient numbers that Pinckney came in third and Jef- Alexander Hamilton By William J. Weaver ferson became Vice President.[170] Adams resented the intrigue since he felt his service to the nation was much more extensive than Pinckney’s.[171]
27.6.3
Quasi-War
them to pass a direct tax to fund the war. Smith resigned in slowness, and told During the Quasi-War of 1798–1800, and with Wash- July 1797, as Hamilton scolded him for Wolcott to tax houses instead of land.[175] ington’s strong endorsement, Adams reluctantly appointed Hamilton a major general of the army; at Washington’s The eventual program included a Stamp Act like that of insistence, Hamilton was made the senior major general, the British before the Revolution and other taxes on land, prompting Henry Knox to decline appointment to serve as houses, and slaves, calculated at different rates in difHamilton’s junior (Knox had been a major general in the ferent states, and requiring difficult and intricate assessContinental Army and thought it would be degrading to ment of houses.[176] This provoked resistance in southeastserve beneath him).[172][173] Hamilton served as inspector ern Pennsylvania, led primarily by men such as John Fries general of the United States Army from July 18, 1798, who had marched with Washington against the Whiskey to June 15, 1800; because Washington was unwilling to Rebellion.[177] leave Mount Vernon unless it were to command an army Hamilton aided in all areas of the army’s development, and in the field, Hamilton was the de facto head of the army, to after Washington’s death he was by default the Senior OfAdams’s considerable displeasure. If full-scale war broke ficer of the United States Army from December 14, 1799, out with France, Hamilton argued that the army should con- to June 15, 1800. The army was to guard against invasion quer the North American colonies of France’s ally, Spain, from France. Adams, however, derailed all plans for war bordering the United States.[174] by opening negotiations with France.[178] Adams had held To fund this army, Hamilton wrote regularly to Oliver Wolcott, Jr., his successor at the Treasury; William Loughton Smith, of the House Ways and Means Committee; and Senator Theodore Sedgwick of Massachusetts. He directed
it proper to retain the members of Washington’s cabinet, except for cause; he found, in 1800 (after Washington’s death), that they were obeying Hamilton rather than himself, and fired several of them.[179]
108
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON John Adams was running this time with Charles Cotesworth Pinckney of South Carolina. Hamilton now toured New England, again urging northern electors to hold firm for Pinckney in the renewed hope of making Pinckney president; and he again intrigued in South Carolina.[183] Hamilton’s ideas involved coaxing middle-state Federalists to assert their non-support for Adams if there was no support for Pinckney and writing to more of the modest supports of Adams concerning his supposed misconduct while president.[183] Hamilton expected to see southern states such as the Carolinas cast their votes for Pinckney and Jefferson, and would result in the former being ahead of both Adams and Jefferson.[184] In accordance with the second of the aforementioned plans, and a recent personal rift with Adams,[185] Hamilton wrote a pamphlet called Letter from Alexander Hamilton, Concerning the Public Conduct and Character of John Adams, Esq. President of the United States that was highly critical of him, though it closed with a tepid endorsement.[186] He mailed this to two hundred leading Federalists; when a copy fell into the Democratic-Republicans’ hands, they printed it. This hurt Adams’s 1800 reelection campaign and split the Federalist Party, virtually assuring the victory of the Democratic-Republican Party, led by Jefferson, in the election of 1800; it destroyed Hamilton’s position among the Federalists.[187]
Statue of Hamilton in the United States Capitol rotunda
27.6.4
1800 presidential election
Main article: United States presidential election, 1800 In the 1800 election, Hamilton worked to defeat not only the rival Democratic-Republican candidates, but also his party’s own nominee, John Adams.[180] In November 1799, the Alien and Sedition Acts had left one DemocraticRepublican newspaper functioning in New York City; when the last, the New Daily Advertiser, reprinted an article saying that Hamilton had attempted to purchase the Philadelphia Aurora and close it down, Hamilton had the publisher prosecuted for seditious libel, and the prosecution compelled the owner to close the paper.[181] Aaron Burr had won New York for Jefferson in May; now Hamilton proposed a rerun of the election under different rules—with carefully drawn districts and each choosing an elector—such that the Federalists would split the electoral vote of New York.[note 5] (John Jay, a Federalist who had given up the Supreme Court to be Governor of New York, wrote on the back of the letter the words, “Proposing a measure for party purposes which it would not become me to adopt,” and declined to reply.)[182]
Jefferson had beaten Adams, but both he and his running mate, Aaron Burr, had received 73 votes in the Electoral College (Adams finished in third place, Pinckney in fourth, and Jay received one vote). With Jefferson and Burr tied, the United States House of Representatives had to choose between the two men.[188][189] Several Federalists who opposed Jefferson supported Burr, and for the first 35 ballots, Jefferson was denied a majority. Before the 36th ballot, Hamilton threw his weight behind Jefferson, supporting the arrangement reached by James A. Bayard of Delaware, in which five Federalist Representatives from Maryland and Vermont abstained from voting, allowing those states’ delegations to go for Jefferson, ending the impasse and electing Jefferson President rather than Burr.[190] Even though Hamilton did not like Jefferson and disagreed with him on many issues, he viewed Jefferson as the lesser of two evils. Hamilton spoke of Jefferson as being “by far not so a dangerous man”, and that Burr was a “mischievous enemy” to the principle measure of the past administration.[191] There is strong circumstantial evidence, however, that what Hamilton really feared was Burr’s appeal to the members of the Federalist Party and loss of his control over them. Many Federalists viewed Burr as a moderate who was willing to dialogue with them. It was for that reason, along with the fact that Burr was a northerner and not a Virginian, that many Federalist Representatives voted for him.[192] Hamilton wrote an exceeding number of let-
27.7. BURR–HAMILTON DUEL ters to friends in congress to Convince the members too see otherwise.[188][193] However, the Federalists rejected Hamilton’s diatribe as reasons to not vote for Burr.[190][193] Nevertheless, Burr would become Vice President of the United States. When it became clear that Jefferson developed his own concerns about Burr and would not support his return to the Vice Presidency, Burr sought the New York governorship in 1804 with Federalist support, against the Jeffersonian Morgan Lewis, but was defeated by forces including Hamilton.[194]
27.7 Burr–Hamilton duel
109 from the dinner.[197] Burr, sensing an attack on his honor, and recovering from his defeat, demanded an apology in letter form. Hamilton wrote a letter in response and ultimately refused because he could not recall the instance of insulting Burr; also, Hamilton would have been accused of recanting Cooper’s letter out of cowardice[198] After a series of attempts to reconcile were to no avail, the duel was accepted through liaisons on June 27, 1804.[199] The night before the duel, Hamilton wrote a defense of his decision to duel. Hamilton viewed his roles of being a father and husband, putting his creditors at risk, placing his family’s welfare in jeopardy and his moral and religious stances as reasons not to duel, but he felt it impossible to avoid due to making attacks on Burr and unable to recant, and because of Burr’s behavior prior to the duel. He attempted to reconcile his moral and religious reasons and the codes of honor and politics. He intended to accept the duel and throw his fire in order to satisfy his morals and political codes, respectively.[195][200][note 6] His desire to be available for future political matters also played a factor.[195]
The duel began at dawn on July 11, 1804, along the west bank of the Hudson River on a rocky ledge in Weehawken, New Jersey.[201] After the seconds measured the paces, Hamilton, according to William P. Van Ness and Burr, raised his pistol 'as if to try the light' and had to wear his spectacles to prevent his vision from being obscured.[202] Hamilton also refused the hairspring set of dueling pistols (that would make the pulling of the trigger lighter) when offered by Nathaniel Pendleton.[203] Vice President Burr shot Hamilton, delivering what proved to be a fatal wound. Hamilton’s shot broke a tree branch directly above Burr’s head.[204] Neither of the seconds, Pendleton or Van Ness, could determine who fired first,[205] as each claimed that the other man had fired first.[203] Soon after, they measured and triangulated the shooting, but could not determine from which angle Hamilton fired. Burr’s shot, however, hit Hamilton in the lower abdomen above the right hip. The bullet ricocheted off Hamilton’s second or third false rib, fracturing it and caused considerable damage to his internal Hamilton’s tomb in the graveyard of Trinity Church at Wall Street organs, particularly his liver and diaphragm before becoming lodged in his first or second lumbar vertebra.[206] Biand Broadway in Lower Manhattan ographer Ron Chernow considers the circumstances to indicate that Burr fired second, after having taken deliberate Main article: Burr–Hamilton duel aim.,[204] while biographer James Earnest Cooke suggested that Burr took careful aim and only after the bullet struck Soon after the 1804 gubernatorial election in New York— Hamilton did fire his shot while falling.[207] in which Morgan Lewis, greatly assisted by Hamilton, defeated Aaron Burr—the Albany Register published Charles The paralyzed Hamilton, who knew himself to be mortally D. Cooper's letters, citing Hamilton’s opposition to Burr wounded, was ferried to the Greenwich Village home of and alleging that Hamilton had expressed “a still more de- his friend William Bayard Jr., who had been waiting on the spicable opinion” of the Vice President at an upstate New dock. After final visits from his family and friends and conYork dinner party.[195][196] Cooper claimed that the letter siderable suffering, Hamilton died on the following afterwas intercepted after relaying the information, but stated noon, July 12, 1804 at Bayard’s home at what is now 80– [208] Gouverneur Morris gave the eulogy at he was 'unusually cautious’ in recollecting the information 82 Jane Street.
110
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
his funeral and secretly established a fund to support his widow and children.[209] Hamilton was buried in the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery in Manhattan.[210]
27.8 Personal life 27.8.1
Family
While Hamilton was stationed in Morristown, New Jersey in the winter of 1779 and 1780, he met Elizabeth Schuyler, a daughter of Philip Schuyler and Catherine Van Rensselaer. The two were married on December 14, 1780 at the Schuyler Mansion in Albany, New York.[211] He and Elizabeth had eight children, including two named Phillip. The elder Philip, Hamilton’s first child (born January 22, 1782), was killed in 1801 in a duel with George I. Eacker, whom he had publicly insulted in a Manhattan theater. The second Philip, Hamilton’s last child, was born on June 2, 1802, right after the first Philip was killed. Their other children were Angelica, born September 25, 1784; Alexander, born May 16, 1786; James Alexander (April 14, 1788 – September 1878);[212] John Church, born August 22, 1792; William Stephen, born August 4, 1797; and Eliza, born November 26, 1799.[213]
and Jefferson, Hamilton had probably fallen under the sway of deism, which sought to substitute reason for revelation and dropped the notion of an active God that will intervene in human affairs. At the same time, he never doubted God’s existence, embracing Christianity as a system of morality and cosmic justice.[219] Hamilton made jokes about God at the Constitutional Convention.[220] During the French Revolution, he displayed an “opportunistic religiosity”, using Christianity for political ends and insisting that Christianity and Jefferson’s democracy were incompatible.[220] After 1801, Hamilton further asserted the truth of Christianity; he proposed a Christian Constitutional Society in 1802, to take hold of “some strong feeling of the mind” to elect "fit men” to office, and he wrote of “Christian welfare societies” for the poor. He was not a member of any denomination. After being shot, Hamilton spoke of his belief in God’s mercy, and of his desire to renounce dueling; Bishop Moore administered communion to Hamilton.[note 7]
Hamilton had always had respect for Jews. His birthplace of Charlestown had a large Jewish population with whom Hamilton came into contact on a regular basis. As a boy, he had learned Hebrew and could recite the Ten Commandments in its original language.[221] He believed that Jewish Hamilton was also close to Elizabeth’s older sister, achievement was a result of divine providence and warned Angelica, who eloped with John Barker Church, an Englishthat those who discredit the Jews “destroy the Christian man who made a fortune in North America during the Revreligion.”[222] olution. She returned with Church to London after the war, where she later became a joint friend of Maria Cosway and Thomas Jefferson.[214]
27.9
27.8.2
Hamilton’s religion
Legacy
Hamilton’s interpretations of the Constitution set forth in the Federalist Papers remain highly influential, as seen in Hamilton, as a youth in the West Indies, was an orthodox scholarly studies and court decisions.[223] and conventional Presbyterian of the "New Light" evangelThough the Constitution was ambiguous as to the exical type (as opposed to the “Old Light” Calvinists); he was act balance of power between national and state governbeing taught by a student of John Witherspoon, a moderments, Hamilton consistently took the side of greater fed[215] ate of the New School. He wrote two or three hymns, eral power at the expense of the states.[224] As Secretary of [216] which were published in the local newspaper. Robert the Treasury, he established—against the intense opposiTroup, his college roommate, noted that Hamilton was “in tion of Secretary of State Jefferson—the country’s first na[217] the habit of praying on his knees night and morning.” tional bank. Hamilton justified the creation of this bank, Gordon Wood says that Hamilton dropped his youthful re- and other increased federal powers, under Congress’s conligiosity during the Revolution and became, “a conven- stitutional powers to issue currency, to regulate interstate tional liberal with theistic inclinations who was an irregular commerce, and to do anything else that would be "necessary churchgoer at best"; however, he returned to religion in his and proper" to enact the provisions of the Constitution. last years.[218] Chernow says he was nominally an Episco- Jefferson, on the other hand, took a stricter view of the palian but: Constitution: parsing the text carefully, he found no specific authorization for a national bank. This controversy he was not clearly affiliated with the denomiwas eventually settled by the Supreme Court of the United nation and did not seem to attend church reguStates in McCulloch v. Maryland, which in essence adopted Hamilton’s view, granting the federal government broad larly or take communion. Like Adams, Franklin,
27.9. LEGACY
111
freedom to select the best means to execute its constitutionally enumerated powers, specifically the doctrine of implied powers.[225] Though, the American Civil War and the Progressive Era demonstrated the sorts of crises and politics Hamilton’s administrative republic sought to avoid.[226] Hamilton’s policies as Secretary of the Treasury greatly affected the United States government and still continue to influence it. His constitutional interpretation, specifically of the Necessary and Proper Clause, set precedents for fed- Alexander Hamilton on the Series 2004A $10 Federal Reserve Note, eral authority that are still used by the courts and are con- based on an 1805 portrait by John Trumbull sidered an authority on constitutional interpretation. The prominent French diplomat Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, who spent 1794 in the United States, wrote, “I consider Napoleon, Fox, and Hamilton the three greatest men of our epoch, and if I were forced to decide between the three, I would give without hesitation the first place to Hamilton”, adding that Hamilton had intuited the problems of European conservatives.[227] Opinions of Hamilton have run the gamut: both John Adams and Thomas Jefferson viewed him as unprincipled and dangerously aristocratic. Hamilton’s reputation was mostly negative in the eras of Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy. However by the Progressive era, Herbert Croly, Henry Cabot Lodge, and Theodore Roosevelt praised his leadership of a strong government. Sev- The Hamilton Grange National Memorial, now located in St. eral nineteenth- and twentieth-century Republicans entered Nicholas Park. The Grange is the only home Hamilton ever owned politics by writing laudatory biographies of Hamilton.[note 8] and is where he was living at the time of his death. Historians have generally taken one of two main views of Hamilton. Wilentz says: In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists.[228] The older Jeffersonian view attacks him as a centralizer, to the point sometimes of advocating monarchy.[229] Statue of Alexander Hamilton in front of the Treasury Building.
27.9.1
Monuments and memorials
John Trumbull's 1805 portrait of Hamilton, in the portrait [230] Since the beginning of the American Civil War, Hamilton collection of New York City Hall. has been depicted on more denominations of US currency The first postage stamp to honor Hamilton was issued by than anyone else. He has appeared on the $2, $5, $10, $20, the U.S. Post Office in 1870. The portrayals on the 1870 $50, and $1,000. His likeness also began to appear on US and 1888 issues are from the same engraved die, which postage in 1870. His portrait has continued to appear on was modeled after a bust of Hamilton by Italian sculptor US postage and currency, and most notably appears on the Giuseppe Ceracchi[231] The Hamilton 1870 issue was the modern $10 bill. Hamilton also appears on the $500 Series first US Postage stamp to honor a Secretary of the Treasury. EE Savings Bond. The source of the face on the $10 bill is The three-cent red commemorative issue, which was re-
112
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
leased on the 200th anniversary of Hamilton’s birth in 1957, includes a rendition of the Federal Hall building, located in New York City.[232] On March 19, 1956, the United States Postal Service issued the $5 Liberty Issue postage stamp honoring Hamilton.[233]
als to Hamilton on its campus in New York City. The college’s main classroom building for the humanities is Hamilton Hall, and a large statue of Hamilton stands in front of it.[240][241] The university press has published his complete works in a multivolume letterpress edition.[242] Columbia University’s student group for ROTC cadets and Marine officer candidates is named the Alexander Hamilton Society.[243]
1956
The only home Hamilton ever owned was a Federal style mansion designed by John McComb Jr., which he built on his 32-acre country estate in Hamilton Heights in upper Manhattan. He named the house, which was completed in 1802, the “Grange” after his grandfather Alexander’s estate in Ayrshire, Scotland. The house remained in the family until 1833 when his widow sold it to Thomas E. Davis, a British born real estate developer, for $25,000.[234] Part of the proceeds were used by Eliza to purchase a new townhouse from Davis (Hamilton-Holly House) in Greenwich Village with her son Alexander.[234] The Grange, first moved from its original location in 1889, was moved again in 2008 to a spot in St. Nicholas Park on land that was once part of the Hamilton estate, in Hamilton Heights, a neighborhood in upper Manhattan. The historic structure was restored to its original 1802 appearance in 2011,[235] and is maintained by the National Park service as Hamilton Grange National Memorial.[236][237][238] Alexander Hamilton served as one of the first trustees of the Hamilton-Oneida Academy in New York state. Later the Academy received a college charter in 1812, and the school was formally renamed Hamilton College.[239] Columbia University, Hamilton’s alma mater, has official memori-
Alexander Hamilton in Central Park
The main administration building of the Coast Guard Academy in New London, Connecticut, is named Hamilton Hall to commemorate Hamilton’s creation of the United States Revenue Cutter Service, one of the predecessor services of the United States Coast Guard.[244] The U.S. Army’s Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn is named after Hamilton. In 1990, the U.S. Custom House in New York City was renamed after Hamilton.[245] In 1880, his son John Church Hamilton commissioned Carl Conrads to sculpt a granite statue, now located in Central Park, New York City.[246][247] One statue honoring Alexander Hamilton in Chicago was mired in controversy, at least concerning the surrounding
27.9. LEGACY
113 and speaks the language of a vibrant young generation of immigrant strivers. It’s a wonderfully humanizing view of history.”[252] The New York Times review concluded: But it’s probably not possible to top the adrenaline rush of revolution, when men can chant, “Hey yo, I'm just like my country/I'm young, scrappy and hungry/And I'm not throwing away my shot.” Ambitious, enthusiastic and talented in equal measures, Mr. Miranda embodies those sentiments in a show that aims impossibly high and hits its target.[253]
27.9.3 Alexander Hamilton U.S. Custom House
On slavery
Until recently the prevailing scholarly view was that Hamilton, like the Founders generally, lacked a deep concern about slavery. John Patrick Diggins traced this animus of historians against Hamilton to Vernon L. Parrington, who, writing in the 1920s to praise Jefferson and the Enlightenment, denounced a reactionary and unenlightened Hamilton as greedy and evil.[254] Sean Wilentz contends that the consensus has changed sharply in Hamilton’s favor in recent years.[255] For example, Michael D. Chan argues that the first U.S. Treasury Secretary was committed to ending slavery,[256] Chernow calls him “a fervent abolitionist”,[257] David O. Stewart states he was a “lifelong opponent of slavery”,[258] and Braun says he “was a leading anti-slavery advocate”.[259] Historian Manning Marable says Hamilton “vigorously opposed the slave trade and slavery’s expansion.”[260]
architecture. Kate Sturges Buckingham (1858–1937), of the Buckingham Fountain family, commissioned the monument. Its impetus was that Treasury Secretary Hamilton “secured the nation’s financial future and made it possible for her own family to make its fortune in grain elevators and banking. Consequently, John Angel was hired to model a figurative sculpture and the Finnish architect Eliel Saarinen was to create a “colossal architectural setting” for it. The proposed 80-foot tall columned shelter was poorly received. By Ms. Buckingham’s death in 1937, the sculpture’s setting. location and design were uncertain. Conspiracy allegations surfaced, and the matter became mired in litigation. After the courts ordered the construction to be completed by 1953, the trustees hired architect Samuel A. Marx. The structure was completed, had structural problems, and was Hamilton’s first polemic against King George’s ministers eventually demolished in 1993. The statue was gilded, and contains a paragraph that speaks of the evils that “slavery” is still on display.[248] to the British would bring upon the Americans. McDonald A statue, by James Earle Fraser, was dedicated on May sees this as an attack on the institution of slavery. David 17, 1923, on the south terrace of the Treasury Building, in Hackett Fischer believes the term is used in a symbolic way at that time.[261][note 9] Washington.[249]
27.9.2
Popular culture
During the Revolutionary War, Hamilton took the lead in proposals to arm slaves, free them, and compensate their masters. In 1779, Hamilton worked closely with his friend John Laurens of South Carolina to propose that such a unit be formed, under Laurens’ command. Hamilton proposed to the Continental Congress that it create up to four battalions of slaves for combat duty, and free them. Congress recommended that South Carolina (and Georgia) acquire up to three thousand slaves for service, if they saw fit. Although the South Carolina governor and Congressional delegation had supported the plan in Philadelphia, they did not implement it.[262] [note 10]
Apart from the $10 bill, and an obscure 1931 Hollywood film, Hamilton did not attract much attention in American popular culture.[250] However, reviewers praised the 2015 musical Hamilton, starring Lin-Manuel Miranda, who was also the writer and composer. It is based on the biography by Ron Chernow. The New Yorker said: “the show is an achievement of historical and cultural reimagining. In Miranda’s telling, the headlong rise of one self-made immigrant becomes the story of America.”[251] Variety pointed to Hamilton argued that the natural faculties of blacks were “Miranda’s amazing vision of his towering historical subject as good as those of free whites, and he warned that the as an ideological contemporary who reflects the thoughts British would arm the slaves if the patriots did not. In his
114
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
1861.[271] He firmly supported government intervention in favor of business, after the manner of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, as early as the fall of 1781.[272] Hamilton opposed the British ideas of free trade, which he believed skewed benefits to colonial and imperial powers, in favor of protectionism, which he believed would help develop the fledgling nation’s emerging economy. Henry C. Carey was inspired by his writings. Hamilton influenced the ideas and work of the German Friedrich List.[273] In Hamilton’s view, a strong executive, linked to the support of the people, could become the linchpin of an administrative republic.[274] The dominance of executive leadership in the formulation and carrying out of policy was essential to resist the deterioraLetter from Alexander Hamilton, 1779 tion of republican government.[275] Ian Patrick Austin has explored the similarities between Hamiltonian recommen21st-century biography, Chernow cites this incident as ev- dations and the development of Meiji Japan after 1860.[276] idence that Hamilton and Laurens saw the Revolution and the struggle against slavery as inseparable.[263] Hamilton attacked his political opponents as demanding freedom for 27.10 See also themselves and refusing to allow it to blacks.[264] In January 1785, Hamilton attended the second meeting of the New York Manumission Society (NYMS). John Jay was president and Hamilton was the first secretary and later became president.[265] Chernow notes how the membership soon included many of Hamilton’s friends and associates. Hamilton was a member of the committee of the society that petitioned the legislature to end the slave trade, and that succeeded in passing legislation banning the export of slaves from New York.[266] In the same period, Hamilton felt bound by the rule of law of the time and his law practice facilitated the return of a fugitive slave to Henry Laurens of South Carolina.[267] He opposed the compromise at the 1787 Constitutional Convention by which the federal government could not abolish the slave trade for 20 years, and was disappointed when he lost that argument.[268] Hamilton never supported forced emigration for freed slaves. Horton has argued from this that he would be comfortable with a multiracial society, and that this distinguished him from his contemporaries.[269] In international affairs, he supported Toussaint L'Ouverture's black government in Haiti after the revolt that overthrew French control, as he had supported aid to the slaveowners in 1791— both measures hurt France.[270] Scant evidence has been interpreted by a few to indicate Hamilton may have owned household slaves, as did many wealthy New Yorkers (the evidence for this is indirect; McDonald interprets it as referring to paid employees).[268]
27.9.4
On economics
• Compromise of 1790 • Infant industry argument • Necessary and Proper Clause • Panic of 1792
27.11
References
[1] Ira C. Lupu, “The Most-Cited Federalist Papers,” Constitutional Commentary (1998) [2] Practical Proceedings in the Supreme Court of the State of New York. Alexander Hamilton. Forward by Williard Sterne Randall. p. ix. 2004. New York Law Journal. [3] Chernow, p. 17. [4] Chernow; Flexner; Mitchell’s Concise Life. McDonald, p. 366, n. 8, favors 1757 but acknowledges its minority status, saying that the probate clerk’s alternate spelling of “Lavien” suggests unreliability. [5] Chernow, p. 10. [6] Chernow, p. 12. [7] Florence Lewisohn, “What So Proudly We Hail-Alexander Hamilton’s West Indian Boyhood,” in American Revolution Bicentennial Commission of the Virgin Islands, St. Croix: 1975, pp. 17–30. [8] Chernow, p. 24.
Hamilton has been portrayed as the “patron saint” of the [9] E.g., Flexner, passim. American School of economic philosophy that, according to one historian, dominated economic policy after [10] Chernow, p. 25.
27.11. REFERENCES
115
[11] Chernow, p. 26.
[38] Kohn; Brant, p. 45; Rakove, p. 324.
[12] Chernow, pp. 27–30.
[39] Brant, p. 100; Chernow, p. 176.
[13] Chernow, p 37
[40] Martin and Lender, pp. 109, 160: at first for seven years, increased to life after Arnold’s treason.
[14] Gordon, John Steele. “The Self Made Founder,” American Heritage, April/May 2004.
[41] Tucker, p. 470.
[15] Adair and Harvey.
[42] Kohn; Ellis 2004, pp. 141–4.
[16] Chernow, p. 51.
[43] Kohn, p. 196.
[17] Randall, p. 78
[44] Hamilton’s letter of February 13, 1783; Syrett, pp. III: 253–5. Chernow, p. 177.
[18] Miller, p. 9 [19] Mitchell 1:65–73; Miller, p. 19. [20] Mitchell, I:74–75 [21] Chernow, p. 63. [22] McDonald, p. 13. [23] Chernow, p. 72.
[45] Washington to Hamilton, March 4 and March 12, 1783; Kohn; Martin and Lender, pp. 189–90. [46] Chernow, pp. 177–80, citing Washington to Hamilton, April 4, 1783. Retrieved on May 20, 2008. [47] Rakove, pp. 322, 325. [48] Brant, p. 108. [49] Chernow, p. 180.
[24] Stryker, p. 158. [50] Chernow, p. 182. [25] Randall, p. 120. [51] Chernow, p. 183. [26] Lefkowitz, Arthur S., George Washington’s Indispensable Men: The 32 Aides-de-Camp Who Helped Win the Revolution, Stackpole Books, 2003, pp. 15 & 108. [27] Hendrickson, Robert (1976). Hamilton I (1757–1789). New York: Mason/Charter. p. 119. [28] Chernow, p. 90. [29] Lodge, pp. 1:15–20; Miller, pp. 23–6.
[52] Chernow, p. 160. [53] Chernow, pp. 197–9; McDonald, pp. 64–9. [54] Richard B. Morris, The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 (1988) p. 255 [55] Schachner, p. 191. [56] Morton, p. 169.
[30] Flexner, Young Hamilton, p. 316.
[57] Chernow, pp. 227–8.
[31] Trees, Andrew S., “The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton”, Reviews in American History 2005, pp. 33(1):8– 14, finding Chernow’s inferences to be overreading the contemporary style.
[58] Morton, p. 131.
[32] Katz, Jonathan Ned, Gay American History: Lesbians and Gay Men in the U.S.A., Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976, ISBN 978-0-690-01164-7, p. 445. [33] Chernow, p. 159. [34] Murray, p. 69. [35] Mitchell, pp. I:254–60. [36] Syrett, p. III:117; for a one-year term beginning the “first Monday in November next”, arrived in Philadelphia between the November 18 and 25, and resigned July 1783. [37] Hamilton, Alexander. Alexander Hamilton: Writings. Compiled by Joanne B. Freeman. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 2001. pp. 70–71
[59] Schachner, p. 195. [60] Chernow, p. 232. [61] Madison, James. The Constitutional Convention. Edited by Edward J. Larson and Michael P. Winship. New York: Modern Library, 2005. [62] Madison, p. 51 [63] Mitchell, pp. I:397 ff. [64] Brant, p. 195. [65] Schachner, p. 206. [66] Denboer, p. 196. [67] Kaplan, p. 75. [68] Denboer, p. 197.
116
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
[69] Lomask, pp. 139–40, 216–7, 220.
[101] Cooke, p. 88.
[70] Chernow, pp. 247– 8.
[102] McDonald, p. 194.
[71] Chernow, p. 247.
[103] Cooke, p. 89.
[72] Schachner, p. 210.
[104] McDonald, pp. 194–5.
[73] Chernow, p. 253.
[105] McDonald, pp. 195–6.
[74] Schachner, p. 211.
[106] Cooke, p. 90.
[75] Chernow, p. 254.
[107] Schachner, p. 270.
[76] Chernow, pp. 252–5.
[108] McDonald, pp. 199–200.
[77] Chernow, p. 257
[109] McDonald, p. 200.
[78] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter H” (PDF). Amer- [110] McDonald, pp. 200–1. ican Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved August 7, [111] Schachner, p. 271. 2014. [79] Hamilton; Hamilton; pp. 1, 54, 106, 149, 192, 465
[112] Schachner, pp. 271–2.
[80] “Hamilton’s Administrative Republic and the American [113] McDonald, pp. 202–3. Presidency”, in The Presidency in the Constitutional Order, [114] Schachner, pp. 272–3. edited by Joseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey Tulis (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), p. 93 [115] Mitchell, p. 118. [81] Murray, p. 121.
[116] McDonald, p. 197.
[82] Chernow, p. 296.
[117] Engerman; Gallman, p. 644.
[83] Schachner, pp. 244–5.
[118] Engerman; Gallman, pp. 644–5.
[84] Chernow, p. 297.
[119] Studentski; Krooss, p. 62.
[85] Murray, p. 124.
[120] Cooke, p. 87.
[86] Chernow, pp. 297–8.
[121] McDonald, p. 198.
[87] Chernow, pp. 298–9.
[122] Gibowicz, p. 256.
[88] Chernow, p. 300.
[123] Chernow, p. 340.
[89] Chernow, p. 302.
[124] Chernow, p. 32.
[90] Chernow, p. 303.
[125] Gibowicz, pp. 256–7.
[91] Chernow, p. 304.
[126] Storbridge, p. 2.
[92] Schachner, p. 250.
[127] Stockwell, p. 357.
[93] Chernow, p. 305.
[128] Chernow, p. 342.
[94] Schachner, p. 255.
[129] Murray, p. 141.
[95] Schachner, pp. 297–8.
[130] Chernow, pp. 342–3.
[96] Chernow, p. 307.
[131] Murray, pp. 141–2.
[97] Schachner, pp. 258–9.
[132] Chernow, p. 343.
[98] Schachner, p. 263.
[133] Chernow, p. 468.
[99] Schachner, p. 268.
[134] Mitchell, I:308–31.
[100] Kaplan, p. 21.
[135] Schachner, pp. 274, 277.
27.11. REFERENCES
117
[136] McDonald, p. 233.
[163] Chernow, p. 370.
[137] McDonald, p. 244.
[164] Schachner, p. 369.
[138] Cooke, p. 100.
[165] Murray, p. 165.
[139] Schachner, p. 276.
[166] McDonald, pp. 334–6.
[140] Cooke, p. 101.
[167] Garrity and Spalding, pp. 47, 50–55.
[141] Schachner, p. 277.
[168] Murray, p. 207.
[142] Mitchell, p. 145.
[169] Chernow, p. 510.
[143] Stephen F. Knott, Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of [170] Elkins and McKitrick; Age of Federalism, pp. 523–8, 859. Myth (2002), pp. 43, 54, 56, 83, 108. Rutledge had his own plan, to have Pinckney win with Jefferson as Vice President. [144] McDonald, p. 231. [145] McDonald, p. 232.
[171] Elkins and McKitrick, p. 515.
[146] Cooke, p. 103.
[172] Kaplan, pp. 147–49
[147] Cooke, p. 102.
[173] Chernow, pp. 558–60
[148] Schachner, p. 280
[174] Morison and Commager, p 327; Mitchell II:445.
[149] “Madison to Jefferson”. March 2, 1794. Retrieved October [175] 14, 2006. [176] [150] Christopher J. Young, “Connecting the President and the [177] People: Washington’s Neutrality, Genet’s Challenge, and Hamilton’s Fight for Public Support,” Journal of the Early [178] Republic, (Fall 2011) 31#3 pp 435–466 [179] [151] Brian J. Cook (9 October 2014). Bureaucracy and SelfGovernment. JHU Press. pp. 56–. ISBN 978-1-4214-1552- [180] 9. [181] [152] Balogh 2009, 72–110
Newman, pp. 72–3. Kaplan, p. 155. Newman, pp. 44, 76–8. Mitchell II:483 ANB, "James McHenry"; he also fired Timothy Pickering. Schachner pp. 392–99 James Morton Smith, Freedom’s Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties (Ithaca, repr. 1966), pp. 400–417.
[153] Allan Nevins, The Evening post: a century of journalism (1922) ch. 1 online [182] Monaghan, pp. 419–421. [154] Cooke, pp. 109–110
[183] McDonald, pp. 350–1.
[155] Stanley M. Elkins, and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federal- [184] Schachner, pp. 394–5. ism: The Early American Republic, 1788–1800 (1994), pp. [185] McDonald, p. 351. 336–41. [156] Schachner, pp. 327–8.
[186] Schachner, p. 396.
[157] Todd Estes, “Shaping the Politics of Public Opinion: Feder- [187] Elkins and McKitrick, like other historians, speak of Hamilalists and the Jay Treaty Debate.” Journal of the Early Reton’s self-destructive tendencies in this connection. public (2000) 20(3): 393–422. in JSTOR [188] McDonald, p. 352. [158] Elkins, and McKitrick, The Age of Federalism ch 9 [189] Schachner, p. 399. [159] George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. For[190] McDonald, p. 353. eign Relations since 1776 (2008) p. 80 [160] Bemis, Samuel Flagg, Jay’s Treaty (quoted); Elkins and [191] Harper, p. 259. McKitrick, pp. 411 ff. [192] Isenberg, Nancy, Fallen Founder: The Life of Aaron Burr, New York: Penguin Books, 2007, pp. 211–212. [161] Chernow, p. 480 [162] Schachner, pp. 366–9.
[193] Schachner, p. 401.
118
[194] ANB, “Aaron Burr”.
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
[222] qtd. in Chernow
[195] Freeman, Joanne B (April 1996). “Dueling as Politics: [223] Susan Welch, John Gruhl and John Comer, Understanding American Government (2011) p 70 Reinterpreting the Burr–Hamilton Duel”. William and Mary Quarterly (subscription). Third Series 53 (2): 289–318. [224] Melvyn R. Durchslag, State sovereign immunity: a reference doi:10.2307/2947402. JSTOR 2947402. guide to the United States Constitution (2002) p xix [196] Kennedy, Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson, p. 72. [225] Thomas Frederick Wilson (1992). The Power “to Coin” Money: The Exercise of Monetary Powers by the Congress. [197] Chernow, pp. 680–1. M.E. Sharpe. p. 94. [198] Schachner, pp. 423–4. [226] Jeffrey Tulis (1987). The Rhetorical Presidency. Princeton [199] Schachner, p. 426. University Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-691-02295-X. [200] Chernow, p. 689 [201] Adams, pp. 93–4. [202] Fleming, p. 323 [203] Brookhiser, p. 212 [204] Chernow, p.704
[227] Lawrence S. Kaplan (1998). Thomas Jefferson: Westward the Course of Empire. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 284. [228] Sean Wilentz, “Book Reviews,” Journal of American History Sept, 2010 v. 97# 2 p 476; quotes from Wilentz. [229] Ron Chernow (2005). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin Books. pp. 397–98.
[206] Schachner, p. 429.
[230] Dunlap, David W.The New York Times, "In New York, Taking Years Off the Old, Famous Faces Adorning City Hall", December 6, 2006.
[207] Cooke, p. 242
[231] Smithsonian National Postal Museum
[208] Chernow, pp. 705, 708
[232] Scotts US Stamp Catalogue
[209] Chernow, pp. 712–13, 725
[233] “U.S. Liberty Series of 1954–1965”. 1847usa. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
[205] Fleming, p. 345
[210] Doug Keister (2011). Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries & Their Residents. [234] “Hamilton-Holly House Designation Report – NYC.gov” (PDF). Retrieved 8 January 2013. Gibbs Smith. p. 127. [211] Chernow, pp. 128–29
[235] “Hamilton’s House Gets a Makeover”, American History, (Feb 2012) vol. 16, #6, p. 11.
[212] James Alexander Hamilton obituary, The New York Times, [236] “Hamilton Grange National Memorial (US National Park September 26, 1878. Service)". Retrieved March 14, 2009. [213] Chernow, p. 582. [237] Hamilton Home Heads to a Greener Address [214] Chernow, p. 315. [238] “Hamilton Grange National Memorial (US National Park [215] McDonald, Alexander Hamilton p 11; Adair and Harvey Service)". Archived from the original on August 28, 2010. (1974) Retrieved September 17, 2010. [216] Chernow, p. 38.
[239] Hamilton College (Clinton, N.Y), p. 10
[217] Hamilton, John Church (1834). The life of Alexander [240] “Columbia College Today – Hamilton 100”. Columbia UniHamilton, Volume 1. the New York Public Library: Halsted versity. Retrieved January 21, 2015. & Voorhies. p. 10. [241] “Advocates for Columbia ROTC”. Columbia ROTC. Re[218] Gordon Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early trieved January 21, 2015. Republic, 1789–1815 (2009) pp 589–90 [242] “Founders Online: The Papers of Alexander Hamilton”. Na[219] Chernow (2005). Alexander Hamilton. p. 205. tional Archives. Retrieved January 21, 2015. [220] Adair and Harvey (1974) p. 147.
[243] “Advocates for Columbia ROTC”. Columbia ROTC. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
[221] Geselowitz, Gabriela. “Alexander Hamilton’s Jewish Connection.” Tablet Magazine. 20 February 2015. 24 February [244] “Campus: Hamilton Hall”. United States Coast Guard 2015. Academy. Retrieved January 21, 2015.
27.12. NOTES
119
[245] Moynihan, Daniel Patrick. “Bill Summary & Status, 101st [267] Littlefield, p. 126, citing Syrett, pp. 3:605–8. Congress (1989–1990), S.3046”. Library of Congress. [268] Chernow, p. 239. [246] “The Death List of a Day. John Church Hamilton.”. The [269] Horton, p. 22. New York Times. July 26, 1882. [247] “Central Park – Alexander Hamilton”. New York City De- [270] partment of Parks & Recreation. [271] [248] “Alexander Hamilton Monument (in Lincoln Park)". ExploreChicago.org. Retrieved September 6, 2012. [272] [249] “Alexander Hamilton, (sculpture).”. Smithisonian Institute Research Information System (SIRIS). Retrieved January 21, [273] 2015. [250] Hamilton is not mentioned in the standard guides, such as The Guide to United States Popular Culture (2001) edited by [274] Ray Broadus Browne and Pat Browne. [275] [251] Rebecca Mead, “All About the Hamiltons: A new musical brings the Founding Fathers back to life—with a lot of hiphop.” The New Yorker Feb. 9, 2015
Horton; Kennedy, pp. 97–8; Littlefield; Wills, pp. 35, 40. Lind, Michael, Hamilton’s Republic, 1997, pp. xiv–xv, 229– 30. Chernow, p. 170, citing Continentalist V, published April 1782, but written in fall 1781; Syrett, p. 3:77. William Notz, “Friedrich List in America” American Economic Review (1926) 16#2 pp. 248–65 in JSTOR Derthick 1999, p. 122. Harvey Flaumenhaft, “Hamilton’s Administrative Republic and the American Presidency”, in Joseph M. Bessette and Jeffrey Tulis, The Presidency in the Constitutional Order (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981)
[252] Marilyn Stasio, “Off Broadway Review: 'Hamilton' by Lin- [276] Austin, pp. 261–2. Manuel Miranda,” Variety Feb. 17, 2015 [253] Ben Brantley, “Review: In 'Hamilton,' Lin-Manuel Miranda Forges Democracy Through Rap,” The New York Times Feb 17, 2015 [254] Diggins, John Patrick (2007). “The Contemporary Critique of the Enlightenment”. In Neil Jumonville; Kevin Mattson. Liberalism for a New Century. p. 35. [255] Wilentz, Sean (2010). “Book Reviews”. Journal of American History 97 (2): 476. [256] Chan, Michael D. (2004). “Alexander Hamilton on Slavery”. The Review of Politics 66 (2): 207–31. doi:10.2307/1408953. [257] Chernow, p.629 [258] Stewart, p. 73 [259] Braun, p. 330 [260] Marable, Manning (2011). Living Black History: How Reimagining the African-American Past Can Remake America’s Racial Future. Basic Books. p. 9. [261] David Brion Davis, Inhuman Bondage, p. 156; [262] Mitchell, pp. I:175–7, I:550 n. 92, citing the Journals of the Continental Congress, March 29, 1779; Wallace, p. 455. [263] Hamilton to Jay, March 14, 1779; Chernow, p. 121; McManus, pp. 154–7. [264] McDonald, p. 34; Flexner, pp. 257–8. [265] McManus, p. 168. [266] Chernow, p. 216.
27.12
Notes
[1] Hamilton’s spelling “Lavien” may be a Sephardic version of “Levine”. The couple may have lived apart from one another under an order of legal separation, with Rachel as the guilty party, meaning that her remarriage was not permitted on St. Croix. [2] Thomas Jefferson wrote years afterward that Hamilton had a discussion with him around this time period about the capital of the United States being relocated to Virginia by mean of a 'pill' that “would be peculiarly bitter to the Southern States, and that some concomitant measure should be adopted to sweeten it a little to them”. [3] The System of Revenue Cutters was also known as the Revenue Service, Revenue-Marine Service, and System of Cutters after being enacted by Congress. It officially became the Coast Guard in 1915. [4] Quote:I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose. See also Smith, (2004) p.832. [5] The May 1800 election chose the New York legislature, which would in turn choose electors; Burr had won this by making it a referendum on the presidency, and by persuading better-qualified candidates to run, who declared their candidacy only after the Federalists had announced their ticket. Hamilton asked Jay and the lame-duck legislature to pass a law declaring a special federal election, in which each district would choose an elector. He also supplied a map, with as many Federalist districts as possible.
120
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
[6] Hamilton had given his son the same advice to his son Philip Hamilton in his duel with George I. Eacker in 1801 that resulted in Philip’s death. The maneuver of throwing shots on the field of honor was referred to as delope by the French. (Chernow, p. 653) [7] Adair and Harvey, “Christian Statesman?"; Quotes on the Christian Constitutional Society are from Hamilton’s letter to James A. Bayard of April 1802, quoted by Adair and Harvey. McDonald, says p. 356, that Hamilton’s faith “had not entirely departed” him before the crisis of 1801. [8] Flexner, Introduction; Lodge, Henry Cabot, Alexander Hamilton, written while a junior professor; Vandenburg, Arthur H., The Greatest American, 1922, while still a newspaper editor; for the effect on his career of his “advocacy of his party’s views”, see ANB, "Arthur H. Vandenburg". [9] For a wider discussion of the rhetoric of “slavery to the British”, see David Hackett Fischer: Liberty and Freedom, chapters I and II. [10] Congress offered to compensate the masters after the war.
27.13 Bibliography 27.13.1
Biographies
• Ambrose, Douglas; W. T. Martin, Robert (2006). The Many Faces of Alexander Hamilton: The Life & Legacy of America’s Most Elusive Founding Father. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0814707142. • Bailey, Ralph Edward (1933). An American Colossus: The Singular Career of Alexander Hamilton. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co.
• Fleming, Thomas (2000). Duel: Alexander Hamilton, Aaron Burr, and the Future of America. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465017379. • Flexner, James Thomas (1997). The Young Hamilton: A Biography. Fordham University Press (2nd ed.). ISBN 978-0823217908. • Hendrickson, Robert (1976). Hamilton I (1757– 1789). Mason/Charter, 1976. ASIN B003VZWXVA. • McDonald, Forrest (1982). Alexander Hamilton: A Biography. W. W. Norton Company. ISBN 978-0393-30048-2. • Miller, John Chester (1959). Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780060129750. • Mitchell, Broadus (1957). Alexander Hamilton: Youth to Maturity (1755–1788), Volume 1. Macmillian. • Mitchell, Broadus (1957). Alexander Hamilton: The National Adventure (1788–1804), Volume 1. Macmillian. • Murray, Joseph A. (2007). Alexander Hamilton: America’s Forgotten Founder. Algora. ISBN 9780875865010. • Randall, William Sterne (2003). Alexander Hamilton: A Life. HarpersCollins. ASIN B00EDYZ842. • Schachner, Nathan (1946). Alexander Hamilton. New York-D. Appleton Century Co. ASIN B0006AQUG2.
• Brookhiser, Richard (2000). Alexander Hamil- 27.13.2 Specialized studies ton, American. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978• Adair, Douglas & Harvey, Marvin (1955). “Was 0684863313. Alexander Hamilton a Christian Statesman?". William and Mary Quarterly 12 (2): 308–329. • Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. Penguin doi:10.2307/1920511. Books. ISBN 978-1-59420-009-0. • Cooke, Jacob Earnest (1982). Alexander Hamilton. Charles Scribner’s Sons. ISBN 0-684-17344-1. • Ellis, Joseph J. (2002). Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation. Vintage. ISBN 9780375705243. • Ellis, Joseph J. (2005). His Excellency: George Washington. Vintage. ISBN 978-1400032532. • Flaumenhaft, Harvey (1980). The Administrative Republic of Alexander Hamilton. University of Chicago, Department of Political Science.
• Adams, Arthur G. (1996). The Hudson River GuideISBN 978book. Fordham University Press. 0823216796. • Austin, Ian Patrick (2009). Common Foundations of American and East Asian Modernisation: From Alexander Hamilton to Junichero Koizumi. Singapore: Select Books. ISBN 978-981-4022-52-1. • Bailey, Jeremy D. (2008). “The New Unitary Executive and Democratic Theory: The Problem of Alexander Hamilton”. American Political Science Review 102 (4): 453–465. doi:10.1017/S0003055408080337.
27.13. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Balogh, Brian. 2009. A Government out of Sight: The Mystery of National Authority in Nineteenth Century American. New York: Cambridge University Press. • Brant, Irving (1970). The Fourth President: a Life of James Madison. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merill. A onevolume recasting of Brant’s six-volume life. • Burns, Eric (2007). Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-158648-428-6. • Chan, Michael D. (2004). “Alexander Hamilton on Slavery”. Review of Politics 66 (2): 207–231. doi:10.1017/s003467050003727x. JSTOR 1408953. • Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7. Full-length, detailed biography. • Denboer, Gordon R. (1987). The Documentary History of the First Federal Elections, 1788–1790, Volume III. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0299106508. • Derthick, Martha (13 June 1999). Dilemmas of Scale in America’s Federal Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64039-8. Retrieved 6 March 2015. • Elkins, Stanley, and Eric McKitrick. Age of Federalism. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. online edition; detailed political history of 1790s • Engerman, Stanley L.; Gallman, Robert E. (2000). The Cambridge Economic History of the United States. Cambridge University Books. ISBN 9780521553070. • Fatovic, Clement (2004). “Constitutionalism and Presidential Prerogative: Jeffersonian and Hamiltonian Perspectives”. American Journal of Political Science 48 (3): 429–444. doi:10.1111/j.00925853.2004.00079.x. • Federici, Michael P. (2012). Alexander Hamilton: America’s Forgotten Founder. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 9781421405391. • Flaumenhaft, Harvey (1992). The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-1214-X. • Flexner, James Thomas (1965–72). George Washington. Little Brown.. Four volumes, with various subtitles, cited as “Flexner, Washington". Vol. IV. ISBN 978-0-316-28602-2.
121 • Garrity, Patrick J.; Spalding, Matthew (2000). A Sacred Union of Citizens: George Washington’s Farewell Address and the American Character. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0847682621. • Hamilton College (Clinton, N.Y.) (1910). Catalogue. Hamilton College. • Levine, Yitzchok (May 2, 2007). “The Jews Of Nevis And Alexander Hamilton”. Glimpses Into American Jewish History. The Jewish Press. • Harper, John Lamberton (2004). American Machiavelli: Alexander Hamilton and the Origins of US Foreign Policy. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-83485-6. • Horton, James Oliver (2004). “Alexander Hamilton: Slavery and Race in a Revolutionary Generation” (PDF). New York Journal of American History 65 (3): 16–24. • Gibowicz, Charles J. (2007). Mess Night Traditions. Author House. ISBN 9781425984465. • Kennedy, Roger G. (2000). Burr, Hamilton, and Jefferson: A Study in Character. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513055-3. • Kaplan, Edward (1999). The Bank of the United States and the American Economy. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN 978-0313308666. • Kaplan, Lawrence S. (2001). Alexander Hamilton: Ambivalent Anglophile. Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 9780842028783. • Knott, Stephen F. (2002). Alexander Hamilton and the Persistence of Myth. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1157-6. • Keister, Doug (2011). Stories in Stone New York: A Field Guide to New York City Area Cemeteries & Their Residents. Gibbs Smith. ISBN 978-1423621027. • Kohn, Richard H. (1970). “The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat”. The William and Mary Quarterly 27 (2): 188–220. doi:10.2307/1918650. A review of the evidence on Newburgh; despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a coup d'état was ever seriously attempted. • Larsen, Harold (1952). “Alexander Hamilton: The Fact and Fiction of His Early Years”. William and Mary Quarterly 9 (2): 139–151. doi:10.2307/1925345. • Lind, Michael (1994). “Hamilton’s Legacy”. The Wilson Quarterly 18 (3): 40–52. JSTOR 40258878.
122 • Littlefield, Daniel C. (2000). “John Jay, the Revolutionary Generation, and Slavery”. New York History 81 (1): 91–132. ISSN 0146-437X.
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON • Rossiter, Clinton (1964). Alexander Hamilton and the Constitution. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World.
• McCraw, Thomas K. The Founders and Finance: How Hamilton, Gallatin, and Other Immigrants Forged a New Economy (2012)
• Sharp, James (1995). American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06519-1. Survey of politics in 1790s.
• Lomask, Milton (1979). Aaron Burr, the Years from Princeton to Vice President, 1756–1805. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-10016-0. First volume of two, but this contains Hamilton’s lifetime.
• Sheehan, Colleen (2004). “Madison v. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism and the Role of Public Opinion”. American Political Science Review 98 (3): 405–424. doi:10.1017/S0003055404001248.
• Martin, Robert W. T. (2005). “Reforming Republicanism: Alexander Hamilton’s Theory of Republican Citizenship and Press Liberty”. Journal of the Early Republic 25 (1): 21–46. doi:10.1353/jer.2005.0012.
• Smith, Robert W. (2004). Keeping the Republic: Ideology and Early American Diplomacy. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press. ISBN 0-87580-326-1.
• McManus, Edgar J. (1966). History of Negro Slavery in New York. Syracuse University Press.
• Staloff, Darren (2005). Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson: The Politics of Enlightenment and the American Founding. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-7784-1.
• Mitchell, Broadus (1951). “The man who 'discovered' Alexander Hamilton”. Proceedings of the New Jersey Historical Society 69: 88–115.
• Storbridge, Truman R.; Noble, Dennis l. (1999). Alaska and the U. S. Revenue Cutter Service: 1867– 1915. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781557508454.
• Monaghan, Frank (1935). John Jay. Bobbs-Merrill.
• Stourzh, Gerald (1970). Alexander Hamilton and the Idea of Republican Government. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0724-3.
• Morgan, Philip D. & O'Shaubhnessy, A. J. (2006). “Arming slaves in the American revolution”. In Brown, Christopher Leslie & Morgan, Philip D. Arming slaves: from classical times to the modern age. New York: Yale University Press. pp. 180–208. ISBN 0300-10900-8. • Newman, Paul Douglas (2004). Fries’s Rebellion: The Enduring Struggle for the American Revolution. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-3815-X. • Nettels, Curtis P. (1962). The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. • Northup, Cynthia Clark; Turney, Elaine C. Prange; Stockwell, Mary (2003). Encyclopedia of Tariffs and Trade in U.S. History. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313319433. • Norton, Joseph (2005). Shapers of the Great Debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787: A Biographical Dictionary (Shapers of the Great American Debates. Greenwood; annotated edition. ISBN 9780313330216. • Rakove, Jack N. (1979). The beginnings of National Politics: an interpretive history of the Continental Congress. New York: Knopf. ISBN 0-394-42370-4.
• Stryker, William S[cudder] (1898). The Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Houghton Mifflin. • Studenski, Paul; Krooss, Herman Edward (2003). Financial History of the United States. Beard Books. ISBN 978-1587981753. • Sylla, Richard; Wright, Robert E. & Cowen, David J. (2009). “Alexander Hamilton, Central Banker: Crisis Management during the US Financial Panic of 1792”. Business History Review 83 (1): 61–86. doi:10.1017/s0007680500000209. • Thomas, Charles Marion (1931). American neutrality in 1793; a study in cabinet government. New York: Columbia University Press. • Trees, Andrew S. (2005). “The Importance of Being Alexander Hamilton”. Reviews in American History 33 (1): 8–14. doi:10.1353/rah.2005.0019. • Trees, Andrew S. (2004). The Founding Fathers and the Politics of Character. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11552-4. • Tucker, Spencer C. (2014). The Encyclopedia of the Wars of the Early American Republic, 1783–1812 [three volumes]: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1598841565.
27.14. EXTERNAL LINKS • Wallace, David Duncan (1915). Life of Henry Laurens, with a sketch of the life of Lieutenant-Colonel John Laurens. New York: Putnam. • Weston, Rob N. (1994). “Alexander Hamilton and the Abolition of Slavery in New York”. Afro-Americans in New York Life and History 18 (1): 31–45. ISSN 03642437. An undergraduate paper, which concludes that Hamilton was ambivalent about slavery. • White, Leonard D. (1949). The Federalists. New York: Macmillan. Coverage of how the Treasury and other departments were created and operated. • White, Richard D. (2000). “Exploring the Origins of the American Administrative State: Recent Writings on the Ambiguous Legacy of Alexander Hamilton”. Public Administration Review 60 (2): 186–190. doi:10.1111/0033-3352.00077. • Wood, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-503914-6. The most recent synthesis of the era. • Wright, Robert E. (2002). Hamilton Unbound: Finance and the Creation of the American Republic. Westport: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-32397-6. • ——— (2008). One Nation Under Debt: Hamilton, Jefferson, and the History of What We Owe. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-154393-4.
27.13.3
123 1850. John F. Trow, Printer. free online EBook edition • Goebel, Julius, Jr., and Joseph H. Smith, eds. The Law Practice of Alexander Hamilton. 5 vols. Columbia University Press, 1964–80. (The legal counterpart to The Papers of Alexander Hamilton) • Lodge, Henry Cabot, ed. The Works of Alexander Hamilton. 10 vols. 1904. full text online at Internet Archive online in HTML edition. (The only online collection of Hamilton’s writings and letters, containing about 1.3 million words) • Morris, Richard, ed. Alexander Hamilton and the Founding of the Nation. 1957. (Excerpts from AH’s writings) • Report on Manufactures. (AH’s economic program for the United States) • Report on Public Credit. (AH’s financial program for the United States) • Syrett, Harold C., Jacob E. Cooke, and Barbara Chernow, eds. The Papers of Alexander Hamilton. 27 vols. Columbia University Press, 1961–87. (Includes all letters and writings by Hamilton, and all important letters written to him; this is the definitive edition of Hamilton’s works, intensively annotated) • Taylor, George Rogers, ed. Hamilton and the National Debt. 1950. (Excerpts from all sides in 1790s)
Primary sources
• Cooke, Jacob E., ed. Alexander Hamilton: A Profile. 1967. (Short excerpts from AH and his critics) • Cunningham, Noble E. Jefferson vs. Hamilton: Confrontations that Shaped a Nation. 2000. (Short collection of primary sources, with commentary) • Federalist Papers. Under the shared pseudonym “Publius”. By Alexander Hamilton (c. 52 articles), James Madison (28 articles), and John Jay (five articles). • Freeman, Joanne B., ed. Alexander Hamilton: Writings. 2001, ISBN 978-1-931082-04-4. The Library of America edition, 1108 pages. (All of Hamilton’s major writings and many of his letters) • Frisch, Morton J., ed. Selected Writings and Speeches of Alexander Hamilton. 1985. • Hamilton, Alexander; Hamilton, John Church. The Works of Alexander Hamilton: Miscellanies, 1789– 1795: France; Duties on imports; National bank; Manufactures; Revenue circulars; Reports on claims, etc.
27.14
External links
• Alexander Hamilton on PBS' American Experience • Alexander Hamilton: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress • The Papers of Alexander Hamilton, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives • New-York Historical Society’s Alexander Hamilton Exhibit • Works by Alexander Hamilton at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Alexander Hamilton at Internet Archive • Works by Alexander Hamilton at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) • Hamilton’s Report on Manufactures (Columbia University Press)
124 • Hamilton’s Congressional biography • Alexander Hamilton: Debate over a National Bank (February 23, 1791) at the Wayback Machine (archived November 10, 2000) • Alexander Hamilton by Henry Cabot Lodge • Alexander Hamilton’s Plan of Government • Hamilton Grange National Memorial • Reenactment of the Burr–Hamilton duel on July 12, 2004 • Alexander Hamilton and the National Triumph of New York City A WNET video lecture; overview of Hamilton’s career
CHAPTER 27. ALEXANDER HAMILTON
Chapter 28
John Lansing, Jr.
John Lansing, Jr.
John Ten Eyck Lansing, Jr. (January 30, 1754 Albany, New York – vanished December 12, 1829 New York City), was an American lawyer and politician. He was the uncle of Gerrit Y. Lansing.
28.1 Career Lansing studied law with Robert Yates in Albany, NY and was admitted to practice in 1775.[1] From 1776 until 1777
during the Revolutionary War Lansing served as a military secretary to General Philip Schuyler. Afterwards he was a member of the New York State Assembly from 1780 to 1784, in 1785-86, and 1788–89, being its speaker during the latter two terms. He served New York as a member of the Confederation Congress in 1785. In 1786, he was appointed Mayor of Albany. He represented New York as one of three representatives at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. His intentions at the convention were to follow the wishes of the New York Legislature which had elected him to attend. He was authorized only to amend the existing Articles of Confederation. As the convention progressed, Lansing became disillusioned because he believed it was exceeding its instructions. Lansing believed the delegates had gathered together simply to amend the Articles of Confederation and was dismayed at the movement to write an entirely new constitution. His desire was to see the Articles strengthened giving it a source of revenue, the power to regulate commerce, and to enforce treaties. He joined other prominent Anti-Federalists that strongly opposed Alexander Hamilton, James Wilson and James Madison's notions of a strong centralized national government to replace the Articles. He, Luther Martin of Maryland, George Mason of Virginia and Robert Yates also of New York strongly opposed the newly proposed United States Constitution because they thought it was fundamentally flawed and should be rejected because it infringed on the sovereignty of the independent States and did not do enough to guarantee individual liberty. Both he and Robert Yates walked out after 6 weeks and explained their departure in a joint letter to New York Governor George Clinton.[2] Lansing and Yates never signed the constitution. At the New York Ratifying Convention that followed, he along with Melancton Smith took the lead in the debates as the leaders of the Anti-Federalist majority. Their attempts to prevent ratification ultimately failed by a narrow vote of 30 to 27. He was appointed a Justice of the New York State Supreme Court in 1790 and on 15 February 1798 he was elevated to the post Chief Justice. In 1801, he also became the second Chancellor of New York, succeeding Robert R. Livingston. In 1814 he became a regent of the University
125
126
CHAPTER 28. JOHN LANSING, JR.
of New York.
28.2 Disappearance On the evening of December 12, 1829, he left his Manhattan hotel to mail a letter at a New York City dock and was never seen again. Lansing was 75 years old and was presumed drowned or perhaps murdered, his body never recovered. His widow died in 1834 and is buried at Albany Rural Cemetery, New York. His fate was a major mystery in New York State at the time, rivaled only by the disappearance of William Morgan, the anti-Mason writer, in 1826 in upstate New York. In the last century it has somehow become rather forgotten, especially with the disappearance of New York State Justice Joseph Force Crater in 1930. There has been only one major clue to Lansing’s disappearance that has appeared since his death. After his death in 1882 the memoirs of Thurlow Weed, former Republican political leader in New York State, were published by Weed’s grandson T.W. Barnes. Weed wrote that Lansing had been murdered by several prominent political and social figures who found he was in the way of their projects. Weed was told this by an unnamed individual, who showed him papers to prove it, but begged Weed not to publish these until all the individuals had died. Weed said they were all dead by 1870, but he found that their families were all highly respected, and upon advice of two friends he decided not to reveal the truth because it would hurt innocent people. And that was the last anyone ever heard of a possible resolution to the mystery.
28.3 See also • List of mayors of Albany, New York • List of people who disappeared mysteriously
28.4 Legacy The town of Lansing in New York was named after John Lansing. Lansing, Michigan was named by settlers who came from Lansing, New York.
28.5 Notes [1] “John Lansing, Jr. Manuscripts Collection”. Finding aid to the Lansing collection at the New York State Library. New
York State Library. Retrieved 9 December 2011. [2] http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_ founding_fathers_new_york.html
28.6
Sources
• • John Lansing, Jr. at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Several Bios • Lansing Family Tree • Bio at the NARA • John Lansing, Jr. biography • Edmund Pearson Instigation of the Devil (New York, London: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1930), Chapter XXIII: A Rather Mysterious Chancellor, p. 277-287, 355. • Pauline Maier, Ratification, The People Debate the Constitution 1787-1788, (New York, London, Toronto, Sydney:Simon & Schuster, 2010) p. 35, 47, 90-93, 325-326, 367, 375, 396, 398.
Chapter 29
Robert Yates (politician) Robert Yates (January 27, 1738 – September 9, 1801) was a politician and judge well known for his Anti-Federalist stances. He is also well known as the presumed author of political essays published in 1787 and 1788 under the pseudonyms “Brutus” and “Sydney”. The essays opposed the introduction of the Constitution of the United States.
sequent offices until it ceased operations in 1778. At the same time, he also served as secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners - a post that required him to travel to the frontier.
He learned the craft of the surveyor and then decided to pursue a career in law. After clerking for William Livingston in New York City, in 1760 he was licensed to practice on his own. In 1765, he married Jannette Van Ness and settled in Albany, New York. The couple had six children.
In October 1777, Yates was appointed to the New York State Supreme Court.
Beginning in the spring of 1775, Yates was elected to represent Albany in each of the four New York Provincial Congresses. The first three met in New York, while the last one, convened after the Declaration of Independence, met under duress in locations throughout the Hudson Valley. In 29.1 Biography 1776-77, he served on the committee that drafted the first Robert Yates was born January 27, 1738, in Schenectady, New York State Constitution and also was a member of the New York, the oldest of 12 children of merchant Joseph “Secret Committee for Obstructing Navigation of the Hudson.” Yates and Maria Dunbar.
Surveying supplemented Yates’ attorney’s income as he made a number of important land maps during the 1760s. He drew the first civilian map of Albany in 1770. He also relied on patronage from the Albany Corporation through his uncle, alderman Abraham Yates, Jr. In 1771, he was elected to the Common Council as an alderman for the second ward. In those years he served on a number of committees, provided legal advice, and stepped forward to compile and issue the first published version of the “Laws and Ordinances of the City of Albany” in 1773. From the beginning of the struggle for American independence, although he did not sign the Albany Sons of Liberty constitution of 1766, he was prominent in the local resistance to the Stamp Act. By 1774, he had joined the Albany Committee of Correspondence and stood among its first members when the committee’s activities became public in 1775. At that time, he was still a member of the Albany common council - although its activities were being replaced by the extra-legal Committee of Correspondence, Safety and Protection. He represented the second ward on the committee and was in close contact with it from his sub-
After the war ended, although principally an associate justice of the state Supreme Court, Yates maintained a modest legal practice and continued surveying as well. During the 1780s, his political star continued to rise in the “party” of Governor George Clinton as he spoke in opposition to the expansion of the scope of a national government. In 1787, he was appointed with John Lansing, Jr. and Alexander Hamilton to represent New York at the Philadelphia convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. Arriving in Philadelphia, Yates and Lansing felt the mood of the convention to produce an entirely new form of government was beyond their authority. After sending a letter to Governor Clinton urging opposition to the new Constitution, they returned home. His personal notes from the Philadelphia convention were published in 1821. In 1788, Yates was elected as an antifederalist delegate to the New York State ratifying convention at Poughkeepsie, and worked against adoption of the Constitution. Among the leading antifederalists who attended the Poughkeepsie Convention, he was the most vocal delegate in support of protecting individual liberties.[1] After the Poughkeepsie Convention ratified the Constitution with an accompanying request for amendments to protect individual liberties, Yates pledged his support as a matter of patriotic duty.
127
128
CHAPTER 29. ROBERT YATES (POLITICIAN)
In 1789, he ran for governor against George Clinton with the support of the New York Anti-Federalists - who viewed him as a reasonable, potentially kindred spirit who was not from a wealthy family. He was defeated by Governor Clinton. Approached by the Federalists again in 1792, Yates refused to run citing the financial drain caused by past politicking. In the gubernatorial campaign of 1795, considerable sentiment existed for Yates’s candidacy as he was firmly established in the center of the former antifederal party. John Jay defeated him in a close election, effectively ending Yates’s political career. By then, he already had devoted himself to the law. In September 1790, Yates was chosen Chief Justice of the New York State Supreme Court. He served until the mandatory retirement age of sixty in 1798. Unlike many “new men of the Revolution,” he did not attain great wealth and retired to his middling Albany home.
was necessary to protect the people from the government. He urged the people of New York not to ratify the Constitution and therefore give up powers to the government because “when the people once part with power, they can seldom or never resume it again but by force.” [3] In his view, Americans believe “that all men by nature are free” and the new Constitution requires them to give up too many rights which “counteracts the very end of government.” [4] To alleviate this issue, a bill of rights that considers criminal rights, free elections, and freedom of press must be included. Legislative branch
Powers Brutus writes the Congress possess far too much power, especially over the states. He prefers a true confederation, which would be: a number of independent states entering into a compact, for the conducting certain general He died in Albany, New York on September 9, 1801, at age concerns, in which they have a common interest, leaving the management of their internal and local affairs to their 63.[2] separate governments.”[5] He believes the power to hold a standing army in peacetime as evil and highly dangerous to public liberty.[6] Congress’ 29.2 Brutus unlimited power to collect revenue and to “"borrow money on the credit of the United States” as well as the Necessary 29.2.1 Writings and Proper Clause, are highly dangerous to the states, and Brutus believes they will eventually be dissolved if the ConThe series of writing that most nearly paralleled and con- stitution is adopted. fronted The Federalist Papers during the ratification fight over the United States Constitution was a series of 16 essays published in the New-York Journal, and Weekly Register, Representation Brutus argues that a free republic canwhich published between 1787 and 1790. The essays were not exist in such a large territory as the United States. He published from October, 1787, through April, 1788, during uses the examples of the Greek and Roman republics that the same period The Federalist was appearing in New York became tyrannical as their territory grew.[3] He states that newspapers. The essays were widely reprinted and com- a true free republic comes from the people, not represenmented on throughout the American states. All 16 of the tatives of the people. With the population and geographessays were addressed to “the Citizens of the State of New ical size of the United States, he warns that citizens “will York”. have very little acquaintance with those who may be choThe author of the anti-federalist essay series was “Brutus,” sen to represent them; a great part of them will, probably, a pseudonym for the author. Brutus is believed by many not know the characters of their own members, much less scholars to be the penname of Yates, and named after ei- that of a majority of those who will compose the federal ther Lucius Junius Brutus who led the overthrow of the last assembly; they will consist of men, whose names they have regard for the public Roman King Tarquinius Superbus or Marcus Junius Brutus, never heard, and whose talents and [7] good, they are total strangers to.” He also sees danger in who was one of Julius Caesar's assassins. giving Congress the power to modify the election of its own members.
29.2.2
Arguments against the Constitution
The people’s liberties One of the main objections to the Constitution argued by Brutus is the immense power of the federal government which requires the people to sacrifice their liberties. Like other Anti-Federalist writers, he argued that a bill of rights
Brutus also questions the validity of the Three Fifths Compromise and asks ““If [slaves] have no share in government. why is the number of members in the assembly, to be increased on their account?”[8] He sees this as one example of the corruption of the branch. The fact that each state, regardless of size, will have the same number of senators “is the only feature of any importance in the constitution of a confederated government” and is one of the few as-
29.4. EXTERNAL LINKS pects of the legislature that Brutus approves of (16). He disagrees with the method of electing senators as well as the six year term they are given as he believes spending that much time away from his constituents will make him less in touch with their interests (16). He advocates for a rotation in government to avoid the problem of men serving in the Senate for life. He also objects to Congress taking part in appointing officers and impeachment as it gives them both executive and judicial powers and he deems such blurring of the branches as dangerous (16). Judiciary branch Brutus argues that the power given to the judiciary will: • Extend legislative authority
129
[5] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #5”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [6] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #8”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [7] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #4”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [8] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #3”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [9] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #12”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [10] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #11”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [11] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #15”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22.
• Increase jurisdiction of the courts • Diminish and destroy both the legislative and judiciary powers of the states.[9] He believes that their ability to declare what the powers of the legislature are will lead to extension of legislative power, especially because the Supreme Court can interpret the Constitution according to its “spirit and reason” and will not be bound by its words alone.[9] Like in Britain, this will allow them to “mold the government into almost any shape they please.” [10] Also, their ability to deem the validity of state legislation overrides the state judiciaries and will eventually make them so “trifling and unimportant, as not to be worth having.” [9] He also thinks there should be more checks on the branch and judges should not only be removed on the basis of crime. He writes “no way is left to control them but with a high hand and an outstretched arm.” [11]
29.3 Notes [1] Klein, Milton. “Nature’s Gift; The Colonial Origins of the Bill of Rights in New York” in The Bill of Rights and the states: the colonial and revolutionary origins of American liberties, p. 222 (1992). His uncle Abraham Yates, Jr. was the only other leading antifederalist who spoke out publicly for individual liberties. [2] “Biography of Robert Yates”. Laughtergenealogy.com. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [3] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #1”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22. [4] “Anti-Federalist Papers: Brutus #2”. Constitution.org. Retrieved 2010-03-22.
29.4
External links
• Writings of Brutus scan • Writings of Brutus html • Notes of the Secret Debate of the Federal Convention of 1787, Taken by the Late Hon Robert Yates, Chief Justice of the State of New York, and one of the Delegates from That State to the Said Convention (Washington, D.C.: Templeman, 1886)
Chapter 30
William Blount For other people named William Blount, see William Bertie County, North Carolina.[5]:5 He was the eldest child Blount (disambiguation). of Jacob Blount (1726–1789) and Barbara Gray Blount. The Blounts had gradually risen to prominence in the first half of the 18th century as William’s grandfather and father [2] William Blount (March 26, 1749 – March 21, 1800) was an American statesman and land speculator, and a signer of had steadily built the family fortune. In the years followa plantation, Blount the United States Constitution. He was a member of the ing William’s birth, Jacob Blount built [5]:7 Hall, in Pitt County, North Carolina. North Carolina delegation at the Constitutional Convention of 1787, and led efforts in North Carolina to ratify the Constitution in 1789. He subsequently served as the only governor of the Southwest Territory, and played a leading role in helping the territory gain admission to the Union as the State of Tennessee. He was selected as one of Tennessee’s initial U.S. senators in 1796.[3] Born to a prominent North Carolina family, Blount served as a paymaster during the American Revolutionary War. He was elected to the North Carolina legislature in 1781, where he remained in one role or another for most of the decade, the exception being two terms in the Continental Congress in 1782 and 1786. Blount pushed efforts in the legislature to open the lands west of the Appalachians to settlement. As Governor of the Southwest Territory, he negotiated the Treaty of Holston in 1791, bringing thousands of acres of Blount Hall, childhood home of William Blount Indian lands under U.S. control.[3] An aggressive land speculator, Blount gradually acquired millions of acres in Tennessee and the trans-Appalachian west. His risky land investments left him in debt, and in the 1790s, he conspired with England to seize the Spanishcontrolled Louisiana Territory in hopes of boosting western land prices. When the conspiracy was uncovered in 1797, he was expelled from the Senate, and became the first U.S. public official to face impeachment.[4] Blount nevertheless remained popular in Tennessee, and served in the state senate during the last years of his life.[3]
Outside of tutors, William and his brothers had little formal education, but were involved in their father’s business ventures at a young age. Jacob Blount raised livestock, cotton and tobacco, produced turpentine, and operated a mill and horse racing track for the local community.[5]:7 His land acquisitions, consisting of several thousand acres by the end of the 1760s, taught his sons the profit potential of aggressive land speculation.[5]:11
During the Regulator Movement of the late 1760s and early 1770s, the Blounts remained loyal to the North Carolina government. Jacob Blount, a justice of the peace, furnished Governor William Tryon's army with supplies as it marched 30.1 Early life to defeat the Regulators at the Battle of Alamance in 1771. William Blount, along with his brothers Jacob and John Blount was born on Easter Sunday at Rosefield, the home Gray Blount, were among Tryon’s soldiers, though they saw of his maternal grandfather, John Gray, near Windsor in little action.[5]:17 130
30.3. NORTH CAROLINA POLITICS AND THE CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
131
30.2 American Revolution
olina’s massive tax debt owed to the Confederation.[5]:57–59 Blount left Philadelphia in January 1783, and resigned from As tensions heightened between Britain and the American the Congress three months later to accept an appointment North Carolina House of Commons steering commitcolonies in the 1770s, the Blount family gradually aligned to the [5]:66 tee. themselves with the Patriot cause. In April 1776, Jacob Blount was appointed paymaster of the 2nd North Carolina During the House’s 1783 and 1784 sessions, Blount introRegiment, and William Blount was appointed paymaster duced several bills that would prove critical in the early hisfor the New Bern District militia the following month.[5]:32 tory of what is now Tennessee. One bill, known as the Reading and Thomas Blount accepted commissions in the “Land Grab Act,” opened the state’s lands west of the ApContinental Army. The Blounts provided provisions for palachians (i.e., the parts of Tennessee not under Indian the Colonial army and militias, and would profit both fi- domain) to settlement. One individual who took advannancially and politically from the war.[5]:43 They also be- tage of this act was militia captain James White, who acgan looking westward, with John Gray Blount acquiring a quired a tract of land that would later become Knoxville, portion of Richard Henderson's Transylvania Purchase in Tennessee. Another bill rendered soldiers with at least two mid-1776.[5]:32 years of military service eligible for land grants.[5]:69 Some In December 1776, Blount was appointed paymaster of soldiers used their grants to acquire land in the Tennessee the 3rd North Carolina Regiment, and spent the first few Valley, while others sold their grants to the Blounts and months of 1777 with the unit as it marched north to other land speculators. In 1784, Blount sponsored a bill of Nashville in what was then the Cumjoin George Washington's main forces in the defense of establishing the city [5]:88 berland settlements. [5]:36 Philadelphia. In November 1777, political rivals in the North Carolina legislature removed Blount as paymaster, though he was restored to the office in April 1778.[5]:38 He helped organize regiments for the defense of Charleston, which fell to the British in 1780. William’s brother, Thomas, was captured during its fall.[5]:38 In early 1780, Blount was appointed official commissary to General Horatio Gates, who had arrived in North Carolina to command southern colonial forces.[5]:42 Blount was present at Gates’s defeat at the Battle of Camden in August 1780, and in the confusion of the battle, lost $300,000 of soldiers’ pay.[5]:43
30.3 North Carolina politics and the Continental Congress
In June 1784, Blount sponsored another bill critical to early Tennessee history– a bill calling for North Carolina lands west of the Appalachians (i.e., modern Tennessee) to be ceded to the Continental Congress to satisfy the state’s share of the nation’s tax burden. The bill was hotly contested, but passed by a 52-43 margin.[5]:89 Opponents of the cession gained control of the House and repealed the act in October,[5]:94 but not before a movement by the Tennessee Valley residents to establish a separate state, known as the State of Franklin, had gained momentum. A friend of both North Carolina governor Richard Caswell and Franklinite leader John Sevier, Blount waffled on the Franklin issue for the next four years.[5]:99 In spite of the cession debacle, Blount was elected to the Continental Congress for the 1785 session.[5]:94 As he prepared to depart, however, word came that the Congress had appointed a commission to negotiate a new treaty, eventually known as the Treaty of Hopewell, with the southern tribes. Fearing the new treaty would be unfavorable to North Carolina, Blount, with Governor Caswell’s blessing, headed south in hopes of negotiating a separate treaty for the state. He arrived too late, however, and the Hopewell treaty negotiated by the commissioners returned a sizeable portion of western lands claimed by North Carolina speculators to the Indians. Fearing a backlash back home, Blount merely signed the treaty as a witness.[5]:103–6
In late 1779, Blount ran for the vacant New Bern state House of Commons seat against Richard Dobbs Spaight in a campaign described by Blount’s biographer, William Masterson, as “violent in an age of fierce elections.”[5]:40 Spaight won by a narrow margin, but Blount successfully convinced election officials that voter fraud had occurred, and the election was voided.[5]:41 In the weeks following the Battle of Camden, Blount again ran for the seat, and this time was successful. He took his seat in the House of Commons in In March 1786, Blount hurried to New York to take his seat January 1781. in the Continental Congress, hoping to prevent ratification In May 1782, Blount was elected one of North Car- of the Hopewell treaty, but once again, arrived too late, and olina’s four delegates to the Continental Congress. At the the treaty was ratified.[5]:114 Disappointed, he went home, Congress’s 1782 session, Blount helped defeat a poll tax and but with anger rising over his handling of the Hopewell a liquor tax, and opposed a reduction of the army. He also treaty, he returned to the Continental Congress in Novemagreed to consider a land cession act to satisfy North Car-
132
CHAPTER 30. WILLIAM BLOUNT
ber 1786.[5]:118 In 1787, he was a candidate for president of dinance. On June 8, President George Washington apthe Congress, but Arthur St. Clair was chosen instead.[5]:121 pointed Blount governor of the new territory. Blount visIn March 1787, Blount was chosen as one of five delegates ited Washington at Mount Vernon on September 18, and in by Supreme Court justice James Iredell two to represent North Carolina at the Constitutional Conven- was sworn[5]:182–3 days later. In October 1790, he set up a temporary tion in Philadelphia. Blount arrived at the convention on capital at William Cobb’s house, Rocky Mount, in what is [6] June 20, after debates had already begun. He sent Caswell now Piney Flats, Tennessee, and began organizing a gova copy of the Virginia Plan (in violation of Convention [7] ernment for the new territory. rules), and, expressing pessimism in the Convention’s outcome, he stayed for just a few days before heading to New York to rejoin the Continental Congress in early July.[5]:126 He was present for the Congress’s debate and passage of the Northwest Ordinance, and heard Henry Knox's report recommending a North Carolina land cession.[5]:128 By August 7, however, he had returned to the Convention in Philadelphia for final debates. Still reeling from the fallout from the Hopewell treaty, he was wary of signing the final document, but was finally convinced by Gouverneur Morris to do so.[5]:133 Confident that North Carolina would gain more than it would lose with the new Constitution, Blount returned home to campaign for its ratification. Elected to the North Carolina Senate from Pitt County in 1788 and 1789, Blount and his allies successfully countered attempts by antifederalists Willie Jones and William Lenoir to thwart adoption of the new Constitution, and North Carolina voted for its ratification in November 1789.[5]:147–165 On December 1, the state legislature voted to cede its trans-Appalachian lands to the new federal government. Blount sought one of North Carolina’s inaugural U.S. Senate seats in November 1789, but was defeated by Benjamin Hawkins.[5]:166–7
30.4 Southwest Territory
The western frontiersmen were initially skeptical of Blount, who came across as an aristocratic easterner. Blount managed to gain their trust, however, by recommending John Sevier and James Robertson as brigadier generals of the territorial militia, and appointing Landon Carter, Stockley Donelson and Gilbert Christian as colonels. Former Franklinites appointed to lower government offices included Joseph Hardin, William Cage, James White, Dr. James White and Francis Alexander Ramsey. Others receiving appointments included future president Andrew Jackson, future governor Archibald Roane, and naval officer George Farragut.[5]:189–90 Blount hired his half-brother, Willie Blount, as a personal secretary,[5]:212 and recruited Fayetteville, North Carolina, publisher George Roulstone to establish a newspaper for the new territory, known as the Gazette.[5]:181 In December 1790, following his trip to the Cumberland territories, Blount’s family joined him at Rocky Mount. The following year, he chose James White’s Fort, near the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers, as the territory’s new capital. He named the capital “Knoxville” after his superior, Secretary of War Henry Knox.[5]:208 Following the initial sale of lots in October 1791, he began construction of his mansion in the new city. Throughout his term as governor, Blount was torn between angry western frontiersmen, who demanded war against hostile Indians, and a War Department that consistently pushed for peaceful negotiations with the Indians.[5]:233 In June 1791, he negotiated the Treaty of Holston with Cherokee leader John Watts and several other chiefs, resolving land claims south of the French Broad and obtaining permission for a permanent road between the territory’s eastern settlements and the Cumberland settlements. In spite of this treaty, Chickamauga attacks increased the following year.[5]:203 Frustrated settlers demanded federal troops intervene, but the War Department refused, blaming settlers for intruding on Indian lands.
William Cocke, an ex-Franklinite, blamed Blount for the lack of action against the Chickamaugas, and began publishing attacks against Blount in the Gazette. Blount responded with a series of articles (published Congress accepted North Carolina’s western cession, which under pseudonyms) rejecting Cocke and calling for consisted of what is now Tennessee, on April 2, 1790. In patience.[5]:234–6 Following attacks by the Chickamaugas May, the Southwest Territory was created from the new against Ziegler’s Station in 1792 and against Cavet’s Stacession, and was to be governed under the Northwest OrBlount Mansion, home of William Blount in Knoxville, built in the early 1790s
30.5. BLOUNT CONSPIRACY
133 nessee’s statehood. Blount’s brother, Thomas (then a Congressman from North Carolina), along with James Madison, convinced the house to vote for Tennessee’s admission to the Union on May 6. The Senate voted to admit the new state on May 31.[5]:292–5
30.5
Blount Conspiracy
Throughout the 1780s and 1790s, William Blount and his brothers gradually bought up large amounts of western lands, acquiring over 2.5 million acres by the mid1790s.[5]:298 Much of this land was bought on credit, pushing the family deeply into debt. In 1795, the market for western lands collapsed, and land prices plummeted. A number of land speculators, including Blount associate David Allison, went bankrupt.[5]:301 Blount partnered with Philadelphia physician Nicholas Romayne in an attempt to sell land to English investors, but their efforts were unsuccessful.[5]:300 Compounding Blount’s problems, Timothy Pickering, who despised Blount, replaced Henry Knox as Secretary of War in 1795.[5]:271 Portrait of Blount by Albert Rosenthal
tion in 1793, however, Blount was unable to contain the rage of frontiersmen, and called up the militia. Sevier led the militia south into Georgia, and attacked and destroyed several Chickamauga villages. Knox blasted Blount for the invasion, and refused to issue pay for the militiamen.[5]:236 Blount finally negotiated a truce with the Chickamauga at the Tellico Blockhouse in 1794. Toward the middle of his term, Blount began implementing the steps stipulated in the Northwest Ordinance for a territory to gain statehood. One of these steps was to call for the election of a legislature and submit nominees for appointments to a territorial council, which Blount did in 1794.[5]:263–4 On September 15, 1795, he directed county sheriffs to conduct a census. The census placed the territory’s population at 77,000, substantially more than the 60,000 required for statehood. Blount ordered a state constitutional convention to be held at Knoxville in January 1796, which he personally attended as part of the Knox County delegation.[5]:284–7 The government of the new state, Tennessee, convened in late March 1796, before it had been officially admitted to the Union.[5]:292
Drawing depicting a brawl between congressmen Matthew Lyon and Roger Griswold, which took place at one of Blount’s impeachment hearings in January 1798
Following France’s defeat of Spain in the War of the Pyrenees, land speculators, already on the financial brink, worried that the French would eventually gain control of Spanish-controlled Louisiana, and shut off American access to the Mississippi River.[5]:302 In hopes of preventing this, Blount and his friend, an Indian agent named John Chisholm, concocted a plan to allow Britain to gain control of Florida and Louisiana, and in return give free access to both New Orleans and the Mississippi River to American merchants. The plan called for territorial militias, with the aid of the British fleet, to attack New Madrid, New Orleans and Pensacola.[5]:307
Blount realized he had little chance of defeating Sevier in a race for governor of the new state, so he instead sought one of the state’s two United States Senate seats. He received this appointment (along with William Cocke) on March 30, 1796, and headed to Philadelphia to campaign for Ten- To help carry out the plan, Blount recruited Romayne, who
134 never showed more than lukewarm support for the idea, and a Knoxville merchant named James Carey. Chisholm, meanwhile, sailed to England to recruit British supporters. In April 1797, Carey was at the Tellico Blockhouse near Knoxville when he gave a government agent a letter from Blount outlining the conspiracy. The agent turned the letter over to his superior, Colonel David Henley in Knoxville, and Henley in turn sent it to Pickering (who had since become Secretary of State). Elated at the opporturnity to crush Blount, Pickering turned the letter over to President John Adams.[5]:316
CHAPTER 30. WILLIAM BLOUNT Washington called for swift justice against Blount, and hoped he would be “held in detestation by all good men.”[9] Abigail Adams called the conspiracy a “diabolical plot,”[8] and bemoaned the fact that there was no guillotine in Philadelphia.[5]:318 Pickering argued the conspiracy was part of a greater French plot and accused Thomas Jefferson of being involved. Oliver Wolcott suggested the conspiracy was an attempt to blackmail Spain.[5]:317
30.6
Later life
Determining that the actions of Blount, now a senator from Tennessee, constituted a crime, Adams sent Blount’s letter to the Senate, where it was presented on July 3, 1797, while Blount was out for a walk. When Blount returned, the clerk read the contents of the letter aloud as Blount stood in stunned silence. Vice President Thomas Jefferson asked Blount if he had written the letter. Blount gave an evasive answer and asked that the matter be postponed until the following day, which was granted.[5]:316
While Blount’s national reputation was ruined, he remained popular in Tennessee. Upon his return to Knoxville in September 1797, he was paraded triumphantly through the city by a military procession led by James White and James Stuart. Most of his old Tennessee allies, among them Andrew Jackson, Joseph Anderson, James White, Charles McClung and William C. C. Claiborne, remained loyal, and helped repair his image among locals. Blount, likewise, [5]:325–8 On July 4, Blount refused to return to the Senate, and adopted a staunchly pro-western attitude. merely had fellow Tennessee senator William Cocke read a letter which again requested more time.[5]:319 The Senate rejected this request, and formed an investigative committee. Ordered to testify before the committee, Blount initially attempted to flee by ship to North Carolina, but federal deputies seized the ship and most of his belongings. On July 7, Blount, after consulting with attorneys Alexander Dallas and Jared Ingersoll, testified before the committee, and denied writing the letter. The following day, the House of Representatives voted 41 to 30 to hold impeachment hearings, and the Senate voted 25 to 1 to “sequester” Blount’s seat, effectively expelling him, with Henry Tazewell casting the lone dissenting vote.[5]:321–2 Rather than await trial, Blount posted bail and fled to Tennessee.[5]:323 John Chisholm remained in England in a debtors’ prison for several months, and confessed the entire scheme upon his return. Romayne was arrested and forced to testify before the committee, where he confessed to his part in the conspiracy.[8] The House continued to consider evidence for Blount’s impeachment in early 1798. At one session on January 30, a bizarre brawl erupted between two congressmen, Matthew Lyon and Roger Griswold. Blount’s trial in the Senate took place in January 1799, though Blount refused to attend, in spite of a visit to Knoxville from the Senate sergeant-at-arms.[5]:339 On January 11, 1799, the Senate voted 14 to 11 to dismiss the impeachment, arguing that impeachment did not extend to senators.[8]
Graves of Blount and his wife, Mary, at the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery in Knoxville
In 1798, Congress appointed commissioners to survey the boundary between U.S. and Cherokee lands set by the Treaty of Holston. Concerned the commissioners would run the boundary in a way that favored the Cherokee over the settlers, Blount and Sevier sent agents to harass the commissioners.[5]:335 To further push western interests, they sent representatives to federal treaty negotiations at the Tellico Blockhouse in 1798, frustrating federal negotiators sent by Congress and confusing Cherokee representatives.[5]:337
In his report on the Tellico treaty, one of the commisto thwart The unraveling of the conspiracy destroyed Blount’s repu- sioners, Elisha Hall, accused Blount of trying [5]:337 After the tation at the national level, and touched off a series of ac- the treaty, and Blount sued him for libel. cusations between Federalists and Antifederalists. George suit was thrown out by Judge David Campbell, Blount sought Campbell’s impeachment, calling him a “meddling
30.8. FAMILY blockhead.”[5]:339 In October 1798, William Blount was elected to Knox County’s state senate seat, following James White’s resignation. On December 3, he was named Speaker of the Senate.[5]:339 He spent his first few days in office pushing for Judge Campbell’s impeachment. The House voted to impeach Campbell on December 17, but he was acquitted by the Senate on December 26.[5]:340–1 In March 1800, an epidemic swept through Knoxville, and several members of the Blount family fell ill. Blount was tending to his sick family when he, too, fell ill on March 11.[5]:345 After a 10-day struggle, he succumbed on the night of March 21, 1800. He was buried at the First Presbyterian Church Cemetery a few blocks from his home in Knoxville. His half-brother, Willie, consolidated the family estate and took charge of the education of Blount’s children.[5]:346
30.7 Legacy
135 and is currently a museum operated by the non-profit Blount Mansion Association. The house has been designated a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Blount’s childhood home in Pitt County, North Carolina, Blount Hall, burned down in the 1960s, though a historical marker stands near the site. A life-size bronze statue of Blount is part of the “Signers’ Hall” exhibit at the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia.[14] A plaque in the first floor rotunda of the North Carolina State Capitol honors Blount and the two other North Carolina signers of the Constitution, Richard Dobbs Spaight and Hugh Williamson.[15]
30.8
Family
While the ancestry of the North Carolina Blounts is sketchy, 19th century historian John Hill Wheeler suggested they were among the state’s oldest families, settling in the Pamlico River Valley as early as the 1660s.[16] Blount’s father, Jacob (1726–1789), married Barbara Gray, the daughter of Scottish businessman John Gray, and they had eight children: William, Anne, John Gray, Louisa, Reading, Thomas, and Jacob. After Barbara Gray’s death, Jacob married Hannah Salter, and they had five children, though only two lived to maturity: Willie and Sharpe.[17] Thomas Blount represented North Carolina in the U.S. House of Representatives in the 1790s and 1800s. Willie Blount was governor of Tennessee from 1809 to 1815.
Copy of Acts of the First Congress signed by Blount on display at the East Tennessee History Center in Knoxville
Blount County, Tennessee, is named after Blount, as is the town of Blountville, Tennessee (in Sullivan County). Grainger County, Tennessee, and Maryville, Tennessee, are both named after his wife, Mary Grainger Blount.[10] William Blount High School and Mary Blount Elementary School, both in Blount County, are named after Blount and his wife, respectively. Blount County, Alabama, is named after William’s younger half-brother Willie Blount. Blount Street in Raleigh, North Carolina,[11] and Blount Street in Madison, Wisconsin,[12] are both named in Blount’s honor. Other entities named for Blount include Fort Blount, which operated in Jackson County, Tennessee, in the 1790s, and Blount College, the forerunner of the University of Tennessee, which was founded in Knoxville in 1794.[13] Blount’s home, Blount Mansion, still stands in Knoxville,
William Blount married Mary Grainger in 1778,[10] and they had six children: Ann, Mary Louisa, William Grainger, Richard Blackledge, Barbara and Eliza. William Grainger Blount represented Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1815 to 1819. Mary Louisa Blount was married to Congressman Pleasant Miller, and Barbara Blount was married to General Edmund P. Gaines.[16]
30.9
References
[1] Historical Constitutional Officers of Tennessee, 1796 present, Territory South of the River Ohio, 1790 - 1796. Accessed: 7 September 2012. [2] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Blount, William". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. [3] Terry Weeks, "William Blount,” Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, 2010. Accessed: 10 September 2012. [4] "To Arrest an Impeached Senator.” United States Senate website. Accessed: 10 September 2012.
136
[5] William Masterson, William Blount (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1954). [6] James Madison, Gaillard Hund and James Brown Scott (eds.), Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention (Oxford University Press, 1920). Accessed at the Yale University Avalon Project website, 11 September 2012. [7] Walter Durham, “The Southwest Territory: Progression to Statehood,” Journal of East Tennessee History, Vol. 62 (1990), p. 7. [8] William Eigelsbach, “The Blount Conspiracy: Notes of Samuel Sitgreaves on the Questioning of Dr. Nicholas Romayne On July 13 and 14, 1797, Before the House Impeachment Committee,” Journal of East Tennessee History, Vol. 66 (1994), pp. 81-94. [9] Bernard C. Steiner and James McHenry, The life and correspondence of James McHenry (Cleveland: Burrows Brothers Co., 1907). [10] Mary Rothrock, The French Broad-Holston Country: A History of Knox County, Tennessee (Knoxville, Tenn.: East Tennessee Historical Society, 1972), pp. 380-382. [11] Bob Geary, "Imagine Blount Street. Then Imagine No Role for You,” Independent Weekly, 16 February 2005. Accessed: 12 September 2012. [12] Origins of Madison Street Names. Wisconsin Historical Society, 29 March 2006. Retrieved: 12 September 2012. [13] Milton Klein, "University of Tennessee,” Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, 2010. Accessed: 12 September 2012. [14] National Constitution Center - Founding Fathers. Accessed: 12 September 2012. [15] Touring the State Capitol. Accessed: 12 September 2012. [16] John Hill Wheeler, Reminiscences and Memoris of North Carolina and Eminent North Carolinians (1885), pp. lvii-lxi. [17] Entry for North Carolina Historical Marker F-23: “Blount Hall,” 2008. Accessed: 14 September 2012.
30.10 External links • William Blount at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Blount Mansion • William Blount Papers at the Newberry Library • Some Account of the Life and Services of William Blount – book by General Marcus Wright published in 1884; includes extensive information on the Blount Conspiracy
CHAPTER 30. WILLIAM BLOUNT
Chapter 31
William Richardson Davie “William Davie” redirects here. William Davie (disambiguation).
For other uses, see olina after marching as far south as Camden, South Carolina.
William Richardson Davie (June 20, 1756 – November 29, 1820) was a military officer and the tenth Governor of North Carolina from 1798 to 1799, as well as one of the most important men involved in the founding of the University of North Carolina. He was a member of the Federalist Party and is a "Founding Father of the United States.”
31.1 Early life Davie was born in England, but immigrated to the American colonies in 1763, when his father, Archibald Davie, brought him to the Waxhaw region near Lancaster, South Carolina (later thought to be where Andrew Jackson was born). He was named for his maternal uncle, William Richardson, a prominent Presbyterian minister in South Carolina, although not adopted by him. However, when Richardson died, Davie inherited 150 acres of his land as well as a large library. As an adolescent, Davie studied at Queen’s Museum, later Liberty Hall, in Charlotte, then matriculated to the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), from which he graduated with honors in 1776.
31.2 Revolutionary War After leaving New Jersey, Davie began to study law in Salisbury, North Carolina, under Spruce Macay (pronounced "Muh-coy"), who would later provide Andrew Jackson with his own legal training. In December 1778, Davie left Salisbury to join 1,200 militiamen led by Brigadier General Allen Jones of Northampton County, NC. Jones’s force advanced toward Charleston, South Carolina, with intentions to aid the port city as it prepared its defenses against possible British assault. That threat receded, so Davie and the rest of Jones’s men returned to North Car-
Davie resumed his studies in Salisbury, but in the spring of 1779, he closed his law books again to reenter military service. This time, though, Davie did not volunteer for an existing force; he helped to raise and train a local cavalry troop. For his work in forming “a Company of Horse in the District of Salisbury,” he received a lieutenant’s commission in April from North Carolina Governor Richard Caswell. Davie did not remain in that junior rank for long. In May 1779, he and his company were attached to the legion of General Casimir Pułaski, who earlier in the year had moved from Pennsylvania to South Carolina to help bolster American positions in and around Charleston. Promoted to the rank of major under Pulaski, Davie assumed command of a brigade of cavalry. On June 20, 1779, just two days shy of his twenty-third birthday, Davie led a charge against British forces at the Battle of Stono Ferry outside Charleston. He suffered a serious wound to his thigh in that engagement, fell from his horse, and narrowly escaped capture. While convalescing from his injuries, Davie resumed his legal studies back in Salisbury. He was presented an honorary sword by the citizenry for his exemplary conduct and courage. Soon he completed or “stood” his examinations and in November 1779 obtained a license to practice law in South Carolina. In the late spring and summer of the following year, Davie, now fully recovered, again formed an independent company of cavalry. He led that mounted force in several actions during the summer of 1780. Shortly after the Battle of Hanging Rock, Davie received word of a new army moving into South Carolina under General Horatio Gates. At the Battle of Camden on August 16, 1780 Gates was soundly defeated. While the Continentals fought hard, his militia largely fled without much if any of a fight. Gates and what remained of his army fell back into North Carolina. Davie narrowly missed the battle. Instead of retreating north along with Gates and the remnants of the American army, Davie moved south towards the enemy and Camden to recover supply wagons and gather intelligence on enemy movements. In the time between Camden
137
138
CHAPTER 31. WILLIAM RICHARDSON DAVIE counter the certain return of Cornwallis to North Carolina. Davie’s leadership skills and knowledge of the region’s terrain and inhabitants impressed Greene, who in January 1781 persuaded the experienced cavalry officer to relinquish his field command so that he could serve as the army’s commissary-general. In that position Davie spent the final stages of the war carrying out the crucial but often thankless tasks of locating, organizing, and transporting supplies often using his own funds for General Greene’s ever-needy troops, as well as for North Carolina’s militia.
31.3
Posthumous portrait of Davie by Charles Willson Peale
Post-war service
After the war, Davie rose to prominence in North Carolina as a traveling circuit court lawyer and orator. He was elected to the North Carolina House of Commons on multiple occasions from 1786 through 1798. He served as a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787 (leaving before he could sign the document) and argued for its passage at the North Carolina State Conventions in 1788 and 1789.
and the Battle of Kings Mountain, in October 1780, Davie’s Davie served as Grand Master of the North Carolina Grand cavalry was the only unbroken corps between the British Lodge[1]of Ancient Free and Accepted Masons from 1792 to 1798. army and what was left of the Continental forces. Davie’s most audacious action as a cavalry officer came at Davie was elected governor of North Carolina by the North the Battle of Charlotte on September 26, 1780. Ordered Carolina General Assembly in 1798. During his administo cover the American army retreat and hinder the British tration, the state settled boundary disputes with South Carinvasion of North Carolina, Davie, now a colonel, and 150 olina and Tennessee to the west. He resigned as the state’s of his mounted militia set up defense in what was then the chief executive when President John Adams enlisted him small village of Charlotte, North Carolina. He dismounted in 1799 to serve on a peace commission to France, where several of his men and had them take station behind a stone bilateral negotiations resulted in the Convention of 1800. wall at the summit of a hill in the center of town. Other dismounted soldiers where scattered on the flanks with a reserve of cavalry. At about noon, the British army under General Lord Cornwallis appeared. Cornwallis’ forces numbered at least 2,000 Redcoats and loyalists. After three charges of British cavalry and infantry moving on his right flank, Davie and his men retreated northward. Cornwallis subsequently occupied Charlotte, but he remained there less than two weeks, withdrawing his forces from the “hornets nest” after receiving news of the defeat of Loyalist forces by backcountry militia at the Battle of Kings Mountain on October 7, 1780. As Cornwallis’s army marched back toward South Carolina, Davie directed his men to shadow and skirmish with enemy units and to disrupt and intercept their communications. Davie’s military service in the Revolution changed dramatically after December 1780, when General Nathanael Greene arrived in North Carolina to take command of the American army in the “Southern Department.” Headquartered in Charlotte, Greene desperately needed more provisions and equipment for his soldiers as he prepared to
Davie remained active in the state militia and in the newly formed United States Army. He served in the state militia during the 1797 crisis with France (immediately preceding the Quasi-War) and was appointed brigadier general in the Army by President Adams. After his return to North Carolina, Davie continued to be active in Federalist politics. He ran unsuccessfully for the United States House of Representatives against Willis Alston in the 1804 election. (Alston, elected as a Federalist in 1798, joined the Democratic-Republican Party during the Jefferson administration).
31.4
Founding the University of North Carolina
As a member of the North Carolina General Assembly, Davie sponsored the bill that chartered the University of North Carolina. Davie laid the cornerstone of the university in October 1793 in a full Masonic ceremony[2] as he was
31.6. SOURCES
139 Ransom Johnson, a native of North Carolina who was known in American racing circles as “The Napoleon of the Turf.” The horse, "Sir Archy,” cost Davie the thenstaggering sum of $5,000. That price reflected the horse’s greatness and his promise as one of the foundation sires in American racing. Nearly a century and a half later, in 1955, as further testament to Sir Archy’s standing, the stallion was among the first class of horses inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame in Saratoga Springs, New York.
Davie (at right wearing masonic apron) laying the cornerstone of Old East, the oldest building on the campus of the University of North Carolina.
Davie died at his Tivoli estate in 1820. He was preceded in death by his wife, the former Sarah Jones, whom he married in 1782. Davie is buried at Old Waxhaw Presbyterian Church in South Carolina. Sarah, who died at the age of 39 in 1802, is buried in the Old Colonial Cemetery in Halifax, North Carolina, and was the daughter of Allen Jones.
Davie County, North Carolina,[4] established in 1836, is named in his memory, as are schools in Davie County the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of North Carolina at and Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina, and a park in the time.[1] He is recognized as the university’s founder and Mecklenburg County, North Carolina. His Tivoli planserved on its board of trustees from 1789 to 1807. Davie tation is now part of the Landsford Canal State Park in also received the institution’s first honorary degree in 1811, Chester County, South Carolina. an LL.D., and was given the title “Father of the University.” The "Davie Poplar" tree on the campus is, as legend has it, The William R. Davie House at Halifax was listed on the [5] where Davie tied his horse in the late 1790s to pick out the National Register of Historic Places in 1973. site for the state’s first university. A portrait of Davie hangs in the chambers of the Dialectic Society, the oldest student 31.6 Sources organization at the university. In October, 2013 the sword and pocket watch of William Richardson Davie, a Mason who is considered the founder of the University, were displayed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill as part of the commemoration celebrating the role of Freemasons in the establishment of the first public university in the United States.[3]
31.5 Later life After his unsuccessful run for the House of Representatives Davie retired from public life to his estate, Tivoli, in South Carolina. During the 1812 presidential election, Virginia Federalists who refused to support the candidacy of dissident Democratic-Republican DeWitt Clinton against incumbent Democratic-Republican James Madison nominated presidential electors pledged to Rufus King for president and Davie for vice president. This Federalist slate was defeated by a wide margin ). During the War of 1812, Davie served in the army as well, but declined an offer from President James Madison to command the American forces. Davie was keenly interested in thoroughbred horses. In 1809, he purchased a champion race horse from William
[1] “Officers of the Grand Lodge, A.F. & A.M. of North Carolina, the first 100 years”. Raleigh, North Carolina, USA: Grand Lodge of North Carolina. Archived from the original on 2010-12-15. Retrieved 2011-01-18. [2] Wheeler, John H. (1851). Historical sketches of North Carolina [from 1584 to 1851, compiled from original records, official documents and traditional statements ; with biographical sketches of her distinguished statesmen, jurists, lawyers, soldiers, divines, etc.] (GOOGLE E-BOOK) 1 (1 ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincot, Grambo, & Co. p. 117. Retrieved 2011-01-22. [3] . University of North Carolina Library. October 2013 http://blogs.lib.unc.edu/news/index.php/2013/10/ north-carolinas-freemasons-and-the-cornerstones-of-unc/. Missing or empty |title= (help) [4] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Off. p. 101. [5] “National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2010-07-09.
• William Richardson Davie: Soldier, Statesman, and Founder of the University of North Carolina, R. Neil Fulghum. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill: The North Carolina Collection, 2006.
140
CHAPTER 31. WILLIAM RICHARDSON DAVIE
• Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 1789-1978, Robert Sobel and John Raimo, eds. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, 1978. (ISBN 0930466-00-4) • “Finding a forgotten Founding Father,” Charlotte Observer, June 21, 2006. • University of Groningen biography • “Political Career of William R. Davie”. Our Campaigns.com. Retrieved 2006. • William R. Davie, Blackwell P. Robinson. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1957.
Chapter 32
Alexander Martin For other people named Alexander Martin, see Alexander 32.2.1 Military service Martin (disambiguation). By 1774, Martin had become judge of the Salisbury district. When the American Revolution began, he served as Alexander Martin (1740 – November 10, 1807) was the a colonel in Richard Caswell’s militia in North Carolina. fourth and seventh Governor of the U.S. state of North CarAfter Martin’s promotion to colonel, his regiment joined olina from 1782 to 1784 and from 1789 to 1792. George Washington’s army. In October 1777, at the Battle of Germantown, thick fog caused Martin and the soldiers under his command to mistake British troops for Continen32.1 Early life tal soldiers. After this debacle, Martin faced a court-martial for cowardice. Though not convicted, Martin resigned from Born in New Jersey in 1738, to James Hugh Martin and Jane the army due to stress and poor health. Hunter of Ireland, Governor Alexander Martin was a North Carolinian politician and delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention. Aside from his role in the Constitutional 32.2.2 Political service Convention, Martin witnessed several significant chapters in colonial and early U.S. history, including the Regulator In 1778, while still recuperating from his military service, Rebellion, the Revolutionary War, and the North Carolina Martin was elected to the North Carolina Senate. His tenure in the Senate was eventful: he served as president of the ratification debates. Senate’s Board of War and in 1781 became acting goverMartin held bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Princeton nor of North Carolina when the sitting governor, Thomas University (then called the College of New Jersey), mak- Burke, was kidnapped by Tories. In 1782, the General Asing him one of the most erudite delegates to the Constitu- sembly elected Martin governor of North Carolina. While tional Convention. After graduating from Princeton, Mar- the cessation of hostilities had eliminated the gravest threat tin moved to Salisbury, North Carolina. There he worked to North Carolina, the end of the Revolution posed many first as a merchant and later as an attorney. As his le- challenges, the most pressing of which was the question of gal career took shape, the Regulator Rebellion began. On how to treat Tory and Loyalist property. Martin resisted September 24, 1770, a bevy of angry Regulators took over popular pressure to confiscate and redistribute this propthe Hillsboro Court. When their demonstration spilled onto erty, instead advocating its return to all except for North the streets of Hillsboro, several lawyers, including Mar- Carolina’s more infamous Tories. tin, who likely was serving as a justice of the peace, were whipped and beaten. Governor Alexander Martin is a direct descendant of the 32.3 Constitutional conventions Sir Martin de Tours, Lord Combe Martin, Devon, England, Lord Kemys,Pembrokeshire, Wales who was a leading gen- After Martin’s gubernatorial term ended, he returned to the eral officer in the Battle of Hastings of 1066 for William General Assembly, where he soon became speaker of the the Conqueror.[1] Senate. In 1787, the General Assembly elected him delegate to the Federal Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, where the difficulties of the U.S. government under the Articles of Confederation would be weighed. Martin 32.2 American Revolution arrived in Philadelphia before the start of the convention 141
142
CHAPTER 32. ALEXANDER MARTIN
and stayed until late August, a few weeks before the conven- 32.5.1 Bibliography tion’s close. He played little public role in the debates there, • Charles Beard, An Economic Interpretation of the and he was not appointed to any of the convention’s comConstitution of the United States (Mineola, New York, mittees. He seconded several minor motions, none of which 2004) profoundly affected the course of the convention. Because Martin left the Federal Convention early, he did not sign the • David F. Burg, A World History of Tax Rebellions Constitution. (New York, 2004) In 1788, Martin sought election to the Hillsborough Consti• Carol Berkin, A Brilliant Solution: Inventing the tutional Convention, where North Carolina would consider American Constitution (New York, 2003) ratifying the Constitution. A proponent of the Federal Constitution, Martin was helpless in the face of a wave of Anti• Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Federalist sentiment in North Carolina. Delegates were seRevolution. New York: Facts on File, 1993. ISBN lected county by county, and Martin, who lived in the pre0-8160-2107-4. dominantly Anti-Federalist Guilford County, ran at a disadvantage. His opponent in the election - the Anti-Federalist • Charles D. Rodenbough, Governor Alexander Martin Presbyterian minister David Caldwell - won a seat, as did (Jefferson, North Carolina, 2004) four of his congregation. Martin was the only delegate to • Charles D. Rodenbough, “Martin, Alexander,” in Dicthe Federal Convention who sought election to a state contionary of North Carolina Biography, ed. Charles S. vention and lost. Powell (Chapel Hill, 1991)
32.4 Later political career Martin’s failure in Guilford County did not reflect any loss of popularity in the General Assembly. He was again elected governor in 1789 and held the office until 1792, when he reached the office’s term limit. During his second gubernatorial tenure, a permanent seat of North Carolina government, named Raleigh, was founded in Wake County. Moreover, Martin effected the establishment of the University of North Carolina in 1789. Immediately after Martin left the governor’s seat, he joined the U.S. Senate. His legislative record in the 1790s indicates that Martin’s political views were nuanced. Though he had supported the ratification of the Federal Constitution and had always run for election as a Federalist, he repeatedly voted against the Federalists in the 1790s. His convictions appear to have become more Federalist in the midst of the XYZ affair, and he voted for all of the Alien and Sedition Acts. In 1799, Martin, having lost the support of North Carolina Federalists, was voted out of the Senate. He returned to the North Carolina General Assembly in 1804, and in 1805 again became Speaker of the North Carolina Senate. He died in 1807.
32.5 References [1] http://societyofsirmartindetours.tribalpages.com/tribe/ browse?userid=societyofsirmartindetours&view=0&pid= 223&randi=699319686
• Sobel, Robert and John Raimo, eds. Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States, 17891978. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, 1978. ISBN 0-930466-00-4. • John R. Vile, The Constitutional Convention: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of America’s Founding (Santa Barbara, 2005). • Williams, Max R. “Martin, Alexander"; American National Biography Online, February 2000. • Alexander Martin at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress As a direct descendant of Sire Guillaume Martin de Tours, Baron 1020-1094, Alexander Martin, is an honorary member of the Society of Sire Guillaume Martin de Tours, Baron [1] [1] http://societyofsirmartindetours.tribalpages.com/tribe/ browse?userid=societyofsirmartindetours&pid=482& bpid=$-$1&bview=0&view=0&ccpid=482&rand= 315615029
Chapter 33
Richard Dobbs Spaight Richard Dobbs Spaight (March 25, 1758 – September 6, voted not to ratify the United States Constitution, although 1802) was the eighth Governor of the American State of Spaight himself supported ratification. North Carolina from 1792 to 1795. Spaight retired from politics for several years due to ill health; he returned to the state House of Representatives in 1792. Also in 1792, he was elected the first native-born governor of North Carolina,[1] and later re-elected by the 33.1 Early life General Assembly for two further one-year terms. Spaight was born in New Bern, North Carolina, the son of the Secretary of the Crown in the colony. Orphaned at the age of eight, Spaight was sent to attend school in Ireland and later graduated from the University of Glasgow.
During Spaight’s term as governor, sites were chosen for the new state capital of Raleigh and the newly chartered University of North Carolina. Spaight served as chair of the university’s Board of Trustees during his term as governor. Spaight stepped down as governor in 1795, having served the constitutional limit of three one-year terms.
33.2 Revolutionary War
Spaight was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1798, filling the unexpired term of Nathan Bryan; In 1778, Spaight returned to North Carolina and served as he was elected to a two-year term in 1799, serving until an aide to General Richard Caswell during the American 1801, and though elected as a Federalist, his views on states rights led him to become associated with the DemocraticRevolutionary War until 1781. Republican party of Thomas Jefferson. He lost his bid for re-election to Congress, but returned to state government, serving in the North Carolina Senate beginning in 1801.
33.3 Political career
The General Assembly elected Spaight a delegate to the Continental Congress between 1782 and 1785; he then served in the North Carolina House of Commons from 1785 to 1787, and was named Speaker of the House. In 1787, Spaight was a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention that drafted the U.S. Constitution, and he signed the document when he was only 29 years old. On 24 March 1788, Spaight married Mary Leach; Mary had the distinction of being the first lady to dance with George Washington at a ball in Washington’s honor at Tryon Palace in New Bern in 1791. Under the North Carolina Constitution of 1776, Spaight was nominated for Governor in 1787, but was defeated by a majority in the General Assembly; he was nominated for the United States Senate in 1789 and was again defeated. In 1788, he was a member of the state convention which
33.4
Death
Spaight died on September 6, 1802,following injuries sustained in a duel with John Stanly, the Federalist Congressman who had defeated him in the election of 1800 for the House of Representatives. Spaight is buried in his home town New Bern.
33.5
Family and Legacy
Spaight’s son Richard Dobbs Spaight, Jr., also became Governor of North Carolina, in 1835. His grandson, Richard Spaight Donnell, was a Congressional Representative.
143
144 Spaight Street in central Madison, Wisconsin is named in honor of Richard Spaight. Most of the main streets in downtown Madison are named after signers of the United States Constitution.
33.6 Sources [1] “September 1802 - Spaight-Stanly Duel”. Retrieved 23 October 2012.
• Richard Dobbs Spaight at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Biographical Directory of the Governors of the United States,, and John Raimo, eds. Westport, CT: Meckler Books, 1978. (ISBN) • Sketch of the life of Richard Dobbs Spaight, by John H. Wheeler, 1880. (retrieved 09-20-2010)
33.7 External links • A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787-1824 For Votes cast in Federal, State and Local elections in the Early Republic.
CHAPTER 33. RICHARD DOBBS SPAIGHT
Chapter 34
Hugh Williamson This article is about American politician. For other uses, genial scholar into an adroit politician and a determined see Hugh Williamson (disambiguation). leader in the campaign for effective national government. Hugh Williamson (December 5, 1735–May 22, 1819) This leadership was evident not only at the Convention in Philadelphia but also, with telling effect, during the ratification debates in North Carolina. Williamson’s career demonstrates the rootlessness that characterized the lives of many Americans even in the 18th century. Born on the frontier, he lived for significant periods of his long life in three different regions of the country. This mobility undoubtedly contributed to the development of his nationalistic outlook, an outlook strengthened by wartime service with interstate military forces and reinforced by the interests of the planters and merchants that formed his North Carolina constituency. These experiences convinced him that only a strong central government could adequately protect and foster the political, economic, and intellectual future of the new nation.
34.1
Hugh Williamson
was an American politician. He is best known as a signatory to the U.S. Constitution, and for representing North Carolina at the Constitutional Convention.
Early years
Williamson was born in West Nottingham Township, in what was then the frontier region of Pennsylvania. His fragile health as a youth weighed against his beginning a career in the family’s clothier business. His parents instead sent him to a private academy and, in 1754, to the College of Philadelphia (today’s University of Pennsylvania). Williamson graduated in the school’s first class,[1] on May 17, 1757,[2] five days before his father died. [3] After teaching Spanish in Philadelphia Academy, Williamson moved to Connecticut and obtained a preacher’s license but factional disputes among the local clergy and a resurgence of ill health led him to abandon a career in the ministry. Upon completing a bachelor’s degree at Penn in 1760, Williamson joined his alma mater’s faculty as a professor of mathematics.
Williamson was a scholar of international renown. His erudition had brought him into contact with some of the leading intellectuals of the Patriot cause and, in turn, with the ferment of political ideas that eventually found expression in the Constitution. During the American Revolution, Williamson contributed his talents as physician and natu- In another career shift four years later, Williamson turned ral scientist to the American war effort. His experiences to the study of medicine. In 1764 he matriculated at the in that preeminent event of his generation transformed the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands[4] and received his 145
146 Medical Decree on this University August 6, 1764.[5][6][7] He returned to Philadelphia to open a private practice. At the same time, he pursued a number of independent scientific and educational projects, and his work in these areas eventually led to membership in the American Philosophical Society as well as acclaim in Europe’s intellectual circles. Interest in science and education indirectly led Williamson to politics and the Patriot cause. Sailing for England in 1773 to raise funds for a local educational project, Williamson stopped on route at Boston. There he witnessed the famous Boston Tea Party, in which Patriots dressed as American Indians destroyed a cargo of tea in protest over a newly enforced Parliamentary tax on imported commodities. On reaching London he was summoned before the Privy Council to testify on this act of rebellion and on colonial affairs in general. Williamson came of age politically during this encounter. In response to questions by Council members, who were in the process of formulating punitive measures against Massachusetts, he bluntly warned that repression would provoke rebellion. He then went on to express the argument that was becoming the core of the Patriot position: Americans were entitled to the full rights of Englishmen, including representation in the decisions of the English government. This testimony brought him to the attention of other Americans in London. A mutual interest in scientific matters cemented a solid working relationship with Benjamin Franklin, and Williamson soon found himself joined with the famous American scientist and others in appealing for support among those Englishmen who, in opposition to their own government, sympathized with American claims. Williamson continued on to the Netherlands where, taking advantage of the cover afforded by his attendance at meetings on scientific and educational subjects, he organized the publication of pamphlets and other papers that supported the Patriot cause. While there he learned that the colonies had declared their independence. After his execution at sea, he rushed back to Philadelphia in early 1777 and volunteered for service in the Medical Department of the Continental Army. The Department had no opening at that time, so Williamson decided to form a partnership with a younger brother to import medicines and other scarce items from the West Indies through the British blockade. Believing that he could best contribute to the war effort by using his contacts and reputation in this manner, Williamson made Edenton, North Carolina, his base of operations. Settlement in North Carolina soon led to his establishing a medical practice to serve the planters and merchants of the region.
CHAPTER 34. HUGH WILLIAMSON
34.2
Military physician
These various activities brought Williamson to the attention of North Carolina’s political leaders. Facing the threat of a British invasion of the region from the sea and bases in Florida, the state legislature voted to raise a force of 4,000 men to assist South Carolina. When Governor Richard Caswell, with the rank of major general, took to the field at the head of these citizen-soldiers, he named Williamson to serve as the state’s Physician and Surgeon General, a post Williamson held until the end of the war. The capture of Charleston, South Carolina in 1780 not only marked a stunning defeat for American forces, but also signaled the end of the first phase in a new British war strategy. Under this strategy British forces would continue to tie down Washington’s main army in the north while a Royal army under General Charles Cornwallis would advance northward. Using Savannah, Georgia and Charleston as their bases of operations, the British expected their regular units to push through North Carolina and Virginia while a militia composed of local Loyalists secured areas captured by the regular forces. If successful, this strategy would have led to the conquest of the colonies from the south. To counter Cornwallis’ efforts, the Continental Congress sent Horatio Gates to command a small force composed of a division of continentals, Caswell’s units from North Carolina, and a group of hastily assembled Virginia militia units. Gates attempted to attack the British advance base near Camden, South Carolina, but his tired militia units, which were still forming when the battle began, were routed, and the Americans suffered another defeat. Williamson, who witnessed the disaster, volunteered to pass behind enemy lines to care for the American wounded. He spent two months on this mercy mission. When smallpox threatened the prison camp, he argued strenuously with Cornwallis and other British officers over the proper method to combat the disease. His perseverance and scientific reputation paid off. The British followed his advice, and an epidemic was averted. In the fall of 1780 Williamson returned to the field. Major General Nathanael Greene, Gates’ replacement, had begun his brilliant campaign to recover the south through the joint efforts of continentals and militia. While his main force engaged the British in a series of battles, the militiamen concentrated on picking off small outposts and isolated enemy parties. Francis Marion, nicknamed “Swamp Fox”, and others who operated mainly in South Carolina are most remembered for this type of guerrilla warfare, but North Carolina units also adopted these tactics. Williamson was attached to a force under Brigadier General Isaac Gregory whose mission was to limit British activity in eastern North Carolina. Gregory established his base in the vast
34.3. STATESMAN reaches of the Dismal Swamp where he could pin the British down in Wilmington without jeopardizing his small force. Williamson’s bold innovations in preventive medicine, especially his strenuous efforts to indoctrinate raw troops in the importance of sanitation and diet, kept the command virtually free of disease during the six months that it inhabited the swamp-—a rare feat in 18th-century warfare.
34.3 Statesman In 1782 Williamson’s neighbors elected him to the lower house of the North Carolina legislature, where he served for several terms. He sat on numerous committees, including those formed to regulate veterans’ rights, and he authored the state’s copyright law. His fellow legislators also chose Williamson to serve in the Continental Congress in 1782. Appointment to this national body represented a natural political progression for Williamson, who was evolving into a champion of federalism. His experiences during the Revolution, especially his exposure to the pressing need for interstate cooperation during the 1780 and 1781 campaigns in the Carolinas, had convinced him of the military importance of strong national government. This interest increased when he came to realize the economic benefits that might accrue from binding interstate association. In 1786 North Carolina chose Williamson to attend the Annapolis Convention, a meeting called to settle economic questions affecting the middle Atlantic states. Although he arrived too late to play a role in the Maryland proceedings, he was prepared to discuss interstate issues the following year when his state appointed him as a representative at the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. Williamson, a faithful attendee at Convention sessions, lodged with Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, two of the country’s best-known nationalist leaders. His intellectual stature and international background also propelled him into a leadership role in the North Carolina delegation. A capacity for hard work and his innate good humor made him invaluable to the Federalists as they worked out the many political compromises necessary for consensus on the new instrument of government. On 11 July 1787, Williamson proposed the three fifths compromise. It failed to pass (4:6), but a substantially similar motion was passed two days later.
147 explained to both groups the dual dangers of inflationary finances and of taxes that would stunt the growth of domestic manufacture. He exhorted North Carolinians to support the Constitution as the basis for their future prosperity. The ratification process, he explained, would decide whether the United States would remain a “system of patchwork and a series of expedients” or become “the most flourishing, independent, and happy nation on the face of the earth.” Following adjournment in Philadelphia, Williamson returned to New York to participate in the closing sessions of the Continental Congress and to serve as one of the agents settling North Carolina’s accounts with that body. These duties caused him to miss the Hillsboro Convention, where North Carolina first considered and rejected the Constitution, but he played a major role at a second convention that met in Fayetteville in 1789. Here he participated in a successful effort to rally support for the Constitution.
Williamson’s grave at Trinity Church Cemetery.
Williamson’s neighbors elected him to represent them in the first federal Congress. He served two terms before retiring and settling in New York City, where he continued to pursue a wide range of scholarly interests. He wrote extensively about his research, joined numerous learned societies, and contributed to many charities. He also served as one of the original trustees of the University of North Carolina.
Thomas Jefferson described Williamson’s role at the Philadelphia Convention in the following terms: “he was a useful member, of an acute mind, attentive to business, Shortly before the Convention adjourned, Williamson and of an high degree of erudition.” wrote a series of public letters in defense of a strong fed- Williamson married Maria Apthorpe in January 1789 and eral system. These “Letters of Sylvius” addressed many of was stabbed to death in New York City in 1819. They had the practical concerns of his state, where the rural and fre- two sons, both of whom died young (the older one at the age quently debt-ridden farmers favored minimal government of 22 in 1811, the younger, shortly thereafter, according to regulations, while the mercantile-planter group from the Hosack’s Memoir of Hugh Williamson). Williamson was a seaboard region wanted an economy strictly regulated by Presbyterian,[8] though some sources have identified him as a central government. Using simple examples, Williamson a Deist.[9]
148
34.4 Places named for him • Williamson County, Illinois • Williamson County, Tennessee
34.5 Honors and Memberships Williamson was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1813.[10]
34.6 References [1] http://www.archives.upenn.edu/people/1700s/williamson_ hugh.html [2] http://www.springerlink.com/content/k136k281320t8735/ [3] http://files.usgwarchives.net/pa/cumberland/wills/ willbka-b.txt [4] Album Studiosorum Academiae Rheno-Traiectinae MDCXXXVI-MDCCCLXXVI, kol. 162. [5] Album Promotorum Academiae Rheno-Trajectinae 16361815, p. 177. [6] English-speaking students of medicine at the University of Leyden / R.W. Innes Smith. - Edinburg/London : Oliver and Boyd, 1932, p. 250. [7] Kaiser, Leon M. Contributions to a census of American Latin Prose, 1634-1800 - In: Humanistica Lovaniesia : Journal of Neo-Latin Studies, Vol. 31, 1982, p. 179. [8] http://www.adherents.com/people/pw/Hugh_Williamson. html [9] Deism and Social Ethics: The Role of Religion in the Third Millennium - Page 67, Robert Corfe - 2007 [10] American Antiquarian Society Members Directory
• Text of original article from U.S. Army public domain website • A Biographical Memoir of Hugh Williamson by David Hosack available on Google Books
34.7 External links • Hugh Williamson at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
CHAPTER 34. HUGH WILLIAMSON
Chapter 35
George Clymer 35.1.2
For other uses, see George Clymer (disambiguation). George Clymer (March 16, 1739 – January 23, 1813) was an American politician and founding father. He was one of the first Patriots to advocate complete independence from Britain. As a Pennsylvania representative, Clymer was, along with five others, a signatory of both the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. He attended the Continental Congress, and served in political office until the end of his life.
35.1 Biography 35.1.1
Early life and family
Clymer was born in Philadelphia on 16 March 1739. Orphaned when only a year old, he was apprenticed to his maternal aunt and uncle,[1] Hannah and William Coleman, to prepare to become a merchant. It is now a matter of public record that before he married Elizabeth Meredith on March 22, 1765 he had at least one other child that has gone unnoticed by previous historians. In Mr.Jerry Grunfest’s, doctoral dissertation for Columbia University; which was later was published as “George Clymer, Philadelphia Revolutionary 1739 to 1813;" published in 1973; Located on page 32 and 33 Mr.Grundfest recites a letter written by George Clymer to the rector of Christ Church, the Reverend Richard Peter’s stating the existence of this child. It does not state the child nor mothers name but nonetheless there is at least one other child of George Clymer and the possibility of more. George Clymer and Elizabeth Meredith had nine children, four of whom died in infancy. His oldest surviving son Henry (born 1767) married the Philadelphia socialite Mary Willing Clymer in 1794. John Meredith, Margaret, George, and Ann also survived to adulthood, though John Meredith was killed in the Whiskey Rebellion in 1787 at the age of 18.[2]
Career
Clymer was a patriot and leader in the demonstrations in Philadelphia resulting from the Tea Act and the Stamp Act. He became a member of the Philadelphia Committee of Safety in 1773, and was elected to the Continental Congress 1776–1780. Clymer shared the responsibility of being treasurer of the Continental Congress with Michael Hillegas, later the first Treasurer of the United States. He served ably on several committees during his first congressional term and was sent with Sampson Mathews to inspect the northern army on behalf of Congress in the fall of 1776.[3] When Congress fled Philadelphia in the face of Sir Henry Clinton's threatened occupation, Clymer stayed behind with George Walton and Robert Morris. Clymer’s business ventures during and after war served to increase his wealth. In 1779 and 1780 Clymer and his son Meredith engaged in a lucrative trade with St. Eustatius.
Summerseat, Clymer’s home
He resigned from Congress in 1777, and in 1780 was elected to a seat in the Pennsylvania Legislature. In 1782, he was sent on a tour of the southern states in a vain attempt to get the legislatures to pay up on subscriptions due to the central government. He was reelected to the Pennsylvania legislature in 1784, and represented his state at the
149
150 Constitutional Convention in 1787. He was elected to the first U.S. Congress in 1789. He was the first president of the Philadelphia Bank, and the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, and vice-president of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society. When Congress passed a bill imposing a duty on spirits distilled in the United States in 1791, Clymer was placed as head of the excise department, in the state of Pennsylvania. He was also one of the commissioners to negotiate a treaty with the Creek Indian confederacy at Coleraine, Georgia on June 29, 1796. He is considered the benefactor of Indiana Borough, as it was he who donated the property for a county seat in Indiana County, Pennsylvania. Clymer died on January 23, 1813. He was buried at the Friends Burying Ground in Trenton, New Jersey.
35.2 Legacy
CHAPTER 35. GEORGE CLYMER
35.4
References
• ancestry.com Burnell, Jim. George Clymer the Signer (accessed 16 October 2011)
35.5
Further reading
• Grundfest, Jerry. “George Clymer, Philadelphia Revolutionary, 1739–1813”. Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1973.
35.6
External links
• George Clymer at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856
USS George Clymer (APA-27) was named in his honor.
• George Clymer Bio
Clymer, Indiana County, Pennsylvania was named in his honor as was Clymer, Chautauqua County, New York.[4] There is a George Clymer Elementary School in the School District of Philadelphia. This school has educated majority children of color following Clymer’s legacy of rights for all people. David Clymer, the famous rock bassist and trumpet player, is one of his many descendants.
• Biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania
Clymer’s home in Morrisville, Pennsylvania, known as Summerseat, still stands. In Reading, Pennsylvania, Clymer Street is named in honor of George Clymer. At its intersection with Hill Road once stood the mansion of William H. Luden, who founded Luden’s in Reading in 1879. That mansion later hosted Central Catholic—a now-defunct Roman Catholic parochial high school.
35.3 Notes [1] Carpenter, Louis Henry (1912). Samuel Carpenter and his descendants. J.B. Lippincott. p. 257. [2] Burnell, George Clymer the Signer [3] Pieper, Thomas, and Gidney, James (1980). Fort Laurens, 1778–1779: The Revolutionary War in Ohio. Kent State University Press, p 13. http://books.google.com/books?id=9aoJVOjymwIC& dq=%22sampson+matthews%22&source=gbs_navlinks_s Retrieved March 2, 2013. [4] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Off. p. 85.
• George Clymer at Find a Grave
Chapter 36
Thomas Fitzsimons Thomas Fitzsimons (1741–1811) was an American merchant and statesman of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He represented Pennsylvania in the Continental Congress, the Constitutional Convention, and the U.S. Congress.
reserve at the Battle of Trenton in 1776. Later in the war, he served on the Pennsylvania Council of Safety and headed a board to oversee the newly formed Pennsylvania Navy. Under this role, he helped organize the strategic resources of Pennsylvania, and later provided supplies, ships, and money in support of Pennsylvanian and French forces.[2]
36.1 Biography Fitzsimons’ ancestry has not been proved, but one thought is that Fitzsimons was born at Ballikilty, north Co. Wexford, Leinster province, Ireland, in October, 1741.[1] He was a member of a collection of Irish families with the name "Fitzsymons" and it variants. In the mid-1750s he immigrated to Philadelphia where his father soon died. However, Fitzsimons had enough education that he could begin work as a clerk in a mercantile house. He married Catherine Meade on November 23, 1761 and formed a business partnership with her brother George (grandfather of Civil War general George Meade). Their firm specialized in the West Indies trade, which would successfully operate for over 41 years.[2]
36.1.1
Revolutionary bent
However, this firm was soon hit by the new revenue measures created to help support the finances of the British Empire, including the much reviled Stamp Act of 1765. Concerned with these ideas, Fitzsimons became active in the Irish merchant community in Philadelphia, elected the head of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick in 1771 and later, in 1774, a steering committee organized to protest the Coercive Acts.[2] When Pennsylvania began mobilizing and organizing a militia to fight the British, Fitzsimons was soon involved. He served as captain of a company of home guards, which he raised, under the command of Colonel John Caldwalader. Initially his company served as part of the soldiers who manned posts along the New Jersey coast to defend against British actions. His unit later served as part of the
36.1.2
Politics
Fitzsimons entered active politics as a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782 and 1783. He was a member of Pennsylvania’s House of Representatives in 1786 and 1787. He was also a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention in 1787. Although not a leading member of that convention, he supported a strong national government. the end of slavery, the United States Congress's powers to impose a tariff on imports and exports, the granting the house of representatives, and the equal power in making treaties to the United States Senate in making treaties. He was one of only two Catholic signers of the United States Constitution, the other being Daniel Carroll of Maryland. After the Constitution was established, he served in the first three sessions of the House of Representatives as a Federalist, where he favored protective tariffs and a strong navy, co-drafting the 1794 law authorizing the original six frigates of the United States Navy.[3] Fitzsimons failed to win reelection in 1794, being defeated by John Swanwick, who carried seven of Philadelphia’s twelve districts with 57% of the vote. This was partially attributed to public opinion turning against the Federalist Party over the forceful suppression of the Whiskey Rebellion. Although he never held elective office again, Fitzsimons served in 1798 as head of the committee of merchants overseeing the subscriptionloan to build a warship at private expense for use in the Quasi-War.[4] In 1802, Fitzsimons, along with Samuel Sitgreaves, were appointed by the Attorney General commissioners under the sixth article of the treaty of amity with Great Britain (American State Papers 37, Misc. Vol. 1, Pub. 154, Feb.
151
152 17, 1802). While withdrawing from politics, Fitzsimons remained active in civic and business affairs. He served as president of Philadelphia’s Chamber of Commerce, as a trustee of the University of Pennsylvania, Director of the Delaware Insurance Company and a director of the Bank of North America from 1781-1803. He was a founder of the bank, and supported efforts to found the College of Georgetown.[2] Fitzsimons had also helped found the Insurance Company of North America. Thomas died on August 26, 1811 in Philadelphia, where he was buried in the cemetery of St. Mary’s Catholic Church, which is in present-day Independence National Historical Park. National Aegis Newspaper (Worcester, MA), Vol. X, Issue 502, p. 3: DIED, ---Also, at an advanced age, Thomas Fitzsimmons, Esq, an old inhabitant of Philadelphia, and formerly a member of Congress, and a member of the Federal Convention of 1787.
36.2 Notes
Statue of Fitzsimons in Philadelphia
[1] James Holt, Re: Fitzsimons, Thomas (June 4, 2000).
CHAPTER 36. THOMAS FITZSIMONS
[2] Wright, Jr., Robert K.; MacGregor Jr., Morris J. “Thomas Fitzsimons”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. Washington D.C: United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. [3] Frederick C. Leiner, Millions for Defense: The Subscription Warships of 1798 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2000), 55. [4] Ibid.
36.3
External links
• Biography at the United States Army Center of Military History • Biography at the University of Pennsylvania Archives • Thomas Fitzsimons at Find a Grave
Chapter 37
Benjamin Franklin For other uses of “Benjamin Franklin”, “Ben Franklin” Franklin was also the printer of books for the Moravians and “Franklin”, see Benjamin Franklin (disambiguation) of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania (1742 on). Franklin’s printed and Franklin (disambiguation). Moravian books (printed in German) are preserved, and can be viewed, at the Moravian Archives located in Bethlehem. Benjamin Franklin FRS (January 17, 1706 [O.S. January Franklin visited Bethlehem many times and stayed at the 6, 1705][1] – April 17, 1790) was one of the Founding Fa- Moravian Sun Inn. thers of the United States. A renowned polymath, Franklin was a leading author, printer, political theorist, politician, postmaster, scientist, inventor, civic activist, statesman, and diplomat. As a scientist, he was a major figure in the American Enlightenment and the history of physics for his discoveries and theories regarding electricity. As an inventor, he is known for the lightning rod, bifocals, and the Franklin stove, among other inventions.[2] He facilitated many civic organizations, including Philadelphia’s fire department and a university.
He played a major role in establishing the University of Pennsylvania and was elected the first president of the American Philosophical Society. Franklin became a national hero in America when as agent for several colonies he spearheaded the effort to have Parliament in London repeal the unpopular Stamp Act. An accomplished diplomat, he was widely admired among the French as American minister to Paris and was a major figure in the development of positive Franco-American relations. His efforts to secure support for the American Revolution by shipments of cruFranklin earned the title of “The First American” for his cial munitions proved vital for the American war effort. early and indefatigable campaigning for colonial unity; as For many years he was the British postmaster for the an author and spokesman in London for several colonies, colonies, which enabled him to set up the first national comthen as the first United States Ambassador to France, he munications network. He was active in community affairs, exemplified the emerging American nation.[3] Franklin was colonial and state politics, as well as national and internafoundational in defining the American ethos as a marriage tional affairs. From 1785 to 1788, he served as governor of of the practical values of thrift, hard work, education, com- Pennsylvania. Toward the end of his life, he freed his own munity spirit, self-governing institutions, and opposition to slaves and became one of the most prominent abolitionists. authoritarianism both political and religious, with the scien- His colorful life and legacy of scientific and political tific and tolerant values of the Enlightenment. In the words achievement, and status as one of America’s most influof historian Henry Steele Commager, “In a Franklin could ential Founding Fathers, have seen Franklin honored on be merged the virtues of Puritanism without its defects, coinage and the $100 bill; warships; the names of many the illumination of the Enlightenment without its heat.”[4] towns; counties; educational institutions; corporations; and, To Walter Isaacson, this makes Franklin “the most accom- more than two centuries after his death, countless cultural plished American of his age and the most influential in in- references. venting the type of society America would become.”[5] Franklin, always proud of his working class roots, became a successful newspaper editor and printer in Philadelphia, 37.1 Early life in Boston the leading city in the colonies.[6] With two partners he published the Pennsylvania Chronicle, a newspaper that was known for its revolutionary sentiments and criticisms Benjamin Franklin was born on Milk Street, in Boston, [1][Note 1] and baptized of the British policies. He became wealthy publishing Massachusetts, on January 17, 1706, Poor Richard’s Almanack and The Pennsylvania Gazette. at Old South Meeting House. He was one of seventeen children born to Josiah Franklin, one of ten born by Josiah’s 153
154
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN second wife, Abiah Folger. Among Benjamin’s siblings were his older brother James and his younger sister Jane. Josiah wanted Ben to attend school with the clergy, but only had enough money to send him to school for two years. He attended Boston Latin School but did not graduate; he continued his education through voracious reading. Although “his parents talked of the church as a career”[7] for Franklin, his schooling ended when he was ten. He worked for his father for a time, and at 12 he became an apprentice to his brother James, a printer, who taught Ben the printing trade. When Ben was 15, James founded The New-England Courant, which was the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies.
Franklin’s birthplace on Milk Street, Boston, Massachusetts
When denied the chance to write a letter to the paper for publication, Franklin adopted the pseudonym of "Mrs. Silence Dogood", a middle-aged widow. Mrs. Dogood’s letters were published, and became a subject of conversation around town. Neither James nor the Courant's readers were aware of the ruse, and James was unhappy with Ben when he discovered the popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin was an advocate of free speech from an early age. When his brother was jailed for three weeks in 1722 for publishing material unflattering to the governor, young Franklin took over the newspaper and had Mrs. Dogood (quoting Cato’s Letters) proclaim: “Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech.”[8] Franklin left his apprenticeship without his brother’s permission, and in so doing became a fugitive.[9]
37.2
Philadelphia
At age 17, Franklin ran away to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived, he worked in several printer shops around town, but he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was convinced by Pennsylvania Governor Sir William Keith to go to London, ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia. Finding Keith’s promises of backing a newspaper empty, Franklin worked as a typesetter in a printer’s shop in what Franklin’s birthplace site directly across from Old South Meeting is now the Church of St Bartholomew-the-Great in the House on Milk Street is commemorated by a bust above the second Smithfield area of London. Following this, he returned to floor facade of this building. Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of Thomas Denham, a merchant who employed Franklin as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in his business.[9]
37.2. PHILADELPHIA
37.2.1
Junto and library
In 1727, Benjamin Franklin, then 21, created the Junto, a group of “like minded aspiring artisans and tradesmen who hoped to improve themselves while they improved their community.” The Junto was a discussion group for issues of the day; it subsequently gave rise to many organizations in Philadelphia, PA.
155 fame as a scientist and statesman, he habitually signed his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer.'[9] In 1732, Ben Franklin published the first German language newspaper in America – Die Philadelphische Zeitung – although it failed after only one year, because four other newly founded German papers quickly dominated the newspaper market.[10]
Franklin saw the printing press as a device to instruct colonial Americans in moral virtue. Frasca argues he saw this as a service to God, because he understood moral virtue in terms of actions, thus, doing good provides a service to God. Despite his own moral lapses, Franklin saw himself as uniquely qualified to instruct Americans in morality. He tried to influence American moral life through construction of a printing network based on a chain of partnerships from the Carolinas to New England. Franklin thereby invented the first newspaper chain. It was more than a business venOriginally, the books were kept in the homes of the first ture, for like many publishers since, he believed that the librarians, but in 1739 the collection was moved to the press had a public-service duty.[11] second floor of the State House of Pennsylvania, now When Franklin established himself in Philadelphia, shortly known as Independence Hall. In 1791, a new building was before 1730, the town boasted two “wretched little” built specifically for the library. The Library Company news sheets, Andrew Bradford's American Mercury, and is now a great scholarly and research library with 500,000 Keimer’s Universal Instructor in all Arts and Sciences, and rare books, pamphlets, and broadsides, more than 160,000 Pennsylvania Gazette. This instruction in all arts and scimanuscripts, and 75,000 graphic items. ences consisted of weekly extracts from Chambers’s Universal Dictionary. Franklin quickly did away with all this when he took over the Instructor and made it The Pennsyl37.2.2 Newspaperman vania Gazette. The Gazette soon became Franklin’s characteristic organ, which he freely used for satire, for the play of his wit, even for sheer excess of mischief or of fun. From the first he had a way of adapting his models to his own uses. The series of essays called “The Busy-Body”, which he wrote for Bradford’s American Mercury in 1729, followed the general Addisonian form, already modified to suit homelier conditions. The thrifty Patience, in her busy little shop, complaining of the useless visitors who waste her valuable time, is related to the ladies who address Mr. Spectator. The Busy-Body himself is a true Censor Morum, as Isaac Bickerstaff had been in the Tatler. And a number of the fictitious characters, Ridentius, Eugenius, Cato, Benjamin Franklin (center) at work on a printing press. Reproduc- and Cretico, represent traditional 18th-century classicism. tion of a Charles Mills painting by the Detroit Publishing Company. Even this Franklin could use for contemporary satire, since Cretico, the “sowre Philosopher”, is evidently a portrait of Upon Denham’s death, Franklin returned to his former Franklin’s rival, Samuel Keimer. trade. In 1728, Franklin had set up a printing house in As time went on, Franklin depended less on his literary conpartnership with Hugh Meredith; the following year he be- ventions, and more on his own native humor. In this there is came the publisher of a newspaper called The Pennsylva- a new spirit—not suggested to him by the fine breeding of nia Gazette. The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agita- Addison, or the bitter irony of Swift, or the stinging comtion about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through pleteness of Pope. The brilliant little pieces Franklin wrote printed essays and observations. Over time, his commen- for his Pennsylvania Gazette have an imperishable place in tary, and his adroit cultivation of a positive image as an in- American literature. dustrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. But even after Franklin had achieved The Pennsylvania Gazette, like most other newspapers of Reading was a great pastime of the Junto, but books were rare and expensive. The members created a library, initially assembled from their own books. This did not suffice, however. Franklin conceived the idea of a subscription library, which would pool the funds of the members to buy books for all to read. This was the birth of the Library Company of Philadelphia: its charter was composed by Franklin in 1731. In 1732, Franklin hired the first American librarian, Louis Timothee.
156
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
the period, was often poorly printed. Franklin was busy with a hundred matters outside of his printing office, and never seriously attempted to raise the mechanical standards of his trade. Nor did he ever properly edit or collate the chance medley of stale items that passed for news in the Gazette. His influence on the practical side of journalism was minimal. On the other hand, his advertisements of books show his very great interest in popularizing secular literature. Undoubtedly his paper contributed to the broader culture that distinguished Pennsylvania from her neighbors before the Revolution. Like many publishers, Franklin built up a book shop in his printing office; he took the opportunity to read new books before selling them. Franklin had mixed success in his plan to establish an intercolonial network of newspapers that would produce a profit for him and disseminate virtue.[12] He began in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1731. After the second editor died, his widow Elizabeth Timothy took over and made it a success, 1738–46. She was one of the colonial era’s first woman printers.[13] For three decades Franklin maintained a close business relationship with her and her son Peter who took over in 1746.[14] The Gazette had a policy of impartiality in political debates, while creating the opportunity for public debate, which encouraged others to challenge authority. Editor Peter Timothy avoided blandness and crude bias, and after 1765 increasingly took a patriotic stand in the growing crisis with Great Britain.[15] However, Franklin’s Connecticut Gazette (1755–68) proved unsuccessful.[16]
37.2.3
there were problems with Sir William’s promises of support. Perhaps because of the circumstances of this delay, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers. This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to Barbados with her dowry, leaving Deborah behind. Rodgers’s fate was unknown, and because of bigamy laws, Deborah was not free to remarry. Franklin established a common-law marriage with Deborah Read on September 1, 1730. They took in Franklin’s young, recently acknowledged illegitimate son, William, and raised him in their household. In addition, they had two children together. The first, Francis Folger Franklin, born October 1732, died of smallpox in 1736. Their second child, Sarah Franklin, familiarly called Sally, was born in 1743. She eventually married Richard Bache, had seven children, and cared for her father in his old age. Deborah’s fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe, despite his repeated requests. She wrote to him in November 1769 saying she was ill due to “dissatisfied distress” from his prolonged absence, but he did not return until his business was done.[21] Deborah Read Franklin died of a stroke in 1774, while Franklin was on an extended mission to England; he returned in 1775.
37.2.5
William Franklin
Freemason
In 1731, Franklin was initiated into the local Masonic Lodge. He became Grand Master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Pennsylvania.[17][18] That same year, he edited and published the first Masonic book in the Americas, a reprint of James Anderson’s Constitutions of the Free-Masons. Franklin remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.[19][20]
37.2.4
Common-law marriage to Deborah Read
In 1723, at the age of 17, Franklin proposed to 15-yearold Deborah Read while a boarder in the Read home. At that time, Read’s mother was wary of allowing her young daughter to marry Franklin, who was on his way to London at Governor Sir William Keith’s request, and also because of his financial instability. Her own husband had recently William Franklin died, and Mrs. Read declined Franklin’s request to marry her daughter.[9] See also: William Franklin While Franklin was in London, his trip was extended, and
37.2. PHILADELPHIA
157
In 1730, at the age of 24, Franklin publicly acknowledged the existence of William, his son, who was deemed 'illegitimate' as he was born out of wedlock, and raised him in his household. His mother’s identity is not known.[22] He was educated in Philadelphia. Beginning at about age 30, William studied law in London in the early 1760s. He fathered an illegitimate son, William Temple Franklin, born February 22, 1762. The boy’s mother was never identified, and he was placed in foster care. Franklin later that year married Elizabeth Downes, daughter of a planter from Barbados. After William passed the bar, his father helped him gain an appointment in 1763 as the last Royal Governor of New Jersey. A Loyalist, William and his father eventually broke relations over their differences about the American Revolutionary War. The elder Franklin could never accept William’s position. Deposed in 1776 by the revolutionary government of New Jersey, Franklin was arrested at his home in Perth Amboy at the Proprietary House and imprisoned for a time, the younger Franklin went to New York in 1782, which was still occupied by British troops. He became leader of the Board of Associated Loyalists — a quasi-military organization, headquartered in New York City. They initiated guer- William Temple Franklin, painted by John Trumbull (1790–1791) rilla forays into New Jersey, southern Connecticut, and New York counties north of the city.[23] When British troops evacuated from New York, William Franklin left with them 37.2.6 Success as an author and sailed to England. He settled in London, never to return to North America. In 1733, Franklin began to publish the noted Poor Richard’s In the preliminary peace talks in 1782 with Britain, "... Almanack (with content both original and borrowed) under Benjamin Franklin insisted that loyalists who had borne the pseudonym Richard Saunders, on which much of his arms against the United States would be excluded from this popular reputation is based. Franklin frequently wrote unplea (that they be given a general pardon). He was undoubt- der pseudonyms. Although it was no secret that Franklin edly thinking of William Franklin.”[24] was the author, his Richard Saunders character repeatedly Benjamin Franklin found out about Temple (as he called denied it. “Poor Richard’s Proverbs”, adages from this alhim), his only patrilineal grandson, on his second mission to manac, such as “A penny saved is twopence dear” (often England. He got to know the boy and became fond of him, misquoted as “A penny saved is a penny earned”) and “Fish arranging for his education. He never told his wife Deborah and visitors stink in three days”, remain common quotaabout him.[25] Franklin gained custody and brought Temple tions in the modern world. Wisdom in folk society meant with him upon return to Philadelphia in 1775. Deborah had the ability to provide an apt adage for any occasion, and died the year before. Franklin brought up Temple within his Franklin’s readers became well prepared. He sold about ten thousand copies per year (a circulation equivalent to nearly household. three million today).[9] In 1741 Franklin began publishing Beginning at age 16, Temple Franklin served as secretary to The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle for all the his grandfather during his mission to Paris during the RevBritish Plantations in America, the first such monthly magolutionary War. Although he returned to the United States azine of this type published in America. with his grandfather in the 1780s, he could not find an appointment. He returned to Europe, living for a time in Eng- In 1758, the year he ceased writing for the Almanack, he land and then in France. He died in Paris in 1823 and was printed Father Abraham’s Sermon, also known as The Way to Wealth. Franklin’s autobiography, begun in 1771 but buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery. published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre. Daylight saving time (DST) is often erroneously attributed to a 1784 satire that Franklin published anonymously.[26]
158
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
Glass Armonica
portunity to serve others by any invention of ours; and this we should do freely and generously.”[28] His inventions also included social innovations, such as paying forward. Franklin’s fascination with innovation could be viewed as altruistic; he wrote that his scientific works were to be used for increasing efficiency and human improvement. One such improvement was his effort to expedite news services through his printing presses.[29]
37.3.1
Population studies
Franklin had a major influence on the emerging science of demography, or population studies.[30] Thomas Malthus is noted for his rule of population growth and credited Franklin for discovering it.[31] Kammen (1990) and Drake (2011) say Franklin’s "Observations on the Increase of Modern DST was first proposed by George Vernon Hudson Mankind" (1755) stands alongside Ezra Stiles' “Discourse in 1895.[27] on Christian Union” (1760) as the leading works of eighteenth century Anglo-American demography; Drake credits Franklin’s “wide readership and prophetic insight.”[32][33] Franklin’s The General Magazine and Historical Chronicle (Jan. 1741)
37.3 Inventions and scientific inquiries Further information: Social contributions and studies by Benjamin Franklin Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the lightning rod, glass armonica (a glass instrument, not to be confused with the metal harmonica), Franklin stove, bifocal glasses and the flexible urinary catheter. Franklin never patented his inventions; in his autobiography he wrote, "... as we enjoy great advantages from the inventions of others, we should be glad of an op-
In the 1730s and 1740s, Franklin began taking notes on population growth, finding that the American population had the fastest growth rates on earth.[34] Emphasizing that population growth depended on food supplies—a line of thought later developed by Thomas Malthus—Franklin emphasized the abundance of food and available farmland in America. He calculated that America’s population was doubling every twenty years and would surpass that of England in a century.[35] In 1751, he drafted “Observations concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, &c.” Four years later, it was anonymously printed in Boston, and it was quickly reproduced in Britain, where it influenced the economists Adam Smith and later Thomas Malthus.
37.3. INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRIES
159
Franklin’s predictions alarmed British leaders who did not want to be surpassed by the colonies, so they became more willing to impose restrictions on the colonial economy.[36] Franklin was also a pioneer in the study of slave demography, as shown in his 1755 essay.[37]
37.3.2
Atlantic Ocean currents
As deputy postmaster, Franklin became interested in the North Atlantic Ocean circulation patterns. While in England in 1768, he heard a complaint from the Colonial Board of Customs: Why did it take British packet ships carrying mail several weeks longer to reach New York than it took an average merchant ship to reach Newport, Rhode Island? The merchantmen had a longer and more complex voyage because they left from London, while the packets left from Falmouth in Cornwall. Franklin put the question to his cousin Timothy Folger, a Nantucket whaler captain, who told him that merchant ships routinely avoided a strong eastbound mid-ocean current. The mail packet captains sailed dead into it, thus fighting an adverse current of 3 miles per hour (5 km/h). Franklin worked with Folger and other experienced ship captains, Benjamin Franklin Drawing Electricity from the Sky c. 1816 at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, by Benjamin West learning enough to chart the current and name it the Gulf Stream, by which it is still known today. Franklin published his Gulf Stream chart in 1770 in England, where it was completely ignored. Subsequent versions were printed in France in 1778 and the U.S. in 1786. The British edition of the chart, which was the original, was so thoroughly ignored that everyone assumed it was lost forever until Phil Richardson, a Woods Hole oceanographer and Gulf Stream expert, discovered it in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris in 1980.[38][39] This find received front page coverage in the New York Times.[40] It took many years for British sea captains to adopt Franklin’s advice on navigating the current; once they did, they were able to trim two weeks from their sailing time.[41][42] In 1853, the oceanographer and cartographer Matthew Fontaine Maury noted that Franklin only charted and codified the Gulf Stream, he did not discover it:
Though it was Dr. Franklin and Captain Tim Folger, who first turned the Gulf Stream to nautical account, the discovery that there was a Gulf Stream cannot be said to belong to either of them, for its existence was known to Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, and to Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in the 16th century.[43]
Franklin and Electricity vignette engraved by the BEP (c. 1860).
160
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
37.3.3
Electricity
Franklin’s discoveries resulted from his investigations of electricity. Franklin proposed that “vitreous” and “resinous” electricity were not different types of "electrical fluid" (as electricity was called then), but the same electrical fluid under different pressures. He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively,[44] and he was the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.[45] In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a kite in a storm that appeared capable of becoming a lightning storm. On May 10, 1752, Thomas-François Dalibard of France conducted Franklin’s experiment using a 40-foot-tall (12 m) iron rod instead of a kite, and he extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On June 15 Franklin may possibly have conducted his well known kite experiment in Philadelphia, successfully extracting sparks from a cloud. Franklin’s experiment was not written up with credit[46] until Joseph Priestley's 1767 History and Present Status of Electricity; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, where he would have been in danger of electrocution). Others, such as Prof. Georg Wilhelm Richmann, were indeed electrocuted during the months following Franklin’s experiment.
greater distance. He surmised that this could help protect buildings from lightning by attaching “upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground; ... Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!" Following a series of experiments on Franklin’s own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania) and the Pennsylvania State House (later Independence Hall) in 1752.[49] In recognition of his work with electricity, Franklin received the Royal Society's Copley Medal in 1753, and in 1756 he became one of the few 18th-century Americans elected as a Fellow of the Society. The cgs unit of electric charge has been named after him: one franklin (Fr) is equal to one statcoulomb.
37.3.4
Wave theory of light
Franklin was, along with his contemporary Leonhard Euler, the only major scientist who supported Christiaan Huygens' wave theory of light, which was basically ignored by the rest of the scientific community. In the 18th century Newton’s corpuscular theory was held to be true; only afIn his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the ter Young’s well known slit experiment in 1803 were most dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that scientists persuaded to believe Huygens’ theory.[50] lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of electrical ground. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he may not have done it in the way that is of- 37.3.5 Meteorology ten described—flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning—as it would have been dangerous.[47] Instead he On October 21, 1743, according to popular myth, a storm used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm moving from the southwest denied Franklin the opportucloud, which implied that lightning was electrical. On Oc- nity of witnessing a lunar eclipse. Franklin was said to tober 19 in a letter to England with directions for repeating have noted that the prevailing winds were actually from the experiment, Franklin wrote: the northeast, contrary to what he had expected. In correWhen rain has wet the kite twine so that it can conduct the electric fire freely, you will find it streams out plentifully from the key at the approach of your knuckle, and with this key a phial, or Leyden jar, may be charged: and from electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all other electric experiments [may be] performed which are usually done by the help of a rubber glass globe or tube; and therefore the sameness of the electrical matter with that of lightening completely demonstrated.[48]
spondence with his brother, Franklin learned that the same storm had not reached Boston until after the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the northeast of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept that greatly influenced meteorology.[51] After the Icelandic volcanic eruption of Laki in 1783, and the subsequent harsh European winter of 1784, Franklin made observations connecting the causal nature of these two separate events. He wrote about them in a lecture series.[52]
37.3.6
Traction kiting
Franklin’s electrical experiments led to his invention of the lightning rod. He noted that conductors with a sharp rather Though Benjamin Franklin has been most noted kite-wise than a smooth point could discharge silently, and at a far with his lightning experiments, he has also been noted by
37.3. INVENTIONS AND SCIENTIFIC INQUIRIES
161
many for his using kites to pull humans and ships across 37.3.10 waterways.[53] The George Pocock in the book A TREATISE on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails[54] noted being inspired by Benjamin Franklin’s traction of his body by kite power across a waterway. In his later years he suggested using the technique for pulling ships.
37.3.7
Decision-making
Concept of cooling
Franklin noted a principle of refrigeration by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this phenomenon more clearly Franklin conducted experiments. In 1758 on a warm day in Cambridge, England, Franklin and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury thermometer with ether and using bellows to evaporate the ether.[55] With each subsequent evaporation, the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (−14 °C). Another thermometer showed that the room temperature was constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter Cooling by Evaporation, Franklin noted that, “One may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer’s day.” Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759
37.3.8
Temperature’s effect on electrical conductivity In a 1772 letter to Joseph Priestley, Franklin lays out the
earliest known description of the Pro & Con list,[59] a comAccording to Michael Faraday, Franklin’s experiments on mon decision-making technique: the non-conduction of ice are worth mentioning, although the law of the general effect of liquefaction on electrolytes is not attributed to Franklin.[56] However, as reported in 1836 by Prof. A. D. Bache of the University of Pennsylvania, ... my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper the law of the effect of heat on the conduction of bodies by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one otherwise non-conductors, for example, glass, could be atPro, and over the other Con. Then during three tributed to Franklin. Franklin writes, "... A certain quanor four Days Consideration I put down under the tity of heat will make some bodies good conductors, that different Heads short Hints of the different Mowill not otherwise conduct ...” and again, "... And water, tives that at different Times occur to me for or though naturally a good conductor, will not conduct well against the Measure. When I have thus got them when frozen into ice.”[57] all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them 37.3.9 Oceanography findings both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge An aging Franklin accumulated all his oceanographic findsome two Reasons con equal to some three Reaings in Maritime Observations, published by the Philosophsons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding ical Society’s transactions in 1786.[58] It contained ideas I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if affor sea anchors, catamaran hulls, watertight compartments, ter a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing shipboard lightning rods and a soup bowl designed to stay new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I stable in stormy weather. come to a Determination accordingly.[59]
162
37.3.11
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
Science humor
While traveling on a ship, Franklin had observed that the wake of a ship was diminished when the cooks scuttled their greasy water. He studied the effects at Clapham Common, London on a large pond there. “I fetched out a cruet of oil and dropt a little of it on the water...though not more than a teaspoon full, produced an instant calm over a space of several yards square.” He later used the trick to “calm the waters” by carrying “a little oil in the hollow joint of my cane.”[60]
37.4 Musical endeavors Franklin is known to have played the violin, the harp, and the guitar. He also composed music, notably a string quartet in early classical style. He developed a much-improved version of the glass harmonica, in which the glasses rotate on a shaft, with the player’s fingers held steady, instead of the other way around; this version soon found its way to Europe.[61]
37.5 Chess Franklin was an avid chess player. He was playing chess by around 1733, making him the first chess player known by name in the American colonies.[62] His essay on "The An illustration from Franklin’s paper on "Water-spouts and WhirlMorals of Chess" in Columbian magazine in December winds” 1786 is the second known writing on chess in America.[62] This essay in praise of chess and prescribing a code of behavior for the game has been widely reprinted and translated.[63][64][65][66] He and a friend also used chess as a means of learning the Italian language, which both were studying; the winner of each game between them had the right to assign a task, such as parts of the Italian grammar to be learned by heart, to be performed by the loser before their next meeting.[67] Franklin was inducted into the U.S. Chess Hall of Fame in 1999.[62]
37.6 Public life Pennsylvania Hospital by William Strickland, 1755
In 1736, Franklin created the Union Fire Company, one of the first volunteer firefighting companies in America. In the same year, he printed a new currency for New Jersey based on innovative anti-counterfeiting techniques he had devised. Throughout his career, Franklin was an advocate for paper money, publishing A Modest Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency in 1729, and his printer printed money. He was influential in the more restrained and thus successful monetary experiments in the
Middle Colonies, which stopped deflation without causing excessive inflation. In 1766 he made a case for paper money to the British House of Commons.[68] As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he first devised a scheme for The Academy, Charity School, and College of Philadelphia. However, the person he had in mind to run the
37.6. PUBLIC LIFE
163 Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics and rapidly progressed. In October 1748, he was selected as a councilman, in June 1749 he became a Justice of the Peace for Philadelphia, and in 1751 he was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly. On August 10, 1753, Franklin was appointed joint deputy postmaster-general of British North America, with William Hunter. Franklin’s most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, with mail sent out every week.[9] In 1751, Franklin and Dr. Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the Pennsylvania legislature to establish a hospital. Pennsylvania Hospital was the first hospital in what was to become the United States of America.
Join, or Die: This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the French and Indian War (Seven Years’ War).
Between 1750 and 1753, the “educational triumvirate”[71] of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, the American Dr. Samuel Johnson of Stratford, Connecticut, and the immigrant Scottish schoolteacher Dr. William Smith built on Franklin’s initial scheme and created what Bishop James Madison, president of the College of William & Mary, called a “newmodel”[72] plan or style of American college. Franklin solicited, printed in 1752, and promoted an American textbook of moral philosophy from the American Dr. Samuel Johnson titled Elementa Philosophica[73] to be taught in the new colleges to replace courses in denominational divinity.
Sketch of the original Tun Tavern
academy, Rev. Richard Peters, refused and Franklin put his ideas away until 1749, when he printed his own pamphlet, Proposals Relating to the Education of Youth in Pensilvania.[69]:30 He was appointed president of the Academy on November 13, 1749; the Academy and the Charity School opened on August 13, 1751. In 1743, Franklin founded the American Philosophical Society to help scientific men discuss their discoveries and theories. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life, Seal of the College of Philadelphia in between bouts of politics and moneymaking.[9] In 1747, he retired from printing and went into other businesses.[70] He created a partnership with his foreman, David Hall, which provided Franklin with half of the shop’s profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made discoveries that gave him a reputation with educated persons throughout Europe and especially in France.
In June 1753, Johnson, Franklin, and Smith met in Stratford.[74] They decided the new-model college would focus on the professions, with classes taught in English instead of Latin, have subject matter experts as professors instead of one tutor leading a class for four years, and there would be no religious test for admission.[75] Johnson went on to found King’s College (now Columbia University) in New
164 York City in 1754, while Franklin hired William Smith as Provost of the College of Philadelphia, which opened in 1755. At its first commencement, on May 17, 1757, seven men graduated; six with a Bachelor of Arts and one as Master of Arts. It was later merged with the University of the State of Pennsylvania to become the University of Pennsylvania. The College was to become influential in guiding the founding documents of the United States: in the Continental Congress, for example, over one third of the college-affiliated men who contributed the Declaration of Independence between September 4, 1774, and July 4, 1776, were affiliated with the College.[76] In 1753, both Harvard University[77] and Yale University[78] awarded him honorary degrees.[79] In 1754, he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the Albany Congress. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the Board of Trade in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the French. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution.
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN etors’ prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly, and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in Whitehall led to the failure of this mission. Whilst in London, Franklin became involved in radical politics. He was a member of the Club of Honest Whigs, alongside thinkers such as Richard Price, the minister of Newington Green Unitarian Church who ignited the Revolution Controversy. During his stays at Craven Street between 1757 and 1775, Franklin developed a close friendship with his landlady, Margaret Stevenson, and her circle of friends and relations, in particular her daughter Mary, who was more often known as Polly. In 1759, he visited Edinburgh with his son, and recalled his conversations there as “the densest happiness of my life”.[80] In February 1759, the University of St Andrews awarded him an Honorary Doctor of Laws degree, and in October of the same year he was granted Freedom of the Borough of St Andrews.[81]
In 1762, Oxford University awarded Franklin an honorary doctorate for his scientific accomplishments; from then on he went by “Doctor Franklin”. He also managed to secure In 1756, Franklin organized the Pennsylvania Militia (see an appointed post for his illegitimate son, William Franklin, “Associated Regiment of Philadelphia” under heading of by then an attorney, as Colonial Governor of New Jersey.[9] Pennsylvania’s 103rd Artillery and 111th Infantry Regi- He joined the influential Lunar Society of Birmingham, ment at Continental Army). He used Tun Tavern as a gath- with whom he regularly corresponded and, on occasion, visering place to recruit a regiment of soldiers to go into battle ited in Birmingham. against the Native American uprisings that beset the American colonies. Reportedly Franklin was elected “Colonel” of the Associated Regiment but declined the honor. Also in 1756, Franklin became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce (now the Royal Society of Arts or RSA, which had been founded in 1754), whose early meetings took place in coffee shops in London’s Covent Garden district, close to Franklin’s main residence in Craven Street during his missions to England. The Craven street residence, which he used on various lengthy missions from 1757 to 1775, is the only one of his residences to survive. It opened to the public as the Benjamin Franklin House museum on January 17, Pennsylvania colonial currency printed by Franklin in 1764 2006. After his return to the United States in 1775, Franklin became the Society’s Corresponding Member and remained closely connected with the Society. The RSA instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Franklin’s birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA. In 1757, he was sent to England by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to protest against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. He remained there for five years, striving to end the propri-
At this time, many members of the Pennsylvania Assembly were feuding with William Penn’s heirs, who controlled the colony as proprietors. After his return to the colony, Franklin led the “anti-proprietary party” in the struggle against the Penn family, and was elected Speaker of the Pennsylvania House in May 1764. His call for a change from proprietary to royal government was a rare political miscalculation, however: Pennsylvanians worried that such a move would endanger their political and religious freedoms. Because of these fears, and because of political attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the October
37.6. PUBLIC LIFE
165
1764 Assembly elections.
Guericke for his early studies of electricity. Franklin also The anti-proprietary party dispatched Franklin to England co-authored the first treaty of friendship between Prussia again to continue the struggle against the Penn family pro- and America in 1785. prietorship. During this trip, events drastically changed the In September 1767, Franklin visited Paris with his usual nature of his mission.[82] traveling partner, Sir John Pringle. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in France. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists 37.6.1 Years in Europe and politicians, and also to King Louis XV.[84] In London, Franklin opposed the 1765 Stamp Act. Unable to prevent its passage, he made another political miscalculation and recommended a friend to the post of stamp distributor for Pennsylvania. Pennsylvanians were outraged, believing that he had supported the measure all along, and threatened to destroy his home in Philadelphia. Franklin soon learned of the extent of colonial resistance to the Stamp Act, and he testified during the House of Commons proceedings that led to its repeal.[83] With this, Franklin suddenly emerged as the leading spokesman for American interests in England. He wrote popular essays on behalf of the colonies, and Georgia, New Jersey, and Massachusetts also appointed him as their agent to the Crown.[82]
While living in London in 1768, he developed a phonetic alphabet in A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling. This reformed alphabet discarded six letters Franklin regarded as redundant (c, j, q, w, x, and y), and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own. His new alphabet, however, never caught on, and he eventually lost interest.[85] In 1771, Franklin made short journeys through different parts of England, staying with Joseph Priestley at Leeds, Thomas Percival at Manchester and Dr. Darwin at Lichfield.[86] Franklin belonged to a gentleman’s club (which he called “honest Whigs”), which held stated meetings, and included members such as Richard Price and Andrew Kippis. He was also a corresponding member of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, which included such other scientific and industrial luminaries as Matthew Boulton, James Watt, Josiah Wedgwood and Erasmus Darwin. He had never been to Ireland before, and met and stayed with Lord Hillsborough, whom he believed was especially attentive. Franklin noted of him that “all the plausible behaviour I have described is meant only, by patting and stroking the horse, to make him more patient, while the reins are drawn tighter, and the spurs set deeper into his sides.”[87] In Dublin, Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the Irish Parliament rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to receive this honor.[86] While touring Ireland, he was moved by the level of poverty he saw. Ireland’s economy was affected by the same trade regulations and laws of Britain that governed America. Franklin feared that America could suffer the same effects should Britain’s “colonial exploitation” continue.[88] In Scotland, he spent five days with Lord Kames near Stirling and stayed for three weeks with David Hume in Edinburgh.
37.6.2 Franklin in London, 1767, wearing a blue suit with elaborate gold braid and buttons, a far cry from the simple dress he affected at the French court in later years. Painting by David Martin, displayed in the White House.
Defending the American cause
One line of argument in Parliament was that Americans should pay a share of the costs of the French and Indian War, and that therefore taxes should be levied on them. Franklin became the American spokesman in highly pubFranklin spent two months in German lands in 1766, but his licized testimony in Parliament in 1766. He stated that connections to the country stretched across a lifetime. He Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the declared a debt of gratitude to German scientist Otto von Empire. He said local governments had raised, outfitted and
166
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone.[89][90] In 1773, Franklin published two of his most celebrated proAmerican satirical essays: “Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One”, and “An Edict by the King of Prussia”.[91]
37.6.3
Hutchinson letters
Main article: Hutchinson Letters Affair In June 1773 Franklin obtained private letters of Thomas Hutchinson and Andrew Oliver, governor and lieutenant governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay, that proved they were encouraging the Crown to crack down on the rights of Bostonians. Franklin sent them to America, where they escalated the tensions. The British began to regard him as the fomenter of serious trouble. Hopes for a peaceful solution ended as he was systematically ridiculed and humiliated by Solicitor-General Alexander Wedderburn, before the Privy Council on January 29, 1774. He returned to Philadelphia in March 1775, and abandoned his accommodationist stance.[92]
37.6.4
Coming of revolution
37.6.5
Declaration of Independence
John Trumbull depicts the Committee of Five presenting their work to the Congress.[95]
American Revolution had begun – with fighting between colonials and British at Lexington and Concord. The New England militia had trapped the main British army in Boston. The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose Franklin as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress. In June 1776, he was appointed a member of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Although he was temporarily disabled by gout and unable to attend most meetings of the Committee, Franklin made several “small but important”[96] changes to the draft sent to him by Thomas Jefferson.
At the signing, he is quoted as having replied to a comment by Hancock that they must all hang together: “Yes, we must, In 1763, soon after Franklin returned to Pennsylvania from indeed, all hang together, or most assuredly we shall all hang England for the first time, the western frontier was en- separately.”[97] gulfed in a bitter war known as Pontiac’s Rebellion. The Paxton Boys, a group of settlers convinced that the Pennsylvania government was not doing enough to protect them 37.6.6 Postmaster from American Indian raids, murdered a group of peaceful Susquehannock Indians and marched on Philadelphia. Franklin helped to organize a local militia to defend the Well known as a printer and publisher, Franklin was apcapital against the mob. He met with the Paxton leaders pointed postmaster of Philadelphia in 1737, holding the ofand persuaded them to disperse. Franklin wrote a scathing fice until 1753, when he and publisher William Hunter were attack against the racial prejudice of the Paxton Boys. “If named deputy postmasters–general of British North Ameran Indian injures me,” he asked, “does it follow that I may ica, the first to hold the office. Franklin was responsible for revenge that Injury on all Indians?"[93] the British colonies as far as the island of Newfoundland, He provided an early response to British surveillance opening Canada’s first post office at Halifax, Nova Scotia, through his own network of counter-surveillance and ma- while Hunter became postal administrator in Williamsburg, nipulation. “He waged a public relations campaign, secured Virginia and oversaw areas south of Annapolis, Maryland. secret aid, played a role in privateering expeditions, and Franklin reorganized the service’s accounting system, then improved speed of delivery between Philadelphia, New churned out effective and inflammatory propaganda.”[94] York and Boston. By 1761, efficiencies lead to the first profits for the colonial post office.[98] When the lands of New France were ceded to the British under the Treaty of Paris in 1763, the new British province By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on May of Quebec was created among them, and Franklin saw 5, 1775, after his second mission to Great Britain, the mail service expanded between Montreal, Trois-Rivières,
37.6. PUBLIC LIFE
167 On July 26, 1775, the Second Continental Congress established the United States Post Office and named Benjamin Franklin as the first United States Postmaster General. Franklin had been a postmaster for decades and was a natural choice for the position.[100] Franklin had just returned from England and was appointed chairman of a Committee of Investigation to establish a postal system. The report of the Committee, providing for the appointment of a postmaster general for the 13 American colonies, was considered by the Continental Congress on July 25 and 26. On July 26, 1775, Franklin was appointed Postmaster General, the first appointed under the Continental Congress. It established a postal system that became the United States Post Office, a system that continues to operate today.[101]
37.6.7
Ambassador to France: 1776–1785
Benjamin Franklin First US postage stamp Issue of 1847
Franklin, in his fur hat, charmed the French with what they perceived as rustic New World genius.[Note 2]
Benjamin Franklin on a Canada Post stamp of 2013, with colonial Quebec City in background
In December 1776, Franklin was dispatched to France as commissioner for the United States. He took with him as secretary his 16-year-old grandson, William Temple Franklin. They lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of Passy, donated by Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont, who supported the United States. Franklin remained in France until 1785. He conducted the affairs of his country toward the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance in 1778 and negotiating the Treaty of Paris (1783).
Quebec City, and New York. For the greater part of his appointment, Franklin lived in England (from 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1774) — about three-quarters of his term.[99] Eventually, his sympathies for the rebel cause in the American Revolution lead to his dismissal on January Among his associates in France was Honoré Gabriel Ri31, 1774.
168 queti, comte de Mirabeau—a French Revolutionary writer, orator and statesman who in early 1791 would be elected president of the National Assembly.[102] In July 1784, Franklin met with Mirabeau and contributed anonymous materials that the Frenchman used in his first signed work: Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus.[103] The publication was critical of the Society of the Cincinnati, established in the United States. Franklin and Mirabeau thought of it as a “noble order”, inconsistent with the egalitarian ideals of the new republic.[104]
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN the special enclosure for honoured guests when La Charlière took off from the Jardin des Tuileries, piloted by Jacques Charles and Nicolas-Louis Robert.[108][111]
37.6.8
Constitutional Convention
During his stay in France, Benjamin Franklin was active as a freemason, serving as Grand Master of the Lodge Les Neuf Sœurs from 1779 until 1781. His lodge number was 24. He was a Past Grand Master of Pennsylvania. In 1784, when Franz Mesmer began to publicize his theory of "animal magnetism" which was considered offensive by many, Louis XVI appointed a commission to investigate it. These included the chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the physician Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the astronomer Jean Sylvain Bailly, and Benjamin Franklin.[105] In 1781, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and SciFranklin’s return to Philadelphia, 1785, by Jean Leon Gerome Ferences.[106] ris
When he returned home in 1785, Franklin occupied a position only second to that of George Washington as the champion of American independence. Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by Joseph Duplessis, which now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. After his return, Franklin became an abolitionist and freed his two slaves. He eventually became president of the Pennsylvania Abolition Society.[112] While in France Franklin designed and commissioned Augustin Dupré to engrave the medallion “Libertas Americana” minted in Paris in 1783.
In 1787, Franklin served as a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention. He held an honorary position and seldom engaged in debate. He is the only Founding Father who is a signatory of all four of the major documents of the founding of the United States: the Declaration of Independence, the Treaty of Alliance with France, the Treaty of Paris and the United States Constitution.
Franklin’s advocacy for religious tolerance in France contributed to arguments made by French philosophers and politicians that resulted in Louis XVI's signing of the Edict of Versailles in November 1787. This edict effectively nullified the Edict of Fontainebleau, which had denied non- In 1787, a group of prominent ministers in Lancaster, PennCatholics civil status and the right to openly practice their sylvania, proposed the foundation of a new college named faith.[107] in Franklin’s honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the Franklin also served as American minister to Sweden, al- development of Franklin College (now called Franklin & though he never visited that country. He negotiated a treaty Marshall College). that was signed in April 1783. On August 27, 1783, in Between 1771 and 1788, he finished his autobiography. Paris, Franklin witnessed the world’s first hydrogen balloon While it was at first addressed to his son, it was later comflight.[108] Le Globe, created by professor Jacques Charles pleted for the benefit of mankind at the request of a friend. and Les Frères Robert, was watched by a vast crowd as it rose from the Champ de Mars (now the site of the Eiffel Franklin strongly supported the right to freedom of speech: Tower).[109] This so enthused Franklin that he subscribed In those wretched countries where a man canfinancially to the next project to build a manned hydrogen not call his tongue his own, he can scarce call balloon.[110] On December 1, 1783, Franklin was seated in
37.7. VIRTUE, RELIGION, AND PERSONAL BELIEFS anything his own. Whoever would overthrow the liberty of a nation must begin by subduing the freeness of speech ... Without freedom of thought there can be no such thing as wisdom, and no such thing as public liberty without freedom of speech, which is the right of every man ... —Silence Dogood no. 8, 1722
[113]
169 but there is some question regarding the de facto end of his term, suggesting that the aging Franklin may not have been actively involved in the day-to-day operation of the council toward the end of his time in office.
37.7
Virtue, religion, and personal beliefs
In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that stressed the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of blacks into American society. These writings included: • An Address to the Public (1789) • A Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks (1789) • Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade (1790)[114] In 1790, Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition to Congress. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society and its president, Benjamin Franklin.
37.6.9
President of Pennsylvania
A bust of Franklin by Jean-Antoine Houdon
Franklin autograph check signed during his Presidency of Pennsylvania
Special balloting conducted October 18, 1785, unanimously elected Franklin the sixth president of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, replacing John Dickinson. The office of president of Pennsylvania was analogous to the modern position of governor. It is not clear why Dickinson had to be replaced with less than two weeks remaining before the regular election. Franklin held that office for slightly over three years, longer than any other, and served the constitutional limit of three full terms. Shortly after his initial election he was reelected to a full term on October Voltaire blessing Franklin’s grandson, in the name of God and Lib29, 1785, and again in the fall of 1786 and on October 31, erty, by Pedro Américo 1787. Officially, his term concluded on November 5, 1788,
170
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN tan congregation in Boston, where Benjamin Franklin was baptized in 1706.[118] Franklin’s father, a poor chandler, owned a copy of a book, Bonifacius: Essays to Do Good, by the Puritan preacher and family friend Cotton Mather, which Franklin often cited as a key influence on his life.[119] Franklin’s first pen name, Silence Dogood, paid homage both to the book and to a widely known sermon by Mather. The book preached the importance of forming voluntary associations to benefit society. Franklin learned about forming do-good associations from Cotton Mather, but his organizational skills made him the most influential force in making voluntarism an enduring part of the American ethos.[120] Franklin formulated a presentation of his beliefs and published it in 1728.[121] It did not mention many of the Puritan ideas as regards belief in salvation, the divinity of Jesus, and indeed most religious dogma. He clarified himself as a deist in his 1771 autobiography,[122] although he still considered himself a Christian.[123] He retained a strong faith in a God as the wellspring of morality and goodness in man, and as a Providential actor in history responsible for American independence.[124] It was Ben Franklin who, at a critical impasse during the Constitutional Convention in June 1787, attempted to introduce the practice of daily common prayer with these words:
Benjamin Frankline by Hiram Powers
Like the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous. All his life he explored the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard’s aphorisms. Franklin felt that organized religion was necessary to keep men good to their fellow men, but rarely attended religious services himself.[115] When Franklin met Voltaire in Paris and asked this great apostle of the Enlightenment to bless his grandson, Voltaire said in English, “God and Liberty,” and added, “this is the only appropriate benediction for the grandson of Monsieur Franklin.”[116] Franklin’s parents were both pious Puritans.[117] The family attended the Old South Church, the most liberal Puri-
... In the beginning of the contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the Divine Protection. – Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a Superintending providence in our favor. ... And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance. I have lived, Sir, a long time and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth – that God governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the sacred writings that “except the Lord build they labor in vain that build it.” I firmly believe this; and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better than the Builders of Babel: ... I therefore beg leave to move – that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that service.[125]
37.7. VIRTUE, RELIGION, AND PERSONAL BELIEFS
171
However, the motion met with resistance and was never considered Franklin’s ethical writings a culmination of the brought to a vote.[126] Protestant ethic, which ethic created the social conditions [135] Franklin was an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical necessary for the birth of capitalism. minister George Whitefield during the First Great Awakening. Franklin did not subscribe to Whitefield’s theology, but he admired Whitefield for exhorting people to worship God through good works. Franklin published all of Whitefield’s sermons and journals, thereby boosting the Great Awakening.[127] When he stopped attending church, Franklin wrote in his autobiography: ... Sunday being my studying day, I never was without some religious principles. I never doubted, for instance, the existence of the Deity; that He made the world, and governed it by His providence; that the most acceptable service of God was the doing good to man; that our souls are immortal; and that all crime will be punished, and virtue rewarded, either here or hereafter.[128][129] Franklin retained a lifelong commitment to the Puritan virtues and political values he had grown up with, and through his civic work and publishing, he succeeded in passing these values into the American culture permanently. He had a “passion for virtue”.[130] These Puritan values included his devotion to egalitarianism, education, industry, thrift, honesty, temperance, charity and community spirit.[131] The classical authors read in the Enlightenment period taught an abstract ideal of republican government based on hierarchical social orders of king, aristocracy and commoners. It was widely believed that English liberties relied on their balance of power, but also hierarchal deference to the privileged class.[132] “Puritanism ... and the epidemic evangelism of the mid-eighteenth century, had created challenges to the traditional notions of social stratification”[133] by preaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class, and that all men can be saved.[133] Franklin, steeped in Puritanism and an enthusiastic supporter of the evangelical movement, rejected the salvation dogma, but embraced the radical notion of egalitarian democracy. Franklin’s commitment to teach these values was itself something he gained from his Puritan upbringing, with its stress on “inculcating virtue and character in themselves and their communities.”[134] These Puritan values and the desire to pass them on, were one of Franklin’s quintessentially American characteristics, and helped shape the character of the nation. Franklin’s writings on virtue were derided by some European authors, such as Jackob Fugger in his critical work Portrait of American Culture. Max Weber
One of Franklin’s notable characteristics was his respect, tolerance and promotion of all churches. Referring to his experience in Philadelphia, he wrote in his autobiography, “new Places of worship were continually wanted, and generally erected by voluntary Contribution, my Mite for such purpose, whatever might be the Sect, was never refused.”[128] “He helped create a new type of nation that would draw strength from its religious pluralism.”[136] The first generation of Puritans had been intolerant of dissent, but by the early 18th century, when Franklin grew up in the Puritan church, tolerance of different churches was the norm, and Massachusetts was known, in John Adams' words, as “the most mild and equitable establishment of religion that was known in the world.”[137] The evangelical revivalists who were active mid-century, such as Franklin’s friend and preacher, George Whitefield, were the greatest advocates of religious freedom, “claiming liberty of conscience to be an 'inalienable right of every rational creature.'"[138] Whitefield’s supporters in Philadelphia, including Franklin, erected “a large, new hall, that ... could provide a pulpit to anyone of any belief.”[139] Franklin’s rejection of dogma and doctrine and his stress on the God of ethics and morality and civic virtue made him the “prophet of tolerance.”[136] While he was living in London in 1774, he was present at the birth of British Unitarianism, attending the inaugural session of the Essex Street Chapel, at which Theophilus Lindsey drew together the first avowedly Unitarian congregation in England; this was somewhat politically risky, and pushed religious tolerance to new boundaries, as a denial of the doctrine of the Trinity was illegal until the 1813 Act.[140] Although Franklin’s parents had intended for him to have a career in the Church,[7] Franklin as a young man adopted the Enlightenment religious belief in deism, that God’s truths can be found entirely through nature and reason.[141] “I soon became a thorough Deist.”[142] As a young man he rejected Christian dogma in a 1725 pamphlet A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain,[143] which he later saw as an embarrassment,[144] while simultaneously asserting that God is “all wise, all good, all powerful.”[144] He defended his rejection of religious dogma with these words: “I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me.” After the disillusioning experience of seeing the decay in his own moral standards, and those of two friends in London whom he had converted to Deism, Franklin turned back to a belief in the importance of organized religion, on the pragmatic grounds that without God and organized churches,
172
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
man will not be good.[145] Moreover, because of his proposal that prayers be said in the Constitutional Convention of 1787, many have contended that in his later life Franklin became a pious Christian.[146][147] At one point, he wrote to Thomas Paine, criticizing his manuscript, The Age of Reason: For without the Belief of a Providence that takes Cognizance of, guards and guides and may favour particular Persons, there is no Motive to Worship a Deity, to fear its Displeasure, or to pray for its Protection ... think how great a Proportion of Mankind consists of weak and ignorant Men and Women, and of inexperienc'd and inconsiderate Youth of both Sexes, who have need of the Motives of Religion to restrain them from Vice, to support their Virtue, and retain them in the Practice of it till it becomes habitual, which is the great Point for its Security; And perhaps you are indebted to her originally that is to your Religious Education, for the Habits of Virtue upon which you now justly value yourself. If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it.[148]
Dissenters in England, some Doubts as to his divinity; tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and I think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble. I see no harm, however, in its being believed, if that belief has the good consequence, as it probably has, of making his doctrines more respected and better observed; especially as I do not perceive that the Supreme takes it amiss, by distinguishing the unbelievers in his government of the world with any particular marks of his displeasure.[9] On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a three-member committee composed of Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams to design the Great Seal of the United States. Franklin’s proposal (which was not adopted) featured the motto: “Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God” and a scene from the Book of Exodus, with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as pharaoh. The design that was produced was never acted upon by Congress, and the Great Seal’s design was not finalized until a third committee was appointed in 1782.[151][152]
According to David Morgan,[149] Franklin was a propo- 37.7.1 nent of religion in general. He prayed to “Powerful Goodness” and referred to God as “the infinite”. John Adams noted that Franklin was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: “The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker.” Whatever else Franklin was, concludes Morgan, “he was a true champion of generic religion.” In a letter to Richard Price, Franklin stated that he believed that religion should support itself without help from the government, claiming, “When a Religion is good, I conceive that it will support itself; and, when it cannot support itself, and God does not take care to support, so that its Professors are oblig'd to call for the help of the Civil Power, it is a sign, I apprehend, of its being a bad one.”[150]
Thirteen Virtues
In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote Franklin bust in the Archives Department of Columbia University a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale University, who had in New York City asked him his views on religion: Franklin sought to cultivate his character by a plan of 13 virtues, which he developed at age 20 (in 1726) and conAs to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of tinued to practice in some form for the rest of his life. His whom you particularly desire, I think the Sysautobiography lists his 13 virtues as: tem of Morals and his Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw or is likely to 1. "Temperance. Eat not to dullness; drink not to elevasee; but I apprehend it has received various cortion.” rupt changes, and I have, with most of the present
37.9. DEATH AND LEGACY
173
2. "Silence. Speak not but what may benefit others or sale of slaves and for the capture of runaway slaves and alyourself; avoid trifling conversation.” lowed the sale of slaves in his general store. Franklin profited from both the international and domestic slave trade, 3. "Order. Let all your things have their places; let each even criticizing slaves who had run off to join the British part of your business have its time.” Army during the colonial wars of the 1740s and 1750s. 4. “Resolution. Resolve to perform what you ought; per- Franklin, however, later became a “cautious abolitionist” and became an outspoken critic of landed gentry slavery. form without fail what you resolve.” In 1758, Franklin advocated the opening of a school for 5. "Frugality. Make no expense but to do good to others the education of black slaves in Philadelphia. After returning from England in 1762, Franklin became more antior yourself; i.e., waste nothing.” slavery, in his view believing that the institution promoted 6. “Industry. Lose no time; be always employ'd in some- black degradation rather than the idea blacks were inherthing useful; cut off all unnecessary actions.” ently inferior. By 1770, Franklin had freed his slaves and attacked the system of slavery and the international slave 7. "Sincerity. Use no hurtful deceit; think innocently and trade. Franklin, however, refused to publicly debate the isjustly, and, if you speak, speak accordingly.” sue of slavery at the 1787 Constitutional Convention. Simi8. "Justice. Wrong none by doing injuries, or omitting lar to Thomas Jefferson, Franklin tended to take both sides of the issue of slavery, never fully divesting himself from the benefits that are your duty.” the institution.[154][155] 9. "Moderation. Avoid extremes; forbear resenting injuries so much as you think they deserve.” 10. "Cleanliness. Tolerate no uncleanliness in body, cloaths, or habitation.”
37.9
Death and legacy
11. "Tranquility. Be not disturbed at trifles, or at accidents common or unavoidable.” 12. "Chastity. Rarely use venery but for health or offspring, never to dullness, weakness, or the injury of your own or another’s peace or reputation.” 13. "Humility. Imitate Jesus and Socrates.” Franklin did not try to work on them all at once. Instead, he would work on one and only one each week “leaving all others to their ordinary chance.” While Franklin did not live completely by his virtues, and by his own admission he fell short of them many times, he believed the attempt made him a better man contributing greatly to his success and happiness, which is why in his autobiography, he devoted more pages to this plan than to any other single point; in his autobiography Franklin wrote, “I hope, therefore, that some of my descendants may follow the example and reap the benefit.”[153]
37.8 Slaves and slavery During Franklin’s lifetime slaves were numerous in Philadelphia. In 1750, half the persons in Philadelphia who had established probate estates owned slaves. Dock workers in the city consisted of 15% slaves. Franklin owned as many as seven slaves, two males of whom worked in his household and his shop. Franklin posted paid ads for the
The grave of Benjamin Franklin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Franklin struggled with obesity throughout his middle-aged and later years, which resulted in multiple health problems, particularly gout, which worsened as he aged. In poor health during the signing of the US Constitution in 1787, he was rarely seen in public from then until his death. Benjamin Franklin died from pleuritic attack[156] at his home in Philadelphia on April 17, 1790, at age 84. Approximately 20,000 people attended his funeral. He was interred in Christ Church Burial Ground in Philadelphia. In 1728, aged 22, Franklin wrote what he hoped would be his own epitaph: The Body of B. Franklin Printer; Like the
174
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN immersed with a few friends in a cask of Madeira, until that time, then to be recalled to life by the solar warmth of my dear country! But in all probability, we live in a century too little advanced, and too near the infancy of science, to see such an art brought in our time to its perfection.[159] (Extended excerpt also online.)[160] His death is described in the book The Life of Benjamin Franklin, quoting from the account of Dr. John Jones: ... when the pain and difficulty of breathing entirely left him, and his family were flattering themselves with the hopes of his recovery, when an imposthume, which had formed itself in his lungs, suddenly burst, and discharged a quantity of matter, which he continued to throw up while he had power; but, as that failed, the organs of respiration became gradually oppressed; a calm, lethargic state succeeded; and on the 17th instant (April 1790), about eleven o'clock at night, he quietly expired, closing a long and useful life of eighty-four years and three months.[161]
Marble memorial statue, Benjamin Franklin National Memorial
Franklin on the Series 2009 hundred dollar bill
Cover of an old Book, Its Contents torn out, And stript of its Lettering and Gilding, Lies here, Food for Worms. But the Work shall not be wholly lost: For it will, as he believ'd, appear once more, In a new & more perfect Edition, Corrected and Amended By the Author.[157]
A signer of both the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, Franklin is considered one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. His pervasive influence in the early history of the nation has led to his being jocularly called “the only President of the United States who was never President of the United States.”[162] Franklin’s likeness is ubiquitous. Since 1928, it has adorned American $100 bills, which are sometimes referred to in slang as “Benjamins” or “Franklins.” From 1948 to 1963, Franklin’s portrait was on the half dollar. He has appeared on a $50 bill and on several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918. Franklin appears on the $1,000 Series EE Savings bond. The city of Philadelphia contains around 5,000 likenesses of Benjamin Franklin, about half of which are located on the University of Pennsylvania campus. Philadelphia’s Benjamin Franklin Parkway (a major thoroughfare) and Benjamin Franklin Bridge (the first major bridge to connect Philadelphia with New Jersey) are named in his honor.
In 1976, as part of a bicentennial celebration, Congress Franklin’s actual grave, however, as he specified in his final dedicated a 20-foot (6 m) marble statue in Philadelphia’s Franklin Institute as the Benjamin Franklin National will, simply reads “Benjamin and Deborah Franklin”.[158] Memorial. Many of Franklin’s personal possessions are also In 1773, when Franklin’s work had moved from printing to on display at the Institute, one of the few national memoriscience and politics, he corresponded with a French scienals located on private property. tist, Jacques Barbeu-Dubourg, on the subject of preserving the dead for later revival by more advanced scientific meth- In London, his house at 36 Craven Street was first marked with a blue plaque and has since been opened to the pubods, writing: lic as the Benjamin Franklin House.[163] In 1998, workmen I should prefer to an ordinary death, being restoring the building dug up the remains of six children and
37.9. DEATH AND LEGACY
175
four adults hidden below the home. The Times reported on February 11, 1998:
Initial estimates are that the bones are about 200 years old and were buried at the time Franklin was living in the house, which was his home from 1757 to 1762 and from 1764 to 1775. Most of the bones show signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One skull has been drilled with several holes. Paul Knapman, the Westminster Coroner, said yesterday: “I cannot totally discount the possibility of a crime. There is still a possibility that I may have to hold an inquest.”
The Friends of Benjamin Franklin House (the organization responsible for the restoration) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, who lived in the house for two years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man.[164]
37.9.1
Issue of 1861
Bequest
Franklin bequeathed £1,000 (about $4,400 at the time, or about $112,000 in 2011 dollars[165] ) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust to gather interest for 200 years. The trust began in 1785 when the French mathematician Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour, who admired Franklin greatly, wrote a friendly parody of Franklin’s “Poor Richard’s Almanack” called “Fortunate Richard”. The main character leaves a smallish amount of money in his will, five lots of 100 livres, to collect interest over one, two, three, four or five full centuries, with the resulting astronomical sums to be spent on impossibly elaborate utopian projects.[166] Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia. By 1990, more than $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin’s Philadelphia trust, which had loaned the money to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on scholarships for local high school students. Franklin’s Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time; at the end of its first 100 years a portion was allocated to help establish a trade school that became the Franklin Institute of Boston, and the whole fund was later dedicated to supporting this institute.[167][168]
Issue of 1895
176
37.9.2
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
Franklin on U.S. postage
Benjamin Franklin is a prominent figure in American history comparable to Washington, Jefferson and Lincoln, and as such he has been honored on U.S. postage stamps many times. The image of Franklin, the first Postmaster General of the United States, occurs on the face of U.S. postage more than any other notable American save that of George Washington.[169] Franklin appeared on the first U.S. postage stamp (displayed above) issued in 1847. From 1908 through 1923 the U.S. Post Office issued a series of postage stamps commonly referred to as the Washington-Franklin Issues where, along with George Washington, Franklin was depicted many times over a 14-year period, the longest run of any one series in U.S. postal history. Along with the regular issue stamps Franklin however only appears on a few commemorative stamps. Some of the finest portrayals of Franklin on record can be found on the engravings inscribed on the face of U.S. postage.[169]
Benjamin Franklin (seated) in the National Constitution Center, Philadelphia
was 37. Franklin invited Dashkova to become the first woman to join the American Philosophical Society; she was the only woman so honored for another 80 years. Later, Dashkova reciprocated by making him the first American member of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
37.9.5
Places and things named after Benjamin Franklin
Further information: List of places named for Benjamin Franklin Issue of 1918
As a founding father of the United States, Franklin’s name has been attached to many things. Among these are:
37.9.3
Bawdy Ben
"Advice to a Friend on Choosing a Mistress" is a letter written by Benjamin Franklin, dated June 25, 1745, in which Franklin gives advice to a young man about channeling sexual urges. Due to its licentious nature, the letter was not published in collections of Franklin’s papers in the United States during the nineteenth century. Federal court decisions from the mid- to late- twentieth century cited the document as a reason for overturning obscenity laws, using it to make a case against censorship.
37.9.4
Exhibitions
“The Princess and the Patriot: Ekaterina Dashkova, Benjamin Franklin and the Age of Enlightenment” exhibition opened in Philadelphia in February 2006 and ran through December 2006. Benjamin Franklin and Dashkova met only once, in Paris in 1781. Franklin was 75 and Dashkova
• The State of Franklin, a short-lived independent state formed during the American Revolutionary War • Counties in at least 16 U.S. states • Several major landmarks in and around Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Franklin’s longtime home, including: • Franklin and Marshall College in nearby Lancaster • Franklin Field, a football field once home to the Philadelphia Eagles of the National Football League and the home field of the University of Pennsylvania Quakers since 1895 • The Benjamin Franklin Bridge across the Delaware River between Philadelphia and Camden, New Jersey • The Franklin Institute, a science museum in Philadelphia, which presents the Benjamin Franklin Medal
37.11. SEE ALSO
177
• The Sons of Ben soccer supporters club for the Philadelphia Union • Ben Franklin Stores chain of variety stores, with a keyand-spark logo • Franklin Templeton Investments an investment firm whose New York Stock Exchange ticker abbreviation, BEN, is also in honor of Franklin • The Ben Franklin effect from the field of psychology • Benjamin Franklin Shibe, baseball executive and namesake of the longtime Philadelphia baseball stadium • Benjamin Franklin “Hawkeye” Pierce, the fictional Statue of Ben Franklin in the National Portrait Gallery in Washingcharacter from the M*A*S*H novels, film, and tele- ton, D.C. vision program • Benjamin Franklin Gates, Nicolas Cage’s character eighth child, was Josiah Franklin’s 15th child and tenth and from the National Treasure films. last son. Benjamin Franklin’s mother, Abiah Folger, was born into a Puritan family among those that fled to Massachusetts to establish a purified Congregationalist Christianity in New England, when King Charles I of England began persecuting Puritans. They sailed for Boston in 1635. Her father was “the sort of rebel destined to transform colonial America";[170] as clerk of the court, he was jailed for disobeying the local magistrate in defense of middle-class shopkeepers and artisans in conflict with wealthy landowners. Ben Franklin followed in his grandfather’s footsteps in his battles against the wealthy Penn family that owned the • Franklinia alatamaha, commonly called the Franklin Pennsylvania Colony. tree. It was named after him by his friends and fellow Philadelphians, botanists James and William Bartram. • Several US Navy ships have been named the USS Franklin or the USS Bonhomme Richard, the latter being a French translation of his penname “Poor Richard”. Two aircraft carriers, USS Franklin (CV13) and USS Bon Homme Richard (CV-31) were simultaneously in commission and in operation during World War II, and Franklin therefore had the distinction of having two simultaneously operational US Navy warships named in his honor. The French ship Franklin (1797) was also named in Franklin’s honor.
37.11 37.10 Ancestry Franklin’s father, Josiah Franklin, was a tallow chandler, a soap-maker and a candle-maker. Josiah was born at Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, on December 23, 1657, the son of Thomas Franklin, a blacksmith-farmer, and Jane White. Benjamin’s mother, Abiah Folger, was born in Nantucket, Massachusetts, on August 15, 1667, to Peter Folger (Governor Thomas Mayhew’s assistant), a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife Mary Morrill, a former indentured servant. Josiah Franklin had 17 children with his two wives. He married his first wife, Anne Child, in about 1677 in Ecton and emigrated with her to Boston in 1683; they had three children before emigrating and four after. After her death, Josiah married Abiah Folger on July 9, 1689, in the Old South Meeting House by Samuel Willard. Benjamin, their
See also
• Benjamin Franklin in popular culture • U.S. Constitution, floor leader in Convention • Thomas Birch's newly discovered Franklin letters • William Goddard (patriot/publisher), tice/partner of Franklin
appren-
• Louis Timothee, apprentice/partner of Franklin • Elizabeth Timothy, apprentice/partner of Franklin • James Parker (publisher), apprentice/partner of Franklin • Benjamin Franklin on postage stamps • Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc., by Franklin
178
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
• Order (virtue)
[8] Isaacson, (2003) p 32
• List of richest Americans in history
[9] Carl Van Doren, Benjamin Franklin. (1938).
• List of slave owners • List of opponents of slavery
37.12 Notes [1] Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as January 6, 1705. The provisions of the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days, and for those between January 1 and March 25, an advance of one year. For a further explanation, see: Old Style and New Style dates. [2] Portraits of Franklin at this time often contained an inscription, the best known being Turgot’s acclamation, "Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque tyrannis." (He snatched the lightning from the skies and the scepter from the tyrants.) Historian Friedrich Christoph Schlosser remarked at the time, with ample hyperbole, that “Such was the number of portraits, busts and medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris, that he would have been recognized from them by any adult citizen in any part of the civilized world.” – Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Franklin, Benjamin". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
37.13 References [1] Engber, Daniel (2006). “What’s Benjamin Franklin’s Birthday?". Retrieved 2009-06-17. Engber clearly explains Franklin’s confusing birthdates, which are shared by many notable people, not the least of whom are George Washington and Thomas Paine [2] “Inventor”. The Franklin Institute. Retrieved April 25, 2012. [3] H.W. Brands, The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000) [4] Isaacson 2003, p. 491
[10] “German Newspapers in the US and Canada”. Retrieved October 7, 2014. [11] Frasca, Ralph (1997). “Benjamin Franklin’s Journalism”. Fides et Historia 29 (1): 60–72. [12] Ralph Frasca, Benjamin Franklin’s Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America (2006) excerpt and text search [13] Baker, Ira L. (1977). “Elizabeth Timothy: America’s First Woman Editor”. Journalism Quarterly 54 (2): 280–285. doi:10.1177/107769907705400207. [14] Ralph Frasca, "'The Partnership at Carolina Having succeeded, was Encourag'd to Engage in Others’: The Genesis of Benjamin Franklin’s Printing Network”, Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South (2006), Vol. 13 Issue 1/2, pp 1–23. [15] Smith, Jeffery A. (1993). “Impartiality and Revolutionary Ideology: Editorial Policies of the 'South-Carolina Gazette,' 1732–1735”. Journal of Southern History 49 (4): 511–526. [16] Frasca, Ralph (2003). "'I am now about to establish a small Printing Office ... at Newhaven": Benjamin Franklin and the First Newspaper in Connecticut”. Connecticut History 44 (1): 77–87. [17] The History Channel, Mysteries of the Freemasons: America, video documentary, August 1, 2006, written by Noah Nicholas and Molly Bedell [18] “Freemasonry Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon website”. Freemasonry.bcy.ca. Retrieved September 21, 2009. [19] Van Horne, John C. “The History and Collections of the Library Company of Philadelphia,” The Magazine Antiques, v. 170. no. 2: 58–65 (1971). [20] Lemay, J. A. Leo. “Franklin, Benjamin (1706–1790),” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. ed. H. C. G. Matthew and Brian Harrison (Oxford: OUP, 2004). [21] November 1769 Letter from Deborah Read to Ben Franklin, franklinpapers.org [22] Skemp SL. William Franklin: Son of a Patriot, Servant of a King, Oxford University Press US, 1990, ISBN 0-19505745-7, p. 4
[5] Walter Isaacson, Benjamin Franklin (2003), p. 492 [6] H.W. Brands. The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin. (2010). p. 390. [7] —— (1901) [1771]. “Introduction”. Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. Macmillan’s pocket English and American classics. New York: Macmillan. p. vi. Retrieved February 1, 2011.
[23] Fleming, Thomas, The Perils of Peace: America’s Struggle for Survival, (Collins, NY, 2007) p. 30 [24] Fleming, p. 236 [25] “Editor Claude-Anne Lopez describes her 'life with Benjamin Franklin'", Yale Bulletin and Calendar, Vol. 28, No. 34, June 23, 2000, accessed November 3, 2012
37.13. REFERENCES
179
[26] Benjamin Franklin, writing anonymously (April 26, 1784). “Aux auteurs du Journal”. Journal de Paris (in French) (Duke University Press) 28 (117): 23. doi:10.2307/2922719. JSTOR 2922719. Revised English version retrieved on March 11, 2008.
[44] “Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790)", Science World, from Eric Weisstein’s World of Scientific Biography.
[27] G. V. Hudson (1898). “On seasonal time”. Trans Proc R Soc N Z 31: 577–88.
[46] Steven Johnson (2008) in The Invention of Air, p. 39, notes that Franklin published a description of the kite experiment in The Pennsylvania Gazette without claiming he had performed the experiment himself, a fact he shared with Priestley 15 years later.
[28] Benjamin Franklin. “Part three”. The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. [29] Franklin, Benjamin. “The Pennsylvania Gazette”. FranklinPapers.org, October 23, 1729 [30] Dr. Alan Houston (2008). Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement. Yale U.P. pp. 106–41.
[45] Conservation of Charge at the Wayback Machine (archived February 18, 2008). Archived February 18, 2008.
[47] Franklin’s Kite, Museum of Science, Boston. [48] Wolf, A., History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the Eighteenth Century. New York, 1939. p. 232
[31] I. Bernard Cohen (2005). The Triumph Of Numbers: How Counting Shaped Modern Life. W. W. Norton. p. 87.
[49] Krider, E. Philip. Benjamin Franklin and Lightning Rods at the Wayback Machine (archived January 10, 2006). Physics Today. January 2006. Archived January 10, 2006.
[32] James David Drake (2011). The Nation’s Nature: How Continental Presumptions Gave Rise to the United States of America. U. of Virginia Press. p. 63.
[50] Jogn Gribbin, “In search of Schrödinger’s cat”, Black Swan, p. 12
[33] Michael G. Kammen (1990). People of Paradox: An Inquiry Concerning the Origins of American Civilization. Cornell U.P. p. 81. [34] J. A. Leo Lemay (2008). The Life of Benjamin Franklin, Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748–1757. U. of Pennsylvania Press. p. 245. [35] Isaacson 2003, p. 150 [36] Owen Aldridge, Alfred (1949). “Franklin as Demographer”. Journal of Economic History 9 (1): 25–44. JSTOR 2113719. [37] George William Van Cleve (2010). A Slaveholders’ Union: Slavery, Politics, and the Constitution in the Early American Republic. U. of Chicago Press. p. 148. [38] Philip L. Richardson (February 8, 1980), “Benjamin Franklin and Timothy Folger’s first printed chart of the Gulf Stream”, Science, vol. 207, no. 4431, pp. 643–645. [39] “How Franklin’s chart resurfaced”, The Philadelphia Inquirer, posted December 18, 2005, accessed November 26, 2010 [40] John N. Wilford, “Prints of Franklin’s chart of Gulf Stream found,” New York Times (N.Y., N.Y.), pp. A1, B7 (February 6, 1980). [41] 1785: Benjamin Franklin’s 'Sundry Maritime Observations’, The Academy of Natural Sciences, April 1939 m [42] 1785: Benjamin Franklin’s 'Sundry Maritime Observations’ . NOAA Ocean Explorer. [43] Source: Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts, 1853, p. 53, by Matthew Fontaine Maury
[51] Heidorn, Keith C. Heidorn, PhD. Eclipsed By Storm. The Weather Doctor. October 1, 2003. [52] http://www.dartmouth.edu/~{}volcano/Fr373p77.html [53] Fisher, Sydney George (1903). The True Benjamin Franklin (5 ed.). Philadelphia, PA: J. B. Lippincott Company. p. 19. [54] Pocock, George (1851). A TREATISE on The Aeropleustic Art, or Navigation in the Air, by means of Kites, or Buoyant Sails. London: Longmans, Brown, and Co. p. 9. [55] “The Writings of Benjamin Franklin: London, 1757–1775”. Historycarper.com. Retrieved September 14, 2010. [56] Faraday, Michael (1839). Experimental researches in electricity 2. R. & J.E. Taylor. p. v. ... Franklin’s experiments on the non-conduction of ice ... [57] Jones, Thomas P. (1836). Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania. Pergamon Press. pp. 182–183. In the fourth series of his electrical researches, Mr. Faraday ... [58] Price, Richard; Thomas, David Oswald; Peach, Bernard (1994). The Correspondence of Richard Price: February 1786 – February 1791. Duke University Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-8223-1327-8. Retrieved October 2, 2009. [59] Bell Jr., Whitfield J., ed. (1956). “Benjamin Franklin’s 1772 letter to Joseph Priestley”. Mr. Franklin: A Selection from His Personal Letters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [60]
• W. Gratzer, Eurekas and Euphorias, pgs 80,81
[61] Bloch, Thomas. The Glassharmonica. GFI Scientific. [62] John McCrary, Chess and Benjamin Franklin-His Pioneering Contributions (PDF). Retrieved on April 26, 2009.
180
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
[63] David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld, The Oxford Companion to Chess, Oxford University Press (2nd ed. 1992), p. 145. ISBN 0-19-866164-9.
[81] “The Kate Kennedy Club”. The Kate Kennedy Club. Archived from the original on March 27, 2009. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
[64] The essay appears in Marcello Truzzi (ed.), Chess in Literature, Avon Books, 1974, pp. 14–15. ISBN 0-380-00164-0.
[82] J. A. Leo Lematy, “Franklin, Benjamin”. American National Biography Online, February 2000.
[65] The essay appears in a book by the felicitously named Norman Knight, Chess Pieces, CHESS magazine, Sutton Coldfield, England (2nd ed. 1968), pp. 5–6. ISBN 0-380-001640.
[83] Peter Charles Hoffer, Benjamin Franklin Explains the Stamp Act Protests to Parliament, 1766 (2015)
[66] Franklin’s essay is also reproduced at the U.S. Chess Center Museum and Hall of Fame in Washington, D.C. Retrieved December 3, 2008. [67] William Temple Franklin, Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Benjamin Franklin, reprinted in Knight, Chess Pieces, pp. 136–37. [68] John Kenneth Galbraith. (1975). Money: Where It Came, Whence It Went, pp. 54–54. Houghton Mifflin Company. [69] Montgomery, Thomas Harrison (1900). A History of the University of Pennsylvania from Its Foundation to A. D. 1770. Philadelphia: George W. Jacobs & Co. LCCN 00003240. [70] James N. Green, “English Books and Printing in the Age of Franklin,” in The Colonial Book in the Atlantic World (2002), 257. [71] Olsen, Neil C., Pursuing Happiness: The Organizational Culture of the Continental Congress, Nonagram Publications, ISBN 978-1-4800-6550-5 ISBN 1-4800-6550-1, 2013, p. 174 [72] Smith, Horace Wemyss, The Life and Correspondence of the Rev. Wm. Smith, D.D., Philadelphia, 1880, Volume 1: pp. 566–567. [73] Samuel Johnson, Elementa philosophica: containing chiefly, Noetica, or things relating to the mind or understanding: and Ethica, or things relating to the moral behaviour. Philadelphia, Printed by B. Franklin and D. Hall, at the new-printingoffice, near the market, 1752 [74] Olsen, pp. 163–274 [75] Olsen, p. 163 [76] Olsen, p. 308 [77] Honorary Degrees Harvard University. Retrieved August 20, 2012. [78] Honorary Degrees Yale University. Retrieved August 20, 2012.
[84] Isaacson, Walter. Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. Simon & Schuster. 2003. [85] Benjamin Franklin’s Phonetic Alphabet. Omniglot.com. [86] Sparks, Jared. Life of Benjamin Franklin. US History.org. [87] Google Books – Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin By Benjamin Franklin, Nathan Haskell Dole, 2003. Books.google.ie. March 31, 2003. ISBN 978-0-7661-43753. Retrieved September 21, 2009. [88] Benjamin Franklin. PBS.org. [89] James A. Henretta, ed. (2011). Documents for America’s History, Volume 1: To 1877. Bedford/St. Martin’s. p. 110. [90] Isaacson (2004). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. pp. 229–30. [91] Franklin, Benjamin. “reprinted on The History Carper”. [92] Sheila L. Skemp, The Making of a Patriot: Benjamin Franklin at the Cockpit (Oxford University Press; 2012) [93] Franklin, Benjamin. “A Narrative of the Late Massacres ...” reprinted on The History Carper. [94] Crews, Ed (Summer 2004). “Spies and Scouts, Secret Writing, and Sympathetic Citizens”. Colonial Williamsburg Journal (The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation). Retrieved April 19, 2009. [95] Key to Declaration American Revolution.org. [96] Isaacson, pp. 311–312 [97] Sparks, Jared (1856). The Life of Benjamin Franklin: Containing the Autobiography, with Notes and a Continuation. Boston: Whittemore, Niles and Hall. p. 408. Retrieved December 16, 2007. [98] “1753 Benjamin Franklin”, Stéphanie Ouellet, in A Chronology of Canadian Postal History, National Museum of History, Ottawa. [99] “1760-1840 Planting the Imperial Postal System in British North America”, A Chronology of Canadian Postal History, National Museum of History, Ottawa.
[79] Benjamin Franklin resume. In Search of a Better World. [100] Walter Isaacson. Benjamin Franklin: an American life, pp. Benjamin Franklin Exhibit. Retrieved August 20, 2012. 206–9, 301 [80] Buchan, James. Crowded with Genius: The Scottish Enlightenment: Edinburgh’s Moment of the Mind. HarperCollins [101] “History of the United States Postal Systems”. Inventors.about.com. Retrieved June 20, 2011. Publishers. 2003. p. 2
37.13. REFERENCES
181
[102] "The Book in the Painting: De la Caisse d'Escompte.” [122] Franklin, Benjamin (1771). Autobiography and other writisthisjefferson.org Accessed February 1, 2013. ings. Cambridge: Riverside. p. 52. [103] Considerations sur l'ordre de Cincinnatus, December 2011. [123] Olson, Roger (October 19, 2009). The Mosaic of Christian Belief: Twenty Centuries of Unity and Diversity. InterVarsity [104] Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin (The Viking Press: Press. Other Deists and natural religionists who considered New York). 1938. pp. 709–710. themselves Christians in some sense of the word included Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin. [105] Schwartz, Stephan A. "Franklin’s Forgotten Triumph: Scientific Testing" American Heritage, October 2004. [124] Isaacson, 2003, p. 486 [106] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter F” (PDF). Ameri- [125] Michael E. Eidenmuller. “Online Speech Bank: Benjamin can Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014. Franklin’s Prayer Speech at the Constitutional Convention of 1787”. Americanrhetoric.com. Retrieved September 21, [107] “Edict of Versailles (1787)", Encyclopedia of the Age of Po2009. litical Ideals, downloaded January 29, 2012 [126] Rossiter, Clinton. 1787. The Grand Convention (1966), pp. [108] Piers Letcher – Jacques Charles (May 25, 2003). Eccentric 184–85 France: Bradt Guide to mad, magical and marvellous France. Books.google.co.uk. ISBN 978-1-84162-068-8. [127] Isaacson, 2003, pp. 107–13 Retrieved March 17, 2010. [128] Franklin Benjamin “Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography”. Section 2 reprinted on UShistory.org. [109] “Science and Society, Medal commemorating Charles and Robert’s balloon ascent, Paris, 1783”. Scienceandsoci[129] “Benjamin Franklin”. History.hanover.edu. Retrieved ety.co.uk. Retrieved March 17, 2010. September 21, 2009. [110] “Fiddlers Green, History of Ballooning, Jacques Charles”. [130] Isaacson, p. 485 Fiddlersgreen.net. Retrieved June 20, 2011. [111] “Federation Aeronautique Internationale, Ballooning Com- [131] Isaacson, 2003, p.149 mission, Hall of Fame, Robert Brothers”. Fai.org. Archived [132] Bailyn, 1992, pp. 273–4, 299–300 from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved March 17, 2010. [133] Bailyn, 1992, p. 303 [112] Citizen Ben, Abolitionist, PBS
[134] Isaacson, 2003, pp. 10, 102, 489
[113] Coffman, Steve, ed. (2012). Words of the Founding Fathers: [135] Weber, Max The Protestant Ethic and the “Spirit of Capitalism”, (Penguin Books, 2002), translated by Peter Baehr and Selected Quotations of Franklin, Washington, Adams, JefferGordon C. Wells, pp. 9–11 son, Madison and Hamilton, with Sources. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-7864-5862-2. [136] Isaacson,2003 pp. 93ff [114] Myra Jehlen, Michael Warner, editors, The English Literatures of America, 1500-1800, Psychology Press, p 891 1997, [137] Bailyn, 1992, p. 248 ISBN 0415919037 [138] Bailyn, 1992, p. 249 [115] Franklin, Autobiography, ed. Lemay, p. 65
[139] Isaacson, 2003, p. 112
[116] Isaacson, 2003, p. 354
[140] “Chapter 2, The History of Essex Hall by Mortimer Rowe B.A., D.D. Lindsey Press, 1959”. Unitarian.org.uk. Retrieved June 20, 2011.
[117] Isaacson, 2003, pp. 5–18
[118] Old South Church. “Isaacson, 2003, p. 15”. Oldsouth.org. [141] Isaacson, 2003, p. 46 Archived from the original on May 31, 2008. Retrieved September 21, 2009. [142] Franklin, Benjamin. Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography. Chapter IV. reprinted on USGenNet.org. [119] “If I have been,” Franklin wrote to Cotton Mather’s son seventy years later, “a useful citizen, the public owes the advan- [143] “A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and tage of it to that book.” in Isaacson, 2003, p. 26 Pain”. Historycarper.com. Retrieved September 21, 2009. [120] Isaacson, 2003, p. 102
[144] Isaacson, Walter (November 30, 2004). Isaacson, 2003, p. 45. Google Books. ISBN 978-0-684-80761-4. Retrieved [121] Franklin, Benjamin (November 20, 1728). “Articles of September 21, 2009. Belief and Acts of Religion”. Benjamin Franklin Papers. franklinpapers.org. Retrieved December 24, 2010. [145] Isaacson, 2003, p 46, 486
182
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
[146] Henry Louis Mencken, George Jean Nathan (October 19, [165] Measuring Worth Select $4,400 and 1790 and 2011 in online 2009). The American Mercury, Volume 8. Garber Comcalculator munications. It is well known that in his youth Benjamin Franklin was a thorough-going Deist, but because he pro- [166] Richard Price. Observations on the Importance of the American Revolution, and the Means of Making it a Benefit to the posed that prayers be said in the Constitution Convention World. To which is added, a Letter from M. Turgot, late of 1787 many have contended that in later life he became a Comptroller-General of the Finances of France: with an Appious Christian. pendix, containing a Translation of the Will of M. Fortuné [147] Ralph Frasca (October 19, 2009). Benjamin Franklin’s Ricard, lately published in France. London: T. Cadell, 1785. Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America. University of Missouri Press. Despite being raised a Puritan [167] “Excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon”. Mathsci.appstate.edu. February 7, 1993. Retrieved of the Congregationalist stripe by his parents, who “brought September 21, 2009. me through my Childhood piously in the Dissenting Way,” Franklin recalled, he abandoned that denomination, briefly embraced deism, and finally became a non-denominational [168] “History of the Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology”. Bfit.edu. Archived from the original on July 31, 2008. ReProtestant Christian. trieved September 21, 2009. [148] “Historical Writings – Benjamin Franklin’s letter to Thomas Paine”. WallBuilders. September 11, 2001. Retrieved [169] Scotts Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps September 21, 2009. [170] Isaacson 2003, p. 14 [149] Morgan, David T. “Benjamin Franklin: Champion of [171] Salzman, Rob. “Thomas Franckline / Jane White”. eGeneric Religion”. The Historian. 62#4 2000. pp 722+ familytree.net. Retrieved January 20, 2011. [150] Benjamin Franklin to Richard Price, October 9, 1780 Writings 8:153–54 [172] Salzman, Rob. “Benjamin Franklin / Deborah Read”. efamilytree.net. Retrieved January 20, 2011. [151] "The Great Seal of the United States" (July 2003). Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State. [152] “1782: Original Design of the Great Seal of the United States,” Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents from the National Archives. National Archives (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 18–19. [153] Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin page 38 forward by Benjamin Franklin [154] Hoffer (2011), pp. 30–31 [155] Waldstreicher (2004), p. xii, xiii [156] Isaacson, Walter (2003). Benjamin Franklin: an American life. New York: Simon & Schuster. [157] Benjamin Franklin: In His Own Words. Library of Congress. [158] The Last Will and Testament of Benjamin Franklin. The Franklin Institute Science Museum. [159] The Doctor Will Freeze You Now from Wired.com [160] Engines of Creation E-drexler.com [161] Sparks, pp 529–530. [162] Firesign Theater quote, meant humorously but poignantly.
37.14
Further reading
37.14.1
Biographies
• Becker, Carl Lotus. “Benjamin Franklin”, Dictionary of American Biography (1931) – vol 3, with hot links online • Brands, H. W. The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin (2000) – excellent long scholarly biography excerpt and text search • Isaacson, Walter (2003). Benjamin Franklin: An American Life. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7432-6084-8., well written popular biography • Ketcham, Ralph. Benjamin Franklin (1966) 228 pp online edition, short biography by scholar • Lemay, J. A. Leo. The Life of Benjamin Franklin, the most detailed scholarly biography, with very little interpretation; 3 volumes appeared before the author’s death in 2008
[163] “Benjamin Franklin House”. Benjamin Franklin House. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
• Volume 1: Journalist, 1706–1730 (2005) 568pp excerpt and text search
[164] The Craven Street Gazette (PDF), Newsletter of the Friends of Benjamin Franklin House, Issue 2, Autumn 1998
• Volume 2: Printer and Publisher, 1730–1747 (2005) 664pp; excerpt and text search
37.14. FURTHER READING • Volume 3: Soldier, Scientist, and Politician, 1748–1757 (2008), 768pp excerpt and text search • Morgan, Edmund S. Benjamin Franklin (2003) the best short introduction excerpt and text search, interpretation by leading scholar • Schiff, Stacy, A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America, (2005) Henry Holt • Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin (1938), standard older biography excerpt and text search • Wood, Gordon. The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin (2005), influential intellectual history by leading historian. excerpt and text search • Wright, Esmond. Franklin of Philadelphia (1986) – excellent scholarly study excerpt and text search For young readers • Asimov, Isaac. The Kite That Won the Revolution, a biography for children that focuses on Franklin’s scientific and diplomatic contributions. • Fleming, Candace. Ben Franklin’s Almanac: Being a True Account of the Good Gentleman’s Life. Atheneum/Anne Schwart, 2003, 128 pages, ISBN 978-0-689-83549-0.
37.14.2
Scholarly studies
183 • Ford, Paul Leicester. The Many-Sided Franklin (1899) online edition – collection of scholarly essays • “Franklin as Printer and Publisher” in The Century (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803–18. • “Franklin as Scientist” in The Century (September 1899) v.57 pp. 750–63. By Paul Leicester Ford. • “Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist” in The Century (October 1899) v. 57 pp. 881–899. By Paul Leicester Ford. • Gleason, Philip. “Trouble in the Colonial Melting Pot.” Journal of American Ethnic History 2000 20(1): 3–17. ISSN 0278-5927 Full text online in Ingenta and Ebsco. Considers the political consequences of the remarks in a 1751 pamphlet by Franklin on demographic growth and its implications for the colonies. He called the Pennsylvania Germans “Palatine Boors” who could never acquire the “Complexion” of the English settlers and to “Blacks and Tawneys” as weakening the social structure of the colonies. Although Franklin apparently reconsidered shortly thereafter, and the phrases were omitted from all later printings of the pamphlet, his views may have played a role in his political defeat in 1764. • Houston, Alan. Benjamin Franklin and the Politics of Improvement (2009) • Lemay, J. A. Leo, ed. Reappraising Benjamin Franklin: A Bicentennial Perspective (1993) – scholarly essays
• Anderson, Douglas. The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin (1997) – fresh look at the intellectual roots of Franklin
• Mathews, L. K. “Benjamin Franklin’s Plans for a Colonial Union, 1750–1775.” American Political Science Review 8 (August 1914): 393–412.
• Buxbaum, M.H., ed. Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin (1987)
• Olson, Lester C. Benjamin Franklin’s Vision of American Community: A Study in Rhetorical Iconology. (2004). 323 pp.
• Chaplin, Joyce. The First Scientific American: Benjamin Franklin and the Pursuit of Genius. (2007) • Cohen, I. Bernard. Benjamin Franklin’s Science (1990) – Cohen, the leading specialist, has several books on Franklin’s science
• McCoy, Drew R. (1978). “Benjamin Franklin’s Vision of a Republican Political Economy for America”. William and Mary Quarterly 35 (4): 607–628. JSTOR 1923207.
• Dull, Jonathan. A Diplomatic History of the American Revolution (1985)
• Newman, Simon P. “Benjamin Franklin and the Leather-Apron Men: The Politics of Class in Eighteenth-Century Philadelphia,” Journal of American Studies, August 2009, Vol. 43#2 pp 161–175; Franklin took pride in his working class origins and his printer’s skills.
• Dray, Philip. Stealing God’s Thunder: Benjamin Franklin’s Lightning Rod and the Invention of America. (2005). 279 pp.
• Schiff, Stacy. A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America (2005) (UK title Dr Franklin Goes to France)
• Conner, Paul W. Poor Richard’s Politicks (1965) – analyzes Franklin’s ideas in terms of the Enlightenment and republicanism
184
CHAPTER 37. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
• Schiffer, Michael Brian. Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment. (2003). 383 pp.
• Houston, Alan, ed. Franklin: The Autobiography and other Writings on Politics, Economics, and Virtue. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 371 pp.
• Stuart Sherman “Franklin” 1918 article on Franklin’s writings.
• Ketcham, Ralph, ed. The Political Thought of Benjamin Franklin. (1965, reprinted 2003). 459 pp.
• Skemp, Sheila L. Benjamin and William Franklin: Father and Son, Patriot and Loyalist (1994) - Ben’s son was a leading Loyalist
• Leonard Labaree, and others., eds., The Papers of Benjamin Franklin, 39 vols. to date (1959–2008), definitive edition, through 1783. This massive collection of BF’s writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics. The complete text of all the documents are online and searchable; The Index is also online at the Wayback Machine (archived September 28, 2010).
• Sletcher, Michael. 'Domesticity: The Human Side of Benjamin Franklin', Magazine of History, XXI (2006). • Waldstreicher, David. Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution. Hill and Wang, 2004. 315 pp. • Walters, Kerry S. Benjamin Franklin and His Gods. (1999). 213 pp. Takes position midway between D. H. Lawrence’s brutal 1930 denunciation of Franklin’s religion as nothing more than a bourgeois commercialism tricked out in shallow utilitarian moralisms and Owen Aldridge's sympathetic 1967 treatment of the dynamism and protean character of Franklin’s “polytheistic” religion. • York, Neil. “When Words Fail: William Pitt, Benjamin Franklin and the Imperial Crisis of 1766,” Parliamentary History, October 2009, Vol. 28#3 pp 341– 374
37.14.3
Primary sources
• Silence Dogood, The Busy-Body, & Early Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 one-volume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-93108222-8 • Autobiography, Poor Richard, & Later Writings (J.A. Leo Lemay, ed.) (Library of America, 1987 onevolume, 2005 two-volume) ISBN 978-1-883011-53-6 • Bailyn, Bernard, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1992)
• "The Way to Wealth.” Applewood Books; November 1986. ISBN 0-918222-88-5 • "Poor Richard’s Almanack.” Peter Pauper Press; November 1983. ISBN 0-88088-918-7 • Poor Richard Improved by Benjamin Franklin (1751) • "Writings (Franklin)|Writings.” ISBN 0-940450-29-1 • "On Marriage.” • "Satires and Bagatelles.” • "A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain.” • "Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School.” Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. May 2003. ISBN 1-58394-079-0 • "Heroes of America Benjamin Franklin.” • "Experiments and Observations on Electricity.” (1751)
37.15
External links
• Lesson plans for high schools from National Endowment for the Humanities
• Benjamin Franklin papers, M. S. Coll. 900, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Finding aid
• Benjamin Franklin and Electrostatics experiments and Franklin’s electrical writings from Wright Center for Science Education
• Benjamin Franklin Reader edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)
• Animated Hero Classics: Benjamin Franklin (1993) at the Internet Movie Database
• Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography edited by J. A. Leo Lemay and P. M. Zall, (Norton Critical Editions, 1986); 390pp; text, contemporary documents and 20th century analysis
• Franklin’s impact on medicine – talk by medical historian, Dr. Jim Leavesley celebrating the 300th anniversary of Franklin’s birth on Okham’s Razor ABC Radio National – December 2006
37.15. EXTERNAL LINKS • Benjamin Franklin at Find a Grave Biographical and guides • Special Report: Citizen Ben’s Greatest Virtues Time Magazine • Finding Franklin: A Resource Guide Library of Congress • Guide to Benjamin Franklin By a history professor at the University of Illinois. • Benjamin Franklin: An extraordinary life PBS • Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat, 1776– 1785 US State Department • The Electric Benjamin Franklin ushistory.org • Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History by J. A. Leo Lemay • Benjamin Franklin 1706–1790 Text of biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 • Cooperative Hall of Fame testimonial for founding the Philadelphia Contributionship • Online edition of Franklin’s personal library • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Franklin, Benjamin". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., “Benjamin Franklin”, MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, University of St Andrews.
185 • “Dialogue Between Franklin and the Gout” Creative Commons audio recording. • American Institute of Physics – Letter IV: Farther Experiments (PDF), and Letter XI: Observations in electricity (PDF) • Franklin’s 13 Virtues Extract of Franklin’s autobiography, compiled by Paul Ford. • Franklin’s Last Will & Testament Transcription. • Library of Congress web resource: Benjamin Franklin ... In His Own Words • “A SILENCE DOGOOD SAMPLER” – Selections from Benjamin Franklin’s Silence Dogood writings • Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer (1773), by Benjamin Franklin and Francis Dashwood, transcribed by Richard Mammana Autobiography • The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin Single page version, UShistory.org • The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin text and audio at PublicLiterature.org • The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin from American Studies at the University of Virginia • The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin at Project Gutenberg • The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin LibriVox recording
• Benjamin Franklin at C-SPAN's American Writers: A In the arts Journey Through History • Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706–2006) Official web site • Booknotes interview with James Srodes on Franklin: of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary. The Essential Founding Father, May 19, 2002. • The Historical Society of Pennsylvania Collection of Benjamin Franklin Papers, including correspondence, Online writings government documents, writings and a copy of his will, are available for research use at the Historical So• Yale edition of complete works, the standard scholarly ciety of Pennsylvania. edition • The Benjamin Franklin House Franklin’s only surviv• Works by Benjamin Franklin at Project Gutenberg ing residence. • Works by or about Benjamin Franklin at Internet Archive
• Ben Franklin Birthplace A historic site, link provides location and map.
• Works by Benjamin Franklin at LibriVox (public do-
• Franklin and Music
main audiobooks) • Online Works by Benjamin Franklin
• "Benjamin Franklin", a poem by Florence Earle Coates
Chapter 38
Jared Ingersoll Jared Ingersoll (October 24, 1749 – October 31, der Jared Ingersoll as Stamp Master, the colonial agent in 1822) was an early American lawyer and statesman from London, for the colony of Connecticut. As the next few Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. months passed and animosity over the Stamp Act grew, InHe was a delegate of Pennsylvania to the Continental gersoll became the most hated man in the Colony. On August 21 of that year the Sons of Liberty hung his effigy in Congress and signer of the U.S. Constitution. Ingersoll also Virginia.[4] He served as Pennsylvania state attorney general, 1791–1800 New London, Connecticut and in Norwich, [5] wrote an account of Isaac Barre's speech made during the and 1811–1816 and as the United States Attorney for PennParliamentary debate on the Stamp Act to the governor of [1][2] sylvania, 1800-1801. Connecticut, Thomas Fitch. He would later be involved in He joined DeWitt Clinton on the Federalist ticket in the a controversial role as the agent who enforced the resulting 1812 election, but was defeated by James Madison and Stamp Act in Connecticut.[1][6] Elbridge Gerry.[2] The younger Ingersoll completed Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven in 1762,[7] graduated from Yale College in 1766, studied law in Philadelphia, and was admitted 38.1 Life and career to the Pennsylvania bar in 1773.[8][9] Although by training and inclination a Patriot sympathizer, the young Ingersoll Jared Ingersoll was a supporter of the Revolutionary cause. shied away from the cause at the outset because of a strong His training as a lawyer convinced him that the problems of sense of personal loyalty to his distinguished father. On the newly independent states were caused by the inadequacy his father’s advice, he sought to escape the growing politiof the Articles of Confederation. He became an early and cal controversy at home by retiring to London to continue ardent proponent of constitutional reform, although, like a his study of the law at the Middle Temple School (1773– number of his colleagues at the Constitutional Convention, 76) and to tour extensively through Europe.[10] He spent he believed this reform could be achieved by a simple re- more than eighteen months in Paris, where he formed the vision of the Articles. Only after weeks of debate did he acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin.[11] come to see that a new document was necessary.[3] Ironi- Shortly after the colonies declared their independence, Incally, his major contribution to the cause of constitutional gersoll renounced his family’s views, made his personal government came not during the Convention, but later dur- commitment to the cause of independence, and returned ing a lengthy and distinguished legal career when he helped home. In 1778 he arrived in Philadelphia as a confirmed define many of the principles enunciated at Philadelphia. Patriot. With the help of influential friends he quickly established a flourishing law practice, and shortly after he entered the fray as a delegate to the Continental Congress (1780– 38.1.1 Career before the Constitutional 81). In 1781 Ingersoll married Elizabeth Pettit.[9] Always a Convention supporter of strong central authority in political affairs, he became a leading agitator for reforming the national govBorn in New Haven, Connecticut, Ingersoll was the son of ernment in the postwar years, preaching the need for change Jared Ingersoll (1722–1781),[1] a prominent British official to his friends in Congress and to the legal community.[2] whose strong Loyalist sentiments would lead to his being tarred and feathered by radical Patriots.[3] In 1765, the year the Stamp Act was imposed on the colonies in America, the British Crown appointed the el186
38.2. DEATH
38.1.2
187
Contributions to the Constitutional 38.2 Convention
Death
Jared Ingersoll died in Philadelphia at the age of 73 and was survived by three children; interment was in the Old At the Convention, Ingersoll was counted among those who Pine Street Church Cemetery, Fourth and Pine Streets.[9] favored revision of the existing Articles of Confederation, Ingersoll Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named after Jared but in the end he joined with the majority and supported Ingersoll.[12] a plan for a new federal government. Despite his national reputation as an attorney, Ingersoll seldom participated in the Convention debates, although he attended all sessions.
38.3
Notes
[1] “Jared Ingersoll (1749-1822)". University of Pennsylvania . Retrieved 24 October 2010.
38.1.3
Career after the Constitutional Convention
Once the new national government was created, Ingersoll returned to the law. Except for a few excursions into politics—he was a member of Philadelphia’s Common Council (1789), and, as a stalwart Federalist who considered the election of Thomas Jefferson in 1800 a “great subversion,” he ran unsuccessfully for Vice President on the Federalist ticket in 1812—his public career centered on legal affairs. He served as attorney general of Pennsylvania (1790–99 and 1811–17),[1] as Philadelphia’s city solicitor (1798–1801), and as U.S. district attorney for Pennsylvania (1800–1801). For a brief period (1821–22), he sat as presiding judge of the Philadelphia district court.
[2] “Jared Ingersoll, Find a Grave”. Find a Grave . Retrieved 24 October 2010. [3] “Jared Ingersoll--Pennsylvania”. Center of Military HistoryUnited States Army, 1987 . Retrieved 24 October 2010. [4] “The Story of the Connecticut Sons of Liberty”. Connecticut, Sons of the American Revolution, founded 1889 . Retrieved 25 October 2010. [5] Jared Ingersoll to Thomas Fitch, 11 Feb. 1765 [6] “Jared Ingersoll to Thomas Fitch, 11 Feb. 1765”. Prof.Jeffery Pasley, University of Missouri-Columbia . Retrieved 24 October 2010. [7] Thom Peters (Fall 2009). “From the Archives” (PDF). Views from the Hill (Hopkins School). p. 52. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
Ingersoll’s major contribution to the cause of constitutional [8] Biographical Directory of the United States Congress. government came not during the Convention, but later dur“INGERSOLL, Jared, (1749 - 1822)". Biographical Direcing a lengthy and distinguished legal career, when he helped tory of the United States Congress . Retrieved 29 October define many of the principles enunciated at Philadelphia. 2010. He made his contributions to the Constitutional process through several Supreme Court cases that defined various [9] “Jared Ingersoll, Pennsylvania”. The National Archives . Rebasic points in Constitutional law during the beginning of trieved 24 October 2010. the new republic. In one definitive case he represented Georgia in Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), a landmark case [10] “JBiographical Sketches, JARED INGERSOLL, Pennsylvania”. National Park Service . Retrieved 24 October 2010. in states’ rights. Here the court decided against him, ruling that a state may be sued in federal court by a citizen of an[11] Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1892). "Ingersoll, other state. This reversal of the notion of state sovereignty Jared". Appletons’ Cyclopædia of American Biography. New was later rescinded by the Eleventh Amendment to the ConYork: D. Appleton. stitution. In representing Hylton in Hylton v. US (1796), Ingersoll was also involved in the first legal challenge to [12] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp the constitutionality of an act of Congress. In this case, the Supreme Court upheld the government’s right to impose a tax on carriages.[3] Ingersoll also served as counsel in various cases that helped clarify constitutional issues con- 38.4 References cerning the jurisdiction of federal courts and U.S. relations • Jared Ingersoll at the Biographical Directory of the with other sovereign nations, including defending Senator William Blount of Tennessee against impeachment. United States Congress
188 • This article incorporates text from Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution written by Robert K. Wright, Jr. and Morris J. MacGregor, Jr. Center of Military History United States Army Washington, D.C., 1987. released in the Public Domain. . • America and its peoples: a mosaic in the making / James Kirby Martin ... [et al.].−5th ed.
CHAPTER 38. JARED INGERSOLL
Chapter 39
Thomas Mifflin Thomas Mifflin (January 10, 1744 – January 20, 1800) was an American merchant and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He was a major general in the Continental Army and the 1st and 3rd Quartermaster General during the American Revolution, a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, a Continental Congressman from Pennsylvania, President of the Continental Congress, and a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Several of these activities qualify him to be counted among the Founding Fathers. He served as Speaker of the Pennsylvania House of Representatives, President of the Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council and the first Governor of Pennsylvania.
39.1 Early life Thomas Mifflin was born January 10, 1744 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, son of John Mifflin and Elizabeth Bagnall. He graduated from the College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania) in 1760, and joined the mercantile business of William Biddle. After returning from a trip to Europe in 1765, he established a commercial business partnership with his brother, George Mifflin, and married his cousin, Sarah Morris, on March 4, 1765.[1] He was a member of the American Philosophical Society.
His leadership in battle gained him promotions to colonel and then brigadier general. He asked to be relieved of the job of Quartermaster General, but was persuaded to resume those duties because Congress was having difficulty finding a replacement. In Congress, there was debate regarding whether a national army was more efficient or if individual states should maintain their own forces. As a result of this debate the Congressional Board of War was created, on which Mifflin served from 1777 to 1778. He then rejoined the army but took little active role, following criticism of his service as quartermaster general. He was accused of embezzlement and welcomed an inquiry; however, one never took place. He resigned his commission—by then, as a major general—but Congress continued to ask his advice even after accepting his resignation.
39.3
Political career
Prior to Independence, Thomas Mifflin was a member of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly (1772–1776). He served two terms in the Continental Congress (1774–1775 and 1782–1784), including seven months (November 1783 to June 1784) as that body’s presiding officer. His most important duty as president was to accept on behalf of Congress the commission of General George Washington, who resigned in December 1783. The importance of Congress declined so precipitously after the war that Mif39.2 American Revolution flin found it difficult to convince the states to send enough of Paris, which Early in the Revolutionary War, Mifflin left the Continen- delegates to Congress to ratify the Treaty [4] finally took place on January 14, 1784. tal Congress to serve in the Continental Army. Although his family had been Quakers for four generations, he was Mifflin was a delegate to the United States Constituexpelled from the Religious Society of Friends because his tional Convention in 1787, as well as a signer of the involvement with a military force contradicted his faith’s Constitution.[1] He served in the house of Pennsylvania pacifistic nature.[2] He was commissioned as a major, then General Assembly (1785–1788). He was a member of became George Washington's aide-de-camp and, on August the Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of 14, 1775 Washington appointed him to become the army’s Pennsylvania, and on November 5, 1788, he was elected first Quartermaster General under order of Congress.[3] He President of the Council, replacing Benjamin Franklin. He was good at the job, but preferred to be on the front lines. was unanimously reelected to the Presidency on Novem189
190
CHAPTER 39. THOMAS MIFFLIN
ber 11, 1789.[5] He presided over the committee that wrote Pennsylvania’s 1790 State Constitution. That document did away with the Executive Council, replacing it with a single Governor. On December 21, 1790 Mifflin became the last President of Pennsylvania and the first Governor of the Commonwealth. He held the latter office until December 17, 1799, when he was succeeded by Thomas McKean. He then returned to the state legislature, where he served until his death the following month. Mifflin decreed that no less than six towns in Pennsylvania bear his name.
39.4 Death and legacy Mifflin died in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, January 23, 1800.[6] He is buried in front of Trinity Lutheran Church in Lancaster. A Commonwealth of Pennsylvania historical marker at the church commemorates both Thomas Wharton and Mifflin, the first and last Presidents of Pennsylvania under the 1776 State Constitution. The marker, dedicated in 1975, is located on Duke Street in Lancaster.[7] It reads: Holy Trinity Lutheran Church Founded in 1730. A session for an Indian treaty was held in the original church building in 1762. The present edifice was dedicated in 1766. Here are interred the remains of Thomas Wharton (1778) and Gov. Thomas Mifflin (1800).
39.4.1
Entities named after Mifflin
• Mifflin County, Pennsylvania • Governor Mifflin School District • Mifflinburg, Pennsylvania • Mifflintown, Pennsylvania • Mifflinville, Pennsylvania • Mifflin Cross Roads, Pennsylvania • Mifflin Township, Lycoming County, Pennsylvania
• Mifflin Hall (the main building at the US Army Quartermaster Center and School at Fort Lee, Virginia Decommissioned July 30, 2010)[9] • Mifflin Hall (the U.S. Army Sustainment Center of Excellence Headquarters at Fort Lee, Virginia) • Mifflin Hall (dormitory at the Pennsylvania State University University Park Campus)[10] • Thomas Mifflin School, School District of Philadelphia • Mifflin Avenue, in Scranton, Pennsylvania • Mifflin Street, Madison WI • Mifflin Street, Philadelphia PA • Dunder Mifflin, the fictional paper distribution company, is a parody of the large number of entities named after Mifflin.
39.5
Footnotes
[1] Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission entry for Thomas Mifflin, accessed May 2, 2007. [2] adherents.com entry for Thomas Mifflin [3] Risch 30-31 [4] John K. Alexander, “Mifflin, Thomas”, American National Biography Online, February 2000. [5] Minutes of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania, from its organization to the termination of the Revolution. [March 4, 1777 – December 20, 1790]. Harrisburg, Pub. by the State, 1852-53. [6] Robert K. Wright, Jr.; Morris J. MacGregor, Jr. (1987). “Thomas Mifflin”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 26 November 2013. [7] Pennsylvania State Historical Marker for Thomas Mifflin
• Upper Mifflin Township, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania
[8] History of Mifflin Township, Franklin County, Ohio accessed May 24, 2010.
• Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania
[9] History of Quartermaster Center, Fort Lee, Virginia accessed May 2010.
• Several townships in Ohio[8] • West Mifflin, Pennsylvania
[10] History of Mifflin Hall, Penn State University Pennsylvania State University, accessed May 2010.
39.7. EXTERNAL LINKS
39.6 References • Taffe, Stephen R. (2003). The Philadelphia Campaign 1777–1778. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1267-X. • Boatner, Mark M. III (1974). Encyclopedia of the American Revolution. New York: David Mckay Company, Inc. ISBN 0-679-50440-0. • • Thomas Mifflin at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Risch, Erna (1981). Supplying Washington’s Army. Washington, D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History. • Rowe, G. S. (1978). Thomas Mifflin: The Shaping of an American Republican. Boulder: University of Colorado Press. • Tinckom, Harry M. (1950). The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania. Harrisburg: Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. pp. 113–134. • Rossum, Kenneth R. (1952). Thomas Mifflin and the Politics of the American Revolution. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
39.7 External links • Brief biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania • Biography and portrait at Quartermasters-General • Thomas Mifflin at Find a Grave
191
Chapter 40
Gouverneur Morris Gouverneur Morris (January 31, 1752 – November 6, 1816) was an American statesman, a Founding Father of the United States, and a native of New York City who represented Pennsylvania in the Constitutional Convention of 1787. He was a signatory to the Articles of Confederation. Morris was also an author of large sections of the Constitution of the United States and one of its signers. He is widely credited as the author of the document’s preamble, and has been called the “Penman of the Constitution.”[1] In an era when most Americans thought of themselves as citizens of their respective states, Morris advanced the idea of being a citizen of a single union of states.[2]
Congress, and took his seat in Congress on 28 January 1778. He was immediately selected to a committee in charge of coordinating reforms of the military with George Washington. After witnessing the army encamped at Valley Forge, he was so appalled by the conditions of the troops that he became the spokesman for the Continental Army in Congress, and subsequently helped enact substantial reforms in its training, methods, and financing. He also signed the Articles of Confederation in 1778. In 1778, when the Conway Cabal was at its peak, some members of the Continental Congress attempted a vote-ofno-confidence against George Washington. If it had succeeded, then George Washington would have been courtmartialed and dismissed as Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. At that time, Gouvernor Morris cast the decisive tie-breaking vote in favor of keeping George Washington as Commander-in-Chief. [6]
His first name came from his mother, whose maiden name was Sarah Gouverneur from a Huguenot family that had first moved to Holland then to New Amsterdam.[3] According to Abigail Adams, it was pronounced “governeer.”[4] A gifted scholar, Morris enrolled in 1764, at age 12, at King’s College, now Columbia College of Columbia University in New In 1779, he was defeated for re-election to Congress, largely York City. He graduated in 1768 and received a Master’s because his advocacy of a strong central government was degree in 1771. at odds with the decentralist views prevalent in New York. Defeated in his home state, he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to work as a lawyer and merchant.
40.1 Political career
In 1780, Morris’s left leg was shattered and had to be amputated, resulting in Morris using a wooden pegleg. His contemporary account was that he broke his leg when mounting or driving his carriage, and that his leg then got caught in the spokes of one of the carriage wheels. Morris was well known for having many affairs, with both married and unmarried women, and jokes (some by Morris) and gossip caused some observers to later suggest that he injured his leg while fleeing a jealous husband.[7]
On May 8, 1775,[5] Morris was elected to represent his family estate in southern Westchester County (now Bronx County), in the New York Provincial Congress. As a member of the congress, he, along with most of his fellow delegates, concentrated on turning the colony into an independent state. However, his advocacy of independence brought him into conflict with his family, as well as with his mentor, William Smith, who had abandoned the patriot cause when Despite an automatic exemption from military duty because it pressed toward independence. Morris was a member of of his handicap and his service in the legislature, he joined the New York State Assembly in 1777–78. a special “briefs” club for the protection of New York City, After the Battle of Long Island in August 1776, the British a forerunner of the modern New York Guard. seized New York City and his family’s estate across the In Philadelphia, he was appointed assistant superintendent Harlem River from Manhattan. His mother, a loyalist, gave of finance (1781–1785), and he was a Pennsylvania delegate the estate to the British for military use. to the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He resumed his Morris was appointed as a delegate to the Continental residence in New York in 1788. 192
40.1. POLITICAL CAREER Before the Constitutional Convention, Morris lived in Philadelphia where he worked as a merchant for some time. After that, he began to become interested in financial affairs, so he started to work with Robert Morris (no relation). Robert Morris and George Washington then recommended him for the convention because of what he did. During the Philadelphia Convention, he was a friend and ally of George Washington and others who favored a strong central government. Morris was elected to serve on a committee of five (chaired by William Samuel Johnson) who drafted the final language of the proposed constitution. Catherine Drinker Bowen, in Miracle at Philadelphia, called Morris the committee’s "amanuensis,” meaning that it was his pen that was responsible for most of the draft, as well as its final polished form.[8] It is said by some that Morris was “an aristocrat to the core,” who believed that “there never was, nor ever will be a civilized Society without an Aristocracy”.[9] It is also alleged that he thought that common people were incapable of selfgovernment because he feared that the poor would sell their votes to the rich, and that consequently, he thought that voting should be restricted to property owners.
193 tion marks the prosperity & happiness of the people, with the misery & poverty which overspread the barren wastes of Va. Maryd. & the other States having slaves. ... Proceed southwardly, and every step you take, through the great regions of slaves, presents a desert increasing with the increasing proportion of these wretched beings. Upon what principle is it that the slaves shall be computed in the representation? Are they men? Then make them citizens, and let them vote. Are they property? Why, then, is no other property included? The Houses in this city [Philadelphia] are worth more than all the wretched slaves which cover the rice swamps of South Carolina. The admission of slaves into the Representation when fairly explained comes to this: that the inhabitant of Georgia and S. C. who goes to the Coast of Africa, and in defiance of the most sacred laws of humanity tears away his fellow creatures from their dearest connections & damns them to the most cruel bondages, shall have more votes in a Govt. instituted for protection of the rights of mankind, than the Citizen of Pa. or N. Jersey who views with a laudable horror, so nefarious a practice.[12]
Morris also opposed admitting new western states on an equal basis with the existing eastern states, fearing that the interior wilderness could not furnish “enlightened” statesmen to the country.[10] Madison’s summary of Morris’s speech at the Convention, on July 11 of 1787, said that his view “relative to the Western Country had not changed his opinion on that head. Among other objections it must be apparent they would not be able to furnish men equally enlightened, to share in the administration of our common interests.” His reason given for that was regional: “The Busy haunts of men not the remote wilderness, was the proper school of political Talents. If the Western people get the power into their hands they will ruin the Atlantic interests.” In this fear, he turned out to be in the minority there.
He went to France on business in 1789 and served as Minister Plenipotentiary to France from 1792 to 1794. His diaries during that time have become a valuable chronicle of the French Revolution, capturing much of the turbulence and violence of that era, as well as documenting his affairs with women there. Unlike Thomas Jefferson, Morris was far more critical of the French Revolution and considerably more sympathetic to the deposed queen consort, Marie Antoinette.[13]
At the convention he gave more speeches than any other delegate, a total of 173. As a matter of principle, he often vigorously defended the right of anyone to practice his chosen religion without interference, and he argued to include such language in the Constitution.[11]
He returned to the United States in 1798, and he was elected in April 1800, as a Federalist, to the United States Senate, filling the vacancy caused by the resignation of James Watson. He served from May 3, 1800, to March 3, 1803, but was defeated for re-election in February 1803.
Gouverneur Morris was one of the few delegates at the Philadelphia Convention who spoke openly against domestic slavery. According to James Madison who took notes at the Convention, Morris spoke openly against slavery on August 8, 1787:
On July 4, 1803 he was elected an honorary member of the New York Society of the Cincinnati.
He [Gouverneur Morris] never would concur in upholding domestic slavery. It was a nefarious institution. It was the curse of heaven on the states where it prevailed. Compare the free regions of the Middle States, where a rich & noble cultiva-
After leaving the U.S. Senate, he served as Chairman of the Erie Canal Commission from 1810 to 1813. The Erie Canal helped to transform New York City into a financial capital, the possibilities of which were apparent to Morris when he said “the proudest empire in Europe is but a bubble compared to what America will be, must be, in the course of two centuries, perhaps of one.”[14] There have been publishers who have described Morris’ religious affiliation as deism.[15]
194
CHAPTER 40. GOUVERNEUR MORRIS
Morris was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.[16]
[4] http://www.city-journal.org/html/12_2_urbanities-the_ forgotten.html [5] ANB “Gouverneur Morris”
40.2 Family At the age of 57, he married Anne Cary (“Nancy”) Randolph, who was the sister of Thomas Mann Randolph, Jr., husband of Thomas Jefferson's daughter, Martha Jefferson Randolph. Morris and his wife had a son, Gouverneur Morris Jr., who eventually became a railroad executive.[17] Morris’ half-brother, Lewis Morris (1726–1798), was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Another halfbrother, Staats Long Morris, was a loyalist and majorgeneral in the British army during the American Revolution. His nephew, Lewis Richard Morris, served in the Vermont legislature and in the United States Congress. His grandnephew was William M. Meredith, United States Secretary of the Treasury under Zachary Taylor. Morris’ greatgrandson, also named Gouverneur (1876–1953), was an author of pulp novels and short stories during the earlytwentieth century. (Several of his works were adapted into films, including the famous Lon Chaney film, The Penalty.)[18][19]
40.3 Death and legacy
[6] “The True George Washington”, written by Paul Leicester Ford, published by J. Lippincott, the printing of the year 1900 [7] Richard Brookhiser, Gentleman Revolutionary: Gouverneur Morris, the Rake Who Wrote the Constitution, 2008, pages 61-63 [8] Bowen, Catherine Drinker. Miracle at Philadelphia. 1986 edition. p. 236. [9] “Toward An American Revolution”. Cyberjournal.org. Retrieved 2010-03-19. [10] Bowen. p. 178. [11] Gregg Frazer. “Gouverneur Morris, Theistic Rationalist”. Allacademic.com. p. 26. Retrieved 2010-03-19. [12] James Madison (1787). “James Madison, The Debates in the Several State Conventions of the Adoption of the Federal Constitution vol. 5 [1827]". Retrieved 2009-07-29. [13] Antonia Fraser, Marie Antoinette: The Journey, (2002), p. 476; Vincent Cronin, Louis and Antoinette, (1974), p. 295. [14] Will Wilkinson from the July 2004 issue (July 2004). “The Fun-Loving Founding Father: Gouverneur Morris, the First Modern American”. Reason. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
Morris died on November 6, 1816 after causing himself in- [15] Deism and Social Ethics: The Role of Religion in the Third ternal injuries while using a piece of whale bone to attempt Millennium, page 67, Robert Corfe, 2007 clearing a blockage in his urinary tract.[20][21] He died at the family estate, Morrisania, and was buried at St. Ann’s [16] American Antiquarian Society Members Directory Church in the The Bronx.[22] [17] Elizabeth Spencer-Ralph and Gloria McDarrah (October Morris also established himself as an important landowner in northern New York, where the Town of Gouverneur[23] and Village of Gouverneur in St. Lawrence County are named for him.
1979). “National Register of Historic Places Registration: St. Ann’s Church Complex”. New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation. Retrieved 2011-01-12.
In 1943, a United States liberty ship named the SS Gou- [18] “Browse By Author: M - Project Gutenberg”. Gutenberg.org. 1916-07-01. Retrieved 2010-03-19. verneur Morris was launched. She was scrapped in 1974. [19] “Gouverneur Morris”. Imdb.com. 2009-05-01. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
40.4 References [1]
Documents from the Constitutional Convention and the Continental Congress at the Library of Congress
[2] Wright, Jr., Robert K (1987). “Gouverneur Morris”. Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution. United States Army Center of Military History. CMH Pub 71-25. Retrieved 2009-06-02. [3] “Gouverneur Morris [1752-1816]". New Netherlands Institute. Retrieved 17 June 2014.
[20] Adams, William Howard (2003). Gouverneur Morris: an independent life. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-099800. [21] Kirschke, James J. (2005). Gouverneur Morris: author, statesman, and man of the world. Macmillan. ISBN 0-31224195-X. [22] Gouverneur Morris at Find a Grave [23] Gannett, Henry (1905). The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Govt. Print. Off. p. 140.
40.6. EXTERNAL LINKS
40.5 Sources • Brookhiser, Richard (2003). Gentleman Revolutionary: Gouverneur Morris, the Rake Who Wrote the Constitution. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-23799. • Crawford, Alan Pell (2000). Unwise Passions: A True Story of a Remarkable Woman—and the First Great Scandal of Eighteenth-century America. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83474-X. (A biography of Morris’s wife.) • Fresia, Jerry (1988). Toward an American Revolution: Exposing the Constitution & Other Illusions. Cambridge: South End Press. • Miller, Melanie Randolph, Envoy to the Terror: Gouverneur Morris and the French Revolution (Potomac Books, 2005) • The Diary and Letters of Gouverneur Morris, Minister of the United States to France; Member of the Constitutional Convention, ed. Anne Cary Morris (1888). 2 vols. online version • Swiggert, Howard (1952). The Extraordinary Mr. Morris. New York: Doubleday & Co. loc 52-5540.
40.6 External links • Biography from the United States Army Center of Military History • • Gouverneur Morris at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • Mintz, Max, Gouverneur Morris, George Washington’s War Hawk, Virginia Quarterly Review, Autumn 2003. • Gouverneur Morris Letters • Gouverneur Morris,Jr. Papers,1853-1879 New-York Historical Society .
195
Chapter 41
Robert Morris (financier) For other people named Robert Morris, see Robert Morris As a youth, Morris was provided a tutor and was a quick (disambiguation). learner. Robert Morris, Jr. (/ˈmɒrɨs/) (January 20, 1734 – May 8, 1806), a Founding Father of the United States, was a Liverpool-born American merchant who financed the American Revolution and was signatory to the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the United States Constitution. He was elected to the Pennsylvania Assembly, became the Chairman of the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety, and was chosen as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress, where he served as chairman of the “Secret Committee of Trade” and as a member of the Committee of Correspondence. From 1781 to 1784, he served as the powerful Superintendent of Finance, managing the economy of the fledgling United States. As the central civilian in the government, Morris was, next to General George Washington, “the most powerful man in America.”[1] His successful administration led to the sobriquet, “Financier of the Revolution.” At the same time he was Agent of Marine, a position he took without pay, and from which he controlled the Continental Navy. He was one of Pennsylvania’s original pair of US senators, serving from 1789 to 1795. He invested a considerable portion of his fortune in land shortly before the Panic of 1796– 1797, which led to his bankruptcy in 1798, and he spent several years in debtors’ prison, until Congress passed a bankruptcy act to release him. After he left prison in 1801, he lived a quiet, private life in a modest home in Philadelphia until his death in 1806.
41.1 Early life Morris was born to Robert Morris, Sr. and Elizabeth Murphet in Liverpool, Lancashire, England, on January 20, 1734. At the age of 13, Morris immigrated to Oxford, Maryland, to live with his father, who was a tobacco factor.
His father sent him to Philadelphia to study where he stayed with Charles Greenway, a family friend. Greenway arranged for young Robert to become an apprentice at the shipping and banking firm of the Philadelphia merchant (and then mayor) Charles Willing. A year later, Robert’s father died after being wounded in an accident when hit by the wadding of a ship’s gun that was fired in his honor.[2] When Charles Willing died in 1754, his son Thomas Willing made Morris his partner at the age 24. They established the prominent shipping-banking firm of Willing, Morris & Co. on May 1, 1757. The partnership lasted until about 1779.
41.2
Personal and family life
On March 2, 1769, at age 35, Morris married 20-year-old Mary White. Together they had five sons and two daughters. White came from a prominent family in Maryland; her brother was the well-known Anglican Bishop William White.[3] Morris worshiped in Philadelphia at St. Peter’s Church on Pine Street and Christ Church on 2nd Street, both of which were run by his brother-in-law, Bishop William White (Bishop of Pennsylvania). Morris remained a constant worshipper and supporter at this Anglican Church for his entire life. Both Morris and his brother-in-law William White are buried at Christ Church, Philadelphia in the churchyard located at Second and Market.[4] Because of the locations and reputations of Christ Church and St. Peter’s Church in Philadelphia, they served as places of worship for a number of the notable members of the Continental Congress, sometimes including George Washington.
196
41.3. CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
41.2.1
197
Shipping and slavery
nese mainland. Among the investors were Samuel Miles, who built a sugar refinery in Philadelphia; John Holker, French Agent; and Daniel Parker, merchant. The ship In 1757 Morris became a business partner with Thomas embarked from New York harbor for China on General Willing. Their partnership was a merchant firm with inter- Washington's birthday, February 22, 1784. ests in shipping, real estate, and other lines of business. The partnership was forged just after the Seven Years’ War be- In 1786 Washington wrote to Morris discussing his hopes gan (1756–1763), which hindered attracting the usual sup- for the democratic process bringing an end to slavery. His ply of new indentured servants to the colony.[5] Potential reference to how escaped slaves made their way to the North as the first reference to the Underground Railimmigrants were conscripted in England to fight in Europe, is taken [12] road. The 1790 census is the first in Philadelphia County and the contracts for those already in the colonies in Amer[6] that lists slaveholders by name. ica were expiring. Indentured servants could legally break their contracts to join the British forces to fight against the French and their Indian allies. At the same time, the British Crown wanted to encourage the slave trade to enrich the King’s friends. While Morris was a junior partner and Willing was pursuing a political career, the company Willing, Morris & Co. co-signed a petition calling for the repeal of Pennsylvania’s tariff on imported slaves. (About 500 slaves were imported into Philadelphia in 1762, the height of the trade; most of whom were brought in by the Rhode Islanders D’Wolf, Aaron Lopez, and Jacob Rivera.)[7] Willing, Morris & Co funded its own slave-trading voyage. The ship did not carry enough to be profitable and, during a second trip, was captured by French privateers. The firm handled seven slave auctions for other importers, offering a total of 23 slaves.[8] In 1762 the firm advertised an agency sale in Wilmington, Delaware for over 100 Gold Coast slaves. The ship had docked in Wilmington to avoid the tariff.[9] In 1765 on their last reported agency deal (out of a total of eight), the firm advertised 70 slaves who were brought in from Africa on the ship Marquis de Granby.[10] The slaves were not sold in Philadelphia, as the owner took the ship and all the slaves to Jamaica.[11]
41.2.2
Conflict with Britain
The Stamp Act of 1765–1766 was a tax on all legal documents. The merchants banded together to end what they saw as an unconstitutional tax. Morris began his public career in 1765 by serving on a local committee of merchants organized to protest the Stamp Act. He mediated between a mass meeting of protesters and the Stamp Tax collector, whose house they threatened to pull down “brick by brick” unless the collector did not carry out his job. Morris remained loyal to Britain, but he believed that the new laws constituted taxation without representation and violated the colonists’ rights as British citizens. In the end, Britain lifted the stamp tax.
After Britain passed the Tea Tax, the tea ship Polly reached the lower Delaware Bay. Philadelphia ordered the bay pilots not to bring it to port. Morris was a warden of the port at that time. Captain Ayers brought the Polly into port by following another ship up the bay which set off a protest. At least 20% of the population filled the street as Ayers was escorted to the State House. A meeting with Ayers and the port wardens, including Morris, was held. Ayers agreed to Both partners supported the non-importation agreements leave Philadelphia without delivering any taxed tea. that marked the end of all trade with Britain, including the importation of slaves. They became advocates for free trade, which would end the kind of trade restrictions that gave rise to the business. As a government official, Morris 41.3 Continental Congress tried to tax the domestic slave trade, and to lay a head tax on the slaves payable by the owner. His efforts were resisted Morris was elected to the Pennsylvania Council of Safety by the Southerners who fought all his measures. Pennsyl- (1775–1776), the Committee of Correspondence, the vania passed a law for gradual abolition of slavery in 1780. Provincial Assembly (1775–1776), and the Pennsylvania Philadelphia County has no slave registrations making it im- legislature (1776–1778). He was also elected to reprepossible to determine who in Philadelphia owned slaves in sent Pennsylvania in the Second Continental Congress from 1775 to 1778. 1780. Willing, Morris & Co. ships traded with India, the Levant, the West Indies, Spanish Cuba, Spain, and Italy. The firm’s business of import, export, and general agency made it one of the most prosperous in Pennsylvania. In 1784 Morris, with other investors, underwrote the voyage of the ship, The Empress of China, the first American vessel to visit the Chi-
In 1775 the Continental Congress contracted with Morris’ company to work with the Secret Committee of Trade after March 14, 1776. He devised a system to smuggle war supplies from France a year before independence was declared. He handled much of the financial transactions, contracting with merchants and business firms to obtain needed
198
CHAPTER 41. ROBERT MORRIS (FINANCIER) that allowed the Americans to defend Fort Moultrie near Charleston, South Carolina. On July 1, 1776, Morris voted against the Congressional motion for independence. The Pennsylvania delegation, which was split 4-3, cast its vote in the negative. The following day, Morris and John Dickinson agreed to abstain, allowing the other Pennsylvania delegates to vote for independence. The final vote was 12 states in favor and no states opposed. (New York’s delegates voted later.) On August 2, Morris signed the Declaration of Independence saying, “I am not one of those politicians that run testy when my own plans are not adopted. I think it is the duty of a good citizen to follow when he cannot lead.” [14] Robert Morris’ decision to abstain is considered the most pivotal vote of the congress.
41.3.1
Financed the war
An engraving by Ole Erekson, c1876, of Robert Morris.
war material and purchasing commodities for export to pay for it.[13] He served with John Adams on the committee that wrote the Model Treaty. The Model Treaty incorporated his long held belief in free trade. It was an outgrowth of his trading system, and acted as the basis for the 1778 Treaty with A scene from The Apotheosis of Washington shows Morris receivFrance. ing a bag of gold from Mercury, commemorating his financial serHe served on the Marine and Maritime Committees and gave his best ship, The Black Prince, to the Continental Congress. It was renamed as the USS Alfred (1776), the first ship in the Mid-Atlantic area Second Squadron of ships Continental Navy. John Barry, a captain who sailed for his company, became the captain of the Alfred. The first Continental Navy ship, the Hannah, was commissioned on 2 September 1775 in Marblehead, Massachusetts, and was one of the seven “Washington Cruisers” commissioned by Commander in Chief George Washington to attack British supply ships at sea headed for Boston. The Hannah was named for the wife of Colonel, later General, John Glover, its owner, who was key in the evacuation of the Continental Army at Brooklyn Heights in August 1776, and in Crossing the Delaware on Christmas night 1776.
vices during the Revolutionary War
Morris personally paid £10,000 to pay the Continental troops under Washington. This helped to keep the Army together just before the battle of Princeton. He subsequently paid from his own funds the troops via “Morris notes” to continue Washington’s ability to wage war as the US currency had no value. In March 1778 Morris signed the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Pennsylvania.
During the war, privateers seized the cargo of English ships. Morris owned an interest in many of the privateers and his firm helped sell the English spoils as they came into port. In addition to owning ships that carried cargo to Cuba, France, and Spain, he was engaged in profiteering. He wrote a Morris used his extensive international trading network friend that his firm had had over 250 ships during the war as a spy network and gathered intelligence on British and so came out “about even.” He had lost one of the largest troop movements. One of his spies sent the information private navies in the world during the War, but he never
41.3. CONTINENTAL CONGRESS asked for reimbursement from the new government. Morris also personally supplied the funding for eighty percent of all bullets fired during the war and almost seventy five percent of all other expenses for the fledgling government, though he also never asked to be reimbursed for these expenses. He used his remaining money to buy shares in a variety of ships that waged an economic war on Britain. During this period he acted as a commercial agent for John Holker, a French national who was one of many military contractors who dealt with the French and American forces. During this time Thomas Paine, Henry Laurens, and others criticized him and his firm for alleged war profiteering. In 1779, a congressional committee acquitted Morris and his firm on charges of engaging in improper financial transactions, but his reputation was damaged after this incident. Immediately after serving in the Congress, Morris served two more terms in the state legislature, from 1778 to 1781. While he was in the Pennsylvania Assembly, Morris worked on the constitution and legislation to restore checks and balances, and to overturn the religious test laws. These had excluded from voting 40% of the state’s citizens, including Quakers, Jews, and Mennonites. On October 4, 1779, an angry mob, who supported the “Constitutionalist” faction in opposition to Morris and his allies, tried to chase James Wilson from his home in Philadelphia. The mob was in the process of aiming a cannon at Wilson’s home when the First City Troop came to his rescue. Five men were killed in the battle of “Fort Wilson.” Constitutionalists in Pennsylvania ran off their political opposites and confiscated their property. James Wilson went on to argue against slavery, defend Haym Solomon from fraud, sign the Constitution, and become a Supreme Court justice. Morris and his allies supplied the majority of war materials to the troops when the state failed to act. Pennsylvania went bankrupt in 1780 due to Constitutionalist policies which mandated state-controlled markets and self-imposed embargoes. Ultimately the state called on Morris to restore the economy. He did so by opening the ports to trade, and allowing the market to set the value of goods and the currency.
199 the committee systems they had used for years and created the first executive offices in American history. Morris held the offices of Finance and Marine. His detractors worried he was gaining “dictatorial powers.” In a unanimous vote, Congress appointed Morris to be Superintendent of Finance of the United States from 1781 to 1784. In defending himself from would-be critics, Morris insisted Congress allow him to continue his private endeavors while serving in a related public office. He was not active in private business during this term but remained a silent partner in various companies.,[15] Three days after becoming Superintendent of Finance, Morris proposed to establish a national bank, as urged by Alexander Hamilton. The first financial institution chartered by the United States, the Bank of North America, was founded in 1782. The bank was funded in part by a significant loan Morris had obtained from France in 1781. The initial role of the bank was to finance the war against Britain.[15] During the war the contributions of all 13 colonies and their citizens was roughly $800,000 dollars (about $111 million in today’s dollars) and Robert Morris personally contributed almost $74 million (about $1.03 billion today) during the war and immediately thereafter. As Superintendent of Finance, Morris instituted several reforms, including reducing the civil list, significantly cutting government spending by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightening accounting procedures, and demanding the federal government’s full share of support (money and supplies) from the States.[15] Morris obtained supplies for the army of Nathanael Greene in 1779, and from 1781– 1783. He took an active role in helping move Washington and his army from New York State to Yorktown, Virginia. He was in Washington’s camp the day the move was initiated. He acted as quartermaster for the trip and supplied over $14 million (about $195 million today) in his own credit to supply the Army. He was also Agent of Marine and coordinated with the French Navy to get Washington’s Army to the Battle of Yorktown (1781). After Yorktown, Morris noted the war had changed from a war of bullets to a war of finances.
During his tenure as Superintendent, Morris was assisted by his friend and assistant Gouverneur Morris (no relation). 41.3.2 Superintendent of Finance of the He proposed a national economic system in a document called “On Public Credit”. This was the basis for Hamilton’s United States plan of the same name submitted much later to Congress. The Morrises proposed to make the American currency a In 1781 the US was in a crisis. The British controlled the decimal currency, a progressive idea at the time. coast line from the sea, two major cities, and the western of the main confrontier. The treasury was in debt by $25 million (about In 1783, Morris was believed to be one [16] spirators in the Newburgh Conspiracy . Morris’s lifelong $347 million today) and public credit had collapsed, of Arthur Lee, spread rumors about his participation. enemy which he again paid this debt from his personal funds. With The author of the Newburgh letter was Major Armstrong, the failure of their own policies, Congress changed from
200
CHAPTER 41. ROBERT MORRIS (FINANCIER)
a partisan for the faction that opposed Morris’s policies in outline of the house indicated above ground and exhibits the Pennsylvania state house. Its members were often allied about the early federal period. Its interpretation focuses on with Lee. the first two Presidents, their families, and the nine enslaved On January 15, 1782 Morris drafted a proposal that he Africans who worked in Washington’s presidential houselater presented to the Continental Congress to recommend hold. the establishment of a national mint and decimal coinage. However, the United States Mint was not established until 41.3.4 1792, after further proposals by Hamilton and Jefferson.
41.3.3
Morris House
Later political career
In 1787 Morris was elected to the Constitutional Convention. He arranged to have Gouverneur Morris appointed to the Pennsylvania delegation. Although Robert Morris said little at the Convention, Gouverneur and his lawyer, James Wilson, were two of the three most talkative men there. Both opposed slavery during the Convention. Gouverneur Morris wrote the polished draft of the Constitution. While it was widely known at the time that Morris was active behind the scenes, his only significant role of record during the Convention was to nominate his friend George Washington as its President.
Washington wanted to appoint Morris Secretary of the Treasury in 1789, but Morris declined. (He suggested Alexander Hamilton, who supported his policies). Morris was elected by the Pennsylvania legislature to serve as a United States Senator from 1789 to 1795. Morris was on 41 Senatorial committees and reported for many of them. President’s House, Philadelphia at 190 High Street {later 524-30 He supported the Federalist economic program, which inMarket Street}. Morris’s Philadelphia city house served as the Executive Mansion for presidents George Washington and John cluded internal improvements such as canals and lightAdams, 1790–1800. He sold it in 1795,[17] using the proceeds to houses to aid commerce. As senator he generally supported the Federalist party and backed Hamilton’s economic profund construction of the L'Enfant mansion. posals. Hamilton used principles similar to those in MorIn 1781 Robert Morris purchased a home at 190 High Street ris’s report “On Public Credit”, submitted some 10 years in Philadelphia from John Holker. He rebuilt it and lived earlier. while he was Superintendent of Finance, and Agent of Marine. When the Federal Government moved from New York, he offered his home to his friend George Washington. 41.4 Later life Washington was familiar with the place, since he had stayed there with Morris during the Constitutional Convention. John Adams occupied it in turn. Morris initially offered Morris founded several canal companies, a steam engine his city home to Washington for free, but to avoid the ap- company, and launched a hot air balloon from his garden on pearance of improper influence, he rented the house for $1 a Market Street. He had the first iron rolling mill in America. year to the city of Philadelphia to be used as the presidential His icehouse was the model for one Washington installed at residence. Philadelphia was the temporary US capital from Mount Vernon. He backed the new Chestnut Street Theater, 1790–1800 during the construction of Washington, D.C.. and had a green house where his staff cultivated lemon trees. Morris moved next door, into another house he owned on On March 12, 1791 he contracted with Massachusetts to purchase what is now essentially all of Western New York the corner of 6th and High (Market) St. [18][19] for $333,333.33.[20] The The last remaining wall of President’s House was taken west of the Genesee River down for redevelopment when Independence Mall was cre- land, which had been a substantial portion of the Phelps and ated. In the late twentieth century, the foundations of the Gorham Purchase, was conveyed to Morris in five deeds President’s House were rediscovered during archeological on May 11, 1791. A partner of Morris in the Phelps and work related to construction of the Liberty Center. The Gorham Purchase was land speculator James Greenleaf. site, a few steps away from the Liberty Bell, has been des- His son Thomas settled the peace with the Six Nations of ignated a national memorial. It is commemorated with an the Iroquois Confederacy, four of whom had sided with the
41.4. LATER LIFE
L'Enfant designed mansion aka “Morris’s folly” on Walnut St. between 7th and 8th Sts in 1800. Engraving by William Russell Birch.
201
Map showing Phelps & Gorham’s Purchase, The Holland Purchase, and the Morris Reserve.
nut Street in Philadelphia designed by Pierre Charles L'Enfant. The unfinished mansion became known as “Morris’s folly”,[21] and the land eventually became Sansom Street. Marble from this house was purchased by Latrobe; he used it to adorn buildings and monuments from Rhode Island to Charlestown, SC.
41.4.1
Land speculation and bankruptcy
Morris was deeply involved in land speculation, especially after the Revolutionary War. His daughter married James Markham Marshall, who became the front man for many speculative ventures, and whose brother John Marshall handled many Virginia matters. However, Morris severely overextended himself financially. He contracted to supply 20,000 hogsheads of tobacco annually to France beginning in 1785, but the tobacco market collapsed in the same time period as the French revolution. Morris was heavily leveraged in part due to investing in many Virginia lawsuits from 1788 to 1801.[22] Furthermore, Morris had borrowed further to speculate in real estate in the new national capitol, District of Columbia, and to purchase over 6,000,000 acres (24,000 km²) in the rural south.
Map of Phelps and Gorham Purchase south of Lake Ontario circa 1802–1806.
When England and the Dutch declared war on Revolutionary France, an expected loan from Holland never materialized.The subsequent Napoleonic Wars ruined the market for American land and Morris’s highly leveraged company collapsed. Lastly, the financial markets of England, the United States, and the Caribbean suffered from deflation related with the Panic of 1797. Morris was left “land rich and cash poor.” He owned more land than any other American at the time, but didn't have enough liquid capital {Hard money (policy)} to pay his creditors.[23]
British during the Revolution. Then Morris sold most of the vast tract of property to the Holland Land Company in 1792–1793 for redevelopment in parcels; another source identifies the sale date as being approximately five years later, in 1797-1798.[18] He attempted to avoid creditors by staying outside the city In 1794 he began construction of a mansion on Chest- at his country estate “The Hills”, located on the Schuylkill
202
CHAPTER 41. ROBERT MORRIS (FINANCIER)
River, but his creditors literally pursued him to his gate. Morris was sued by a former partner who had been imprisoned for fraud and was serving time in debtor’s prison. Unable to dodge his creditors and their lawyers, Morris was finally arrested. He was imprisoned for debt in Prune Street prison in Philadelphia from February 1798 to August 1801.[24] Morris’s economic failure reduced the fortunes of many other prominent Federalists who had invested in his ventures (e.g., Henry Lee). Morris’s political adversaries used his bankruptcy to gain political power in Pennsylvania. Governor Thomas McKean was elected and refined the art of political patronage in America. McKean’s party picked the Pennsylvania members of the electoral college for the election of 1800, which contributed to votes for Thomas Jefferson as president. The US Congress passed its first bankruptcy legislation, the temporary Bankruptcy Act of 1800, in part, to get Morris out of prison.[25] After his release, Morris continued to suffer poor health and spent the rest of his life in retirement. He was assisted by his wife who had supported him throughout his misfortune. Morris died on May 9, 1806 in Philadelphia. He is buried in the family vault of Bishop William White, his brother-in-law, at Christ Church. A plaque installed later reads: “ROBERT MORRIS signer of the Constitution of the United States of America. Deputy from Pennsylvania to Federal Constitutional Convention May 25, 1787- Robert Morris, Independence National Historical Park September 17, 1787 Erected by the Pennsylvania Constitution Commemorative Committee”[4]
41.5 Legacy • Morris’s work, “On Public Credit” submitted during the Revolution, to the Continental Congress in 1781, supplied the basis for Hamilton’s economic plan submitted in 1790 under the title First Report on the Public Credit.[26] Morris laid out a national funding plan but its reliance on direct taxation, including a head tax on slaves, prevented his gaining support for it. Hamilton added to the plan as Secretary of Treasury. Along with Alexander Hamilton and Albert Gallatin, Morris is considered one of the key founders of the financial system in the United States. Morris depicted on the Series 1878 $10 silver certificate.
• Morris’ portrait appeared on US $1000 notes from 1862 to 1863 and on the $10 silver certificate from 1878 to 1880.
United States, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the U.S. Constitution.
• Morris and Roger Sherman were the only two people to sign all three significant founding documents of the
• Morris is the only signer of the Declaration of Independence, the U.S. Constitution, or the Articles of
41.7. REFERENCES Confederation (and he signed all three) whose house is the site of a national memorial in a National Park, but whose life and work are not interpreted at the location. • The dollar sign ("$") was in common use among private merchants during the middle of the 18th century. It referred to the two columns draped with scrolls on the Spanish milled dollar, which predated the US Dollar. Morris was the first to use that symbol in official documents and in official communications with Oliver Pollock. The US dollar was based on the Spanish milled dollar when, in the Coinage Act of 1792, the first Mint Act, its value was “fixed” (per the U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8, clause 1 power of the United States Congress “To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures”) as being “of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current, and to contain three hundred and seventy-one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure, or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver.” Institutions named in honor of Morris include: • Robert Morris University, Pennsylvania • Robert Morris University (Illinois) • Robert Morris Elementary School, Batavia, New York.
203
41.7
References
[1] Rappleye, Charles. Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. page 4. Print. [2] Rappleye. Robert Morris. page 10 [3] Rappleye. Robert Morris. pages 22 and 140. [4] The Graves. Christ Church, Philadelphia [5] Raymond A. Mohl (1997), The Making of Urban America, [6] David Waldstreicher (2005), Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution, [7] Joe William Trotter Jr. and Eric Ledell Smith, African Americans in Pennsylvania, (Pennsylvania State University Press, 1997), p. 47 [8] Pennsylvania Gazette items # 25284, 26076, 26206, 26565, 28558, 28712, 36325, in 1765 [9] Pennsylvania Gazette, May 6, 1762. Note: This arrangement made it easy for Pennsylvania slave-buyers to avoid paying the tariff. [10] Pennsylvania Gazette, July 25, 1765 [11] The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade CD-ROM, published by the Oxford University Press [12] Part 2: Africans in America, PBS, accessed 15August 2012
• Robert Morris Elementary School #27, Scranton, [13] Elizabeth M. Nuxoll, Congress and the Munitions Merchants Pennsylvania (1985)
• Robert Morris Elementary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania • Robert Morris School South Bound Brook, New Jersey • Mount Morris, New York, location of a large flood control dam on the Genesee River, was named in his honor.
[14] Robert Morris to Horatio Gates, Philadelphia, 27th October 1776, cited in “The Founders on the Founders” ed. by John P. Kaminski, U. VA. Press 2008. [15] “Robert Morris”. Signers of the Declaration Biographically Sketches. National Park Services. Retrieved 4 April 2011. [16] Boyer, Paul S. The Enduring Vision, 6th ed. Houghton Mifflin, 2008.
Boston:
• A number of ships in the United States Navy and [17] Joseph Jackson (1918). Market Street Philadelphia. p. 106. the United States Coast Guard have been named USS [18] Kirby, C.D. (1976). The Early History of Gowanda and Morris or USRC Morris for him. The Beautiful Land of the Cattaraugus. Gowanda, NY: Niagara Frontier Publishing Company, Inc./Gowanda Area Bi-
• A borough in which he owned property, Morrisville, Centennial Committee, Inc. Pennsylvania, was named in his honor. A statue of [19] Historical sketch of the Village of Gowanda, N.Y. in comhim is in the town square.
41.6 See also • Holland Land Company • Wilhelm Willink
memoration of the fiftieth anniversary of its incorporation, August 8, 1898. Buffalo, NY: The Matthews-Northrup Company, Leonard, I.R., Reprinted 1998, Salem, MA: Higginson Book Company.
[20] Beers, Frederick W. (1890). Gazetteer and Biographical Record of Genesee County, N.Y., 1788–1890. Syracuse, N.Y.: Comp. and pub. by J.W. Vose & Co.
204
CHAPTER 41. ROBERT MORRIS (FINANCIER)
[21] National Park Service – Signers of the Declaration (Robert Morris) [22] Newmyer at p. 89 [23] Barbara Ann Chernow, Robert Morris, Land Speculator, 1790–1801 (1978) [24] Axelrod, Alan. The Real History of the American Revolution, 2007, p. 349, sidebar [25] Thomas L. Purvis (1997). A Dictionary of American History. Wiley. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-57718-099-9. [26] Ver Steeg, Clarence L. Robert Morris, Revolutionary Financier, p. 175
41.8 Further reading • Ferguson, E. James. The Power of the Purse: A History of American Public Finance, 1776–1790 (1961) • Rappleye, Charles. Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010. ISBN 978-1-4165-7091-2. • Ver Steeg, Clarence L. Robert Morris, Revolutionary Financier. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1954 (ISBN 0-374-98078-0). • Ver Steeg, Clarence L. “Morris, Robert” in American National Biography Online 2000.
41.8.1
Primary sources
• Ferguson, James (editor): The Papers of Robert Morris 1781–1784 (9 volumes): University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978; (1995 reprint: ISBN 0-8229-3886-3).
41.9 External links • Biography by Charles Rappleye, 2010 • Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 • Robert Morris at Find a Grave • The President’s House
Chapter 42
James Wilson For other people named James Wilson, see James Wilson On 5 November 1771, he married Rachel Bird, daughter (disambiguation). of William Bird and Bridget Hulings; they had six children together: Mary, William, Bird, James, Emily and Charles. James Wilson (September 14, 1742 — August 21, 1798) Rachel died in 1786, and in 1793 he married Hannah Gray, was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and a daughter of Ellis Gray and Sarah D'Olbear; the marriage signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence. produced a son named Henry, who died at age three. HanWilson was elected twice to the Continental Congress, nah had previously been the widow of Thomas Bartlett, where he represented Pennsylvania, and was a major force M.D. in drafting the United States Constitution. A leading legal theorist, he was one of the six original justices appointed by George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States.
42.2
Revolution
Wilson published in 1774 “Considerations on the Nature and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the British Parliament.” In this pamphlet, Wilson argued that the Parliament had no authority to pass laws for the American colonies because the colonies had no representation in Parliament. It presented his views that all power derived from the people. Yet, he wrote that the people owed their allegiance to the English king: “A denial of the legislative authority of the British parliament over America is by no means inconsistent with that connexion, which ought to subsist between the mother country and her colonies.” Scholars considered his work on par with the seminal works of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams of the same year, it was actually penned in 1768, perhaps the first cogent argument to be formulated against British dominance. Some see him as a leading revolutionary while others see him as another reluctant, elite revolutionary reacting to the stream of events determined by the radicals on the ground.
42.1 Early life
One of seven children, Wilson was born to a Presbyterian farming family on September 14, 1742 near St. Andrews, Scotland[3] to William Wilson and Alison Landall. Wilson earned a scholarship to the University of St. Andrews. After he graduated from the University of St Andrews in 1761, he spent two years in Edinburgh and Glasgow studying Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, including Francis Hutcheson, David Hume and Adam Smith.[7] Imbued with the ideas of the Scottish Enlightenment he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in British America in 1766, carrying valuable letters of introduction. These helped Wilson to begin tutoring and then teaching at The Academy and College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania). He petitioned there for a degree and was awarded an In 1775 he was commissioned Colonel of the 4th Cumberhonorary Master of Arts several months later. [3] of Brigadier Wilson began to read the law at the office of John Dickin- land County Battalion and rose to the rank [8] General of the Pennsylvania State Militia. son a short time later. After two years of study he attained the bar in Philadelphia, and in the following year (1767), set up his own practice in Reading, Pennsylvania. His office was very successful and he earned a small fortune in a few years. By then he had a small farm near Carlisle, Pennsylvania, was handling cases in eight local counties, became a founding trustee of Dickinson College, and was lecturing at The Academy and College of Philadelphia.
As a member of the Continental Congress in 1776, James Wilson was a firm advocate for independence. Believing it was his duty to follow the wishes of his constituents, Wilson refused to vote until he had caucused his district. Only after he received more feedback did he vote for independence. While serving in the Congress, Wilson was clearly among the leaders in the formation of French policy. “If the
205
206
CHAPTER 42. JAMES WILSON
positions he held and the frequency with which he appeared 42.3 Constitutional Convention on committees concerned with Indian affairs are an index, he was until his departure from Congress in 1777 the most One of the most prominent lawyers of his time, Wilson is active and influential single delegate in laying down the gencredited for being the most learned of the Framers of the eral outline that governed the relations of Congress with the Constitution. A fellow delegate in the Constitutional Con[9] border tribes.” vention of 1787 in Philadelphia made the following assessWilson also served from June 1776 on the Committee on ment of James Wilson: “Government seems to have been Spies, along with John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, John his peculiar study, all the political institutions of the world Rutledge, and Robert R. Livingston. They together defined he knows in detail, and can trace the causes and effects treason. (Page, p. 119.) of every revolution from the earliest stages of the Grecian [13] On October 4, 1779, the Fort Wilson Riot began. Af- commonwealth down to the present time.” ter the British had abandoned Philadelphia, Wilson successfully defended at trial 23 people from property seizure and exile by the radical government of Pennsylvania. A mob whipped up by liquor and the writings and speeches of Joseph Reed, president of Pennsylvania’s Supreme Executive Council, marched on Congressman Wilson’s home at Third and Walnut Streets. Wilson and 35 of his colleagues barricaded themselves in his home, later nicknamed Fort Wilson. In the fighting that ensued, six died, and 17 to 19 were wounded. The city’s soldiers, the First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry[10] and Baylor’s 3rd Continental Light Dragoons, eventually intervened and rescued Wilson and his colleagues. The rioters were pardoned and released by Joseph Reed.[11] Wilson closely identified with the aristocratic and conservative republican groups, multiplied his business interests, and accelerated his land speculation. He became involved with the Illinois-Wabash company during the War for Independence and was made its president in 1780.[12] He became the company’s largest single investor, owning one and a half shares outright and two shares by proxy, totaling over one million acres of land.[12] Wilson further expanded his land holdings by cofounding the Canna Company with Mark Bird, Robert Lettis Hooper, and William Bingham in order to sell land along the Susquehanna River in New York.[12] Additionally, Wilson individually bought huge quantities of land in Pennsylvania in 1784 and 56,000 acres of land in Virginia during the 1780s.[12] To round out his holdings, Wilson, in conjunction with Michael and Bernard Gratz,Levi Hollingsworth, Charles Willing, and Dorsey Pentecost purchased 321,000 acres of land south of the Ohio River.[12] He also took a position as Advocate General for France in America (1779–83), dealing with commercial and maritime matters, and legally defended Loyalists and their sympathizers. He held this post until his death in 1798.
Wilson’s most lasting impact on the country came as a member of the Committee of Detail, which produced the first draft of the United States Constitution in 1787 (a year after the death of his first wife). He wanted senators and the president to be popularly elected. He also proposed the Three-Fifths Compromise at the convention, which made only three-fifths of the South’s slave population total to be counted for purposes of distributing taxes and apportioning representation in the House and Electoral College. Along with James Madison, he was perhaps the best versed of the framers in the study of political economy. He understood clearly the central problem of dual sovereignty (nation and state) and held a vision of an almost limitless future for the United States. Wilson addressed the Convention 168 times.[14] A witness to Wilson’s performance during the convention, Dr. Benjamin Rush, called Wilson’s mind “one blaze of light.”[15] Madison and Wilson not only far outdistanced the others at the Convention as political theorists, they were also two of the closest allies in both the convention debates and ratification effort afterward.[16] Though not in agreement with all parts of the final, necessarily compromised Constitution, Wilson stumped hard for its adoption, leading Pennsylvania, at its ratifying convention, to become the second state (behind Delaware) to accept the document. His October 6, 1787 “speech in the statehouse yard” (delivered in the courtyard behind Independence Hall) has been seen as particularly important in setting the terms of the ratification debate, both locally and nationally. It is second in influence behind The Federalist Papers. It was printed in newspapers and copies of the speech were distributed by George Washington to generate support for the ratification of the Constitution.[17][18] In particular, it focused on the fact that there would be a popularly elected national government for the first time. He distinguished “three simple species of government” monarchy, aristocracy, and “a republic or democracy, where the people at large retain the supreme power, and act either collectively or by representation.”[19] Wilson was later instrumental in the redrafting of the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776, leading the group in favor of a new constitution, and entering into an agreement with William Findley (leader of the Constitutionalist Party) that limited the partisan feeling
42.5. JURISPRUDENCE that had previously characterized Pennsylvanian politics.
42.4 Supreme Court career and final years He was nominated to be an Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court by George Washington on September 24, 1789, after the court was implemented under the Judiciary Act of 1789. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 26, 1789, and received commission on September 29, 1789. Only nine cases were heard by the court from his appointment in 1789 until his death in 1798. He became the first professor of law at the College of Philadelphia in 1790—only the second at any academic institution in the United States—in which he mostly ignored the practical matters of legal training. Like many of his educated contemporaries, he viewed the academic study of law as a branch of a general cultured education, rather than solely as a prelude to a profession. Wilson broke off his first course of law lectures in April 1791 to attend to his duties as Supreme Court justice on circuit. He appears to have begun a second-year course in late 1791 or in early 1792 (by which time the College of Philadelphia had been merged into the University of Pennsylvania), but at some unrecorded point the lectures stopped again and were never resumed. They were not published (except for the first) until after his death, in an edition produced by his son, Bird Wilson, in 1804. The University of Pennsylvania Law School in Philadelphia officially traces its foundation to Wilson’s lectures.
207 siasm to new tasks and new ventures. Yet, when all has been said, the inner man remains, despite our probings, an enigma.” – Charles Page Smith[21]
42.5
Jurisprudence
In the lectures mentioned above, James Wilson, among the first of American legal philosophers, worked through in more detail some of the thinking suggested in the opinions issuing at that time from the Supreme Court. He felt, in fact, compelled to begin by spending some time in arguing out the justification of the appropriateness of his undertaking a course of lectures. But he assures his students that: “When I deliver my sentiments from this chair, they shall be my honest sentiments: when I deliver them from the bench, they shall be nothing more. In both places I shall make ― because I mean to support ― the claim to integrity: in neither shall I make ― because, in neither, can I support ― the claim to infallibility.” (First lecture, 1804 Philadelphia ed.)
With this, he raises the most important question of the era: having acted upon revolutionary principles in setting up the new country, “Why should we not teach our children those principles, upon which we ourselves have thought and acted? Ought we to instil into their tender minds a theory, especially if unfounded, which is contradictory to our own practice, built on the most solid foundation? Why should we reduce them to the cruel dilemma of condemning, either those principles which they have been taught to believe, or those persons whom they have been taught to revere?" (First James Wilson’s last and final years were marked by financial lecture.) failures. He assumed heavy debts investing in land that became liabilities with the onset of the Panic of 1796–1797. That this is no mere academic question is revealed with a Of note was the failure in Pennsylvania with Theophilus cursory review of any number of early Supreme Court opinCazenove. In debt, Wilson was briefly imprisoned in a ions. Perhaps it is best here to quote the opening of Justice Debtors’ Prison in Burlington, New Jersey. His son paid Wilson’s opinion in Chisholm v. State of Georgia, 2 U.S. the debt, but Wilson went to North Carolina to escape other 419 (1793), one of the most momentous decisions in Amercreditors. He was again briefly imprisoned, but continued ican history: “This is a case of uncommon magnitude. One his duties on the Federal judicial circuit. In 1798, he suf- of the parties to it is a State; certainly respectable, claiming fered a bout of malaria and then died of a stroke at the age to be sovereign. The question to be determined is, whether of 55, while visiting a friend in Edenton, North Carolina. this State, so respectable, and whose claim soars so high, is He was buried in the Johnston cemetery on Hayes Plan- amenable to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the tation near Edenton, but was reinterred in 1906 at Christ United States? This question, important in itself, will depend on others, more important still; and, may, perhaps, be Churchyard, Philadelphia.[20] ultimately resolved into one, no less radical than this 'do the people of the United States form a Nation?'" “Tracing over the events of Wilson’s life, we are impressed by the lucid quality of his mind. With this went a restless energy and insatiable ambition, an almost frightening vitality that turned with undiminished energy and enthu-
In order to arrive at an answer to this question, one that would provide the foundation for the United States of America, Wilson knew that legal thinkers had to resolve in their minds clearly the question of the difference be-
208
CHAPTER 42. JAMES WILSON
tween “the principles of the constitutions and governments [14] World Book Encyclopedia, 2003, James Wilson article. and laws of the United States, and the republics, of which they are formed” and the “constitution and government and [15] “James Wilson: A Forgotten Father,” St. John, Gerald J., in The Philadelphia Lawyer, www.philadelphiabar.org laws of England.” He made it quite clear that he thought the American items to be “materially better.” (First lecture.) [16] Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography, p. 191, American Political Biography Press, Newtown, CT, 1971. ISBN 0-945707-33-9.
42.6 See also 42.7 Notes [1] “James Wilson, 1789-1798”. Supreme Court Historical Society. Retrieved 21 August 2014. [2] Epstein, Lee (2003). The Supreme Court Compendium. CQ Press. p. 417. ISBN 1-56802-592-0. [3] “Signers of the Declaration of Independence”. ushistory.org. Independence Hall Association. Retrieved 24 February 2014. [4] Morton, J. C. (2005-12-30). Shapers of the great debate at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 : a biographical dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 306. ISBN 9780-313-33021-6. OCLC 493444554. [5] Lives of the Signers of the Declaration of Independence by B.J. Lossing and entered, according to Act of Congress in the year 1848, by Geo. F. Cooledge & Brother, in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Southern District of New York. - page 129 [6] “Penn Biographies: James Wilson (1742-1798)". University Records and Archives Center. University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 24 February 2014. [7] “James Wilson”. University of St. Andrews. Retrieved 30 November 2012. [8] Alexander, Lucien Hugh (1906). James Wilson, Patriot, and the Wilson Doctrine. Philadelphia: The North American Review. p. 1.
[17] Read, James H. Power vs. Liberty: Madison, Hamilton, Wilson and Jefferson, p. 93, University Press of Virginia, Charlottesville and London, 2000. ISBN 0-8139-1912-6. [18] Konkle, Burton Alva. “James Wilson and the Constitution,” an address to the Law Academy of Philadelphia, Nov. 14, 1906, published by the academy in 1907 (https://archive.org/stream/jameswilsonconst00konk/ jameswilsonconst00konk_djvu.txt). Retrieved 7-25-14. [19] Robert G. Natelson A republic, not a democracy?, Texas law review p.836 from Elliot, Jonathan, The debate in the several state conventions [20] St. John, G. J. (2004). “James Wilson: A Forgotten Father”. The Philadelphia Lawyer 66 (4). Retrieved 10 September 2011. During the dedication of Pennsylvania’s new capitol building in Harrisburg, Roosevelt singled out James Wilson for special praise [...] One month after the Harrisburg speech, Wilson’s remains were removed from Hayes Plantation and reinterred at Old Christ Church [21] Smith (1956), p. 393
42.8
References
• Works of James Wilson 3 vol (1804) online edition • Collected Works of James Wilson, 2 vols. Edited by Kermit L. Hall and Mark David Hall. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund Press, 2007.
[9] James Wilson: Founding Father, Charles Page Smith, 1956, p. 72
• Hall, Mark David (1997). The Political and Legal Philosophy of James Wilson, 1742–1798. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1103-8.
[10] Pennsylvania National Guard (1875). History of the First Troop Philadelphia City Cavalry. Princeton University. p. 17.
• Read, James H. (2000). Power Versus Liberty: Madison, Hamilton, Wilson, and Jefferson. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-1911-8.
[11] Alexander, John K. (1974). “The Fort Wilson Incident of 1779: A Case Study of the Revolutionary Crowd”. The William and Mary Quarterly. 3 31 (4). Retrieved 24 February 2014.
• Wexler, Natalie (2007). A More Obedient Wife: A Novel of the Early Supreme Court. Washington: Kalorama Press. ISBN 0-615-13516-1.
[12] Smith, Charles Page. James Wilson Founding Father 17421798. Chapel Hill: North Carolina UP, 1956. Print. [13] “Documents from the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, 1774-1789”. loc.gov. Retrieved 9 February 2015.
42.9
Further reading
• Brooks, Christopher (2006). Chisholm to Alden: James Wilson’s Artificial Person in American Supreme
42.10. EXTERNAL LINKS Court History, 1793–1999. Berlin: Logos Verlag. ISBN 3-8325-1342-6. • Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7.
209 • Declaration Signers biography of James Wilson • Penn Law School biography of James Wilson • Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, 1856 • Biography and portrait at the University of Pennsylvania
• Ewald, William. “James Wilson and the Drafting of the Constitution,” University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law, 10 (June 2008), 901–1009.
• Portrait at the University of Pennsylvania Law School
• Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books.
• ExplorePAHistory.com
• Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4. • Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6. • Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 087187-554-3. • Pedersen, Nicholas K., “James Wilson: The Lost Founder”, Yale Journal of Law & Humanities, 22 (2010), 257–337. • Smith, Charles Page (1956). James Wilson, Founding Father, 1742-1798. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. • Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1. • Witt, John Fabian (2007). “The pyramid and the machine : founding visions in the life of James Wilson”. Patriots and Cosmopolitans: Hidden Histories of American Law.
42.10 External links • James Wilson at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • • James Wilson at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center.
• James Wilson at Find a Grave
•
"Wilson, James". Appletons’ Cyclopædia of American Biography. 1889.
• The James Wilson papers, which contain a variety of material on the early federal government and on James Wilson’s business and professional activities, are available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. • James Wilson Institute on Natural Rights and the American Founding
Chapter 43
Pierce Butler For other people named Pierce Butler, see Pierce Butler (disambiguation).
3rd son, died young 4th son, died young
Pierce Butler (July 11, 1744 – February 15, 1822) was a soldier, planter, and statesman, recognized as one of United States' Founding Fathers. He represented South Carolina in the Continental Congress, the 1787 Constitutional Convention, and the U.S. Senate. One of the largest slaveholders in the United States, Butler defended American slavery for both political and personal motives, though he had private misgivings about the institution, and particularly about the African slave trade. He introduced the Fugitive Slave Clause of the U.S. Constitution during the convention, and supported other measures to benefit slaveholders, including counting the full slave population in state totals for the purposes of Congressional apportionment. The compromise measure provided for counting three-fifths of the slave population in state totals, which led to Southern states having disproportionate power.
43.1 Marriage and family
43.2
Soldier
In early 1779 Governor John Rutledge asked the former Redcoat to help reorganize South Carolina’s defenses. Butler assumed the post of the state’s adjutant general, a position that carried the rank of brigadier general. He preferred to be addressed as major, his highest combat rank.[1] Britain was shifting its war strategy. By 1778 the King and his ministers faced a new military situation in the colonies. Their forces in the northern and middle colonies had reached a stalemate with Washington's Continentals, more adequately supplied and better trained after the hard winter at Valley Forge. There was the risk of France entering the war as a partner of the Americans. The British developed a “southern strategy.” They believed that the many Loyalists in the southern states (with whom the British had an active trade through cotton, rice and tobacco) would rally to the Crown if supported by regular troops. They planned a conquest of the rebellious colonies one at a time, moving north from Georgia. They launched their new strategy by capturing Savannah in December 1778.[1]
In January 1771, Major Pierce Butler married Mary Middleton (c. 1750 – 1790). She was the orphaned daughter of Thomas Middleton, a South Carolina planter and slave importer. She was heiress to a vast fortune. Butler resigned his commission in the British Army two years later and settled with Mary in South Carolina. The couple had eight Butler joined to mobilize South Carolina’s militia to repulse the threatened British invasion. Later he helped prepare the children: state units used in the counterattack to drive the enemy from Georgia. During the operation, which climaxed with an atSarah (c. 1772 – 1831), married 1800, tempted attack on Savannah, Butler served as a volunteer James Mease of Philadelphia aide to General Lachlan McIntosh. The hastily raised and poorly prepared militia troops could not compete with the Anne Elizabeth (1771–1845), unmarried well-trained British regulars, and the Patriots’ effort to reFrances (1774–1836), unmarried lieve Savannah ended in failure.[1] Harriot Percy (c. 1775 – 1815), unmarried Pierce Jr. (1777–1780) Thomas (1778–1838), married 1812, Eliza de Mallevault of Paris
In 1780 the British captured Charleston, South Carolina, and with it most of the colony’s civil government and military forces. Butler escaped as part of a command group 210
43.4. LATER YEARS, POST-POLITICS deliberately located outside the city. During the next two years, he developed a counterstrategy to defeat the enemy’s southern operations. Refusing to surrender, allies in South Carolina, and the occupied portions of Georgia and North Carolina, organized a resistance movement. As adjutant general, Butler worked with former members of the militia and Continental Army veterans such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter to integrate the partisan efforts into a unified campaign. They united with the operations of the Southern Army under the command of Horatio Gates and later Nathanael Greene.[1] As a former Royal officer, Butler was a special target for the British occupation forces. Several times he barely avoided capture. Throughout the closing phases of the southern campaign, he personally donated cash and supplies to help sustain the American forces and also assisted in the administration of prisoner-of-war facilities.[1]
43.3 Politician Military operations in the latter months of the Revolution left Butler a poor man. Many of his plantations and ships were destroyed, and the international trade on which the majority of his income depended was in shambles. He traveled to Europe when the war ended in an effort to secure loans and establish new markets. Butler enrolled his son in a London school and engaged a new minister from among the British clergy for his Episcopal church in South Carolina.[1] In late 1785 he returned to the United States. He became an outspoken advocate of reconciliation with former Loyalists and of equal representation for the residents of the backcountry. Testifying to his growing political influence, the South Carolina legislature asked Butler to represent the state at the Constitutional Convention that met in Philadelphia in 1787.[1] Butler’s experiences as a soldier and planter-legislator led to his forceful support for a strong union of the states. He had come to appreciate the need for a national approach to defense. As a planter and merchant, he understood that economic growth and the international respect to support trade depended upon a strong central government. At the same time, he energetically supported the special interests of his region. He introduced the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article 4, Section 2), which established protection for slavery in the Constitution.[1] In addition, while privately criticizing the international trade in African slaves, he supported the passage in the Constitution that prohibited regulation of the trade for 20 years. By the time of the Constitutional Convention, some northern states had already abolished slavery, and others soon did so, leaving the new country largely divided between the slaveholding South and the
211 free labor North. Similarly, Butler supported counting the full slave population in the states’ totals for the purposes of Congressional apportionment, but had to be satisfied with the compromise to count three-fifths of the slaves toward that end.[2] This gave the Southern whites (and states) representation out of proportion to their population, ensuring that the Southern planter elite would exert strong influence in national politics for decades. While supporting an institution integral to the Southern economy, Butler displayed inconsistencies that would bother associates throughout the rest of his political career. For example, Butler favored ratification of the Constitution, yet did not attend the South Carolina convention that ratified it. Later, he was elected by the South Carolina state legislature to three separate terms in the United States Senate, but made abrupt changes in party allegiances during this period. Beginning as a Federalist, he switched to the Jeffersonian party in 1795. In 1804 he declared himself a political independent.[1] Vice President Aaron Burr was Butler’s guest at his St. Simons plantations in September 1804. Burr was, at the time, laying low after shooting Alexander Hamilton in the July 1804 duel. The states of New York and New Jersey had each indicted the Vice President for murder in the wake of the post-duel controversy. Burr had traveled during August,to Butler’s plantation under the pseudonym Roswell King, which was Butler’s overseer’s name. During Burr’s stay in early September, one of the worst hurricanes in history hit the area, and we have Burr’s first-hand description, documenting both his stay and this event.[3] It is interesting to note that Butler’s politics and public involvement mirror the political rise and fall of his friend Burr. After these successive changes, voters did not elect him again to national office. They elected him three more times to the state legislature as an easterner who spoke on behalf of the west.[1]
43.4
Later years, post-politics
Butler retired from politics in 1805. He spent much time in Philadelphia, where he had previously established a summer home, and where his oldest daughter Sarah lived with her family. She had three surviving sons before her father died, two of whom would become his heirs by irrevocably taking his surname. More than a decade before he died, he disinherited his only surviving son Thomas Butler, together with his French-born wife and children.[2] Continuing his business ventures, Butler became one of the wealthiest men in the United States, with huge land holdings in several states. Like other Founding Fathers from his region, Butler also continued to support the institution of
212 slavery. Some historians claim that he privately opposed slavery, and especially the international slave trade, but he tried to protect the institution as a politician because of its importance to the Southern economy. But, unlike Washington or Thomas Jefferson, for example, Butler never acknowledged the fundamental inconsistency in simultaneously defending the rights of the poor and supporting slavery.
CHAPTER 43. PIERCE BUTLER ager of the plantations, which continued to be enormously profitable. After Butler died in 1822, King Jr. continued as manager on behalf of the estate, staying until 1838. He moved on to his own plantation in Alabama after the two Mease grandsons came of age, adopted the surname Butler, and inherited their portions.
Pierce Mease Butler spent the period of 1838-1839 at the plantations with his British wife, actress Fanny Kemble. Associates referred to him as “eccentric” and an “enigma.” She wrote an account of that period which she did not pubHe followed his own path to produce the maximum of lib- lish until 1863: Journal of a Southern Plantation, 1838erty and respect for those individuals whom he classed as 1839. It has become a classic. citizens. He wanted to maintain a strong central government, but a government that could never ride roughshod over the rights of the private citizen. He opposed the policies of the Federalists under Alexander Hamilton because he believed they had sacrificed the interests of westerners 43.6 Descendants and had sought to force their policies on the opposition. He later split with Jefferson and the Democrats for the same reason. Butler emphasized his belief in the role of the com- John (Mease) Butler and Pierce (Mease) Butler mon man. Late in life he summarized his view: “Our System is little better than [a] matter of Experiment.... much must depend on the morals and manners of the people at large.”
43.6.1
Marriage and family
In 1834 the grandson Pierce (Mease) Butler married the notable English actress Frances (“Fanny”) Kemble, who had been touring in the United States for two years with her faFollowing his wife’s death in 1790, Major Pierce Butler sold ther. They had two daughters, Sarah and Frances. off the last of their South Carolina holdings and invested in After Butler inherited his portion of the major’s plantaGeorgia Sea Island plantations. Major Pierce Butler hired tions on Butler and St. Simons islands, he took his family Roswell King as the manager of his two plantations on St. there for the winter of 1838-1839. Kemble was shocked Simon’s Island and Butler Island. They had some conflicts at the living and working conditions for the slaves, and as Butler wanted more moderate treatment of his slaves than complained to him of their overwork and of the manager was King’s style. King left in 1820 to operate his own planRoswell King, Jr.'s treatment of them. She noted that King tation near Darien. He also pursued plans in the 1830s to Jr. was credited with having had several mixed-race childevelop cotton mills in the Piedmont of Georgia, where he dren with slave women, whom he sometimes took away founded what became Roswell, Georgia in 1839. from their husbands for periods of time. The firsthand ex-
43.5 Legacy
Butler disinherited his only surviving son, Thomas Butler, along with his French-born wife and children. He initially planned to leave his whole fortune to Pierce Butler Mease, the eldest son of his daughter Sarah Butler Mease, the only one of his daughters to marry and have children. The boy died in 1810 at age 9. Butler told Sarah he would leave his estate in equal parts to her surviving three sons (including one born that year), provided they irrevocably adopted Butler as their surname. Two of her sons, John and Pierce Butler Mease (born 1810 and named after the grandfather and the brother who died), did change their surnames after they came of age in order to inherit portions of the estate. Until they came of age, Butler’s daughters Fraunces and Eliza inherited the most productive lands.[2]
periences of the winter residence contributed to Kemble’s growing abolitionism. The couple had increasing tensions over this and their basic incompatibility. Butler threatened to deny Kemble access to their daughters if she published anything of her observations about the plantation conditions, which she had often complained about to him.[4] When they divorced in 1849, Butler kept custody of their two daughters.
Kemble waited until 1863, after the American Civil War had started and her daughters had come of age, to publish her Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation in 1838-1839. Her eye-witness indictment of slavery included an account of King Jr’s mixed-race children with slave women. The book was published in both the US and In 1820 Major Butler hired Roswell King, Jr. as the man- England.
43.8. LEGACY AND HONORS
43.6.2
Slave sale
By mid-century, Pierce (Mease) Butler was one of the richest men in the United States, but he squandered a fortune estimated at $700,000. He was saved from bankruptcy by his sale on March 2–3, 1859 of his 436 slaves at Ten Broeck Racetrack, outside Savannah, Georgia. It was the largest single slave auction in United States history and was covered by national newspapers.[5] He was briefly imprisoned for treason, August–September 1861, and sat out the Civil War in Philadelphia, a refuge for numerous Southerners.
213
43.8
Legacy and honors
• Major Pierce Butler and many of his descendants are buried in a family vault at the Episcopal Christ Church, Philadelphia, built in 1727-1744 and a National Historic Landmark. • Butler Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his honor.[6]
43.9
References and external links
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Army Center of Military History document “Pierce Butler” by Robert K. Wright, Jr. and Morris J. MacUnion forces occupied all the Butler plantations beginning Gregor, Jr.. in February 1862. By the January 1, 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, his brother John (Mease) Butler lost nearly 500 slaves to freedom. Later in 1863 John died, and Pierce 43.9.1 Notes (Mease) Butler inherited his half of the Butler estate. In the social and economic disruption of the postwar years, Butler [1] Robert K. Wright, Jr. and Morris J. MacGregor, Jr., “Pierce Butler”, Soldier-Statesmen of the Constitution, Washington, was unsuccessful in adapting to the free labor market amid D.C.: United States Army Center of Military History, 1987, a general agricultural depression; he was unable to gain a accessed 4 March 2012 profit from the Sea Island plantations.
43.6.3
Death of John (Mease) Butler
43.7 Fourth and later generations After (Mease) Butler’s death, his second daughter Frances Butler Leigh and her husband James Leigh, a minister, tried to restore to productivity and operate the combined plantations, but were also unsuccessful in generating a profit. They left Georgia in 1877 and moved permanently to England, where Leigh had been born. Frances Butler Leigh defended her father’s actions as a slaveholder in her book, Ten Years on a Georgian Plantation since the War (1883), intended as a rebuttal to her mother’s critique of slavery twenty years before.
[2] Marian C. McKenna, “Review: Malcolm Bell, Jr., 'Major Butler’s Legacy: Five Generations of a Slaveholding Family' (1987)", Canadian Journal of History, Vol. 23, No. 2 (1988) August [3] ""Our Today’s and Yesterdays, A Story of Brunswick and the Coastal Islands”, pg. 135-138”. Glynngen.com. Retrieved 2013-05-22. [4] David, Deirdre. Fanny Kemble: A Performed Life, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 2007, p. 154 [5] “Great Auction of Slaves at Savannah, Georgia”, New York Tribune, March 9, 1859, at American Memory, Library of Congress [6] “Wisconsin History”. Wisconsin History. 2006-03-29. Retrieved 2013-05-22.
Butler’s eldest daughter, Sarah Butler Wister, had married a wealthy doctor, Owen Jones Wister of the Germantown 43.9.2 Sources area of Philadelphia. They had a son, Owen Wister, who became a popular American novelist and author of the 1902 • Malcolm Bell, Jr., Major Butler’s Legacy: Five Generwestern novel, The Virginian, now considered a classic of ations of a Slaveholding Family (University of Georgia the western migration. Wister was the last Butler descenPress, 1987) dant to inherit the plantations acquired by Major Butler. He wrote about the post-Civil War South in his novel, Lady • Pierce Butler at the Biographical Directory of the Baltimore (1906). It glorified “the lost aristocrats of anteUnited States Congress bellum Charleston” and, as the historian Marian McKenna • James H. Hutson, “Pierce Butler’s Records of the Fednotes, was strongly criticized by his friend Theodore Rooeral Constitutional Convention,” Quarterly Journal of sevelt for making nearly all the devils Northerners and the the Library of Congress 37 (1980): 64-73. angels Southerners.[2]
214 • The Letters of Pierce Butler, 1790-1794: Nation Building and Enterprise in the New American Republic. Edited by Terry W. Lipscomb (University of South Carolina Press, 2007). • “Pierce Butler,” in Documentary History of the First Federal Congress of the United States of America. Edited by Linda Grant De Pauw et al. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972-) 14: 824-30. • John T. White, “Pierce Butler”, The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography, Vol. 2, 1895, p. 162
43.10 External links • Works by Pierce Butler at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about Pierce Butler at Internet Archive • Pierce Butler at Find a Grave
CHAPTER 43. PIERCE BUTLER
Chapter 44
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney For other people of the same name, see Charles Pinckney as a lobbyist to protect South Carolina’s commercial and (disambiguation). political interests). Both Charles and his brother Thomas were enrolled in the Westminster School, where they remained after the rest of the family returned to South CarCharles Cotesworth “C. C.” Pinckney (February 25, 1746 – August 16, 1825), was an early American statesman olina in 1758. Both brothers also studied at Oxford University. Pinckney matriculated from Christ Church, Oxford in of South Carolina, Revolutionary War veteran, and delegate to the Constitutional Convention. He was twice nominated 1764, and left to study law at the Middle Temple in 1766. Pinckney was called to the bar in 1769, but he continued his by the Federalist Party as its presidential candidate. He lost education in France for another year, studying botany and both elections. chemistry. He also had a brief stint at the Royal Military According to the state library of South Carolina, College at Caen. In 1773, Pinckney married Sarah Middleton, whose father Henry Middleton served as the second President of the Continental Congress and whose brother Arthur Middleton signed the Declaration of Independence. Sarah died in 1784. In 1786, he remarried to Mary Stead, who came from a wealthy family of planters in Georgia. Pinckney had three daughters.
“Pinckney owned slaves throughout his life and believed that slavery was necessary to the economy of South Carolina. At the Constitutional Convention, he agreed to abolish the slave trade in 1808, but opposed emancipation. In 1801, Pinckney owned about 250 slaves. When his daughter Eliza married, Pinckney gave her fifty slaves. On his death, he bequeathed his remaining slaves to his daughters and nephews."[[1] ]
44.1 Early life and family Charles Cotesworth Pinckney was born into the Pinckney family of aristocratic planters in Charleston, South Carolina, on February 25, 1746. He was the son of Charles Pinckney, who would later serve as the chief justice of the Province of South Carolina, and the celebrated planter and agriculturalist, Eliza Lucas.[2] He was the elder brother of Thomas Pinckney, who served as Governor of South Carolina, as a U.S. Representative, and as a George Washington administration diplomat. His first cousin once removed, Charles Pinckney, served as Governor of South Carolina, as a U.S. Senator, and as a diplomat in the administration of Thomas Jefferson.
44.2
Early political career
After returning to South Carolina from Europe, Pinckney began to practice law in Charleston. He was first elected to a seat in the colonial legislature in 1770. In 1773 he served as a regional attorney general. When war erupted between the thirteen American colonies and Great Britain in 1775, Pinckney stood with the American Patriots; in that year he was a member of the first South Carolina provincial congress, which helped South Carolina transition from being a British colony to being an independent state.[2] During the American Revolutionary War he would serve in the In 1753, Pinckney’s father moved the family to London, lower house of the state legislature and as a member of the England, where he served as the colony’s agent (essentially South Carolina Senate in addition to his military service. 215
216
CHAPTER 44. CHARLES COTESWORTH PINCKNEY Pinckney leading one of its brigades, attempted to re-take Savannah in the Siege of Savannah. This attack was disaster for the Americans, who suffered numerous casualties. Pinckney then participated in 1780 defense of Charleston against British siege. Major General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men to the British on May 12, 1780, whereupon Pinckney became a prisoner of war. As a prisoner of war, he played a major role in maintaining the troops’ loyalty to the Patriots’ cause. During this time, he famously said, “If I had a vein that did not beat with the love of my Country, I myself would open it. If I had a drop of blood that could flow dishonorable, I myself would let it out.” He was kept in close confinement until his release in 1782. In November 1783, he was commissioned a brevet Brigadier General in the Continental Army shortly before the southern regiments were disbanded.[2] He was promoted to Major General during his subsequent service in the South Carolina militia.[3]
44.4 A portrait from about 1773 by Henry Benbridge.
44.3 Revolutionary War In 1775, after the American Revolutionary War had broken out, Pinckney volunteered for military service as a full-time regular officer in George Washington’s Continental Army. As a senior company commander with the rank of captain, Pinckney raised and led the elite Grenadiers of the 1st South Carolina Regiment. He participated in the successful defense of Charleston in the Battle of Sullivan’s Island in June 1776, when British forces under General Sir Henry Clinton staged an amphibious attack on the state capital. Later in 1776 Pinckney took command of the regiment, with the rank of colonel, a position he retained to the end of the war. After this, the British Army shifted its focus to the Northern and Mid-Atlantic states. Pinckney led his regiment north to join General Washington’s troops near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Pinckney and his regiment then participated in the Battle of Brandywine and the Battle of Germantown. Around this time he first met fellow officers and future Federalist statesmen Alexander Hamilton and James McHenry. In 1778, Pinckney and his regiment, returning to the South, took part in a failed American expedition attempting to seize British East Florida. The expedition ended due to severe logistical difficulties and a British victory in the Battle of Alligator Bridge. Later that year, the British Army shifted its focus to the Southern theater, capturing Savannah, Georgia, that December. In October 1779, the Southern army of Major General Benjamin Lincoln, with
Constitutional Convention
Pinckney, who had returned to the lower house of the state legislature, represented South Carolina at the constitutional convention of 1787. Pinckney advocated that African American slaves be counted as a basis of representation. According to a book review in the New York Times in January 2015: “The Northwest Ordinance of July 1787 held that slaves “may be lawfully reclaimed” from free states and territories, and soon after, a fugitive slave clause — Article IV, Section 2 — was woven into the Constitution at the insistence of the Southern delegates, leading South Carolina’s Charles C. Pinckney to boast, “We have obtained a right to recover our slaves in whatever part of America they may take refuge, which is a right we had not before.”[4] Pinckney advocated for a strong national government (albeit one with a system of checks and balances) to replace the weak one of the time. He opposed as impractical the election of representatives by popular vote. He also opposed paying senators, who, he thought, should be men of independent wealth. Pinckney played a key role in requiring treaties to be ratified by the Senate and in the compromise that resulted in the abolition of the Atlantic slave trade. He also opposed placing a limitation on the size of a federal standing army.[5] Pinckney played a prominent role in securing the ratification of the Federal constitution in the South Carolina convention of 1788, and in framing the South Carolina Constitution in the convention of 1790. At the ratification convention,
44.6. LATER POLITICAL CAREER
217
Pinckney distinguished three types of government and said two countries. republics were where “the people at large, either collectively or by representation, form the legislature”. After this, he announced his retirement from politics. 44.6 Later
44.5 XYZ Affair Main article: XYZ Affair In 1789, President George Washington offered Pinckney his choice of the State Department or the War Department; Pinckney declined both. When Washington offered Pinckney the role of Ambassador to France in 1796, Pinckney accepted. Relations with the French First Republic was then at a low ebb: the Jay Treaty between the US and Great Britain had angered members of the ruling French Directory, and they had ordered the French Navy to step up seizures of American merchant vessels found to be trading with Britain, with whom France was at war. When Pinckney presented his credentials in November 1796, they were refused, with the Directory stating that no ambassador could be accepted until the outstanding crisis was resolved. Pinckney was outraged by the offense. After Pinckney reported this to the recently inaugurated President John Adams in 1797, a commission composed of Pinckney, John Marshall, and Elbridge Gerry was established to treat with the French. Gerry and Marshall joined Pinckney at The Hague, and traveled to Paris in October 1797. After a cursory preliminary meeting with the new French Foreign Minister Talleyrand, the commissioners were approached informally by a series of intermediaries who spelled out French demands. These included a large loan to France, which the commissioners had been instructed to refuse, and substantial bribes for Talleyrand and members of the Directory, which the commissioners found offensive. These exchanges became the basis for what became known as the "XYZ Affair" when documents concerning them were published in 1798. Talleyrand, who was aware of political differences in the commission (Pinckney and Marshall were Federalists who favored Britain, and Gerry wavered politically between moderate Federalism ideas and the Jeffersonian Republicans, who favored France and were strongly hostile to Britain), exploited this division in the informal discussions. Pinckney and Marshall left France in April 1798; Gerry remained behind in an unofficial capacity, seeking to moderate French demands. The breakdown of negotiations led to what became known as the undeclared Quasi-War (17981800), pitting the two nation’s navies against each other. In July 1798 he was commissioned as a Major General in the US Army, and served until the end of the crisis between the
political career
In the 1800 presidential election, Pinckney was the Federalist candidate for vice-president, running with the incumbent president, John Adams. They were defeated by the Democratic-Republicans Thomas Jefferson (who became president) and Aaron Burr (who became vice president). In 1804, the Federalist Party nominated Pinckney to run for the presidency against Jefferson. Jefferson, who was very popular due to the acquisition of the Louisiana Purchase and booming trade, defeated Pinckney in a landslide. Pinckney won only 27.2% of the popular vote and carried only two states, Delaware and Connecticut. In 1808 he was again the Federalist nominee for president, running against Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison. Pinckney did not fare much better against Madison, carrying only five states and winning 32.4% of the popular vote. From 1805 until his death in 1825, Pinckney was presidentgeneral of the Society of the Cincinnati. Pinckney was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1813.[6]
44.7
Death and burial
General Pinckney died on August 16, 1825 and was buried in St. Michael’s Churchyard in Charleston, South Carolina. His tombstone reads, “One of the founders of the American Republic. In war he was a companion in arms and friend of Washington. In peace he enjoyed his unchanging confidence.”[3]
44.8
Memorialization
• Castle Pinckney in Charleston Harbor, completed about 1810, and an earlier fort on the same site, were named for Charles C. Pinckney. • Pinckney Island National Wildlife Refuge, a national wildlife refuge on the site of the Pinckney family’s plantation, was named for Charles C. Pinckney. • Pinckney Elementary School in Lawrence, Kansas, is named for Charles C. Pinckney. • A school in Fort Jackson, South Carolina, is called C. C. Pinckney Elementary.
218
CHAPTER 44. CHARLES COTESWORTH PINCKNEY
• In 1942, during World War II, a 422-foot liberty ship was built in Wilmington, North Carolina, and named SS Charles C. Pinckney in his honor. • Pinckney Street in Madison, Wisconsin, was named in his honor. • Pinckneyville, Illinois, was named after him. • Pinckney Highway (SC 9) in Chester, South Carolina, was named in his honor.
44.9 References This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Army Center of Military History. [1] http://library.sc.edu/digital/slaveryscc/ intellectual-founders.html Slavery at South Carolina College, 1801–1865: The Foundations of the University of South Carolina [2] DeConde, Alexander (1976). “Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth”. In William D. Halsey. Collier’s Encyclopedia 19. New York: Macmillan Educational Corporation. pp. 51–52. [3] http://www.history.army.mil/books/RevWar/ss/ pinckneycc.htm [4] Quote taken from book review by Kevin Baker, Jan. 28, 2015 of Gateway to Freedom by Eric Foner” [5] Fields, William and Hardy, David. “The Third Amendment and the Issue of the Maintenance of Standing Armies: A Legal History,” American Journal of Legal History (1991), volume 35, page 393: Elbridge Gerry...proposed that the Constitution contain express language limiting the size of the standing army to several thousand men. Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, ostensibly at the instigation of Washington, responded that such a proposal was satisfactory so long as any invading force also agreed to limit its army to a similar size.” [6] American Antiquarian Society Members Directory
44.10 External links • U.S. Army profile of Bvt. Maj. Gen. Charles C. Pinckney
Chapter 45
Charles Pinckney (governor) Charles Pinckney (October 26, 1757 – October 29, 1824) was an American politician who was a signer of the United States Constitution, the 37th Governor of South Carolina, a Senator and a member of the House of Representatives. He was first cousin once removed of fellow signer Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.
the age of 21. About that time, well after the War for Independence had begun, young Pinckney enlisted in the militia (though his father demonstrated ambivalence about the Revolution). He became a lieutenant, and served at the siege of Savannah (September–October 1779). When Charleston fell to the British the next year, the young Pinckney was captured and held as a prisoner until June 1781.
Charles was an ancestor of seven future South Carolina governors, a few of which have prominent South Carolinian He was elected again to the Continental Congress following names, including the Maybank and Rhett families. the war, serving 1784–87. He was elected to the state legislature for several terms (1779–80, 1786–89, and 1792–96). As a nationalist, he worked hard in Congress trying to ensure that the United States would receive navigation rights 45.1 Early life and education from Spain to the Mississippi River and to strengthen congressional power. Pinckney was born in Charleston, South Carolina. His father, Colonel Charles Pinckney, was a rich lawyer and Pinckney’s role in the Constitutional Convention is controplanter. On his death in 1782, he bequeathed Snee Farm, versial. Although one of the youngest delegates, he later a plantation outside the city, and his numerous slaves to his claimed to have been the most influential one and coneldest son Charles. Charles received all his education in the tended he had submitted a draft, known as the Pinckney Plan, that was the basis of the final Constitution. This was city of his birth. strongly disputed by James Madison and some of the other Framers.[1] He submitted an elaborate form of the Virginia Plan, submitted by Edmund Randolph, but it was disre45.2 Marriage and family garded by the other delegates. Historians assess him as an important contributing delegate.[2] Pinckney boasted that Busy with the war and his political career, Pinckney did he was 24, allowing him to claim distinction as the youngest not marry until 1787. He married Mary Eleanor Laurens, delegate, but he was 30 years old that year.[3] He attended daughter of Henry Laurens, the wealthy and politically pow- full-time, spoke often and effectively, and contributed imerful South Carolina merchant and slave trader. They had mensely to the final draft and to the resolution of problems that arose during the debates. He also worked for ratificaat least three children. tion in South Carolina (1788). Among his in-laws were Colonel John Laurens and U.S. Representative David Ramsay; another brother-in-law mar- At the Convention, Pierce Butler and Pinckney, both from ried the daughter of South Carolina Governor John Rut- South Carolina, introduced the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section II, Clause III). James Wilson of Pennsylvaledge. nia objected, saying that it was special protection for slaveholders, requiring all state governments to enforce it at taxpayers’ expense, in places where no one or most residents 45.3 Career did not own slaves. Butler withdrew the clause. But, the next day, a southerner reinstated the clause and the ConPinckney was elected to the Continental Congress (1777– vention adopted it without further objection. This clause 78). He started to practice law in Charleston in 1779 at 219
220
CHAPTER 45. CHARLES PINCKNEY (GOVERNOR)
was added to the clause that provided extradition for fugi- by the state legislature. In 1798 his Democratic-Republican tives from justice.[4] supporters in the legislature elected him to the U.S. Senate. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due.
He strongly opposed actions by his former party, and in the presidential election of 1800, served as Thomas Jefferson's campaign manager in South Carolina. The victorious Jefferson appointed Pinckney as Minister to Spain (1801–05). He tried but did not succeed in gaining cession by Spain of the Floridas to the United States. He facilitated Spanish acquiescence in the transfer of Louisiana from France to the United States in 1803 by the Louisiana Purchase.
This clause was first applied to fugitive slaves and required that they be extradited upon the claims of their masters. This practice was not eliminated until the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery. In 1864, during the Civil War, an effort to repeal this clause of the Constitution failed.[5] He was also responsible for another important clause to the Constitution that later was used, along with the 1st and 14th amendments, to vacate several state constitutions’ clauses requiring oaths of office holders to affirm a deity. Charles’ home state of South Carolina had established Protestantism as the state religion so it was interesting that he introduced a clause into the Constitution article VI in opposition to an established state religion. His “no religious test” clause read as follows: no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States Once the inclusion of the phrase was brought to a vote it passed with little opposition and so for the first time in history an official of a national government was not required to have a religion.[6][7] Interesting also was that the final blow to states requiring office holders to swear to God was fought in his home state of South Carolina, that had originally had an established state religion, in the 1997 South Carolina Supreme Court case of Silverman v. Campbell. Subsequent to his importance and influence as a delegate, Pinckney’s political career blossomed. From 1789 to 1792, the state legislature elected him as governor of South Carolina, and in 1790 he chaired the state constitutional convention. During this period, he became associated with the Federalist Party, in which he and his cousin Charles Cotesworth Pinckney were leaders. But, with the passage of time, the former’s views began to change. In 1795 he attacked the Federalist-backed Jay’s Treaty. He increasingly began to cast his lot with Carolina backcountry Democratic-Republicans against his own eastern aristocracy. The population in the western part of the state was increasing, but apportionment favored the Low Country planters. In 1796 Pinckney was elected governor again
Pinckney’s grave at St. Philip’s in Charleston
Pinckney returned from Spain to Charleston and to leadership of the state Democratic-Republican Party. He sat in the legislature in 1805–06 and was again elected as governor (1806–08). In this position, he favored legislative reapportionment, giving better representation to back-country districts, and advocated universal white manhood suffrage. He served again in the legislature from 1810 to 1814, and then temporarily withdrew from politics. In 1818 he won election to the United States House of Representatives, where he fought against the Missouri Compromise as he was interested in having slavery be expanded to new territories and states. In 1821, with his health beginning to fail, Pinckney retired for the last time from politics. He died in 1824, three days after his 67th birthday. He was laid to rest at St. Philip’s Episcopal Churchyard in Charleston.
45.4
Legacy and honors
• Pinckney’s Snee Farm plantation is maintained as Charles Pinckney National Historic Site. • His son, Henry L. Pinckney (September 24, 1794 – February 3, 1863) was a U.S. Representative from
45.7. EXTERNAL LINKS South Carolina, and mayor of Charleston. His daughter married Robert Young Hayne, U.S. Representative, mayor of Charleston, and governor of South Carolina.
221
45.7
External links
• Charles Pinckney at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress • SCIway Biography of Charles Pinckney
45.5 See also • U.S. Constitution, slavery debate in Convention
45.6 References United States. National Park Service. (1976), Signers of the Constitution: historic places commemorating the signing of the Constitution (The National survey of historic sites and buildings, v. 19), retrieved 2007-11-03 • Marty D. Mathews, Forgotten Founder: The Life and Times of Charles Pinckney (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2004). [1] James Madison on the Pinckney Plan, Farrand’s Records of the Federal Convention, http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/ farrand-the-records-of-the-federal-convention-of-1787-vol-3# lf0544-03_head_424. [2] MacDonald Forrest,E Pluribus Anum: The Formation of the American Republic 1776–1790(Houghton Mifflin Company: Library of Congress Catalog Card: 65-111322) 1965 page 166–167. [3] Yates Publishing. U.S. and International Marriage Records, 1560–1900 [database on-line]. Provo, UT, US: The Generations Network, Inc., 2004. [4] Paul Finkelman, Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson, p. 82, 2nd Edition, 2001. [5] The vote in the House was 69 for repeal and 38 against, which was short of the two-to-one vote required to amend the Constitution. See the Congressional Globe, 38th Cong., 1st Sess., 1325 (1864) [6] Drawn from original source: Charles C. Haynes (1991). “overview: history of religious liberty in America”. A Framework for Civic Education. Council for the Advancement of Citizenship and the Center for Civic Education. [7] Drawn from original source: “The Individual Liberties within the Body of the Constitution: A Symposium: The No Religious Test Clause and the Constitution of Religious Liberty: A Machine That Has Gone of Itself.” Case Western Reserve Law Review 37: 674–747. Dreisbach, Daniel L. 1999. “The Bill of Rights: Almost an Afterthought?". ABC-CLIO. 2011.
• NGA Biography of Charles Pinckney • The Plan of Charles Pinckney - Submitted as an alternative to the Virginia Plan
Chapter 46
John Rutledge For other people named John Rutledge, see John Rutledge Edward (1749–1800). John’s early education was provided (disambiguation). by his father until the latter’s death. The rest of Rutledge’s primary education was provided by an Anglican priest.[3] John Rutledge (September 17, 1739 – July 23, 1800) was John took an early interest in law and often “played lawyer” the second Chief Justice[1] of the Supreme Court of the with his brothers and sisters. When he was 17 years old, United States. Rutledge began to read law under a man named James ParA lawyer and a judge, Rutledge was a delegate to the Stamp sons. Two years later, Rutledge sailed to England to further of his Act Congress and the Continental Congress, President and his studies at London’s Middle Temple. In the course [4] studies, he won several cases in English courts. then Governor of South Carolina during the American Revolution, a delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, and an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. He was the elder brother of Edward Rutledge, a signatory of the Declaration of Independence. Like many prominent European-American men in South Carolina at the time, he owned African American people as slaves. According to the state library of South Carolina:
After finishing his studies, Rutledge returned to Charleston to begin a fruitful legal career. At the time, many lawyers came out of law school and barely scraped together enough business to earn their livings. Most new lawyers could only hope that they would win well-known cases to ensure their success.[5] Rutledge, however, emerged almost immediately as one of the most prominent lawyers in Charleston, and his services were in high demand.[6] With his successful legal career, he was able to build on his mother’s fortune. On May 1, 1763, Rutledge married Elizabeth Grimké (born 1742).[7] Rutledge was very devoted to his wife, and Elizabeth’s death on July 6, 1792, was a major cause of the illness that affected Rutledge in his later years.[8]
“Although Rutledge claimed that he disliked slavery, as an attorney he twice defended individuals who abused slaves. Before the American Revolution, Rutledge owned sixty slaves; afterward, he possessed twenty-eight. His wife Elizabeth manumitted her own slaves, and his nieces were abolitionists Sarah and Angelina Grimké. Despite this, Rutledge convinced the Constitutional Convention not to abolish slavery. When Rutledge died in 1800, he only owned one slave due to financial difficulties.” [2]
John and Elizabeth had 10 children: Martha Henrietta (1764–1816), Sarah (born and died 1765), John (1766– 1819), Edward James (1767–1811), Frederick Wilkes (1769–1821), William Spencer (1771–1821), Charles Wilson (1773–1821), Thomas (born 1774 and died young), Elizabeth (1776–1842), and States Whitcomb (1783– 1829).
46.1 Early life and family Rutledge was the eldest child in a large family in Charleston, South Carolina. His father was Scots-Irish immigrant John Rutledge (Sr.) (1713–1750), the physician. His mother, South Carolina–born Sarah (née Hext; born September 18, 1724), was of English descent. John had six younger siblings: Andrew (1740–1772), Thomas (1741–1783), Sarah (1742–1819), Hugh (1745–1811), Mary (1747–1832), and
46.2
Pre-Revolutionary War
In mid-1765 Rutledge was an important figure in the Stamp Act Congress. This congress produced a resolution that stated that it was “the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them but with their own con-
222
46.4. GOVERNOR OF SOUTH CAROLINA sent, given personally, or by their representatives.” Rutledge chaired a committee that drew up a petition to the House of Lords attempting to persuade them to reject the Stamp Act. They were ultimately unsuccessful.[9] When the delegates returned to South Carolina after the Congress adjourned, they found the state in turmoil. The people had destroyed all the revenue stamps they could find; they broke into the houses of suspected Loyalists’ to search for stamps. When the Stamp Act went into effect on November 1, 1765, there were no stamps in the entire colony. Dougal Campbell, the Charleston court clerk, refused to issue any papers without the stamps. Because of this, all legal processes in the entire state came to a standstill until news that the Stamp Act had been repealed reached South Carolina in early May 1766.[10] After the Stamp Act conflict ended, Rutledge went back into private life, and to his law practice. Besides serving in the colonial legislature, he did not involve himself in politics. His law practice continued to expand and he became fairly wealthy as a result.[11] In 1774, Rutledge was elected to the First Continental Congress. It is not known for certain exactly what John Rutledge did in the Congress. The records of the Congress refer only to “Rutledge”, though both John and his brother Edward Rutledge were present. The most important contribution made by “Rutledge” to the Congress was during the debate on how to apportion votes in the Congress. Some wanted votes to be apportioned by the population of the colonies. Others wanted to give each colony one vote. “Rutledge” observed that as the Congress had no legal authority to force the colonies to accept its decisions, it would make the most sense to give each colony one vote. The other delegates ultimately agreed to this proposal.[12]
46.3 President of South Carolina John Rutledge served in the First Continental Congress and the Second Continental Congress until 1776. That year, he was elected President of South Carolina under a constitution drawn up on March 26, 1776. Upon taking office, he worked quickly to organize the new government and to prepare defenses against British attack.[13] In early 1776, Rutledge learned that British forces would attempt to take Charleston. In response, he ordered the construction of Fort Sullivan (now Fort Moultrie) on Sullivan’s Island in Charleston Harbor. When the British arrived, the fort was only half completed. General Charles Lee of the Continental Army, who had arrived a few days earlier with reinforcements from North Carolina, told Rutledge the fort should be evacuated, as Lee considered it indefensible. Lee said that the fort would fall in under a half an hour, and
223 all the men would be killed.[13] In a note to the fort’s commanding officer, Colonel William Moultrie, Rutledge wrote “General Lee [...] wishes you to evacuate the fort. You will not, without [an] order from me. I would sooner cut off my hand than write one.”[14] Rutledge, noticed the Lee was arrogant and uncouth and unfit to control the militia. Rutledge, by virtue of being elected by the state gained control of the militia. Rutledge let it be known that only he could order the militia to defend Charleston. During this time, Rutledge garnered the nickname “Dictator John” by virtue of getting his way with things.[15] On June 28, 1776, the British attacked the fort, expecting it to fall quickly. However, the fort’s walls were made out of palmetto logs packed with sand, and the British cannonballs were absorbed into the soft core of the logs without doing much damage, and the British were repulsed, saving Charleston. The battle anniversary is still celebrated as “Carolina Day”, on June 28 each year. South Carolina’s current “Palmetto Flag”, adopted in 1861, features the crescent symbol on the defending soldiers’ caps along with the Palmetto tree.[16] Rutledge continued as President of South Carolina until 1778. That year, the South Carolina legislature proposed a new constitution. Rutledge vetoed it, stating that it moved the state dangerously close to a direct democracy, which Rutledge believed was only a step away from total anarchy. When the legislature overrode his veto, Rutledge resigned.[17]
46.4
Governor of South Carolina
A few months after Rutledge’s resignation, the British, having suffered several defeats in the North, decided to try to retake the South. Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell landed in Georgia with 3,000 men and quickly took control of the entire state.[18] The new state constitution was revised, and in 1779, Rutledge was elected governor. Rutledge sent troops under General Benjamin Lincoln into Georgia to harass the British. The new British commander in the south, General Jacques Prevost, responded by marching on Charleston with 2,500 troops. When Rutledge heard about this threat, he hurried to Charleston and worked furiously to build up defenses. In spite of Rutledge’s efforts, when General Prevost arrived outside Charleston, the British force had been greatly increased by the addition of Loyalists, and the Americans were vastly outnumbered.[18] Rutledge privately asked Prevost for surrender terms. Prevost made an offer, but when Rutledge submitted it to the council of war, the council instructed Rutledge to ask if the British would accept a declaration of South Carolina’s
224 neutrality in the Revolution. They forbade Rutledge from surrendering mainly because William Moultrie, who was now a general, believed that the Americans had at least as many troops as the British force, which consisted largely of untrained civilians.
CHAPTER 46. JOHN RUTLEDGE term of office had already ended, and he did not run again, because of term limits.[23]
A few weeks after leaving the governorship, Rutledge was again elected to the Continental Congress, where he served until 1783. In 1784, he was appointed to the South Carolina Prevost replied that as he was faced with such a large mil- Court of Chancery, where he served until 1791. itary force, he would have to take some of them prisoner before he could accept. Moultrie advised the council that he would never stand by and allow the British to take Amer- 46.5 The Story of the Tavern Keeper icans prisoner without fighting, so the council decided to fight it out. The city braced itself for an attack, but the In 1784, the South Carolina legislature threatened to exile next morning, the British had disappeared. Prevost had ina tavern keeper by the name of William Thompson, for intercepted a letter from General Lincoln to Moultrie saying sulting “Dictator” John Rutledge, now the former governor that he was marching to the aid of Charleston, and Preand a prominent figure in the state. Rutledge had sent a vost decided that he could not hold out if the Americans female servant to Thompson’s tavern to watch a fireworks [19] got reinforcements. display from the roof. Thompson denied the servant admittance and sent her back to Rutledge. Rutledge was furious and demanded that Thompson come to his house and apol46.4.1 Charleston occupied ogize. Thompson refused and, believing that his honor had been affronted by Rutledge’s arrogant request, challenged Rutledge to a duel. Since people like Rutledge did not associate with tavern keepers, Rutledge went to the South Carolina House of Representatives and insisted that it pass a bill banishing Thompson from the state for insulting a government official.[24] Thompson claimed that, Rutledge and others who were wealthy composed “the grand hierarchy of the State.” Thompson argued that independent people required leaders who were “good, able, useful and friends to social equality.” This altercation changed the hierarchy of state legislatures for years to come.[25]
46.6
Constitutional Convention
A map showing the battle lines during the British siege in 1780.
In early 1780, Sir Henry Clinton attacked South Carolina, and Charleston was thrown into a panic. The legislature adjourned upon learning of the British. Their last action was to give Rutledge power to do anything short of execution without trial. Rutledge did his best to raise militia forces, but Charleston was in the midst of a smallpox epidemic, and few dared to enter the city. In February, Clinton landed near Charleston with 5,000 troops. By May he had 9,000 troops to less than 2,500 Americans in the area. On May 10, Charleston surrendered.[20] Rutledge had left the city. He remained Governor of the unconquered part of South Carolina.[21] Though the Americans defeated the British at the Battle of Cowpens in January 1781, they could not drive the British back to Charleston until June 1781, when General Nathanael Greene arrived with more troops.[22] The British held Charleston until December 14, 1782. John Rutledge’s
Further information: Constitutional Convention In 1787, Rutledge was selected to represent South Carolina in the Philadelphia Convention which was called to revise the Articles of Confederation, but instead produced the United States Constitution.[26] He attended all the sessions and served on five committees.[27] At the Convention, Rutledge maintained a moderate nationalist stance and chaired the Committee of Detail. After the Convention had debated the Virginia Plan and settled some of the major points of controversy, the Committee of Detail, which Rutledge chaired, assembled during the convention’s July 4 recess.[1] Though the committee did not record its minutes, it is known that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the Convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, to produce the first full draft. Much of what was included in this draft consisted of details, such as powers given to Congress, hadn't been debated by the Convention. Most of these were uncontroversial and unchallenged, and as such much of what Rutledge’s committee
46.7. SUPREME COURT ASSOCIATE JUSTICE
225 strongly than any other motion in the entire convention. He stated that making such a rule would divide the people into “haves” and “have nots”, would create an undying resentment against landowners, and could do nothing but cause discord. He was supported by Benjamin Franklin, and the rule was not adopted.[30] In the debate on slavery in the new country, Rutledge took the side of the slave-owners; he was a Southerner and he owned several slaves. Rutledge said that if the Constitution forbade slavery, the Southern states would never agree to the Constitution.[31]
46.7
Rutledge around the time of the Convention.
included in this first draft made it into the final version of the Constitution without debate.[1] Rutledge recommended that the executive power should consist of a single person, rather than several, because he felt that one person would feel the responsibility of the office more acutely. Because the president would not be able to defer a decision to another “co-president”, Rutledge concluded that a single person would be more likely to make a good choice.[26] Rutledge was largely responsible for denying the Supreme Court the right to give advisory opinions. Being a judge himself, he strongly believed that a judge’s sole purpose was to resolve legal conflicts; he held that a judge should hand down an opinion only when ruling on an actual case. He also thought that the legal community was the higher tier of society.[28]
Supreme Court Associate Justice
In the summer of 1789, Rutledge was nominated by President Washington to be the first Associate Justice on the newly established United States Supreme Court. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 25, 1789, and received his commission the same day. On March 4, 1791, Rutledge, without ever having had the opportunity to decide a case, resigned from the U.S. Supreme Court in order to become Chief Justice of the South Carolina Court of Common Pleas and Sessions.[32][33]
46.8
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
On June 28, 1795, Chief Justice John Jay resigned, having been elected Governor of New York. President Washington selected Rutledge to succeed Jay as Chief Justice. As the Senate was not in session at the time, Rutledge’s recess appointment took effect immediately. He was commissioned as the second Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on June 30, 1795.[34] On July 16, 1795, Rutledge gave a highly controversial speech denouncing the Jay Treaty with Great Britain. He reportedly said in the speech “that he had rather the President should die than sign that puerile instrument"– and that he “preferred war to an adoption of it.”[35] Rutledge’s speech against the Jay Treaty cost him the support of many in the Washington Administration, which supported the treaty, and in the Senate, which subsequently ratified it by a two-thirds majority and which would soon be debating and voting on his nomination to the Supreme Court.
Rutledge also argued that if either house of the legislature was to have the sole authority to introduce appropriation bills, it should be the Senate. He noted that the Senate, by nature of its lengthier terms of office, would tend to be more leisurely in its actions. Because of this, Rutledge felt that the Senate would be better able to think clearly about what the consequences of a bill would be. Also, since the bills could not become law without the consent of the House of Representatives, he concluded that there would be no danger of Two cases were decided while Rutledge held his recess apthe Senate ruling the country.[29] pointment (before his formal nomination). In United States When the proposal was made that only landowners should v. Peters, the Court ruled that federal district courts had have the right to vote, Rutledge opposed it perhaps more no jurisdiction over crimes committed against Americans
226
CHAPTER 46. JOHN RUTLEDGE was the first time that the Senate had rejected a presidential recess appointment. Of the 15 recess appointments to the Supreme Court, it remains the only one to be rejected,[33] and as of 2015 Rutledge remains the only person ever removed involuntarily from the Supreme Court. Regarding the Senate’s rejection of Rutledge’s nomination, then Vice President John Adams wrote to his wife Abigail that it “gave me pain for an old friend, though I could not but think he deserved it. Chief Justices must not go to illegal Meetings and become popular orators in favor of Sedition, nor inflame the popular discontents which are ill founded, nor propagate Disunion, Division, Contention and delusion among the people.”[36] The comments of Adams, a Federalist, foreshadowed his administration’s Sedition Act, which attempted to suppress public criticism of Federalist policies.
46.9
Later years
A bust of John Rutledge located in the United States Supreme Court.
in international waters. In Talbot v. Janson, the Court held that a citizen of the United States did not waive all claims to U.S. citizenship by either renouncing citizenship of an individual state, or by becoming a citizen of another country. The Rutledge Court thus established an important precedent for multiple citizenship in the United States.
“Jurist, Patriot, Statesman": The gravestone of John Rutledge at St. Michael’s Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina
The Senate’s rejection of his nomination left Rutledge mentally ruined. Though the Senate remained in session through June 1, 1796, Rutledge resigned from the Court on December 28, 1795. [37] He returned to Charleston and withdrew afterward by By the time of his formal nomination to the Court on De- from public life. He attempted suicide shortly[34][38] jumping off a wharf into Charleston Harbor. cember 10, 1795, Rutledge’s reputation was in tatters and support for his nomination had faded. Rumors of mental John Rutledge died on June 21, 1800, at the age of sixty.[39] illness and alcohol abuse swirled around him, concocted He was interred at St. Michael’s Episcopal Church in largely by the Federalist press. His words and actions in Charleston.[40][41] One of his houses, said to have been response to the Jay Treaty were used as evidence of his built in 1763 and definitely sold in 1790, was renovated in continued mental decline.[33] The Senate rejected his ap- 1989 and opened to the public as the John Rutledge House pointment on December 15, 1795 by a vote of 14–10. This Inn.[42]
46.12. BIBLIOGRAPHY
227
46.10 See also
[27] Madison, James (1893). E. H. Scott, ed. Journal of the Federal Convention. Chicago: Albert, Scott, and Co. Various locations throughout the book. Retrieved 2008-05-11.
46.11 References
[28] Flanders 604
[1] Stewart, David. The Summer of 1787. p168
[29] Flanders 606
[2] “Slavery at South Carolina College, 1801–1865: The Foundations of the University of South Carolina - Intellectual Founders
[30] Flanders 607
[3] Flanders, Henry (1874). The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States 1. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. pp. 432–433. Retrieved 200804-29. [4] Flanders 438–439 [5] Flanders 447–448 [6] Fradin, Dennis Brindell (2005). The Founders: The 39 Stories behind the U.S. Constitution. New York City: Walker Publishing Company, Inc. p. 90. [7] She was a cousin once removed of the abolitionist Grimké sisters. [8] Flanders 451 [9] Flanders 460
[31] Flanders 609–610 [32] Flanders 622 [33] “1787-1800 – December 15, 1795 Chief Justice Nomination Rejected”. United States Senate Historical Office. Retrieved October 21, 2012. [34] Fisher, Louis (2001-09-05). “Recess Appointments of Federal Judges” (PDF). Congressional Research Service. pp. 14–15. Retrieved October 20, 2012. [35] Independent Chronicle (Boston). 1795-08-13, reprinted in Marcus, Maeva, and Perry, James Russell. The Documentary History of the Supreme Court of the United States, 1789– 1800 p 780 [36] Maltese, John. The Selling of Supreme Court Nominees (Johns Hopkins University Press 1998), pp. 30–31. [37] Flanders 642
[10] Flanders 463–464
[38] Haw, James. John and Edward Rutledge of South Carolina (University of Georgia Press 1997).
[11] Hartley, Cecil B. (1860). Heroes and Patriots of the South. Philadelphia: G. G. Evans. p. 294. Retrieved 2008-04-30.
[39] “Sheriff’s spokesman: Supreme Court Historical Society: John Rutledge”. 2009-12-05. Retrieved 2009-12-05.
[12] Flanders 481–482
[40] Christensen, George A. (1983) Here Lies the Supreme Court: Gravesites of the Justices, Yearbook at the Wayback Machine (archived September 3, 2005) Supreme Court Historical Society at Internet Archive which erroneously lists the gravesite as being in Colorado.
[13] Hartley 296–297 [14] Fradin 91 [15] Horton 142 [16] Fradin 91–92 [17] Flanders 551 [18] Flanders 561 [19] Flanders 561–564
[41] See also Christensen, George A., “Here Lies the Supreme Court: Revisited”, Journal of Supreme Court History, Volume 33 Issue 1, Pages 17 – 41 (Feb 19, 2008), University of Alabama. [42] “John Rutledge House Inn History”. John Rutledge House Inn. Archived from the original on 2008-06-09. Retrieved 2008-05-12.
[20] Flanders 568–569 [21] Flanders 573 [22] Flanders 576–577 [23] Flanders 588–589 [24] Wood [25] Cooper 100-101, [26] Flanders 602
46.12
Bibliography
• Barry, Richard, (1942) Mr. Rutledge of South Carolina, Salem, N.H.: Ayer, 1993. ISBN 0-8027-89722; ISBN 978-0-8027-8972-3. • Cooper, William J. Jr., and Thomas E. Terrill. “The American South: A History”. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 23 Oct. 2008.
228 • Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books. • Fradin, Dennis Brindell. The Founders: The 39 Stories behind the U.S. Constitution. New York: Walker Publishing Company, Inc., 2005. • Hartley, Cecil B. Heroes and Patriots of the South. Philadelphia: G. G. Evans, 1860. • Haw, James. Founding brothers: John and Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, Athens: University of Georgia, 1997. ISBN 0-8203-1859-0; ISBN 978-08203-1859-2. • Horton, Tom. “History’s Lost Moments Volume III.” Trafford Publishing, 25 Apr. 2012. • Madison, James. in E. H. Scott: Journal of the Federal Convention. Chicago: Albert, Scott, and Co., 1893. • Wood, Gordon S. “The Idea of America.” Penguin, 12 May 2011.
46.13 Further reading
CHAPTER 46. JOHN RUTLEDGE • McCrady, Edward. History of South Carolina (4 vols., 1897–1902) • Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1. • Wallace, David D. History of South Carolina (4 vols., 1934–1935; rev. ed., 1 vol., 1951) • Warren, Charles. (1928) The Supreme Court in United States History, 2 vols. at Google books. • Warren, Charles. The Supreme Court in United States History (3 vols., 1923; 2 vols., rev. ed. 1935)
46.14
External links
• Ireland, Robert M. John Rutledge at Answers.com. • NGA Biography of John Rutledge • John Rutledge memorial at Find a Grave • Oyez Project, Supreme Court of the United States Media, John Rutledge. • SCIway Biography of John Rutledge
• • John Rutledge at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center. • Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3. • Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7. • Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4. • Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6. • Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 087187-554-3.
Chapter 47
John Blair, Jr. “John Blair” redirects here. For other uses, see John Blair 47.1 Career (disambiguation). John Blair, Jr. (1732 – September 12, 1800) was an Born in Williamsburg, Virginia, Blair was a member of a prominent Virginia family. His father served on the Virginia Council and was for a time acting Royal governor. His granduncle, James Blair, was founder and first president of the College of William & Mary. Blair attended William & Mary, receiving an A.B. in 1754. In 1755 he went to London to study law at the Middle Temple. Returning home to practice law, he was quickly thrust into public life, beginning his public career shortly after the close of the French and Indian War with his election to the seat reserved for the College of William and Mary in the House of Burgesses (1766–70). He went on to become clerk of the Royal Governor’s Council, the upper house of the colonial legislature (1770–75).
Virginia colonial currency (1773) signed by Peyton Randolph and Blair.
American politician, Founding Father and jurist. Blair was one of the best-trained jurists of his day. A famous legal scholar, he avoided the tumult of state politics, preferring to work behind the scenes. But he was devoted to the idea of a permanent union of the newly independent states and loyally supported fellow Virginians James Madison and George Washington at the Constitutional Convention. His greatest contribution as a Founding Father came not in Philadelphia, but later as a judge on the Virginia court of appeals and on the U.S. Supreme Court, where he influenced the interpretation of the Constitution in a number of important decisions. Contemporaries praised Blair for such personal strengths as gentleness and benevolence, and for his ability to penetrate immediately to the heart of a legal question.
Blair originally joined the moderate wing of the Patriot cause. He opposed Patrick Henry's extremist resolutions in protest of the Stamp Act, but the dissolution of the House of Burgesses by Parliament profoundly altered his views. In response to a series of Parliamentary taxes on the colonies, Blair joined George Washington and others in 1770 and again in 1774 to draft nonimportation agreements which pledged their supporters to cease importing British goods until the taxes were repealed. In the latter year he reacted to Parliament's passage of the Intolerable Acts by joining those calling for a Continental Congress and pledging support for the people of Boston who were suffering economic hardship because of Parliament’s actions. When the Revolution began, Blair became deeply involved in the government of his state. He served as a member of the convention that drew up Virginia’s constitution (1776) and held a number of important committee positions, including a seat on the Committee of 28 that framed Virginia’s Declaration of Rights and plan of government. He served on the Privy Council, Governor Patrick Henry’s major advisory group (1776–78). The legislature elected him to a judgeship in the general court in 1778 and soon thereafter to the post of chief justice. He was also elected to Virginia’s high court of chancery (1780), where his col-
229
230 league was George Wythe, later a fellow delegate to the Constitutional Convention. These judicial appointments automatically made Blair a member of Virginia’s first court of appeals. In 1786, the legislature, recognizing Blair’s prestige as a jurist, appointed him Thomas Jefferson's successor on a committee revising the laws of Virginia. While crossing on foot an old bridge over a flooded river en route home from the Convention, Blair and George Washington narrowly escaped accident when one of the carriage horses fell through the bridge.[1] On September 24, 1789, Blair was nominated by President George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on September 26, 1789, and received his commission on September 30. Blair resigned on October 25, 1795, and died in Williamsburg, five years later, aged 68. Blair Street in Madison, Wisconsin is named in his honor.[2] Blair was a Freemason. He was named Grand Master of Freemasons in Virginia under the newly organized Grand Lodge of Virginia in 1778.
47.2 See also 47.3 References [1] “Founders of Freedom in America”, David C. Whitney, 1965 [2] http://www.wisconsinhistory.org/odd/archives/002071.asp
47.4 Bibliography • • John Blair, Jr. at the Biographical Directory of Federal Judges, a public domain publication of the Federal Judicial Center. • Abraham, Henry J. (1992). Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506557-3. • Cushman, Clare (2001). The Supreme Court Justices: Illustrated Biographies, 1789–1995 (2nd ed.). (Supreme Court Historical Society, Congressional Quarterly Books). ISBN 1-56802-126-7. • Flanders, Henry. The Lives and Times of the Chief Justices of the United States Supreme Court. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co., 1874 at Google Books.
CHAPTER 47. JOHN BLAIR, JR. • Frank, John P. (1995). Friedman, Leon; Israel, Fred L., eds. The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-1377-4. • Hall, Kermit L., ed. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505835-6. • Martin, Fenton S.; Goehlert, Robert U. (1990). The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Books. ISBN 087187-554-3. • Urofsky, Melvin I. (1994). The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 590. ISBN 0-8153-1176-1.
Chapter 48
James Madison For other people named James Madison, see James trade embargo against Great Britain, he led the nation into Madison (disambiguation). the War of 1812. He was responding to British encroachments on American honor and rights; in addition, he wanted James Madison, Jr. (March 16, 1751 – June 28, 1836) to end the influence of the British among their Indian alwas an American statesman, political theorist, and the lies, whose resistance blocked United States settlement in fourth President of the United States (1809–17). He is the Midwest around the Great Lakes. Madison found the hailed as the “Father of the Constitution” for being instru- war to be an administrative nightmare, as the United States mental in the drafting of the U.S. Constitution and as the had neither a strong army nor financial system; as a result, key champion and author of the Bill of Rights.[2] He served he afterward supported a stronger national government and a strong military, as well as the national bank, which he had as a politician much of his adult life. long opposed. Like other Virginia statesmen in the slave After the constitution had been drafted, Madison became society,[4] he was a slaveholder who inherited his plantation one of the leaders in the movement to ratify it. His collabo- known as Montpelier, and owned hundreds of slaves during ration with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay produced The his lifetime to cultivate tobacco and other crops. Madison Federalist Papers (1788). Circulated only in New York at supported the Three-Fifths Compromise that allowed threethe time, they would later be considered among the most fifths of the enumerated population of slaves to be counted important treatises in support of the Constitution. He was for representation.[5] also a delegate to the Virginia constitutional ratifying convention, and was instrumental to the successful ratification effort in Virginia. Like most of his contemporaries, Madison changed his political views during his life. During the 48.1 Early life and education drafting and ratification of the constitution, he favored a strong national government, though later he grew to favor James Madison, Jr. was born at Belle Grove Plantation near stronger state governments, before settling between the two Port Conway, Virginia on March 16, 1751, (March 5, 1751, extremes late in his life. Old Style, Julian calendar), where his mother had returned to give birth. He grew up as the oldest In 1789, Madison became a leader in the new House of to her parents’ home [6] of twelve children. Nelly and James Sr. had seven more Representatives, drafting many basic laws. He is notable boys and four girls. Three of James Jr.'s brothers died as for drafting the first ten amendments to the Constitution, infants, including one who was stillborn. In the summer of and thus is known as the “Father of the Bill of Rights”.[3] 1775, his sister Elizabeth (age 7) and his brother Reuben Madison worked closely with President George Washing(age 3) died in a dysentery epidemic that swept through Orton to organize the new federal government. Breaking ange County because of contaminated water.[6][7] with Hamilton and what became the Federalist Party in 1791, Madison and Thomas Jefferson organized what they His father, James Madison, Sr. (1723–1801), was a tobacco called the Republican Party (later called by historians the planter who grew up on a plantation, then called Mount Democratic-Republican Party). Pleasant, in Orange County, Virginia, which he had inAs Jefferson’s Secretary of State (1801–09), Madison su- herited upon reaching adulthood. He later acquired more pervised the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the na- property and slaves; with 5,000 acres (2,000 ha), he betion’s size. After his election to the presidency, he presided came the largest landowner and a leading citizen of Orange over renewed prosperity for several years. As president County, in the Piedmont. James Jr.'s mother, Nelly Con(1809–17), after the failure of diplomatic protests and a way Madison (1731–1829), was born at Port Conway, the daughter of a prominent planter and tobacco merchant and 231
232 his wife. Madison’s parents were married on September 15, 1749.[6][7] In these years the southern colonies were becoming a slave society, in which slave labor powered the economy and slaveholders formed the political élite.[8]
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON the American Whig Society, in direct competition to fellow student Aaron Burr's Cliosophic Society. After graduation, Madison remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and political philosophy under the university president, John Witherspoon, before returning to Montpelier in the spring of 1772. He became quite fluent in Hebrew. Madison studied law from his interest in public policy, not with the intent of practicing law as a profession.[13] At a height of only five feet, four inches (163 cm), and never weighing more than 100 pounds, he was the smallest president.[14]
48.1.1
Montpelier, Madison’s tobacco plantation in Virginia
From ages 11 to 16, the young “Jemmy” Madison was sent to study under Donald Robertson, an instructor at the Innes plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia in the Tidewater region. Robertson was a Scottish teacher who tutored numerous prominent plantation families in the South. From Robertson, Madison learned mathematics, geography, and modern and ancient languages. He became especially proficient in Latin. Madison said that he owed his bent for learning “largely to that man (Robertson).”[9][10] At age 16, he returned to Montpelier, where he began a two-year course of study under the Reverend Thomas Martin in preparation for college. Unlike most collegebound Virginians of his day, Madison did not choose the College of William and Mary, because the lowland climate of Williamsburg, where mosquitoes transmitted fevers and other infectious diseases during the summer, might have strained his delicate health. Instead, in 1769, he enrolled at the College of New Jersey, now Princeton University, where he became roommates and close friends with Philip Freneau, later dubbed "the poet of the Revolution.” Indeed, Madison and Freneau would have become brothers-in-law had Freneau’s favorite sister, Mary, accepted Madison’s repeated proposals of marriage.[11] But although Mary greatly admired and respected Madison, she had determined to stay single—one way a woman of her intelligence and accomplishments could hope to pursue her interests and remain independent in that era. Through diligence and long hours of study that may have damaged his health,[12] Madison graduated in 1771. His studies included Latin, Greek, science, geography, mathematics, rhetoric, and philosophy. Great emphasis also was placed on speech and debate; Madison helped found
Religion
Although educated by Presbyterian clergymen, young Madison was an avid reader of English deist tracts.[15] Madison as an adult paid little attention to religious matters. Hutson says that historians searching through Madison’s voluminous writings discover that after he left college, “there is no trace, no clue as to his personal religious convictions.”[16] However, some scholars say he leaned toward deism.[17][18] Madison accepted Christian tenets generally and formed his outlook on life within a Christian world view.[19]
48.2
Military service in the Revolutionary War
After graduation from Princeton, young Madison took an increasing interest in the relationship between the American colonies and Britain, which deteriorated over the issue of British taxation. In 1774, Madison took a seat on the local Committee of Safety, a patriot pro-revolution group that oversaw the local militia. This was the first step in a life of public service that his family’s wealth allowed him to pursue.[20] In October 1775 he was commissioned as the colonel of the Orange County militia. He would not serve in combat as he was of very slight stature (5-4) and weighed only about 100 pounds.
48.3
Early political career
As a young man during the American Revolutionary War, Madison served in the Virginia state legislature (1776– 1779), where he became known as a protégé of the delegate Thomas Jefferson. He had earlier witnessed the persecution of Baptist preachers in Virginia, who were arrested for preaching without a license from the established Anglican Church. He worked with the Baptist preacher
48.4. FATHER OF THE CONSTITUTION
233 Congress. It created the Northwest Territory in 1783, as a federally supervised territory from which new states would be developed and admitted to the union. Virginia’s land claims had partially overlapped with those of Connecticut, Pennsylvania and Maryland; they too ceded their westernmost lands to national authority, with the understanding that new states could be formed from the land. The Northwest Ordinance prohibited slavery in the new territory north of the Ohio River, but did not end it for those slaves held by settlers already in the territory.
Congressman Madison, age 32 by Charles Willson Peale.
Elijah Craig on constitutional guarantees for religious liberty in Virginia.[21] Working on such cases helped form his ideas about religious freedom, which he applied to the Constitution and Bill of Rights. Madison attained prominence in Virginia politics, working with Jefferson to draft the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom, which was finally passed in 1786. It disestablished the Church of England and disclaimed any power of state compulsion in religious matters. He excluded Patrick Henry's plan to compel citizens to pay taxes that would go to a congregation of their choice. In 1777 Madison’s cousin, the Right Reverend James Madison (1749–1812), became president of The College of William & Mary. Working closely with Madison and Jefferson, Bishop Madison helped lead the College through the changes involving separation from both Great Britain and the Church of England. He also led college and state actions that resulted in the formation of the new Episcopal Diocese of Virginia after the Revolution. As the youngest delegate to the Continental Congress (1780–1783), Madison was considered a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary coalition building.[22][23] He persuaded Virginia to give up its claims to northwestern territories—consisting of most of modern-day Ohio and points west—to the Continental
Madison was elected a second time to the Virginia House of Delegates, serving from 1784 to 1786 in the new years of independence. During these final years in the House of Delegates, Madison grew increasingly frustrated with what he saw as excessive democracy. He criticized the tendency for delegates to cater to the particular interests of their constituents, even if such interests were destructive to the state at large. In particular, he was troubled by a law that denied diplomatic immunity to ambassadors from other countries, and a law that legalized paper money.[24] He thought legislators should be “disinterested” and act in the interests of their state at large, even if this contradicted the wishes of constituents. This “excessive democracy,” Madison grew to believe, was the cause of a larger social decay which he and others (such as Washington) believed had resumed after the revolution and was nearing a tipping point. They were alarmed by Shays’ Rebellion.[25]
48.4
Father of the Constitution
Main article: Philadelphia Convention The Articles of Confederation established the United States as a confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government. This arrangement did not work particularly well, and was even less successful after the war was over. Congress had no power to tax, and as a result was unable to pay debts left over from the Revolution. Madison and other nationalists, such as Washington and Alexander Hamilton, were very concerned about this. They feared a break-up of the union and national bankruptcy.[26] The historian Gordon S. Wood has noted that many leaders such as Madison and Washington, feared more that the revolution had not fixed the social problems that had triggered it, and the excesses ascribed to the King were being seen in the state legislatures. Shays’ Rebellion is often cited as the event that forced the issue; Wood argues that many at the time saw it as only the most extreme example of democratic excess. They believed the constitution would need to do more than fix the Articles of Confederation. Like the revolution, it would need to rewrite the social compact and redefine the relationship among the states, the national government, and the people.[25]
234
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON become the only comprehensive record of what occurred. The historian Clinton Rossiter regarded Madison’s performance as “a combination of learning, experience, purpose, and imagination that not even Adams or Jefferson could have equaled.”[31] Years earlier he had pored over crates of books that Jefferson sent him from France on various forms of government. The historian Douglas Adair called Madison’s work “probably the most fruitful piece of scholarly research ever carried out by an American.”[32] Many have argued that this study helped prepare him for the convention.
The U.S. Constitution
As Madison wrote, “a crisis had arrived which was to decide whether the American experiment was to be a blessing to the world, or to blast for ever the hopes which the republican cause had inspired.”[27] Partly at Madison’s instigation, a national convention was called in 1787. Madison was crucial in persuading George Washington to attend the convention, since he knew how important the popular general would be to the adoption of a constitution. As one of the first delegates to arrive, while waiting for the convention to begin, Madison wrote what became known as the Virginia Plan. The Virginia Plan was submitted at the opening of the convention, and the work of the convention quickly became to amend the Virginia Plan and to fill in the gaps.[28][29] Though the Virginia Plan was an outline rather than a draft of a possible constitution, and though it was extensively changed during the debate (especially by John Rutledge and James Wilson in the Committee of Detail), its use at the convention led many to call Madison the “Father of the Constitution”.[30] He was only 36 years old. During the course of the Convention, Madison spoke over two hundred times, and his fellow delegates rated him highly. For example, William Pierce wrote that "... every Person seems to acknowledge his greatness. In the management of every great question he evidently took the lead in the Convention ... he always comes forward as the best informed Man of any point in debate.” Madison recorded the unofficial minutes of the convention, and these have
Gordon Wood, however, argues that Madison’s frustrating experience in the Virginia legislature years earlier most shaped his constitutional views. Wood notes that the governmental structure in both the Virginia Plan and the final constitution were not innovative, since they were copied from the British government, had been used in the states since 1776, and numerous authors had already argued for their adoption at the national level.[33] Most of what was controversial in the Virginia Plan was removed, and most of the rest had been commonly accepted as necessary for a functional government (state or national) for decades; thus, Madison’s contribution was more qualitative.[33] Wood argues that, like most national politicians of the late 1780s, Madison believed that the problem was less with the Articles of Confederation than with the nature of the state legislatures. He believed the solution was to restrain the excesses of the states. This required more than an alternation in the Articles of Confederation; it required a change in the character of the national compact. The ultimate question before the convention, Wood notes, was not how to design a government but whether the states should remain sovereign, whether sovereignty should be transferred to the national government, or whether the constitution should settle somewhere in between.[33] Those, like Madison, who thought democracy in the state legislatures was excessive and insufficiently “disinterested”, wanted sovereignty transferred to the national government, while those (like Patrick Henry) who did not think this a problem, wanted to fix the Articles of Confederation. Madison was one of the only delegates who wanted to deprive the states of sovereignty completely, which he considered the only solution to the problem. Though sharing the same goal as Madison, most other delegates reacted strongly against such an extreme change to the status quo. Though Madison lost most of his battles over how to amend the Virginia Plan (most importantly over the exclusion of the Council of Revision), in the process he increasingly shifted the debate away from a position of pure state sovereignty. Since most disagreements over what to include in the constitution were ultimately disputes over the balance of sovereignty between the states and national government, Madison’s influence was critical. Wood notes that
48.5. THE FEDERALIST PAPERS AND RATIFICATION DEBATES Madison’s ultimate contribution was not in designing any particular constitutional framework, but in shifting the debate toward a compromise of “shared sovereignty” between the national and state governments.[33][34]
48.5 The Federalist Papers and ratification debates Main article: The Federalist Papers The Constitution developed by the convention in Philadelphia had to be ratified. This would be done by special conventions called in each state to decide that sole question of ratification.[35] Madison was a leader in the ratification effort. He, Alexander Hamilton and John Jay wrote The Federalist Papers, a series of 85 newspaper articles published in New York to explain how the proposed Constitution would work, mainly by responding to criticisms from anti-federalists. They were also published in book form and became a virtual debater’s handbook for the supporters of the Constitution in the ratifying conventions.[36] The historian Clinton Rossiter called The Federalist Papers “the most important work in political science that ever has been written, or is likely ever to be written, in the United States.”[37] They were not scholarly arguments or impartial justifications for the constitution, but political polemics intended to assist the federalists in New York, which was the only state to have a coordinated anti-federalist movement. One reason Madison was involved in the project was because he was a delegate to the lame duck Confederation Congress, which was meeting in New York. If Virginia, the most populous state at the time, did not ratify the Constitution, the new national government would likely not succeed. When the Virginia convention began, the constitution had not yet been ratified by the required nine states. New York, the second largest state and a bastion of anti-federalism, would likely not ratify it if Virginia rejected the constitution, and Virginia’s exclusion from the new government would disqualify George Washington from being the first president.[38] Virginia delegates believed that Washington’s election as the first president was an implicit condition for their acceptance of the new constitution and the new government. Without Virginia, a new convention might have been held and a new constitution written in a much more polarized atmosphere, since the constitution did not specify what would happen if it was only partially ratified. The states might have joined in regional confederacies or allied with Spain, France or Britain, which still had North American colonies.[39] Arguably the most prominent anti-federalist, the powerful orator Patrick Henry was a delegate and had a following second only to Washington (who
235
was not a delegate). Most delegates believed that most Virginians opposed the constitution.[38] Initially Madison did not want to stand for election to the Virginia ratifying convention, but was persuaded to do so because the situation looked so bad. His role at the convention was likely critical to Virginia’s ratification, and thus to the success of the constitution generally.[38] As the states were leery of creating a powerful central government, the drive to achieve ratification was difficult. Patrick Henry feared that the constitution would trample on the independence of the states and the rights of citizens. In the Virginia ratifying convention, Madison, who was a poor public speaker, had to go up against Henry, who was the most esteemed orator in the country.[40] Although Henry was by far the more powerful and dramatic speaker, Madison successfully matched him. While Henry’s arguments were emotional appeals to possible unintended consequences, Madison responded with rational answers to these claims; he eventually argued that Henry’s claims were becoming absurd. Madison pointed out that a limited government would be created, and that the powers delegated “to the federal government are few and defined.”[41] Madison persuaded prominent figures such as George Mason and Edmund Randolph, who had refused to endorse the constitution at the convention, to change their position and support it at the ratifying convention. Mason and Randolph’s switch likely changed the votes of several more antifederalists.[42] When the vote was nearing, and the constitution still looked likely to be defeated, Madison pleaded with a small group of anti-federalists, and promised them he would push for a bill of rights later if they changed their votes. When the vote was held, the convention barely had sufficient votes to ratify, and these likely did not appear until the last minute.[42] In terms of slavery and the Constitution, Madison viewed African American slaves as an “unfortunate race” and believed their true nature was both human and property.[43] On February 12, 1788, Madison, in the Federalist Letter No. 54, stated that the Constitutional three-fifths compromise clause was the best alternative for the slaves’ current condition and for determining representation of citizens in Congress.[44] Madison believed that slaves, as property, would be protected by both their masters and the government.[5] Madison was called the “Father of the Constitution” by his peers in his own lifetime. However, he was modest, and he protested the title as being “a credit to which I have no claim. ... The Constitution was not, like the fabled Goddess of Wisdom, the offspring of a single brain. It ought to be regarded as the work of many heads and many hands”.[45] He wrote Hamilton at the New York ratifying convention, stating his opinion that “ratification was in toto and 'for ever'".
236
48.6 Member of Congress Madison had been a delegate to the Confederation Congress, and wanted to be elected senator in the new government. A vengeful Patrick Henry wanted to deny Madison a seat in the new congress, so he ensured that Madison remained in the lame duck Confederation Congress to prevent him as long as possible from campaigning. Henry used his power to keep the Virginia legislature from appointing Madison as one of the state’s senators. When Madison decided to run for election to the house instead, Henry gerrymandered Madison’s home district, filling it with antifederalists in an attempt to prevent Madison’s election. Madison could have run in another district, so to prevent this, Henry forced through a law requiring congressmen to live in the district they represent. Later this was recognized as unconstitutional but, at the time, the law made it increasingly unlikely that Madison would be elected to congress. He ran against James Monroe, a future president, and traveled with Monroe while campaigning. Later as president, Madison was told by some of his former constituents that, had it not been for unusually bad weather on election day, Monroe likely would have won. Madison defeated Monroe and became an important leader in Congress.[46]
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON for the system to show its defects before amending the constitution, and the anti-federalist movements (which had demanded a new convention) had died out quickly once the constitution was ratified. Despite this, Madison still feared that the states would compel congress to call for a new constitutional convention, which they had the right to do. He also believed that the constitution did not sufficiently protect the national government from excessive democracy and parochialism (the defects he saw in the state governments), so he saw his amendments as a way to mitigate these problems. On June 8, 1789, Madison introduced his bill proposing amendments consisting of Nine Articles comprising up to 20 Amendments depending on how one counted. Madison initially proposed that the amendments would be incorporated into the body of the Constitution. The House passed most of his slate of amendments, but rejected the idea of placing the amendments in the body of the Constitution. Instead, it adopted 17 amendments to be attached separately and sent this bill to the Senate.[49][50]
The Senate condensed this slate to eleven amendments and removed the language that Madison had included to integrate them into the body of the constitution.[51] The Senate also added what became the Ninth Amendment, which was not included in his original slate.[52] To Madison’s deep disappointment, it excluded a proposed amendment guaranteeing national sovereignty over the states. Some have argued that if this amendment had been included the 48.6.1 Father of the Bill of Rights American Civil War could have been avoided.[53] By 1791, the last ten of the proposed amendments were ratified and Though the idea for a bill of rights had been suggested became the Bill of Rights. at the end of the constitutional convention, the delegates wanted to go home and thought the suggestion unnecessary. The Second Amendment originally proposed by Madison The omission of a bill of rights became the main argument (but not then ratified) was later ratified in 1992 as the of the anti-federalists against the constitution. Though no Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constistate conditioned ratification of the constitution on a bill tution. The remaining proposal was intended to accommoof rights, several states came close, and the issue almost date future increase in the members of the House of Repprevented the constitution from being ratified. Some anti- resentatives. federalists continued to fight the issue after the constitution had been ratified, and threatened the entire nation with another constitutional convention. This would likely be far 48.6.2 Debates on foreign policy more partisan than the first had been. Madison objected to a specific bill of rights[47] for several reasons: he thought it When Britain and France went to war in 1793, the U.S. was unnecessary, since it purported to protect against pow- was caught in the middle. The 1778 treaty of alliance with ers that the federal government had not been granted; that France was still in effect, yet most of the new country’s it was dangerous, since enumeration of some rights might trade was with Britain. War with Britain seemed imminent be taken to imply the absence of other rights; and that at in 1794, as the British seized hundreds of American ships the state level, bills of rights had proven to be useless paper that were trading with French colonies. Madison believed barriers against government powers.[3] that Britain was weak and the United States was strong, Though few in the new congress wanted to debate a possible Bill of Rights (for the next century, most thought that the Declaration of Independence, not the first ten constitutional amendments, constituted the true Bill of Rights), Madison pressed the issue.[48] Congress was extremely busy with setting up the new government, most wanted to wait
and that a trade war with Britain, although risking a real war by the British government, probably would succeed, and would allow Americans to assert their independence fully. Great Britain, he charged, “has bound us in commercial manacles, and very nearly defeated the object of our independence.” As Varg explains, Madison discounted
48.7. FOUNDING THE DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN PARTY the much more powerful British army and navy for “her interests can be wounded almost mortally, while ours are invulnerable.” The British West Indies, Madison maintained, could not live without American foodstuffs, but Americans could easily do without British manufactures. This faith led him to the conclusion “that it is in our power, in a very short time, to supply all the tonnage necessary for our own commerce”.[54] However, George Washington avoided a trade war and instead secured friendly trade relations with Britain through the Jay Treaty of 1794. Madison threw his energies into fighting the Treaty—his mobilization of grassroots support helped form the First Party System. He failed in both the Senate and House, and the Jay Treaty led to ten years of prosperous trade with Britain (and anger on the part of France leading to the Quasi-War). All across the United States, voters divided for and against the Treaty and other key issues, and thus became either Federalists or Jeffersonian Republicans.
237
Hamilton’s proposal, arguing that the new Constitution did not explicitly allow the federal government to form a bank. As early as May 26, 1792, Hamilton complained, “Mr. Madison cooperating with Mr. Jefferson is at the head of a faction decidedly hostile to me and my administration.”[56] On May 5, 1792, Madison told Washington, “with respect to the spirit of party that was taking place ...I was sensible of its existence”.[57] He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1794.[58]
In 1798 under President John Adams, the U.S. and France unofficially went to war—the Quasi War, that involved naval warships and commercial vessels battling in the Caribbean. The Federalists created a standing army and passed laws against French refugees engaged in American politics and against Republican editors. Congressman Madison and Vice President Jefferson were outraged. Madison and Jefferson secretly drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions declaring the Alien and Sedition Acts to be unconstitutional and noted that “states, in contesting obnoxious laws, should 'interpose for arresting the progress 48.6.3 Electoral History of the evil.'"[59] These turned out to be unpopular, even among republicans, since they called for state governments 1789 to invalidate federal laws. Jefferson went further, urging Madison was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives states to secede if necessary, though Madison convinced with 57.37% of the vote, defeating James Monroe. Jefferson to back down from this extreme view.[60] 1790
According to Chernow, Madison’s position “was a breathMadison was re-elected with 97.79% of the vote, defeating taking evolution for a man who had pleaded at the Constitutional Convention that the federal government should Monroe. possess a veto over state laws.”[61] Chernow feels that Madison’s politics remained closely aligned with Jefferson’s until his experience as president with a weak national govern48.7 Founding the Democratic- ment during the War of 1812 caused Madison to appreciate the need for a strong central government to aid national deRepublican party fense. At the time, he began to support a national bank, a stronger navy, and a standing army. Supporters for ratification of the Constitution had become known as the Federalist Party. Those opposing The historian Gordon S. Wood says that Lance Banning, as the proposed constitution were labeled Anti-Federalists, in his Sacred Fire of Liberty (1995), is the “only presentbut neither group was a political party in the modern day scholar to maintain that Madison did not change his [62] To reach that conclusion, Banning sense. Following ratification of the Constitution and for- views in the 1790s.” downplays Madison’s nationalism in the 1780s.[62] Wood mation of the first government in 1789, two new political factions formed along similar lines as the old divi- notes that many historians struggle to understand Madison, sion. The supporters of Alexander Hamilton’s attempts to but he looks at him within his own times—as a nationalstrengthen the national government called themselves Fed- ist but one with a different conception of what that meant eralists, while those who opposed Hamilton called them- than the Federalists. He wanted to avoid a European-style selves “Republicans” (later historians would refer to them government and always thought that the embargo would [62] thus, Wood assesses as the Democratic-Republican party). Madison and other ultimately have been successful. [62] Gary Rosen Madison from a different point of view. Democratic Party organizers, who favored states’ rights and and Banning use other approaches to suggest Madison’s local control, were struggling to find an institutional solution [63][64][65] consistency. to the seeming Constitution’s inability to prevent concentration of power in an administrative republic.[55] As first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton created many new federal institutions, including the Bank of the United States. Madison led the unsuccessful attempt in Congress to block
238
48.8 Marriage and family
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON main challenge to the Jefferson Administration was maintaining neutrality during the Napoleonic Wars. Throughout Jefferson’s presidency, much of Europe was at war, at first between France and Austria. After the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, where France decisively defeated the Austrian Habsburgs, the conflict transformed into a grinding war between France and Britain.
Madison was 43 when he married for the first time, which was considered late in that era. On September 15, 1794, James Madison married Dolley Payne Todd, a 26 year old widow, at Harewood, in what is now Jefferson County, West Virginia.[6] Madison had no children but did adopt Todd’s one surviving son, John Payne Todd (known as Payne), after Shortly before Jefferson’s election, Napoleon had seized the marriage. power from the hapless French Directory, which had reDolley Payne was born May 20, 1768, at the New Gar- cently mismanaged France’s finances in unsuccessful wars den Quaker settlement in North Carolina, where her par- and had lost control of Saint-Domingue (Haiti) after a slave ents, John Payne and Mary Coles Payne, lived briefly. Dol- rebellion. Beginning in 1802, Napoleon sent more than ley’s sister, Lucy Payne, had recently married George Step- 20,000 troops to try to restore slavery on the island, as toe Washington, a nephew of President Washington. As its colonial sugar cane plantations had been the chief reva member of Congress, Madison had doubtless met the enue producer for France in the New World. The warfare widow Todd at social functions in Philadelphia, then the went badly and the troops were further decimated by yellow nation’s capital. She had been living there with her late fever. Napoleon gave up on thoughts of restoring the empire husband. In May 1794, Madison asked their mutual friend and sold the Louisiana territory to Madison and Jefferson Aaron Burr to arrange a meeting. By August, she had ac- in 1803. Later that year, the 7,000 surviving French troops cepted his proposal of marriage. For marrying Madison, a were withdrawn from the island, and in 1804 Haiti denon-Quaker, she was expelled from the Society of Friends. clared its independence as the second republic in the western hemisphere. They were known to have a happy marriage. Dolley Madison put her social gifts to use when the couple lived in Washington, beginning when he was Secretary of State. With the White House still under construction, she advised as to its furnishings and sometimes served as First Lady for ceremonial functions for President Thomas Jefferson, a widower and their friend. When her husband was president, she created the role of First Lady, using her social talents to advance his program. She is credited with adding to his popularity in office. Madison’s father died in 1801 and at age 50, Madison inherited the large plantation of Montpelier and other holdings, and his father’s 108 slaves. He had begun to act as a steward of his father’s properties by 1780, but this completed his takeover.[66]
48.9 United States Secretary of State 1801–1809 Further information: Louisiana Purchase and Embargo Act of 1807 When Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated as president in 1801, he named Madison to be his secretary of state. At the start of his term, Madison was a party to the United States Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison (1803), in which the doctrine of judicial review was asserted by The original treaty of the Louisiana Purchase the high Court, much to the annoyance of the Jeffersonians who did not want a powerful federalist judiciary. The Many contemporaries and later historians, such as Ron
48.11. PRESIDENCY 1809–1817
239
Chernow, noted that Madison and President Jefferson ignored their “strict construction” view of the Constitution to take advantage of the purchase opportunity. Jefferson would have preferred to have a constitutional amendment authorizing the purchase, but did not have time nor was he required to do so. The Senate quickly ratified the treaty that completed the purchase. The House, with equal alacrity, passed enabling legislation.[67] With the wars raging in Europe, Madison tried to maintain American neutrality, and insisted on the legal rights of the U.S. as a neutral under international law. Neither London nor Paris showed much respect, however, and the situation deteriorated during Jefferson’s second term. After Napoleon achieved victory at Austerlitz over his enemies in continental Europe, he became more aggressive and tried to starve Britain into submission with an embargo that was economically ruinous to both sides. Madison and Jefferson had also decided on an embargo to punish Britain and France, which forbade American trade with any foreign nation. The embargo failed in the United States just as it did in France, and caused massive hardships up and down the seaboard, which depended on foreign trade. The Federalists made a comeback in the Northeast by attacking the embargo, which was allowed to expire just as Jefferson was leaving office.[68]
48.10 Election of 1808 Main article: United States presidential election, 1808 With Jefferson’s second term winding down, and his decision to retire widely known, Madison was the party choice for president in 1808. He was opposed by Rep. John Randolph, who had broken earlier with Jefferson and Madison. The Republican Party Congressional caucus chose the candidate and easily selected Madison over James Monroe.[69] As the Federalist party by this time had largely collapsed outside New England, Madison easily defeated Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.[70]
James Madison engraving by David Edwin from between 1809 and 1817
Smith for Secretary of State, Jefferson’s former Secretary of Navy. For his Secretary of Navy, Madison appointed Paul Hamilton.[71] Madison’s Cabinet, that included men of mediocre talent, was chosen in terms of national interest and political harmony.[71] When Madison assumed office in 1809, the federal government had a surplus of $9,500,000 and by 1810 the national debt continued to be reduced and taxes had been cut.[72]
48.11.1
48.11 Presidency 1809–1817 Upon his Inauguration in 1809, Madison immediately had difficulty in his appointment selection of Sec. Albert Gallatin as Secretary of State.[71] Under opposition from Sen. William B. Giles, Madison chose not to fight Congress for the nomination but kept Sec. Gallatin, a carry over from the Jefferson Administration, in the Treasury.[71] The talented Swiss born Gallatin was Madison’s primary advisor, confidant, and policy planner.[71] Madison appointed Robert
Bank of United States
Madison sought to continue Jefferson’s agenda, in particular the dismantling of the system left behind by the federalists under Washington and Adams. One of the most pressing issues Madison confronted was the first Bank of the United States. Its twenty-year charter was scheduled to expire in 1811, and while Madison’s treasury secretary said the bank was a necessity, Congress failed to re-authorize it. As the absence of a national bank made war with Britain very difficult to finance, in 1814 Congress passed a bill chartering a second national bank. Madison vetoed it.[73]
240
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON
In 1816, Congress passed another bill to charter a second national bank; Madison signed the act, having learned the bank was needed from the war with Britain.[74][75]
48.11.2
Prelude to war
By 1809 the Federalist party was no longer competitive outside a few strongholds. Some former members (such as John Quincy Adams, Madison’s ambassador to Russia) had joined Madison’s Republican party.[76] Though one party appeared to dominate, it had begun to split into rival factions, which would later form the basis of the modern party system. In particular, with hostilities against Britain appearing increasingly likely, factions in favor of and against war with Britain formed in Congress.[77] The predominant faction, the “War Hawks,” were led by House Speaker Henry Clay. When war finally did break out, the war effort was led by the War Hawks in Congress under Clay at least as much as it was by Madison; this accorded with the president’s preference for checks and balances.
be traced in the inequality of fortunes, and the opportunities of fraud, growing out of a state of war, and in the degeneracy of manners and of morals engendered by both. No nation could preserve its freedom in the midst of continual warfare.[82]
After Jackson accused Madison of duplicity with Erskine, Madison had Jackson barred from the State Department and sent packing to Boston.[83] During his first State of the Union Address in November 1809, Madison asked Congress for advice and alternatives concerning the BritishAmerican trade crisis, and warned of the possibility of war. By spring 1810, Madison was specifically asking Congress for more appropriations to increase the Army and Navy in preparation for war with Britain.[84] Together with the effects of European peace, the United States economy began to recover early in Madison’s presidency. By the time Madison was standing for reelection, the Peninsular War in Spain had spread, while at the same time Napoleon invaded Napoleon had won a decisive victory at the Battle of Auster- Russia, and the entire European continent was once again litz in 1805, and as a consequence Europe remained mostly embroiled in war. at peace for the next few years. Congress repealed Jefferson’s embargo shortly before Madison became president.[78] America’s new “nonintercourse” policy was to trade with 48.11.3 War of 1812 all countries including France and Britain if restrictions on shipping were removed.[79] Madison’s diplomatic efforts in Main article: War of 1812 April 1809, although initially promising, to get the British The United States entered the War of 1812, which in many to withdraw the Orders in Council were rejected by British Foreign Secretary George Canning.[80] By August 1809, diplomatic relations with Britain deteriorated as minister David Erskine was withdrawn and replaced by “hatchet man” Francis James Jackson; Madison however, resisted calls for war.[81] In his Political Observations from April 20, 1795 Madison had stated: Of all the enemies to public liberty war is, perhaps, the most to be dreaded, because it comprises and develops the germ of every other. War is the parent of armies; from these proceed debts and taxes; and armies, and debts, and taxes are the known instruments for bringing the many under the domination of the few. In war, too, the discretionary power of the Executive is extended; its influence in dealing out offices, honors, and emoluments is multiplied; and all the means of seducing the minds, are added to those of subduing the force, of the people. The same malignant aspect in republicanism may
Commodore Oliver Hazard Perry defeats British Navy at the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813. Powell 1873
respects was a theater of the broader Napoleonic Wars. Napoleon began his Continental System, intended to force other European countries to join his embargo on Britain. Although he was initially successful in starving out Britain, Portugal refused to capitulate, leading to the Peninsular War throughout Spain. This loosened Spain’s grip on its South American colonies. Soon Great Britain was the only major power in the Atlantic.
48.11. PRESIDENCY 1809–1817 As Great Britain increased naval pressure against Napoleon, it inadvertently did the same against American ships. Some British tactics quickly caused widespread American anger. Britain had used its navy to prevent American ships from trading with France; the United States, which was a neutral nation, saw this act as a violation of international law. The Royal Navy boarded American ships on the high seas and impressed its seamen, as it needed more sailors than it could recruit. The United States considered this no less an affront to American sovereignty than an invasion of American soil.[85][86] Britain also armed Indian tribes in the Northwest Territory and encouraged them to attack settlers, even though Britain had ceded this territory to the United States by treaties in 1783 and 1794. Americans called for a “second war of independence” to restore honor and stature to the new nation.[87] An angry public elected a “war hawk” Congress, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war, which was passed along sectional and party lines, with intense opposition from the Federalists and the Northeast (where the economy had suffered during Jefferson’s trade embargo).[86][88] Madison hurriedly called on Congress to put the country “into an armor and an attitude demanded by the crisis,” specifically recommending enlarging the army, preparing the militia, finishing the military academy, stockpiling munitions, and expanding the navy.[89] Madison faced formidable obstacles—a divided cabinet, a factious party, a recalcitrant Congress, obstructionist governors, and incompetent generals, together with militia who refused to fight outside their states. Most serious was lack of unified popular support. There were serious threats of disunion from New England, which engaged in extensive smuggling with Canada and refused to provide financial support or soldiers.[90] The problems were worse due to Jefferson’s and Madison’s dismantling of the system built by Hamilton and the Federalists. They had reduced the military, closed the Bank of the U.S., and narrowed the tax system. They distrusted standing armies and banks, and the dismantling of the federalist taxation system meant they could not finance the quick hiring of mercenaries. By the time the war began, Madison’s military force consisted mostly of poorly trained militia members. The senior command at the War Department and in the field proved incompetent or cowardly—the general at Detroit surrendered to a smaller British force without firing a shot. Gallatin at the Treasury discovered the war was almost impossible to fund, since the national bank had been closed and major financiers in the Northeast refused to help. Madison believed the U.S. could easily seize Canada and thus cut off food supplies to the West Indies, making for a good bargaining chip at the peace talks. But the US invasion efforts all failed. Madison had believed the state mili-
241
The USS Constitution defeats HMS Guerriere, a significant event during the war.
tias would rally to the flag and invade Canada, but the governors in the Northeast failed to cooperate. Their militias either sat out the war or refused to leave their respective states for action.[91] The British armed American Indians in the Northwest, most notably several tribes allied with the Shawnee chief, Tecumseh. But, after losing control of Lake Erie at the naval Battle of Lake Erie in 1813, the British were forced to retreat. General William Henry Harrison caught up with them at the Battle of the Thames, where he destroyed the British and Indian armies, killed Tecumseh, and permanently destroyed Indian power in the Great Lakes region. The British raided Washington in 1814, as Madison headed a dispirited militia. Dolley Madison rescued White House valuables and documents shortly before the British burned the White House, the Capitol and other public buildings.[92][93] By 1814, Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison had destroyed the main Indian threats in the South and West, respectively. As part of the war effort, an American naval shipyard was built up at Sackets Harbor, New York, where thousands of men produced twelve warships and had another nearly ready by the end of the war. American frigates and other vessels, such as the USS Constitution, USS United States, USS Chesapeake, USS Hornet, USS Wasp, and USS Essex, won some significant naval battles on the Great Lakes. In a famous three-hour battle with the HMS Java, the USS Constitution earned her nickname, “Old Ironsides.”[94] The U.S. fleet on Lake Erie went up against a superior British force there and destroyed or captured the entire British Fleet on the lake. Commander Oliver Hazard Perry reported his victory with the simple statement, “We have met the enemy, and they are ours.”[95] America had built up one of the largest merchant fleets in the world, though it had been partially dismantled under Jefferson and Madison. Madison authorized many of these ships to become privateers in the war. Armed, they captured 1,800
242 British ships.[96]
The unfinished United States Capitol was set ablaze by the British on August 24, 1814.
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON
48.11.4
Postwar economy and internal improvements
With peace finally established, Americans believed they had secured a solid independence from Britain. The Federalist Party, which had called for secession over the war at the Hartford Convention, dissolved and disappeared from politics. With Europe finally at peace, the Era of Good Feelings described the prosperity and relatively equable political environment. Some political contention continued, for instance, in 1816, two-thirds of the incumbents in Congress were defeated for re-election after having voted to increase their salary. Madison approved a Hamiltonian national bank, an effective taxation system based on tariffs, a standing professional military, and the internal improvements championed by Henry Clay under his American System. In 1816, pensions were extended to orphans and widows of the War of 1812 for a period of 5 years at the rate of half pay.[101] However, in his last act before leaving office, he vetoed the Bonus Bill of 1817, which would have financed more internal improvements, including roads, bridges, and canals:[102]
The courageous, successful defense of Ft. McHenry, which guarded the seaway to Baltimore, against one of the most intense naval bombardments in history (over 24 hours), led Francis Scott Key to write the poem that was set to music as the U.S. national anthem, "The Star Spangled Banner.”[97] In New Orleans, Gen. Andrew Jackson put together a force including regular Army troops, militia, frontiersmen, CreHaving considered the bill ... I am conoles, Native American allies and Jean Lafitte’s pirates. The strained by the insuperable difficulty I feel in Battle of New Orleans took place two weeks after peace reconciling this bill with the Constitution of the treaty was drafted (but before it was ratified, so the war was United States.... The legislative powers vested in not over). The American defenders repulsed the British Congress are specified ... in the ... Constitution, invasion army in the most decisive victory of the war.[98] and it does not appear that the power proposed to The Treaty of Ghent ended the war in February 1815, with be exercised by the bill is among the enumerated no territorial gains on either side. The Americans felt that powers. their national honor had been restored in what has been called “the Second War of American Independence.”[99] On Madison rejected the view of Congress that the General March 3, 1815, the U.S. Congress authorized deployment Welfare provision of the Taxing and Spending Clause jusof naval power against Algiers, and two squadrons were tified the bill, stating: assembled and readied for war; the Second Barbary War Such a view of the Constitution would have would mark the beginning of the end for piracy in that rethe effect of giving to Congress a general power gion. of legislation instead of the defined and limTo most Americans, the quick succession of events at the ited one hitherto understood to belong to them, end of the war (the burning of the capital, the Battle of the terms “common defense and general welNew Orleans, and the Treaty of Ghent) appeared as though fare” embracing every object and act within the American valor at New Orleans had forced the British to purview of a legislative trust. surrender after almost winning. This view, while inaccurate, strongly contributed to the post-war euphoria that per- Madison urged a variety of measures that he felt were sisted for a decade. It also helps explain the significance of “best executed under the national authority,” including the war, even if it was strategically inconclusive. Napoleon federal support for roads and canals that would “bind was defeated for the last time at the Battle of Waterloo near more closely together the various parts of our extended the end of Madison’s presidency, and as the Napoleonic confederacy.”[103] Wars ended, so did the War of 1812. Madison’s final years began an unprecedented period of peace and prosperity, which was called the Era of Good Feelings. Madison’s rep- 48.11.5 Wilkinson affair utation as President improved and Americans finally believed the United States had established itself as a world James Wilkinson was a controversial U.S. military commander and appointed governor of the Louisiana Territory power.[100]
48.11. PRESIDENCY 1809–1817
243 officer from active military service.[106]
48.11.6
Indian policy
James Wilkinson Creek men being taught how to use a plow by Benjamin Hawkins in 1805. Madison believed learning European-style agriculture would help the Creek adopt the values of British-American civilization.
by Thomas Jefferson in 1805.[104] Wilkinson had earlier been implicated in Aaron Burr's conspiracy to form a new nation in the West and taking Spanish gold, however, he was exonerated in 1808.[104] Jefferson chose to retain WilkinUpon assuming office on March 4, 1809 James Madison, son, a Republican, for political expedience.[105] in his first Inaugural Address to the nation, stated that the After Madison assumed the Presidency in 1809, he placed federal government’s duty was to convert the American InWilkinson in charge of Terre aux Boeufs on the Louisiana dians by the “participation of the improvements of which coast to protect the U.S. from invasion.[105] Wilkinson the human mind and manners are susceptible in a civiproved to be an incompetent general; many soldiers com- lized state”.[107] Like Jefferson, Madison had a paternalplained that he was ineffectual: their tents were defec- istic attitude toward American Indians, encouraging the tive, and they became sick by malaria, dysentery, and men to give up hunting and become farmers.[108] Although scurvy; dozens died daily.[105] Wilkinson made excuses there are scant details, Madison often met with Southand refused to move inland from the mosquito-infested eastern and Western Indians who included the Creek and coastline.[105] A two-year congressional investigation into Osage.[108] As pioneers and settlers moved West into large the Wilkinson matter proved to be inconclusive, and Madi- tracts of Cherokee, Choctaw, Creek, and Chickasaw terrison had to decide whether to keep or sack him.[105] Like tory, Madison ordered the US Army to protect Native lands Jefferson, Madison chose to retain Wilkinson for politi- from intrusion by settlers, to the chagrin of his military cal reasons, as Wilkinson had influence as a Pennsylva- commander Andrew Jackson. Jackson wanted the Presnia Republican.[105][106] By retaining Wilkinson, both Jef- ident to ignore Indian pleas to stop the invasion of their ferson and Madison supported military leaders in both lands[109] and resisted carrying out the president’s order.[109] the Army and Navy for political reasons rather than In the Northwest Territory after the Battle of Tippecanoe competence.[105][106] Historian Robert Allen Rutland stated in 1811, Indians were pushed off their tribal lands and rethe Wilkinson affair left “scars on the War Department” and placed entirely by white settlers.[109] By 1815, with a popu“left Madison surrounded by senior military incompetents lation of 400,000 European-American settlers in Ohio, In...” at the beginning of the War of 1812.[105] After Wilkin- dian rights to their lands had effectively become null and son’s two battle defeats by the British, Madison relieved the void.[109]
244
48.11.7
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON
Administration and cabinet
nine to the various United States district courts. One of those judges was appointed twice, to different seats on the same court.
48.11.9
States admitted to the Union
• Louisiana – April 30, 1812 • Indiana – December 11, 1816
48.12
Later life
File:MADISON, James-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg BEP engraved portrait of Madison as President. • Madison is the only president to have had two vicepresidents die while in office.
48.11.8
Judicial appointments
Main article: James Madison judicial appointments
Portrait of James Madison c. 1821, by Gilbert Stuart
Supreme Court
When Madison left office in 1817, he retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Orange County, Virginia, not far Madison appointed the following Justices to the Supreme from Jefferson’s Monticello. He was 65 years old. DolCourt of the United States: ley, who thought they would finally have a chance to travel to Paris, was 49. As with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he en• Gabriel Duvall – 1811 tered, due to the steady financial collapse of his plantation, • Joseph Story – 1812 aided by the continued low price of tobacco and his stepson’s mismanagement. Insight into Madison is provided by the first “White House memoir,” A Colored Man’s Reminiscences of James Madison Madison appointed eleven other federal judges, two to the (1865), told by his former slave Paul Jennings, who served United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and the president from the age of 10 as a footman, and later as a Other courts
48.12. LATER LIFE
245
valet for the rest of Madison’s life. After Madison’s death, Jennings was purchased in 1845 from Dolley Madison by arrangement with the senator Daniel Webster, who enabled him to work off the cost and gain his freedom. Jennings published his short account in 1865.[110] He had the highest respect for Madison and said he never struck a slave, nor permitted an overseer to do so. Jennings said that if a slave misbehaved, Madison would meet with the person privately to try to talk about the behavior.[110] Some historians speculate that Madison’s mounting debt was one of the chief reasons why he refused to allow his notes on the Constitutional Convention, or its official records which he possessed, to be published in his lifetime. “He knew the value of his notes, and wanted them to bring money to his estate for Dolley’s use as his plantation failed—he was hoping for one hundred thousand dollars from the sale of his papers, of which the notes were the gem.”[111] Madison’s financial troubles weighed on him, and deteriorating mental and physical health would haunt him. In his later years, Madison became extremely concerned about his historic legacy. He took to modifying letters and other documents in his possession: changing days and dates, adding and deleting words and sentences, and shifting characters. By the time he had reached his late seventies, this “straightening out” had become almost an obsession. As an example, he edited a letter written to Jefferson criticizing Lafayette: Madison not only inked out original passages, but imitated Jefferson’s handwriting as well in making changes.[112] “During the final six years of his life, amid a sea of personal [financial] troubles that were threatening to engulf him...At times mental agitation issued in physical collapse. For the better part of a year in 1831 and 1832 he was bedridden, if not silenced... Literally sick with anxiety, he began to despair of his ability to make himself understood by his fellow citizens.”[113] In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison was appointed as the second Rector (“President”) of the University of Virginia. He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years until his death in 1836. In 1829, at the age of 78, Madison was chosen as a representative to the constitutional convention in Richmond for the revising of the Virginia state constitution. It was his last appearance as a legislator and constitutional drafter. The issue of greatest importance at this convention was apportionment. The western districts of Virginia complained that they were underrepresented because the state constitution apportioned voting districts by county, not population. The growing population in the Piedmont and west-
Portrait of Madison, age 82, c.1833
ern parts of the state were not reflected in their representation in the legislature. Western reformers also wanted to extend suffrage to all white men, in place of the historic property requirement. Madison tried to effect a compromise, but to no avail. Eventually, suffrage rights were extended to renters as well as landowners, but the eastern planters refused to adopt population apportionment. Madison was disappointed at the failure of Virginians to resolve the issue more equitably. Madison was very concerned about the continuing issue of slavery in Virginia and the South. He believed that transportation of free American blacks to Africa offered a solution, as promoted by the American Colonization Society (ACS).[114] He told Lafayette at the time of the convention that colonization would create a “rapid erasure of the blot on our Republican character.”[115] The British sociologist Harriet Martineau visited with Madison during her tour of the United States in 1834. She characterized his faith in colonization as the solution to slavery as “bizarre and incongruous.”[115] Madison may have sold or donated his gristmill in support of the ACS.[114] The historian Drew R. McCoy believes that “The Convention of 1829, we might say, pushed Madison steadily to the brink of self-delusion, if not despair. The dilemma of slavery undid him.”[116][117] Like most African Americans of the time, Madison’s slaves wanted to remain in the U.S. where they had been born and believed their work earned them citizenship; they resisted “repatriation”.[114]
246
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON Washington. Madison did more than most, and did some things better than any. That was quite enough.[121] George F. Will once wrote that if we truly believed that the pen is mightier than the sword, our nation’s capital would have been called “Madison, D.C.”, instead of Washington, D.C.[122] Madison’s writings are studied for the debate over human rights among different classes of citizens in the 21st century. Madison appears to have anticipated the danger of a strong majority imposing its will on a weaker minority by popular vote.[123] Madison, in The Federalist Papers, in Federalist No. 51, wrote:
Madison’s tombstone, Montpelier
Through failing health, Madison wrote several memoranda on political subjects, including an essay against the appointment of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces. He felt it would produce religious exclusion but not political harmony.[118]
It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard one part of the society against the injustice of the other part... In a society under the forms of which the stronger faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger.
Between 1834 and 1835, Madison sold 25% of his slaves to make up for financial losses on his plantation.[114] Madison lived until 1836, increasingly ignored by the new leaders of the American polity. He died at Montpelier on June 28, as In 1986, Congress created the James Madison Memorial the last of the Founding Fathers.[119] He was buried in the Fellowship Foundation as part of the bicentennial celebration of the Constitution. The Foundation offers $24,000 Madison Family Cemetery at Montpelier.[7] graduate level fellowships to secondary teachers to underIn 1842, Dolley Madison sold the Montpelier mansion, and take a master’s degree which emphasizes the study of the in 1844 sold the extensive plantation lands to Henry W. Constitution. Montpelier, his family’s plantation and his Moncure.[114] She leased half of the remaining slaves to home in Orange, Virginia, has been designated a National Moncure. The other half were inherited by her, her son Historic Landmark. John Payne Todd, and James Madison, Jr., a nephew.[120] Between 1845 and 1849 Todd sold numerous slaves; by Many counties, several towns, cities, educational institu1851 he retained only 15 at his residence.[114] By 1850, the tions, a mountain range and a river are named after MadiMontpelier plantation was a “ghost of its former self”.[114] son: In 1851, Montpelier was owned by Thomas Thorton, an En• Madison County – lists counties named for him glishman; he held 40 slaves.[114] • Cities: e.g. Madison, Wisconsin
48.13 Legacy The historian Garry Wills wrote: Madison’s claim on our admiration does not rest on a perfect consistency, any more than it rests on his presidency. He has other virtues. ... As a framer and defender of the Constitution he had no peer. ... The finest part of Madison’s performance as president was his concern for the preserving of the Constitution. ... No man could do everything for the country—not even
• Named in his honor were the James Madison College of public policy at Michigan State University; and James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia; the James Madison Institute honors his contributions to the Constitution. • The Madison Range was named in honor of the then U.S. Secretary of State by Meriwether Lewis as the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled through Montana in 1805. The Madison River in southwestern Montana, was named in 1805 by Lewis & Clark.[124] • Mount Madison in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains in New Hampshire is named for him.
48.15. NOTES • Two U.S. Navy ships have been named USS James Madison and three as USS Madison. • Madison’s portrait was on the U.S. $5000 bill.[125]
247
[12] Brennan, Daniel. "Did James Madison suffer a nervous collapse due to the intensity of his studies?" Mudd Manuscript Library Blog, January 2008, Princeton University Archives and Public Policy Papers Collection, Princeton University.
• Madison Cottage in New York City was named in his [13] Ketcham, Ralph, James Madison: A Biography, p. 56, Newtown, Connecticut: American Political Biography Press, honor shortly after his death. It later became the well1971. known Madison Square.[126]
48.14 See also • Report of 1800, produced by Madison to support the Virginia Resolutions • US Presidents on US postage stamps • History of Virginia on stamps • List of civil rights leaders • List of Presidents of the United States
[14] Noah McCullough (2006). The Essential Book of Presidential Trivia. Random House Digital, Inc. p. 21. ISBN 9781400064823. [15] Peter Charles Hoffer (2006). The Brave New World: A History of Early America. Johns Hopkins U.P. p. 363. ISBN 9780801884832. [16] James H. Hutson (2003). Forgotten Features of the Founding: The Recovery of Religious Themes in the Early American Republic. Lexington Books. p. 156. ISBN 9780739105702. [17] Bruce Miroff et al. (2011). Debating Democracy: A Reader in American Politics. Cengage Learning. p. 149. ISBN 9780495913474.
• List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience [18] Michael Corbett (2013). Politics and Religion in the United States. Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 9781135579753.
48.15 Notes [1] The religion of James Madison retrieved 9 April 2013 [2] Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography, (1971) pp. 229, 289–92, [3] Wood, 2006b. [4] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–77, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 28
[19] Ralph Louis Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (University of Virginia Press, 1990) p. 47 [20] http://millercenter.org/president/madison/essays/ biography/2 American President, A Referenced Resource, Miller Center, University of Virginia WEB Site [21] Ralph Louis Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography, Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 1971; paperback, 1990, p. 57, accessed February 6, 2009 [22] “James Madison”, James Madison Museum
[5] Wills (1982), The Federalist Letters Papers By Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, pp. 276, 278 [6] Chapman, C. Thomas (May 22, 2006). “Descendants of Ambrose Madison, the Grandfather of President James Madison, Jr” (PDF). The National Society of Madison Family Descendants. pp. 1–20. Retrieved October 25, 2011. [7] “The Madison Cemetery”. James Madison’s Montpelier. 2011. Retrieved October 25, 2011. [8] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877, p. 28 [9] Boyd-Rush, Dorothy. “Molding a founding father”. James Madison University. Retrieved 25 March 2013. [10] “James Madison’s Biography”. The Montpelier Foundation. Retrieved 25 March 2013. [11] Mount Pleasant Hall - Where James Madison wooed in vain the sister of Philip Freneau, the Poet of the Revolution
[23] “James Madison Biography”, American-Presidents.com, Retrieved July 29, 2009. [24] Wood, Gordon. The Idea of America. p. 104 [25] Wood, Gordon. “The Idea of America”. p. 104. [26] Richard B. Bernstein, Are We to be a Nation? (1987) pp. 11–12, 81–109 [27] Robert Allen Rutland (1997). James Madison: The Founding Father. University of Missouri Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780826211415. [28] Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father, pp. 14–21, [29] Clinton Rossiter, 1787: The Grand Convention, (1968) pp. 41–57 [30] David Stewart, “The Summer of 1787”. p. 181 [31] Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father, p. 18
248
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON
[32] Wills, Garry, James Madison, pp. 26–27, New York: Henry Holt & Co., 2002.
[53] Labunski, Richard. “James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights”. p. 202
[33] Wood, Gordon. “The Idea of America”. p. 183.
[54] Paul A. Varg, Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers (Michigan State Univ. Press, 1963), p. 74.
[34] Stewart, David. “The Summer of 1787”. p. 182 [35] Bernstein, Richard B., Are We to be a Nation? p. 199, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1987. [36] Rossiter, Clinton, ed., The Federalist Papers, p. xiii, Penguin Putnam, Inc., New York, NY, 1961.
[55] Derthick 1999, p. 102. [56] Hamilton, Writings (Library of America, 2001), p. 738. [57] Madison Letters 1 (1865), p. 554.
[37] Rossiter, Clinton, ed., The Federalist Papers, p. ix, Penguin Putnam, Inc., New York, NY, 1961.
[58] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter M” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, 2014.
[38] Labunski, Richard, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights, p. 82.
[59] Chernow, Ron. Alexander Hamilton, New York: Penguin, 2004, p. 573
[39] Labunski, Richard, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights, p. 3.
[60] Chernow. Alexander Hamilton p. 571.
[40] Rutland, Robert Allen, James Madison: The Founding Father, pp. 36–39, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, MO, 1987. [41] Samples, John, James Madison and the Future of Limited Government, pp. 25–42, Cato Institute, Washington, D.C., 2002. [42] Labunski, Richard, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights, pp. 135. [43] Wills (1982), The Federalist Letters Papers By Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, pp. 276, 277 [44] Wills (1982), The Federalist Letters Papers By Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, pp. 277, 278 [45] Lance Banning, “James Madison: Federalist,” note 1, . [46] Labunski, Richard, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights, pp. 148–50, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 2006. [47] Matthews, 1995, p. 130. [48] Labunski, Richard. “James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights”. p. 180 [49] Labunski, Richard, James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights, pp. 195–97, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 2006. [50] “A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875, Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st Session”. The Library of Congress. Retrieved August 7, 2012. [51] Labunski, Richard. “James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights”. p. 232 [52] Amar, Akhil. “The Bill of Rights, Creation and Reconstruction”. p. 193
[61] Chernow. Alexander Hamilton pp. 573–74. [62] Gordon S. Wood, “Is There a “James Madison Problem"?, in David Womersely, Introduction and editor, Liberty and American Experience in the Eighteenth Century, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2006, accessed 2 May 2012 [63] Rosen, Gary, American Compact: James Madison and the Problem of the Founding, pp. 2–4, 6–9, 140–75, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1999. [64] Banning, Lance, The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic, pp. 7–9, 161, 165, 167, 228–31, 296–98, 326–27, 330–33, 345–46, 359–61, 371, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1995. [65] Banning, Lance, Jefferson and Madison: Three Conversations from the Founding, pp. 78–79, Madison House, Madison, WI, 1995. [66] Taylor, Elizabeth Dowling. (Jan. 2012), A Slave in the White House: Paul Jennings and the Madisons, Foreword by Annette Gordon-Reed, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, Chapter 1 [67] Ketcham (1971), James Madison, pp. 419–21 [68] Burton Spivak, Jefferson’s English Crisis: Commerce, Embargo and the Republican Revolution (1988) [69] David A. Carson, “Quiddism and the Reluctant Candidacy of James Monroe in the Election of 1808,” Mid-America 1988 70(2): 79–89 [70] Rutland (1999), p. 5 [71] Rutland (1990), pp. 32–33. [72] Rutland (1990), pp. 51, 55 [73] Rosen, Gary, American Compact: James Madison and the Problem of Founding, p. 171, Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas, 1999.
48.15. NOTES
249
[74] Rosen, Gary, American Compact: James Madison and the Problem of Founding, pp. 171-3, University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1999.
[97] “The Star-Spangled Banner and the War of 1812,” Encyclopedia Smithsonian (http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/ nmah/starflag.htm), retrieved 3-10-08.
[75] Peterson, Merrill D., ed., James Madison: A Biography in His Own Words, Vol. 2, pp. 356–59, New York: Newsweek, 1974.
[98] Reilly, Robin, The British at the Gates: The New Orleans Campaign in the War of 1812, 1974.
[76] Rutland (1990), p. 55. [77] Rutland (2012), p. 57 [78] Rutland (1990), p. 13
[99] “Second War of American Independence,” America’s Library Web site (http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/ madison/aa_madison_war_1.html) retrieved, 6-6-11. [100] Rutland (1988), p. 188
[101] https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5yVzAwAAQBAJ& pg=PA220&lpg=PA220&dq=thomas+jefferson+ veteran+pensions&source=bl&ots=UILojrP8xo&sig= [80] Bradford Perkins, Prologue to war: England and the United XHwxvh4iDj6C5huBPo7cFgV_7G4&hl=en&sa=X& States, 1805–1812 (1961) full text online ei=DvtUVe31BYOe7gagxYAw&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg# v=onepage&q=thomas%20jefferson%20veteran% [81] Rutland (1990), pp. 40–44. 20pensions&f=false [82] Madison, James (1865). Letters and other Writings of James Madison. Volume IV. 1829–1836. Philadelphia: J. B. LIP- [102] Text of Madison’s Veto of the Bonus Bill, accessed December 20, 2010 PINCOTT & CO. pp. 491–92. [79] Rutland (1990), p. 39
[83] Rutland (1990), pp. 44–45. [84] Rutland (1990), pp. 46–47 [85] Ketcham (1871), James Madison, pp. 491–504,
[103] “Madison’s Seventh Annual Message December 5, 1815 – Lance Banning, Liberty and Order: The First American Party Struggle [1787]", in Lance Banning, ed., '"Liberty and Order: The First American Party Struggle" (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2004).
[86] Rutland, James Madison: The Founding Father, pp. 217–24 [104] Rutland (1990), pp. 57–58 [87] Norman K. Risjord, “1812: Conservatives, War Hawks, and [105] Rutland (1990), pp. 58–59 the Nation’s Honor,” William And Mary Quarterly, 1961 [106] Banner (1974), p. 45. 18(2): 196–210. in JSTOR [88] Ketcham (1971), James Madison, pp. 508–09
[107] Rutland (1990), p. 20
[89] Ketcham (1971), James Madison, pp. 509–15
[108] Rutland (1990), p. 37.
[90] Stagg, 1983.
[109] Rutland (1990), pp. 199–200
[91] Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Short History (U. of [110] Jennings, Paul (1865). A Colored Man’s Reminiscences of James Madison. Brooklyn, NY: George C. Beadle. Illinois Press, 1995) [92] Ketcham (1971), James Madison, pp. 576–78,
[111] Garry Wills, James Madison (2002), p. 163.
[93] “Dolley Madison,” Montpelier Web site (http://montpelier. [112] Wills, p. 162. org/explore/dolley_madison/index.php), retrieved 6-5-11. [113] Drew R. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (1989), p. 151 [94] Toll, Ian W., Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy, pp. 360–65, W. W. Norton, New York, [114] Chambers (2005), p. 138 NY, 2006. [115] McCoy (1989), Last of the Fathers, p. 252 [95] Roosevelt, Theodore, The Naval War of 1812, pp. 147–52, The Modern Library, New York, NY. [116] McCoy (1989), Last of the Fathers, p. 252. [96] Rowen, Bob, “American Privateers in the War of 1812,” [117] Kevin R. C. Gutzman, Virginia’s American Revolution: From paper presented to the New York Military Affairs SympoDominion to Republic, 1776–1840, ch. 6.) sium, Graduate Center of the City University of New York, 2001, revised for Web publication, 2006-8 (http://nymas. [118] He was tempted to admit chaplains for the navy, as sailors org/warof1812paper/paperrevised2006.html), retrieved 6might otherwise have no opportunity for worship. The text 6-11. of the memoranda
250
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON
[119] “The Founding Fathers: A Brief Overview”. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved February 12, 2008. [120] Chambers (2005), pp. 138–39 [121] Wills 2002, p. 164. [122] Quinn, Michael, “Preserving a Legacy: Montpelier Will be Showcase for Madison”, Richmond Times Dispatch, Dec. 5, 2004. [123] Paul Schindler, “Christie’s Tax Levy on the Gays”, Gay City News, 1 February 2012 [124] Allan H. Keith, Historical Stories: About Greenville and Bond County, IL. Consulted on August 15, 2007. [125] “Five Thousand Green Seal”. The United States Treasury Bureau of Engraving and Printing. Retrieved September 17, 2008. [126] Jackson, Kenneth T. (ed.), The Encyclopedia of New York City (1995) ISBN 0-300-05536-6
48.16 Bibliography 48.16.1
• Ketcham, Ralph (1971). James Madison: A Biography. Macmillan., recent scholarly biography • Rakove, Jack (2002). James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic (2nd ed.). New York: Longman. ISBN 0-321-08797-6. • Riemer, Neal (1968). James Madison. Washington Square Press. • Rutland, Robert A. ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836: An Encyclopedia (Simon & Schuster, 1994). • Rutland, Robert A. James Madison: The Founding Father. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1987. ISBN 978-0-02-927601-3. • Wills, Garry (2002). James Madison. New York: Times Books. ISBN 0-8050-6905-4. Short bio. • Zuchert, Michael (2008). “Madison, James (1751– 1836)". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 311–2. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Biographies
• Brant, Irving (1952). “James Madison and His 48.16.2 Analytic studies Times”. American Historical Review 57 (4): 853–70. • Adams, Henry. History of the United States during the doi:10.2307/1844238. JSTOR 1844238. Administrations of James Madison (5 vol 1890–1891; 2 vol Library of America, 1986). ISBN 0-940450-35• Brant, Irving (1941–1961). James Madison. 6 vol6 Table of contents umes., the standard scholarly biography • Brant, Irving (1970). The Fourth President; a Life of James Madison. Single volume condensation of his 6-vol biography
• Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America (Houghton Mifflin, 2005). a close reading of Adams
• Broadwater, Jeff. James Madison: A Son of Virginia and a Founder of a Nation. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2012.
• Banning, Lance. Jefferson & Madison: Three Conversations from the Founding (Madison House, 1995).
• Brookhiser, Richard. James Madison (Basic Books; 2011) 287 pages • Chadwick, Bruce. James and Dolley Madison: America’s First Power Couple (Prometheus Books; 2014) 450 pages; detailed popular history • Cheney, Lynne. James Madison: A Life Reconsidered (New York: Viking, 2014) 564 pp. • Gay, Sydney Howard (1894). James Madison. Houghton, Mifflin and Company, Boston. p. 342. Ebook • Gutzman, Kevin. James Madison and the Making of America (St. Martin’s Press; 2012) 432 pages
• Banning, Lance. The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic (Cornell Univ. Press, 1995). online ACLS History e-Book. • James M. Banner Jr. (1974). C. Vann Woodward, ed. Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct. ISBN 0-440-05923-2. • Brant, Irving. James Madison and American Nationalism. (1968), short survey with primary sources • Derthick, Martha (13 June 1999). Dilemmas of Scale in America’s Federal Democracy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64039-8. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
48.16. BIBLIOGRAPHY • Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric. The Age of Federalism (Oxford Univ. Press, 1995); 925 pp. most detailed analysis of the politics of the 1790s. online edition • Gabrielson, Teena, “James Madison’s Psychology of Public Opinion,” Political Research Quarterly, 62 (Sept. 2009), 431–44. • Kasper, Eric T. To Secure the Liberty of the People: James Madison’s Bill of Rights and the Supreme Court’s Interpretation (Northern Illinois University Press, 2010) online review • Kernell, Samuel, ed. James Madison: the Theory and Practice of Republican Government (Stanford U. Press, 2003). • Kester, Scott J. The Haunted Philosophe: James Madison, Republicanism, and Slavery (Lexington Books, 2008) 132 pp. ISBN 978-0-7391-2174-0 • Labunski, Richard. James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights (Oxford U. P., 2006). • Matthews, Richard K. If Men Were Angels : James Madison and the Heartless Empire of Reason (U. Press of Kansas, 1995). • McCoy, Drew R. The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (W.W. Norton, 1980). mostly economic issues. • McCoy, Drew R. The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989). JM after 1816. • Muñoz, Vincent Phillip. “James Madison’s Principle of Religious Liberty,” American Political Science Review 97,1(2003), 17–32. SSRN 512922 in JSTOR • Read, James H. Power versus Liberty: Madison, Hamilton, Wilson and Jefferson (University Press of Virginia, 2000). • Riemer, Neal. “The Republicanism of James Madison,” Political Science Quarterly, 69,1(1954), 45–64 in JSTOR • Riemer, Neal. James Madison: Creating the American Constitution (Congressional Quarterly, 1986).
251 • Scarberry, Mark S. “John Leland and James Madison: Religious Influence on the Ratification of the Constitution and on the Proposal of the Bill of Rights,” Penn State Law Review, Vol. 113, No. 3 (April 2009), 733– 800. SSRN 1262520 • Sheehan, Colleen A. “The Politics of Public Opinion: James Madison’s 'Notes on Government',” William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. v49 No. 3 (1992), 609– 27. in JSTOR • Sheehan, Colleen. “Madison and the French Enlightenment,” William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. v59#4 (Oct. 2002), 925–56. in JSTOR. • Sheehan, Colleen. “Madison v. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism and the Role of Public Opinion,” American Political Science Review 98,3(2004), 405– 24. in JSTOR • Sheehan, Colleen."Madison Avenues,” Claremont Review of Books (Spring 2004), online. • Sheehan, Colleen."Public Opinion and the Formation of Civic Character in Madison’s Republican Theory,” Review of Politics 67,1(Winter 2005), 37–48. in JSTOR • Sorenson, Leonard R. Madison on the “General Welfare” of America: His Consistent Constitutional Vision (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1995). • Stagg, John C. A. “James Madison and the 'Malcontents’: The Political Origins of the War of 1812,” William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 33,4(Oct. 1976), 557–585. in JSTOR • Stagg, John C. A. “James Madison and the Coercion of Great Britain: Canada, the West Indies, and the War of 1812,” in William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 38,1(Jan. 1981), 3–34. in JSTOR • Stagg, John C. A. Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, 1983). • Stagg, John C. A. Borderlines in Borderlands: James Madison and the Spanish-American Frontier, 1776– 1821 (2009)
• Rosen, Gary. American Compact: James Madison and the Problem of Founding (University Press of Kansas, 1999).
• Vile, John R. William D. Pederson, Frank J. Williams, eds. James Madison: Philosopher, Founder, and Statesman (Ohio University Press, 2008) 302 pp. ISBN 978-0-8214-1832-1 online review
• Rutland, Robert A. The Presidency of James Madison (Univ. Press of Kansas, 1990). ISBN 9780700604654. scholarly overview of his two terms.
• Weiner, Greg. Madison’s Metronome: The Constitution, Majority Rule, and the Tempo of American Politics. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2012.
252
CHAPTER 48. JAMES MADISON
• Wood, Gordon S. “Is There a 'James Madison Problem'?" in Wood, Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (Penguin Press, 2006a), 141–72.
• James Madison: Philosopher and Practitioner of Liberal Democracy, symposium at the Library of Congress • James Madison, bust portrait miniature by Charles Wilson Peale From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress
• Wood, Gordon S. “Without Him, No Bill of Rights: James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights by Richard Labunski”, The New York Review of Books (November 30, 2006b). online
48.16.3
• The James Madison Pamphlet Collection 283 pamphlets that originally belonged to James Madison available in the Rare Book and Special Collection Division at the Library of Congress.
Primary sources
• Madison, James (1865). Letters & Other Writings Of James Madison Fourth President Of The United States (called the Congress edition ed.). J.B. Lippincott & Co.
• The Papers of James Madison, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives •
• Madison, James (1900–1910). Gaillard Hunt, ed., ed. The Writings of James Madison. G. P. Putnam’s Sons.
• James Madison at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
• Madison, James (1962). William T. Hutchinson et al., eds., ed. The Papers of James Madison (30 volumes published and more planned ed.). Univ. of Chicago Press.
• James Madison at Find a Grave
• Madison, James (1982). Jacob E. Cooke, ed., ed. The Federalist. Wesleyan Univ. Press. ISBN 0-81956077-4. • Madison, James (1987). Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 Reported by James Madison. W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-30405-1. • Madison, James (1995). Marvin Myers, ed., ed. Mind of the Founder: Sources of the Political Thought of James Madison. Univ. Press of New England. ISBN 0-87451-201-8. • Madison, James (1995). James M. Smith, ed., ed. The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826. W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-03691-X. • Madison, James (1999). Jack N. Rakove ed., ed. James Madison, Writings. Library of America. ISBN 1-883011-66-3.
• James Madison at the White House • American President: James Madison (1751–1836) at the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia • James Madison at the Online Library of Liberty, Liberty Fund • Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments (1785) at the Religious Movements Homepage Project, University of Virginia • The Papers of James Madison at the Avalon Project • James Madison Museum, Orange, Virginia • Montpelier, home of James Madison • “Memories of Montpelier: Home of James and Dolley Madison”, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan • James Madison at C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits • Jefferson and Madison at C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
48.17 External links • James Madison: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress • The James Madison Papers, 1723–1836 at the Library of Congress
• Will, George F. (January 23, 2008). “Alumni who changed America, and the world: #1 – James Madison 1771”. Princeton Alumni Weekly. • Booknotes interview with William Lee Miller on The Business of May Next: James Madison and the Founding, June 14, 1992.
48.17. EXTERNAL LINKS • Booknotes interview with Lance Banning on The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic, February 11, 1996. • Works by James Madison at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about James Madison at Internet Archive • Works by James Madison at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
253
Chapter 49
George Mason For other people named George Mason, see George Mason Mercer, who (along with his mother) became his legal (disambiguation). guardian. Mercer was a leading Virginia attorney.[9] Mason studied in Mercer’s private library, which consisted of beApproximately one-third George Mason IV (December 11, 1725 – October 7, tween 1,500 and 1,800 volumes.[10][11] of these books regarded the law. Mason studied with 1792) was an American Patriot, statesman and a deletutors and attended a private academy in Maryland.[12] gate from Virginia to the U.S. Constitutional Convention. Along with James Madison, he is called the “Father of the United States Bill of Rights.”[1][2][3][4] For these reasons he is considered one of the "Founding Fathers" of the United States.[5][6] Like anti-federalist Patrick Henry, Mason was a leader of those who pressed for the addition of explicit States rights[7] and individual rights to the U.S. Constitution as a balance to the increased federal powers, and did not sign the document in part because it lacked such a statement. His efforts eventually succeeded in convincing the Federalists to add the first 10 amendments of the Constitution. These amendments, collectively known as the Bill of Rights, were based on the earlier Virginia Declaration of Rights, which Mason had drafted in 1776.
49.2
Politics
49.2.1
Virginia
Mason was a justice of the Fairfax County court. Between 1754 and 1779, he was a trustee of the city of Alexandria, Virginia. In 1759 he was elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses. Mason served at the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg in 1776. During this time he created drafts of the first declaration of rights and state constitution in the Colonies. Both were adopted after committee alterations; the Virginia Declaration of Rights was adopted June 12, 1776, and the Virginia Constitution was adopted June 29, 1776.
On the issue of slavery, Mason walked a fine line. Although a slaveholder himself, he found slavery distasteful for a variety of reasons. He wanted to ban further importation of slaves from Africa and prevent slavery from spreading to more states. However, he did not want the new federal government to attempt to ban slavery where it already existed, Article 1 of the Virginia Declaration of Rights — a statebecause he anticipated that such an act would be difficult ment later made internationally famous by the first paragraph of the U.S. Declaration of Independence — states and controversial. that:
49.1 Early life George Mason was born on December 11, 1725 to George and Ann Thomson Mason at the Mason family plantation in Fairfax County, Virginia. In 1735, when Mason was 10, his father drowned in the Potomac when the boat he was in capsized.[8] After his father’s death, Mason lived with his uncle John 254
“All men are by nature equally free and independent, and have certain inherent rights of which, when they enter into a state of society, they cannot, by any compact, deprive or divest their posterity; namely, the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the means of acquiring and possessing property, and pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.”
49.3. SLAVERY
49.2.2
255
Constitutional Convention and Ratification
Mason was appointed in 1786 as a delegate to a convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. He served from May to September 1787 and was one of the five most frequent speakers at the convention. Wary of investing too much power in the executive branch in the proposed new Constitution because it might lead to corruption or monarchy, Mason advocated a three-person presidency, with copresidents chosen by region.[13] In addition, he was a strong proponent of a bicameral legislature and argued for election of United States Senators by state legislatures.[14] Though he was a slave owner himself, Mason advocated against slavery during the convention, arguing unsuccessfully in favor of gradual emancipation and compensation to slave owners.[15] An important consideration for Mason was that the new Constitution should include a Bill of Rights in order to protect against possible federal overreach.[16] He suggested the addition of one modeled on previous state declarations, but it was defeated in a vote of the delegates.[17] Mason also argued that the proposed United States House of Representatives did not have powers to make it truly representative of the people, and that the proposed United States Senate had too much power. In addition, he objected to the powers of the proposed federal judiciary, arguing that they would usurp the authority of the state governments.
Letter from Mason to George Washington congratulating him on
Mason refused to sign the final version of the Constitu- victory at Boston, April 1776 tion and returned to Virginia as an outspoken opponent of ratification.[18] As a delegate to Virginia’s ratification convention, he helped tion was morally objectionable, once calling it a “slow Poi“is daily contaminating the Minds & Morals of our lead the anti-federalist faction,[19] opposing approval of the son” that[21] People.” Mason favored the abolition of the slave trade, Constitution unless it included a Bill of Rights. Despite his but he did not advocate for the immediate abolition of slav[16] efforts, Virginia ratified the Constitution in 1788. ery.Like Jefferson, in his last will, he named slaves whom Mason eventually carried his point on individual rights with he did not manumit.[22] the 1791 approval of the first ten amendments to the Constitution, the Bill of Rights, which were based primarily on Two of Mason’s stated reasons for opposing the U.S. ConMason’s 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights.[20] He also stitution were that the draft Constitution did not specifcarried his point about the federal judiciary with the 1795 ically protect the right of states to let slavery continue passage of the Eleventh Amendment, which limited the where it already existed, and that the draft Constitution did not allow Congress to immediately stop the importation of powers of the federal court system. slaves.[21][23] Mason’s immediate concern was to prevent more slaves from being imported, and to prevent slavery from spreading into more states.[24] He was not eager to ban 49.3 Slavery slavery where it already existed: “It is far from being a desirable property. But it will involve us in great difficulties and George Mason was one of the largest slaveholders in Fairfax infelicity to be now deprived of them.”[24] Mason ostensibly County (possibly second only to George Washington) and balanced his anti-slavery argument that importation should had thirty-six slaves at the time of his death. Like some stop, with a pro-slavery argument that the draft Constitution of his contemporary slave owners (e.g. Thomas Jefferson should protect slavery from being taxed out of existence; and George Washington), Mason conceded that the institu- however, the latter argument had already been incorporated
256 into the Constitution according to James Madison.[25] Because of his efforts to stop the spread of slavery, and his recognition of the undesirability of slavery, some historians have said that Mason should be categorized as an abolitionist.[26]:294, note 39 Other historians have disagreed.[26]
49.4 Personal life At the age of twenty four, George Mason married sixteenyear-old Ann Eilbeck, from a plantation in Charles County, Maryland, on April 4, 1750.[27] They lived in a house on his property in Dogue’s Neck, Virginia, for the first few years. Mason’s wife died on March 9, 1773. George Mason remarried on April 11, 1780, and did not have any children with his new wife, Sarah Brent.
CHAPTER 49. GEORGE MASON a Georgian mansion in Mason Neck, Virginia.[28][29] It was located at the center of a 5,500 acre (22 km²) plantation.[30] Gunston Hall was built from 1755 to 1759.[31][32] The home and grounds are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is now a museum owned by the Commonwealth of Virginia and open to the public.[33] The interior of the house and its design was mostly the work of William Buckland, a carpenter/joiner and indentured servant from England. Both he and William Bernard Sears, another indentured servant, are believed to have created the ornate woodwork and interior carving. Gunston’s interior design combines elements of rococo, chinoiserie, and Gothic styles, an unusual contrast to the tendency for simple decoration in Virginia at this time.[34] Although chinoiserie was popular in Britain, Gunston Hall is the only house known to have had this decoration in colonial America.[35] After Mason’s death, the house continued to be used as a residence for many years.[36]
George Mason suffered from gout for a large part of his life, and in accordance with current medical treatment, relied 49.4.2 upon bloodletting.
Children
George Mason died of natural causes at his home, Gunston Hall, on October 7, 1792. He left a personal message for his sons in his will: “I recommend it to my sons, from my experience in life, to prefer the happiness and independence of a private station, to the troubles and vexation of public business” but added that if they should engage in public affairs, nothing should “deter them from asserting the liberty of their country, and endeavouring to transmit to their posterity those sacred rights to which themselves were born.”
Mason and his wife had twelve children, nine of whom survived to adulthood. Mason’s first child, George Mason V of Lexington,[37] was born on April 30, 1753. He married Elizabeth Mary Ann Barnes Hooe (Betsy) on April 22, 1784, and after having six children, died on December 5, 1796. The next Mason offspring was Ann Eilbeck Mason, fondly known as Nancy. Born on January 13, 1755, she married Rinaldo Johnson on February 4, 1789 and had three children before dying in 1814. The third child was named William Mason, but he did not live over a year and died in 1757. The fourth child, born on October 22, 1757, 49.4.1 Gunston Hall was also named William Mason, and he married Ann Stuart on July 11, 1793. They had five children together, and Main article: Gunston Hall Mason completed construction in 1759 of Gunston Hall, he died in 1818. The fifth child was a son they named Thomson Mason. He was born on March 4, 1759 and died on March 11, 1820. Thomson married Sarah McCarty Chichester of Newington in 1784; they had eight children. George Mason’s sixth child, christened Sarah Eilbeck Mason but fondly known as Sally, was born on December 11, 1760 and married in 1778. She had ten children with her husband Daniel McCarty, Jr. before dying on September 11, 1823. The seventh of the Mason children was another girl, Mary Thomson Mason. She was born on January 24, 1764, and married John Travers Cooke on November 18, 1784, with whom she had ten children before dying in 1806. John Mason was Mason’s eighth child, being born on April 4, 1766. He married Anna Marie Murray on February 14, 1796, had ten children, and died on March 19, 1849. The Gunston Hall in May 2006, seen from the front ninth child was a daughter named Elizabeth Mason. She was born on April 19, 1768 and died sometime between a plantation house on the Potomac River. Gunston Hall is 1792 and June 1797. She married William Thornton in
49.6. SEE ALSO
257
1789 and they had two children. The tenth child, Thomas Mason, was born on May 1, 1770 and died on September 18, 1800. He married Sarah Barnes Hooe on April 22, 1793 and the two had four children together.
image is located above and to the right of the Speaker’s chair.[38] The Society of Professional Journalists, Virginia Pro Chapter, presents an annual award named for Mason to a person who has made significant, lasting contribution George Mason’s last two children were James and Richard to the practice of journalism in the Commonwealth of VirMason; twins who were born in December, 1772 but died ginia. six weeks later. His great-great grandson Dr. William Beverley Mason built Gunston Hall at Biltmore Forest, North Carolina in 1923.[39]
49.5 Remembrance 49.6
See also
• History of the United States Constitution, slavery debate in Convention • List of civil rights leaders
49.7
References
[1] “The New United States of America Adopted the Bill of Rights: December 15, 1791”. The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2007-12-06. [2] Heymsfeld, Carla R.; Lewis, Joan W. (1991). “George Mason, father of the Bill of Rights”. Alexandria, Va.: Patriotic Education Inc. ISBN 0-912530-16-2. [3] Spratt, Tammy. “Father” of Our Country vs. “Father” of the Bill of Rights”. The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved 2007-12-06. [4] “Bill of Rights Day - December 15th”. Bill of Rights Defense Committee. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
Bas-relief of George Mason in the chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives
Gunston Hall, located in Mason Neck, Virginia, is now a museum and tourist attraction. The George Mason Memorial in West Potomac Park, Washington, D.C., near the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, was dedicated on April 9, 2002. The George Mason Memorial Bridge, one of five that make up the 14th Street Bridge, connects Washington, D.C., to Virginia. George Mason Elementary School in Alexandria, Virginia, George Mason High School in Falls Church, and George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, are named in his honor, as are Mason County, Kentucky, Mason County, West Virginia and Mason County, Illinois.
[5] Yardley, Jonathan (November 5, 2006). “A founding father insisted that the Constitution wasn't worth ratifying without a bill of rights”. The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-1206. [6] Henderson, Denise; Henderson, Frederic W. (March 15, 1993). “How The Founding Fathers Fought For An End To Slavery”. The American Almanac. Retrieved 2007-12-06. [7] Gutzman, Kevin (2007). The Politically Incorrect Guide to the Constitution. Washington: Regnery Publishing, Inc. pp. 35, 23. ISBN 1-59698-505-4. [8] George Mason Writings and Biography Retrieved 27 August 2013. [9] American Memory from the Library of Congress - Browse by
Mason was honored by the United States Postal Service with [10] Antiquarian Books :: ILAB-LILA :: International League of an 18¢ Great Americans series postage stamp. A bas-relief Antiquarian Booksellers of Mason appears in the Chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives as one of 23 honoring great lawmakers; his [11] “The Colonial Virginian”
258
[12] George Mason [13] Broadwater, Jeff (2006). George Mason, Forgotten Founder. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 176–177. ISBN 978-0-8078-3053-6. [14] Madison, James. Notes on the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Avalon Project. ( June 7, 21, 25).
CHAPTER 49. GEORGE MASON
[29] “Visiting Gunston Hall”. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. Retrieved 2013-12-22. [30] “Gunston Hall Museum Shop”. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. Retrieved 2013-02-22.
[15] Madison, James. Notes on the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Avalon Project. ( July 11, 12).
[31] Beckerdite, Luke et al. (1994). “Architect-Designed Furniture in Eighteenth-Century Virginia: The Work of William Buckland and William Bernard Sears”. American Furniture 1994. Chipstone. Retrieved 2006-08-31.
[16] Beeman, Richard (2009). Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution. Random House.
[32] “George Mason Chronology”. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. 1997. Retrieved 2006-08-31.
[17] Beeman, Richard (2009). Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution. Random House. ( p. 341).
[33] “Gunston Hall Plantation official website”. Retrieved 200608-23. Also hosted on look.net.
[18] Borden, Morton, ed. (1965). The Anti federalist Papers. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. pp. ix. [19] Beeman, Richard (2009). Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution. Random House. ( p. 396). [20] Virginia Declaration of Rights. Library of Congress. Accessed July 12, 2013. [21] “George Mason’s Views on Slavery” [22] The Papers of George Mason 147-160 (Robert A. Rutland ed. 1970). [23] This issue is further discussed in Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers (Knopf, 2000). [24] Kaminski, John. Necessary Evil?: Slavery and the Debate Over the Constitution, pages 59 and 186 (Rowman & Littlefield 1995). Mason said: “The Western people are already calling out for slaves for their new lands; and will fill that country with slaves, if they can be got through South Carolina and Georgia....[T]he General Government should have the power to prevent the increase of slavery.” [25] See “Debate in Virginia Ratifying Convention”, The Founders’ Constitution (transcript from 1788-06-15). Mason said, “There is no clause in this Constitution to secure it; for they may lay such a tax as will amount to manumission.” Madison responded: “From the mode of representation and taxation, Congress cannot lay such a tax on slaves as will amount to manumission....The census in the Constitution was intended to introduce equality in the burdens to be laid on the community.” [26] Broadwater, Jeff (2006). George Mason: Forgotten Founder. Chapel Hill, NC: Fred W. Morrison Fund for Southern Studies of the University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-08078-3053-6. [27] Rowland, Kate Mason (1892). The Life of George Mason, 1725–1792. New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. ISBN 0-54813895-8. [28] “House and Grounds”. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. Retrieved 2009-09-06.
[34] “Architecturally Speaking”. House Tour. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. Archived from the original on 2006-06-30. Retrieved 2006-08-23. [35] “Parlor”. House Tour. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. Archived from the original on 2006-07-13. Retrieved 2006-08-23. [36] “Gunston Hall’s Archeology Program”. House and Grounds. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. p. 2. Archived from the original on 2006-07-14. Retrieved 2006-08-31. [37] “Hollin Hall”. George Mason’s Plantations and Landholdings. Gunston Hall Plantation official website. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-02-29. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help) [38] “Relief Portraits of Lawgivers”. Architect of the Capitol, Government of the United States of America. Accessed June 17, 2011. [39] Davyd Foard Hood (May 1991). “Gunston Hall” (PDF). National Register of Historic Places - Nomination and Inventory. North Carolina State Historic Preservation Office. Retrieved 2014-08-01.
49.8
Bibliography
• Bailyn, Bernard, ed. (1993). The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Anti federalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle over Ratification, 2 vols. Library of America. • Curtis, Barbara Jocelyn (1938). George Mason, Statesman, Rebel, Public Servant. • Hawkes, Robert T., Jr. (1996). “An Uncommon American Hero: George Mason and The Bill Of Rights”. Northern Neck of Virginia Historical Magazine 1 (46): 5328–5338.
49.9. EXTERNAL LINKS • Henriques, Peter R. (1989). “An Uneven Friendship: The Relationship Between George Washington and George Mason”. Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 2 (97): 185–204. • Jensen, Merrill et al., eds. (1976). The Documentary History of the Ratification of the Constitution of the United States, 20 vols. Madison, WI: State Historical Society of Wisconsin. • Ketcham, Ralph, ed. (1986). The Anti-Federalist Papers and the Constitutional Convention Debates. Penguin. ISBN 0-451-52884-0. • Lee, Emery G. (1997). “Representation, Virtue, and Political Jealousy in the Brutus-Publius Dialogue”. The Journal of Politics (Cambridge University Press) 59 (4): 1073–1095. doi:10.2307/2998593. JSTOR 2998593. • Leffler, Richard (1987). “The Case of George Mason’s Objections to the Constitution”. Manuscripts 4 (39): 285–292. • MacDonald, Robert (2008). “Mason, George (1725– 1792)". In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 321. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024. • Meltzer, Milton (1990). The Bill Of Rights: How We Got It and What It Means. New York: Thomas Crowell. ISBN 0-690-04805-X. • Miller, Helen Hill (July 2001) [1938]. George Mason, Constitutionalist. Safety Harbor, FL: Simon Publications. ISBN 1-931313-45-8. • Pole, J. R., ed. (1987). The American Constitution – For and Against: The Federalist And Anti-Federalist Papers. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-80902466-7. • Rutland, Robert A. (September 1980). George Mason: Reluctant Statesman. ISBN 0-8071-0696-8. • Rutland, Robert A., et al. eds. (1970). The papers of George Mason, 3 vols. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. • Storing, Herbert, ed. (1985). The Anti-Federalist. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-77565-8. • Storing, Herbert; Murray Dry, eds. (1981). The Complete Anti-Federalist 7 vol. University of Chicago Press.
259
49.9
External links
• George Mason biography • Gunston Hall Home Page • Amazing Mason by John J. Miller • Website of George Mason University • George Mason University Study Abroad – Center for Global Education • MasonStudents – GMU’s Student Run Discussion Forum • Beach, Chandler B., ed. (1914). "Mason, George". The New Student’s Reference Work. Chicago: F. E. Compton and Co.
Chapter 50
James McClurg James McClurg (1746 – July 9, 1823) was a delegate to the Philadelphia Convention and the 17th mayor of Richmond, Virginia. McClurg’s lifelong friendship with Thomas Jefferson dated from their school days.
Dr. McClurg thus became one of three physicians (with Hugh Williamson and James McHenry) involved in crafting the U.S. Constitution. McClurg advocated increased executive powers while at the Convention, but returned to Virginia in early August. He never returned, worried that his “vote would only operate to produce a division, & so destroy the vote of the state.”[4] He never returned, and thus 50.1 Medical career did not sign the final draft when finished in September 1787. President Washington later considered nominating him as Dr. McClurg was one of the most distinguished physi- Secretary of State, after [Thomas Jefferson] resigned. cians in the colonies, educated (and later professor) at the College of William and Mary. Dr. McClurg received a Dr. McClurg served on Virginia’s Executive Council durmedical degree from the University of Edinburgh and also ing Washington’s administration. A Richmond city councilstudied in London and Paris.[1] Dr. McClurg practiced first man for more than a dozen years, Dr.[5]McClurg was elected in Williamsburg, then in Richmond. His work and writings mayor for three terms, first in 1797. were well-received and respected by the medical community on both sides of the Atlantic. His Experiments upon the Human Bile and Reflections on the Biliary Secretions (Lon50.3 Family don: 1772), was translated into several languages. Dr. McClurg returned to Virginia in 1773, was appointed professor of anatomy and medicine at his alma mater in 1779, and also served as a surgeon in the state navy. Dr. McClurg achieved renown in Richmond for his efforts to stop various epidemics, including the yellow fever in 1798. However, his contagious disease focus later brought criticism in connection with the botched toxicological work in the celebrated trial concerning the murder of Judge George Wythe, whom he initially thought suffered from cholera, not arsenic poisoning.[2] Dr. McClurg was also the first honoree of the Philadelphia Journal of Medical and Physical Sciences.[3] In 1820 and 1821 Dr. McClurg was president of Virginia’s state medical society.
Dr. McClurg married Elizabeth Seldon in 1779. Their daughter, Elizabeth Seldon McClurg, married John Wickham (1763), a celebrated Richmond attorney. Widowed in 1818, Dr. McClurg left his practice to his nephew, Dr. James Drew McCaw. Although a Presbyterian, Dr. McClurg is buried at St. John’s Church in Richmond.
50.4
See also
• List of mayors of Richmond, Virginia
50.2 Public Service When Patrick Henry refused to attend the Philadelphia Convention, Virginia’s legislature selected Dr. McClurg as a delegate along with George Washington, George Mason. James Madison, Edmund Randolph and George Wythe.
50.5
260
External links
• Biography at odur.let.rug.nl
50.6. REFERENCES
50.6 References [1] “America’s Founding Fathers - Delegates to the Constitutional Convention, James McClurg, Virginia”. [2] Bruce Chadwick, I Am Murdered (New Jersey, Wiley and Sons, 2009) pp. 181-185 [3] Chadwick p. 179 [4] “James McClurg to James Madison, August 5, 1787”. Retrieved February 16, 2012. [5] Chadwick at p. 178
261
Chapter 51
George Washington This article is about the first President of the United States. captured later that year when he lost New York City. AfFor other uses, see George Washington (disambiguation). ter crossing the Delaware River in the dead of winter, he defeated the British in two battles, retook New Jersey and George Washington (February 22, 1732 [O.S. February restored momentum to the Patriot cause. 11, 1731][Note 1][Note 2] – December 14, 1799) was the first President of the United States (1789–97), the Commanderin-Chief of the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.[4] He presided over the convention that drafted the United States Constitution, which replaced the Articles of Confederation and remains the supreme law of the land. Washington was unanimously elected President by the electors in both the 1788–89 and 1792 elections.[5] He oversaw the creation of a strong, well-financed national government that maintained neutrality in the French Revolutionary Wars, suppressed the Whiskey Rebellion, and won acceptance among Americans of all types.[6] Washington established many forms in government still used today, such as the cabinet system and inaugural address.[7][8] His retirement after two terms and the peaceful transition from his presidency to that of John Adams established a tradition that continued up until Franklin D. Roosevelt was elected to a third term.[9] Washington has been widely hailed as the "father of his country" – even during his lifetime.[4][10]
Because of his strategy, Revolutionary forces captured two major British armies at Saratoga in 1777 and Yorktown in 1781. Historians laud Washington for his selection and supervision of his generals, encouragement of morale and ability to hold together the army, coordination with the state governors and state militia units, relations with Congress and attention to supplies, logistics, and training. In battle, however, Washington was repeatedly outmaneuvered by British generals with larger armies. After victory had been finalized in 1783, Washington resigned as Commander-inchief rather than seize power, proving his opposition to dictatorship and his commitment to American republicanism.[11]
Dissatisfied with the Continental Congress, in 1787 Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention that devised a new federal government for the United States. Elected unanimously as the first President of the United States in 1789, he attempted to bring rival factions together to unify the nation. He supported Alexander Hamilton's programs to pay off all state and national debt, to implement an effective tax system and to create a national bank,[12] deWashington was born into the provincial gentry of Colonial spite opposition from Thomas Jefferson. Virginia; his wealthy planter family owned tobacco plan- Washington proclaimed the United States neutral in the tations and slaves, that he in turn inherited. Washington wars raging in Europe after 1793. He avoided war with owned hundreds of slaves throughout his lifetime, but his Great Britain and guaranteed a decade of peace and profviews on slavery evolved. After his father and older brother itable trade by securing the Jay Treaty in 1795, despite indied when he was young, Washington became personally tense opposition from the Jeffersonians. Although he never and professionally attached to the powerful William Fair- officially joined the Federalist Party, he supported its profax, who promoted his career as a surveyor and soldier. grams. Washington’s Farewell Address was an influential Washington quickly became a senior officer in the colo- primer on republican virtue and a warning against partisannial forces during the first stages of the French and Indian ship, sectionalism, and involvement in foreign wars. He reWar. Chosen by the Second Continental Congress in 1775 tired from the presidency in 1797 and returned to his home to be commander-in-chief of the Continental Army in the in Mount Vernon, and domestic life where he managed a American Revolution, Washington managed to force the variety of enterprises. He freed all his slaves by his final British out of Boston in 1776, but was defeated and almost will.
262
51.1. EARLY LIFE (1732–1753) Washington had a vision of a great and powerful nation that would be built on republican lines using federal power. He sought to use the national government to preserve liberty, improve infrastructure, open the western lands, promote commerce, found a permanent capital, reduce regional tensions and promote a spirit of American nationalism.[13] At his death, Washington was eulogized as “first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen” by Henry Lee.[14]
263 British Empire in 1752, in accordance with the provisions of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, his birth date became February 22, 1732.[16][Note 1][Note 2] Washington was of mostly English descent, and also had French (from a paternal great-great-great-grandfather) and Dutch (from a maternal great-grandmother) ancestry. Some of Washington’s ancestors were from Sulgrave, England; his great-grandfather, John Washington, had emigrated to Virginia in 1657.[17] George’s father Augustine was a slave-owning tobacco planter who later tried his hand in iron-mining ventures.[18] In George’s youth, the Washingtons were moderately prosperous members of the Virginia gentry, of “middling rank” rather than one of the leading planter families.[19] At this time, Virginia and other southern colonies had become a slave society, in which slaveholders formed the ruling class and the economy was based on slave labor.[20]
The Federalists made him the symbol of their party but for many years, the Jeffersonians continued to distrust his influence and delayed building the Washington Monument. As the leader of the first successful revolution against a colonial empire in world history, Washington became an international icon for liberation and nationalism.[15] He is consistently ranked among the top three presidents of the United States, according to polls of both scholars and the general public. Six of George’s siblings reached maturity, including two older half-brothers, Lawrence and Augustine, from his father’s first marriage to Jane Butler Washington, and four full siblings, Samuel, Elizabeth (Betty), John Augustine and 51.1 Early life (1732–1753) Charles. Three siblings died before becoming adults: his full sister Mildred died when she was about one,[21] his Further information: Ancestry of George Washington [22] and his halfThe first child of Augustine Washington (1694–1743) half-brother Butler died while an infant, sister Jane died at the age of twelve, when George was about two.[21] George’s father died when George was eleven years old, after which George’s half-brother Lawrence became a surrogate father and role model. William Fairfax, Lawrence’s father-in-law and cousin of Virginia’s largest landowner, Thomas, Lord Fairfax, was also a formative influence.
Washington spent much of his boyhood at Ferry Farm in Stafford County near Fredericksburg. Lawrence Washington inherited another family property from his father, a plantation on the Potomac River, which he named Mount Vernon, in honor of his commanding officer, Admiral Edward Vernon. George inherited Ferry Farm upon his father’s death and eventually acquired Mount Vernon after Lawrence’s death.[23]
Washington’s birthplace
and his second wife, Mary Ball Washington (1708–1789), George Washington was born on their Pope’s Creek Estate near present-day Colonial Beach in Westmoreland County, Virginia. According to the Julian calendar and Annunciation Style of enumerating years, then in use in the British Empire, Washington was born on February 11, 1731; when the Gregorian calendar was implemented in the
The death of his father prevented Washington from crossing the Atlantic to receive the rest of his education at England’s Appleby School, as his older brothers had done. He received the equivalent of an elementary school education from a variety of tutors,[24] and also a school run by an Anglican clergyman in or near Fredericksburg.[25] Talk of securing an appointment in the Royal Navy for him when he was 15 was dropped when his widowed mother objected.[26] Thanks to Lawrence’s connection to the powerful Fairfax family, at age 17 in 1749, Washington was appointed official surveyor for Culpeper County, a well-paid position which enabled him to purchase land in the Shenandoah Valley, the first of his many land acquisitions in western Vir-
264
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
ginia. Thanks also to Lawrence’s involvement in the Ohio Company, a land investment company funded by Virginia investors, and Lawrence’s position as commander of the Virginia militia, Washington came to the notice of the new lieutenant governor of Virginia, Robert Dinwiddie. Washington was hard to miss: At exactly six feet, he towered over most of his contemporaries.[27] In 1751, Washington traveled to Barbados with Lawrence, who was suffering from tuberculosis, with the hope that the climate would be beneficial to Lawrence’s health. Washington contracted smallpox during the trip, which left his face slightly scarred, but immunized him against future exposures to the dreaded disease.[28] Lawrence’s health did not improve; he returned to Mount Vernon, where he died in 1752.[29] Lawrence’s position as Adjutant General (militia leader) of Virginia was divided into four offices after his death. Washington was appointed by Governor Dinwiddie as one of the four district adjutants in February 1753, with the rank of major in the Virginia militia.[30] Washington also joined the Freemasons fraternal association in Fredericksburg at this time.[31]
51.2 French and Indian War (or 'Seven Years’ War', 1754–1758)
Washington’s map, accompanying his Journal to the Ohio (1753– 1754).
Main article: George Washington in the French and Indian War See also: Military career of George Washington, Battle of Jumonville Glen, Battle of Fort Necessity and Forbes Expedition The Ohio Company was an important vehicle through which British investors planned to expand into the Ohio Valley, opening new settlements and trading posts for the Indian trade.[32] In 1753, the French themselves began expanding their military control into the Ohio Country, a territory already claimed by the British colonies of Virginia and Pennsylvania. These competing claims led to a war in the colonies called the French and Indian War (1754–62), and contributed to the start of the global Seven Years’ War (1756–63). By chance, Washington became involved in its beginning.
port in case of a military conflict with the French; Washington and Tanacharison became friends. Washington delivered the letter to the local French commander Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre, who politely refused to leave.[33] Washington kept a diary during his expedition which was printed by William Hunter on Dinwiddie’s order and which made Washington’s name recognizable in Virginia.[34] This increased notoriety helped him to obtain a commission to raise a company of 100 men and start his military career.[35]
Robert Dinwiddie, lieutenant governor of colonial Virginia, was ordered by the British government to guard the British territorial claims including the Ohio River basin. In late 1753 Washington was ordered by Dinwiddie to deliver a letter asking the French to vacate the Ohio Valley;[32] he was eager to prove himself as the new adjutant general of the militia, appointed by the Lieutenant Governor himself only a year before. During his trip Washington met with Tanacharison (also called “Half-King”) and other Iroquois chiefs allied with England at Logstown to secure their sup-
Dinwiddie sent Washington back to the Ohio Country to protect an Ohio Company’s crew constructing a fort at present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. However, before he reached the area, a French force drove out colonial traders and began construction of Fort Duquesne. A small detachment of French troops led by Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, was discovered by Tanacharison and a few warriors east of present-day Uniontown, Pennsylvania. On May 28, 1754 Washington and some of his militia unit, aided by their Mingo allies, ambushed the French in what has come to be called the Battle of Jumonville Glen. Exactly what happened during and after the battle is a matter of some controversy, but a few primary accounts agree that the battle lasted about 15 minutes, that Jumonville was killed, and that most of his party were either killed or taken prisoner. Whether Jumonville died at the hands of Tanacharison in cold blood or was somehow shot by an onlooker with a musket as he
51.3. BETWEEN THE WARS: MOUNT VERNON (1759–1774)
265
sat with Washington or by another means, is not completely tion to capture Fort Duquesne. He was embarrassed by a clear.[36][37] He was given the epithet Town Destroyer by friendly fire episode in which his unit and another British Tanacharison.[38] unit thought the other was the French enemy and opened The French responded by attacking and capturing Wash- fire, with 14 dead and 26 wounded in the mishap. Washingington at Fort Necessity in July 1754.[39] However, he ton was not involved in any other major fighting on the expewas allowed to return with his troops to Virginia. His- dition, and the British scored a major strategic victory, gaintorian Joseph Ellis concludes that the episode demon- ing control of the Ohio Valley, when the French abandoned strated Washington’s bravery, initiative, inexperience and the fort. Following the expedition, he retired from his Virginia Regiment commission in December 1758. Washingimpetuosity.[40] These events had international consemilitary life until the outbreak of the quences; the French accused Washington of assassinat- ton did not return to revolution in 1775.[46] ing Jumonville, who they claimed was on a diplomatic mission.[40] Both France and Great Britain were ready to fight for control of the region and both sent troops to North America in 1755; war was formally declared in 1756.[41]
51.2.1
Braddock disaster 1755
Main article: Braddock Expedition In 1755, Washington was the senior American aide to British General Edward Braddock on the ill-fated Braddock expedition. This was the largest British expedition to the colonies, and was intended to expel the French from the Ohio Country. The French and their Indian allies ambushed Braddock, who was mortally wounded in the Battle of the Monongahela. After suffering devastating casualties, the British retreated in disarray; however, Washington rode back and forth across the battlefield, rallying the remnants of the British and Virginian forces to an organized retreat.[42]
51.2.2
Commander of Virginia Regiment
Governor Dinwiddie rewarded Washington in 1755 with a commission as “Colonel of the Virginia Regiment and Commander in Chief of all forces now raised in the defense of His Majesty’s Colony” and gave him the task of defending Virginia’s frontier. The Virginia Regiment was the first full-time American military unit in the colonies (as opposed to part-time militias and the British regular units). Washington was ordered to “act defensively or offensively” as he thought best.[43] In command of a thousand soldiers, Washington was a disciplinarian who emphasized training. He led his men in brutal campaigns against the Indians in the west; in 10 months units of his regiment fought 20 battles, and lost a third of its men. Washington’s strenuous efforts meant that Virginia’s frontier population suffered less than that of other colonies; Ellis concludes “it was his only unqualified success” in the war.[44][45] In 1758, Washington participated in the Forbes Expedi-
51.2.3
Lessons learned
Although Washington never gained the commission in the British army he yearned for, in these years the young man gained valuable military, political, and leadership skills.[47][48] He closely observed British military tactics, gaining a keen insight into their strengths and weaknesses that proved invaluable during the Revolution. He demonstrated his toughness and courage in the most difficult situations, including disasters and retreats. He developed a command presence—given his size, strength, stamina, and bravery in battle, he appeared to soldiers to be a natural leader and they followed him without question.[49][50] Washington learned to organize, train, drill, and discipline his companies and regiments. From his observations, readings and conversations with professional officers, he learned the basics of battlefield tactics, as well as a good understanding of problems of organization and logistics.[51] He gained an understanding of overall strategy, especially in locating strategic geographical points.[52] Historian Ron Chernow is of the opinion that his frustrations in dealing with government officials during this conflict led him to advocate the advantages of a strong national government and a vigorous executive agency that could get results;[47] other historians tend to ascribe Washington’s position on government to his later American Revolutionary War service.[Note 3] He developed a very negative idea of the value of militia, who seemed too unreliable, too undisciplined, and too short-term compared to regulars.[53] On the other hand, his experience was limited to command of at most 1000 men, and came only in remote frontier conditions that were far removed from the urban situations he faced during the Revolution at Boston, New York, Trenton and Philadelphia.[54]
266
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON the 18,000-acre (73 km2 ) Custis estate upon his marriage, worth approximately $100,000, and managed the remainder on behalf of Martha’s children, for whom he sincerely cared.[59]
Washington enlarged the house at Mount Vernon after his marriage.
In 1754, Lieutenant Governor Dinwiddie had promised land bounties to the soldiers and officers who volunteered to serve during the French and Indian War.[60] Lord Botetourt, the new governor, finally fulfilled Dinwiddie’s promise in 1769–1770,[60][61] with Washington subsequently receiving title to 23,200 acres (94 km2 ) near where the Kanawha River flows into the Ohio River, in what is now western West Virginia.[62] He also frequently bought additional land A mezzotint of Martha Washington, based on a 1757 portrait by in his own name. By 1775, Washington had doubled the Wollaston size of Mount Vernon to 6,500 acres (26 km2 ), and had increased its slave population to over 100. As a respected hero and large landowner, he held local office and 51.3 Between the wars: Mount Ver- military was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the House non (1759–1774) of Burgesses, beginning in 1758.[63] On January 6, 1759, Washington married the wealthy widow Martha Dandridge Custis, then 28 years old. Surviving letters suggest that he may have been in love at the time with Sally Fairfax, the wife of a friend.[55] Nevertheless, George and Martha made a compatible marriage, because Martha was intelligent, gracious, and experienced in managing a planter’s estate.[56]
Washington lived an aristocratic lifestyle—fox hunting was a favorite leisure activity.[64] He also enjoyed going to dances and parties, in addition to the theater, races, and cockfights. Washington also was known to play cards, backgammon, and billiards.[65] Like most Virginia planters, he imported luxuries and other goods from England and paid for them by exporting his tobacco crop.[66]
Washington began to pull himself out of debt in the mid1760s by diversifying his previously tobacco-centric business interests into other ventures[66] and paying more attention to his affairs.[67] In 1766, he started switching Mount Vernon’s primary cash crop away from tobacco to wheat, a crop that could be processed and then sold in various forms in the colonies, and further diversified operations to include flour milling, fishing, horse breeding, spinning, weaving and (in the 1790s) whiskey production.[66] Patsy Custis’s death in 1773 from epilepsy enabled Washington to pay off his creditors, since half of her inheritance passed to Washington’s marriage to Martha greatly increased his British [68] him. property holdings and social standing, and made him one of Virginia’s wealthiest men. He acquired one-third of A successful planter, he was a leader in the social elite in Together the two raised her two children from her previous marriage, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis; later the Washingtons raised two of Mrs. Washington’s grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis. George and Martha never had any children together – his earlier bout with smallpox in 1751 may have made him sterile.[57][58] The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon, near Alexandria, where he took up the life of a planter and political figure.
51.4. AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)
267 “an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges”.[72] In July 1774, he chaired the meeting at which the "Fairfax Resolves" were adopted, which called for the convening of a Continental Congress, among other things. In August, Washington attended the First Virginia Convention, where he was selected as a delegate to the First Continental Congress.[73][74]
Washington at age 40 (1772)
Virginia. From 1768 to 1775, he invited some 2000 guests to his Mount Vernon estate, mostly those he considered “people of rank”. As for people not of high social status, his advice was to “treat them civilly” but “keep them at a proper distance, for they will grow upon familiarity, in pro- Charles Willson Peale (American, 1741-1827). George Washingportion as you sink in authority”.[69] In 1769, he became ton, 1776. Oil on canvas, Brooklyn Museum more politically active, presenting the Virginia Assembly with legislation to ban the importation of goods from Great Britain.[70]
51.4.1
51.4 American Revolution (1775– 1783) Main articles: George Washington in the American Revolution and Military career of George Washington
Commander in chief
After the Battles of Lexington and Concord near Boston in April 1775, the colonies went to war. Washington appeared at the Second Continental Congress in a military uniform, signaling that he was prepared for war.[75] Washington had the prestige, military experience, charisma and military bearing of a military leader and was known as a strong patriot. Virginia, the largest colony, deserved recognition, and New England—where the fighting began—realized it needed Southern support. Washington did not explicitly seek the office of commander and said that he was not equal to it,[76][77] but there was no serious competition.[78] Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. Nominated by John Adams of Massachusetts, Washington was then appointed General and Commander-in-chief.[76][79][80]
Washington opposed the 1765 Stamp Act, the first direct tax on the colonies, and began taking a leading role in the growing colonial resistance when protests against the Townshend Acts (enacted in 1767) became widespread. In May 1769, Washington introduced a proposal, drafted by his friend George Mason, calling for Virginia to boycott English goods until the Acts were repealed.[71] Parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770. However, Washing- Washington had three roles during the war. In 1775–77, ton regarded the passage of the Intolerable Acts in 1774 as and again in 1781 he led his men against the main British
268
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON command.[81] Eventually, he found capable officers, such as General Nathanael Greene, General Daniel Morgan, “the old wagoner”, with whom he had served in The French and Indian War, Henry Knox, his chief of artillery, and his chief-ofstaff Alexander Hamilton. The American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuver, and consequently they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes, at Boston (1776), Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781), came from trapping the British far from base with much larger numbers of troops.[81] Daniel Morgan's annihilation of Banastre Tarleton's legion of dragoons at Cowpens in February 1781, came as a result of Morgan’s employment of superior line tactics against his British opponent, resulting in one of the very few double envelopments in military history, another being Hannibal's defeat of the Romans at Cannae in 216 b.c. The decisive defeat of Col. Patrick Ferguson's Tory Regiment at King’s Mountain demonstrated the superiority of the riflery of American “over mountain men” over British-trained troops armed with musket and bayonet. These “over-mountain men” were led by a variety of elected officers, including the 6'6” William Campbell who had become one of Washington’s officers by the time of Yorktown. Similarly, Morgan’s Virginia riflemen proved themselves superior to the British at Saratoga, a post-revolutionary war development being the creation of trained “rifle battalions” in the European armies.
General George Washington at Trenton by John Trumbull, Yale University Art Gallery (1792).
forces. Although he lost many of his battles, he never surrendered his army during the war, and he continued to fight the British relentlessly until the war’s end. He plotted the overall strategy of the war, in cooperation with Congress.[81] Second, he was charged with organizing and training the army. He recruited regulars and assigned Baron von Steuben, a veteran of the Prussian general staff, to train them. The war effort and getting supplies to the troops were under the purview of Congress,[82] but Washington pressured the Congress to provide the essentials.[83] In June 1776, Congress’ first attempt at running the war effort was established with the committee known as “Board of War and Ordnance”, succeeded by the Board of War in July 1777, a committee which eventually included members of the military.[82] The command structure of the armed forces was a hodgepodge of Congressional appointees (and Congress sometimes made those appointments without Washington’s input) with state-appointments filling the lower ranks and of all of the militia-officers. The results of his general staff were mixed, as some of his favorites (like John Sullivan) never mastered the art of
Third, and most important, Washington was the embodiment of armed resistance to the Crown—the representative man of the Revolution. His long-term strategy was to maintain an army in the field at all times, and eventually this strategy worked. His enormous personal and political stature and his political skills kept Congress, the army, the French, the militias, and the states all pointed toward a common goal. Furthermore, by voluntarily resigning his commission and disbanding his army when the war was won (rather than declaring himself monarch), he permanently established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs. Yet his constant reiteration of the point that well-disciplined professional soldiers counted for twice as much as erratic militias (clearly demonstrated in the rout at Camden, where only the Maryland and Delaware Continentals under Baron DeKalb held firm), helped overcome the ideological distrust of a standing army.[84]
51.4.2
Victory at Boston
Washington assumed command of the Continental Army in the field at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in July 1775, during the ongoing siege of Boston. Realizing his army’s desperate shortage of gunpowder, Washington asked for new sources. American troops raided British arsenals, includ-
51.4. AMERICAN REVOLUTION (1775–1783)
269 the enemy for the first time as an army of the newly independent United States at the Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire war. The Americans were heavily outnumbered, many men deserted, and Washington was badly beaten. Subsequently, Washington was forced to retreat across the East River at night. He did so without loss of life or materiel.[88]
Washington taking Control of the Continental Army, 1775.
ing some in the Caribbean, and some manufacturing was attempted. They obtained a barely adequate supply (about 2.5 million pounds) by the end of 1776, mostly from France.[85] Washington reorganized the army during the long standoff, and forced the British to withdraw by putting artillery on Dorchester Heights overlooking the city. The British evacuated Boston in March 1776 and Washington moved his army to New York City.[86]
Washington retreated north from the city to avoid encirclement, enabling Howe to take the offensive and capture Fort Washington on November 16 with high Continental casualties. Washington then retreated across New Jersey; the future of the Continental Army was in doubt due to expiring enlistments and the string of losses.[89] On the night of December 25, 1776, Washington staged a comeback with a surprise attack on a Hessian outpost in western New Jersey. He led his army across the Delaware River to capture nearly 1,000 Hessians in Trenton, New Jersey. Washington followed up his victory at Trenton with another over British regulars at Princeton in early January. The British retreated back to New York City and its environs, which they held until the peace treaty of 1783. Washington’s victories wrecked the British carrot-and-stick strategy of showing overwhelming force then offering generous terms. The Americans would not negotiate for anything short of independence.[90] These victories alone were not enough to ensure ultimate Patriot victory, however, since many soldiers did not reenlist or deserted during the harsh winter. Washington and Congress reorganized the army with increased rewards for staying and punishment for desertion, which raised troop numbers effectively for subsequent battles.[91]
Although highly disparaging toward most of the Patriots, British newspapers routinely praised Washington’s personal character and qualities as a military commander. These articles were bold, as Washington was an enemy general who commanded an army in a cause that many Britons believed would ruin the empire.[87] Historians debate whether or not Washington preferred a Fabian strategy[Note 4] to harass the British with quick, sharp 51.4.3 Defeat at New York City and Fabian attacks followed by a retreat so the larger British army could not catch him, or whether he preferred to fight matactics jor battles.[Note 5] While his southern commander Greene in 1780–81 did use Fabian tactics, Washington did so only in fall 1776 to spring 1777, after losing New York City and seeing much of his army melt away. Trenton and Princeton were Fabian examples. By summer 1777, however, Washington had rebuilt his strength and his confidence; he stopped using raids and went for large-scale confrontations, as at Brandywine, Germantown, Monmouth and Yorktown.[92]
51.4.4
1777 campaigns
In the late summer of 1777, the British under John Burgoyne sent a major invasion army south from Quebec, with the intention of splitting off rebellious New England. GenIn August 1776, British General William Howe launched eral Howe in New York took his army south to Philadela massive naval and land campaign designed to seize New phia instead of going up the Hudson River to join with BurYork. The Continental Army under Washington engaged goyne near Albany. It was a major strategic mistake for the Washington Crossing the Delaware, December 25, 1776, by Emanuel Leutze, 1851
270
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
British, and Washington rushed to Philadelphia to engage wards, the British continued to head towards New York, and Howe, while closely following the action in upstate New Washington moved his army outside of New York.[101] York. In pitched battles that were too complex for his relatively inexperienced men, Washington was defeated. At the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, Howe outmaneuvered Washington, and marched into the American 51.4.6 Sullivan Massacre capital at Philadelphia unopposed on September 26. Washington’s army unsuccessfully attacked the British garrison at Germantown in early October. Meanwhile, Burgoyne, out of reach from help from Howe, was trapped and forced to surrender his entire army at Saratoga, New York.[93] It was a major turning point militarily and diplomatically. France responded to Burgoyne’s defeat by entering the war, openly allying with America and turning the Revolutionary War into a major worldwide war. Washington’s loss of Philadelphia prompted some members of Congress to discuss removing Washington from command. This attempt failed after Washington’s supporters rallied behind him.[94]
51.4.5
Valley Forge
General Washington and the comte de Rochambeau at Yorktown, Main article: Valley Forge Washington’s army of 11,000[95] went into winter quarters Virginia, 1781.
General Washington and Lafayette look over the troops at Valley Forge.
at Valley Forge north of Philadelphia in December 1777. Over the next six months, the deaths in camp numbered in the thousands (the majority being from disease),[96] with historians’ death toll estimates ranging from 2000[96] to 2500,[97][98] to over 3000 men.[99] The next spring, however, the army emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a full-scale training program supervised by General von Steuben.[100] The British evacuated Philadelphia to New York in 1778,[101] shadowed by Washington. Washington attacked them at Monmouth, fighting to an effective draw in one of the war’s largest battles.[102] After-
General George Washington Resigning His Commission by John Trumbull, Capitol Rotunda (commissioned 1817)
In the summer of 1779 Washington’s ordered a campaign to force Britain’s Indian allies out of New York, which they had used as a base to attack American settlements.[103] In June General John Sullivan led a military operation that destroyed at least 40 Iroquois villages, burned all available crops; few people were killed as the Indians fled to British protection in Canada. Sullivan later reported that “the immediate objects of this expedition are accomplished, viz: total ruin of the Indian settlements and the destruction of their crops, which were designed for the support of those inhuman barbarians.”[104]
51.5. UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION
51.4.7
Victory at Yorktown
In July 1780, 5,000 veteran French troops led by the comte de Rochambeau arrived at Newport, Rhode Island to aid in the war effort.[105] The Continental Army having been funded by $20,000 in French gold, Washington delivered the final blow to the British in 1781, after a French naval victory allowed American and French forces to trap a British army in Virginia. The surrender at Yorktown on October 19, 1781, marked the end of major fighting in continental North America.[106] The same year he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[107]
51.4.8
271 a developed capacity to exploit his charismatic reputation, using people who thought they were using him”.[114]
51.5
United States Constitution
Demobilization
Washington could not know that after Yorktown, the British would not reopen hostilities. They still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782– 83. The treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny or possible coup d'état. Washington dispelled unrest among officers by suppressing the Newburgh Conspiracy in March 1783, and Congress came up with the promise of a fiveyear bonus.[108]
Washington at the Signing of the United States Constitution, September 17, 1787, by Howard Chandler Christy, 1940.
Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States) Washington’s retirement to Mount Vernon was short-lived. He made an exploratory trip to the western frontier in 1784.[76] He was visiting his land holdings in Western Pennsylvania that had been given to him decades earlier by the British in consideration for his service in the French and Indian War.[115] There, he confronted squatters, including David Reed and the Covenanters, who left the land only after losing a 1786 court case heard in Washington, Pennsylvania.[115]
With the initial peace treaty articles ratified in April, a recently formed Congressional committee under Hamilton, was considering needs and plans for a peacetime army. On May 2, 1783, the Commander in Chief submitted his Sentiments on a Peace Establishment[109] to the Committee, essentially providing an official Continental Army position. The original proposal was defeated in Congress in two votes (May 1783, October 1783) with a truncated version also be- Washington was persuaded to attend the Constitutional ing rejected in April 1784.[110] Convention in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, and By the Treaty of Paris (signed that September), Great was unanimously elected president of the Convention.[116] Britain recognized the independence of the United States. He participated little in the debates (though he did vote for Washington disbanded his army and, on November 2, gave or against the various articles), but his high prestige maintained collegiality and kept the delegates at their labors. The an eloquent farewell address to his soldiers.[111] delegates designed the presidency with Washington in mind, On November 25, the British evacuated New York City, and allowed him to define the office once elected.[117] Afand Washington and the governor took possession. At ter the Convention, his support convinced many to vote for Fraunces Tavern on December 4, Washington formally ratification; the new Constitution was ratified by all thirteen bade his officers farewell and on December 23, 1783, he states.[118] resigned his commission as commander-in-chief. Historian Gordon Wood concludes that the greatest act in his life was his resignation as commander of the armies—an act that stunned aristocratic Europe.[112] King George III called 51.6 Presidency (1789–1797) Washington “the greatest character of the age” because of Main article: Presidency of George Washington this.[113] Historian John Shy says that by 1783 Washington was “a mediocre military strategist but had become a master po- The Electoral College elected Washington unanimously as litical tactician with an almost perfect sense of timing and the first president in 1789,[Note 6] and again in the 1792 elec-
272
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON title "Mr. President" to the more majestic names proposed by the Senate.[123] Washington proved an able administrator. An excellent delegator and judge of talent and character, he talked regularly with department heads and listened to their advice before making a final decision.[124] In handling routine tasks, he was “systematic, orderly, energetic, solicitous of the opinion of others ... but decisive, intent upon general goals and the consistency of particular actions with them”.[125] Washington invented the workings of the presidency and established many forms and procedures that became part of the American tradition, such as messages to Congress and a cabinet form of government.[8] Despite fears that a democratic system would lead to political violence, he set the standard for tolerance of opposition voices and conducted a smooth transition of power to his successor.[7] After reluctantly serving a second term, Washington refused to run for a third, establishing the tradition of a maximum of two terms for a president.[126]
51.6.1
Domestic issues
Lansdowne portrait of George Washington painted by Gilbert Stuart in 1796
tion;[5] he remains the only president to have received 100 percent of the electoral votes.[Note 7] John Adams, who received the next highest vote total, was elected Vice President. At his inauguration, Washington took the oath of office as the first President of the United States of America on April 30, 1789, on the balcony of Federal Hall in New York City.[120] The 1st United States Congress voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year—a large sum in 1789. Washington, despite facing financial troubles at the time, declined the salary, since he valued his image as a selfless public servant. At the urging of Congress, however, he ultimately accepted the payment, to avoid setting a precedent whereby the presidency would be perceived as limited only to independently wealthy individuals who could serve without any salary.[121] The president, aware that everything George Washington by Rembrandt Peale, De Young Museum (ca. he did set a precedent, attended carefully to the pomp and 1850) ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated Euro- See also: Whiskey Rebellion pean royal courts.[Note 8][122] To that end, he preferred the
51.6. PRESIDENCY (1789–1797)
273
Washington was not a member of any political party and hoped that they would not be formed, fearing conflict that would undermine republicanism.[127] His closest advisors formed two factions, setting the framework for the future First Party System. Secretary of Treasury Alexander Hamilton had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and formed the basis of the Federalist Party. Secretary of the State Thomas Jefferson, founder of the Jeffersonian Republicans, strenuously opposed Hamilton’s agenda, but Washington typically favored Hamilton over Jefferson, and it was Hamilton’s agenda that went into effect. Jefferson’s political actions, his support of Philip Freneau's National Gazette,[128] and his attempt to undermine Hamilton, nearly led George Washington to dismiss Jefferson from his cabinet.[129] Though Jefferson left the cabinet voluntarily, Washington never forgave him, and never spoke to him again.[129] The Residence Act of 1790, which Washington signed, authorized the President to select the specific location of the permanent seat of the government, which would be located along the Potomac River. The Act authorized the President to appoint three commissioners to survey and acquire property for this seat. Washington personally oversaw this effort throughout his term in office. In 1791, the commissioners named the permanent seat of government “The City of Washington in the Territory of Columbia” to honor Washington. In 1800, the Territory of Columbia became the District of Columbia when the federal government moved to the site according to the provisions of the Residence Act.[130] In 1791, partly as a result of the Copper Panic of 1789, Congress imposed an excise tax on distilled spirits, which led to protests in frontier districts, especially Pennsylvania. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in U.S. district court, the protests turned into full-scale defiance of federal authority known as the Whiskey Rebellion. The federal army was too small to be used, so Washington invoked the Militia Act of 1792 to summon militias from Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland and New Jersey.[131] The governors sent the troops with Washington taking initial command. He then subsequently named Henry “Lighthorse Harry” Lee as field commander of the troops being marched into the rebellious districts. The rebels dispersed and there was no fighting, as Washington’s forceful action proved the new government could protect itself. These events marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens[132] and is also the only time a sitting U.S. president personally commanded troops in the field.[133]
Miniature Portrait of Washington by Robert Field (1800)
51.6.2
Foreign affairs
In February 1793 a major war broke out between Great Britain and its allies and revolutionary France, launching an era of large-scale warfare that engulfed Europe until 1815. Washington, with cabinet approval, proclaimed American neutrality. The revolutionary government of France sent diplomat Edmond-Charles Genêt, called “Citizen Genêt”, to America. Genêt was welcomed with great enthusiasm and propagandized the case for France in the French war against Great Britain, and for this purpose promoted a network of new Democratic Societies in major cities. He issued French letters of marque and reprisal to French ships manned by American sailors so they could capture British merchant ships. Washington, warning and mistrustful of the influence of Illuminism that had been so strong in the French Revolution (as recounted by John Robison and Abbé Augustin Barruel) and its Reign of Terror, demanded the French government recall Genêt, and denounced the societies.[134] Hamilton and Washington designed the Jay Treaty to normalize trade relations with Great Britain, remove them from western forts, and resolve financial debts left over from the Revolution.[135] John Jay negotiated and signed the treaty on November 19, 1794. The Jeffersonians supported France and strongly attacked the treaty. Washington’s strong support mobilized public opinion and proved decisive in securing ratification in the Senate by the necessary two-thirds
274
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
majority.[136] The British agreed to depart from their forts ing foreign affairs.[142] around the Great Lakes, subsequently the United StatesCanadian boundary had to be re-adjusted, numerous preRevolutionary debts were liquidated, and the British opened 51.7 Retirement their West Indies colonies to American trade. Most importantly, the treaty delayed war with Great Britain and instead brought a decade of prosperous trade with Great Britain. The treaty angered the French and became a central issue in many political debates.[137] Relations with France deteriorated after the treaty was signed, leaving his successor, John Adams, with the prospect of war.[138][139]
51.6.3
(1797–1799)
Farewell Address
Main article: George Washington’s Farewell Address Washington’s Farewell Address (issued as a public letter in Washington’s plantation and farmlands at Mt. Vernon
After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He devoted much time to his plantations and other business interests, including his distillery which produced its first batch of spirits in February 1797.[143] As Chernow (2010) explains, his plantation operations were at best marginally profitable. The lands out west yielded little income because they were under attack by Indians and the squatters living there refused to pay him rent. Most Americans assumed he was rich because of the well-known “glorified façade of wealth and grandeur” at Mount Vernon.[144] Washington’s Farewell Address (September 19, 1796) Historians estimate his estate was worth about $1 million 1796) was one of the most influential statements of repub- in 1799 dollars, equivalent to about $19.3 million in 2012 licanism. Drafted primarily by Washington himself, with purchasing power.[145] help from Hamilton, it gives advice on the necessity and By 1798, relations with France had deteriorated to the point importance of national union, the value of the Constitution that war seemed imminent, and on July 4, 1798, President and the rule of law, the evils of political parties, and the Adams offered Washington a commission as lieutenant genproper virtues of a republican people. He called morality “a eral and Commander-in-chief of the armies raised or to be necessary spring of popular government". He said, “What- raised for service in a prospective war. He accepted, and ever may be conceded to the influence of refined education served as the senior officer of the United States Army from on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both July 13, 1798 until his death seventeen months later. He forbid us to expect that national morality can prevail in ex- participated in the planning for a Provisional Army to meet clusion of religious principle.”[140] any emergency that might arise, but avoided involvement in Washington’s public political address warned against foreign influence in domestic affairs and American meddling in European affairs. He warned against bitter partisanship in domestic politics and called for men to move beyond partisanship and serve the common good. He warned against “permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world”,[141] saying the United States must concentrate primarily on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, but warned against involvement in European wars and entering into long-term “entangling” alliances. The address quickly set American values regard-
details as much as possible; he delegated most of the work, including leadership of the army, to Hamilton.[146][147]
51.7.1
Comparisons with Cincinnatus
During the Revolutionary and Early Republican periods of American history, many commentators compared Washington with the Roman aristocrat and statesman Cincinnatus. The comparison arose as Washington, like Cincinnatus, remained in command of the Continental
51.8. DEATH Army only until the British had been defeated. Thereafter, instead of seeking great political power, he returned as quickly as possible to cultivating his lands.[148][149] Remarking on Washington’s resignation in December 1783, and his decision to retire to Mount Vernon, poet Philip Freneau wrote: Thus He, whom Rome’s proud legions sway'd/Return'd, and sought his sylvan shade.[150] Lord Byron's Ode to Napoleon also lionized Washington as “the Cincinnatus of the West”.[151]
51.8 Death
275 various ailments of enslaved Africans on his plantation, he ordered estate overseer Albin Rawlins to remove half a pint of his blood. A total of three physicians were sent for, including Washington’s personal physician Dr. James Craik[153] along with Dr. Gustavus Brown and Dr. Elisha Dick. Craik and Brown thought that Washington had what they diagnosed as "quinsey" or “quincy”, while Dick, the younger man, thought the condition was more serious or a “violent inflammation of the throat”. [154] By the time the three physicians had finished their treatments and bloodletting of the President, there had been a massive volume of blood loss—half or more of his total blood content being removed over the course of just a few hours.[152][155][156] Recognizing that the bloodletting and other treatments were failing, Dr. Dick proposed performing an emergency tracheotomy, a procedure that few American physicians were familiar with at the time, as a last-ditch effort to save Washington’s life, but the other two doctors rejected this proposal.[152][157]
Washington’s tomb at Mount Vernon, Virginia
On Thursday, December 12, 1799, Washington spent several hours inspecting his plantation on horseback, in snow, hail, and freezing rain—later that evening eating his supper without changing from his wet clothes.[152] That Friday he awoke with a severe sore throat and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed, yet still rode out in the heavy snow, marking trees on the estate that he wanted cut. Sometime around 3 a.m. that Saturday, he suddenly awoke with severe difficulty breathing and almost completely unable to speak or swallow.[152] A firm believer in bloodletting, a standard medical practice of that era which he had used to treat
Washington’s death-bed
Washington died at home around 10 p.m. on Saturday, December 14, 1799, aged 67. In his journal, Lear recorded Washington’s last words as being "'Tis well.”[158] The diagnosis of Washington’s final illness and the immediate cause of his death have been subjects of debate since
276
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
the day he died.[152][156][159] In the days immediately following his death, Craik and Dick’s published account stated that they felt his symptoms had been consistent with what they called "cynanche trachealis", a term of that period for describing severe inflammation of the structures of the upper airway.[156][157][160] Even at that early date, there were accusations of medical malpractice, with some believing that Washington had been bled to death.[156][157] Various modern medical authors have speculated that Washington probably died from a severe case of epiglottitis which was complicated by the given treatments (all of which were accepted medical practice in Washington’s day)—most notably the massive deliberate blood loss, which almost certainly caused hypovolemic shock.[Note 9] Throughout the world, men and women were saddened by Washington’s death. In France, First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte ordered ten days of mourning throughout the country; in the United States, thousands wore mourning clothes for months.[161] To protect their privacy, Martha Washington burned the correspondence between her husband and her following his death. Only a total of five letters between the couple are known to have survived, two letters from Martha to George and three from him to Martha.[162][163]
this capitol, and then let a severance of the Union occur, and behold the remains of Washington on a shore foreign to his native soil.[165] His remains were moved on October 7, 1837 to the new tomb constructed at Mount Vernon, presented by John Struthers of Philadelphia.[167] After the ceremony, the inner vault’s door was closed and the key was thrown into the Potomac.[168]
51.9
Legacy
Main article: George Washington’s legacy As Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army, hero of
On December 18, 1799, a funeral was held at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred.[164] Congress passed a joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the planned crypt below the rotunda of the center section of the Capitol (then still under construction) for his body, a plan supported by Martha. In December 1800, the House passed an appropriations bill for $200,000 to build the mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid with a 100-foot (30 m) square base. Southern representatives and senators, in later opposition to the plan, defeated the measure because they felt it was best to have Washington’s body remain at Mount Vernon.[165] In 1831, for the centennial of his birth, a new tomb was constructed to receive his remains. That year, an unsuccessful attempt was made to steal the body of Washington.[166] Despite this, a joint Congressional committee in early 1832, debated the removal of President Washington’s body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol, built by architect Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s during the reconstruction of the burned-out structure after the British set it afire in August 1814, during the "Burning of Washington". Southern opposition was intense, antagonized by an ever-growing rift between North and South. Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia expressed the fear of Southerners when he said: Remove the remains of our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of his consort and his ancestors, from Mount Vernon and from his native State, and deposit them in
The Constable-Hamilton Portrait by Gilbert Stuart, Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas (1797)
the revolution and the first president of the United States, George Washington’s legacy remains among the greatest in American history.[Note 10] Congressman Henry “LightHorse Harry” Lee, a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington:[169] First in war—first in peace—and first in the hearts of his countrymen, he was second to none in the humble and enduring scenes of private life; pious, just, humane, temperate, and sincere; uniform, dignified, and commanding, his example
51.9. LEGACY was as edifying to all around him as were the effects of that example lasting. To his equals he was condescending, to his inferiors kind, and to the dear object of his affections exemplarily tender; correct throughout, vice shuddered in his presence, and virtue always felt his fostering hand; the purity of his private character gave effulgence to his public virtues. His last scene comported with the whole tenor of his life—although in extreme pain, not a sigh, not a groan escaped him; and with undisturbed serenity he closed his well-spent life. Such was the man America has lost—such was the man for whom our nation mourns.
277 plagiarized other Washington tales from published fiction set in England, but no one has found an alternative source for the cherry tree story.[172][173]
51.9.2
Monuments and memorials
Lee’s words set the standard by which Washington’s overwhelming reputation was impressed upon the American memory. Washington set many precedents for the national government, and the presidency in particular, and was called the "Father of His Country" as early as 1778.[Note 11][4][8][170] Washington’s Birthday (celebrated on Presidents’ Day), is a federal holiday in the United States.[171] During the United States Bicentennial year, George Washington was posthumously appointed to the grade of General of the Armies of the United States by the congressional joint resolution Public Law 94-479 passed on January 19, 1976, with an effective appointment date of July 4, 1976.[76] This restored Washington’s position as the highest-ranking military officer in U.S. history.[Note 12] See also: Historical rankings of Presidents of the United States and Cultural depictions of George Washington
51.9.1
Cherry tree
See also: Parson Weems § The cherry-tree anecdote Perhaps the best known story about Washington’s childhood is that he chopped down his father’s favorite cherry tree and admitted the deed when questioned: “I can't tell a lie, Pa.” The anecdote was first reported by biographer Parson Weems, who after Washington’s death interviewed people who knew him as a child over a half-century earlier. The Weems text was very widely reprinted throughout the 19th century, for example in McGuffey Readers. Adults wanted children to learn moral lessons from history, especially as taught by example from the lives of great national heroes like Washington. After 1890 however, historians insisted on scientific research methods to validate every statement, and there was no documentation for this anecdote apart from Weems’ report that he learned it in an interview with an old person. Joseph Rodman in 1904 noted that Weems
Washington Monument
Starting with victory in their Revolution, there were many proposals to build a monument to Washington. After his death, Congress authorized a suitable memorial in the national capital, but the decision was reversed when the Republicans took control of Congress in 1801. The Republicans were dismayed that Washington had become the symbol of the Federalist Party; furthermore, the values of Republicanism seemed hostile to the idea of building monuments to powerful men.[174] Further political squabbling, along with the North-South division on the Civil War, blocked the completion of the Washington Monument until the late 19th century. By that time, Washington had the image of a national hero who could be celebrated by both North and South, and memorials to him were no longer controversial.[175] Predating the obelisk on the National Mall by several decades, the first public memorial to Washington was built by the citizens of Boonsboro, Maryland, in 1827.[176]
278 Today, Washington’s face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States.[177] He appears on contemporary currency, including the one-dollar bill and the quarter coin, and on U.S. postage stamps. Along with appearing on the first postage stamps issued by the U.S. Post Office in 1847,[178] Washington, together with Theodore Roosevelt, Thomas Jefferson, and Lincoln, is depicted in stone at the Mount Rushmore Memorial. The Washington Monument, one of the best known American landmarks, was built in his honor. The George Washington Masonic National Memorial in Alexandria, Virginia, was constructed between 1922 and 1932 with voluntary contributions from all 52 local governing bodies of the Freemasons in the United States.[179][180] Many places and entities have been named in honor of Washington. Washington’s name became that of the nation’s capital, Washington, D.C., one of two national capitals across the globe to be named after an American president (the other is Monrovia, Liberia). The state of Washington is the only state to be named after a United States President.[181] George Washington University and Washington University in St. Louis were named for him, as was Washington and Lee University (once Washington Academy), which was renamed due to Washington’s large endowment in 1796. Washington College in Chestertown, Maryland (established by Maryland state charter in 1782) was supported by Washington during his lifetime with a 50 guineas pledge,[182] and with service on the college’s Board of Visitors and Governors until 1789 (when Washington was elected President).[183] According to the US Census Bureau’s 1993 geographic data, Washington is the 17th most common street name in the United States,[184] and the only person’s name so honored.[Note 13]
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
51.9.3
Papers
Main article: The Papers of George Washington The serious collection and publication of Washington’s documentary record began with the pioneer work of Jared Sparks in the 1830s, Life and Writings of George Washington (12 vols., 1834–1837). The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources, 1745–1799 (1931–44) is a 37 volume set edited by John C. Fitzpatrick. It contains over 17,000 letters and documents and is available online from the University of Virginia.[191] The definitive letterpress edition of his writings was begun by the University of Virginia in 1968, and today comprises 52 published volumes, with more to come. It contains everything written by Washington, or signed by him, together with most of his incoming letters. Part of the collection is available online from the University of Virginia.[192] Personal property auction record On June 22, 2012, George Washington‘s personal annotated copy of the “Acts Passed at a Congress of the United States of America” from 1789, which includes The Constitution of the United States and a draft of the Bill of Rights, was sold at Christie’s for a record $9,826,500, with fees the final cost, to The Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. This was the record for a document sold at auction.[193]
51.10
Personal life
There are many “Washington Monuments” in the United States, including two well-known equestrian statues, one in Manhattan and one in Richmond, Virginia. The first statue to show Washington on horseback was dedicated in 1856 and is located in Manhattan’s Union Square.[185] The second statue is known as either the Virginia Washington Monument or as the George Washington Equestrian Statue[186] and was unveiled in 1858.[186][187] It was the second American statue of Washington on horseback[187] but figures prominently in the official seal of the Confederate States of America.[186][188] A marble statue of Washington was made from life by sculptor Jean-Antoine Houdon, and now sits in the Rotunda of the State Capitol in Richmond, Virginia. A duplicate, one of 22 bronze exact replicas,[189] was given to the British in 1921 by the Commonwealth of Virginia and now stands The Washington Family by Edward Savage, painted between in front of the National Gallery at Trafalgar Square.[190] 1789 and 1796, shows (from left to right): George Washington In 1917, the 886 Washingtonia asteroid was named in his Parke Custis, George Washington, Eleanor Parke Custis, Martha Washington, and an enslaved servant: probably William Lee or honor. Christopher Sheels
51.10. PERSONAL LIFE Along with Martha’s biological family, George Washington had a close relationship with his nephew and heir, Bushrod Washington, son of George’s younger brother, John Augustine Washington. The year before his uncle’s death, Bushrod became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. George, however, apparently did not get along well with his mother, Mary Ball Washington (Augustine’s second wife), who was a very demanding and difficult person.[194] As a young man, Washington had red hair.[195] A popular myth is that he wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. However, Washington did not wear a wig; instead, he powdered his hair,[196] as is represented in several portraits, including the well-known, unfinished Gilbert Stuart depiction, The Athenaeum portrait.[197] Washington’s height was variously recorded as 6 ft (1.83 m) to 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m),[196] and he had unusually great physical strength that amazed younger men. Jefferson called Washington “the best horseman of his age”, and both American and European observers praised his riding; the horsemanship benefited his hunting, a favorite hobby. Washington was an excellent dancer and frequently attended the theater, often referencing Shakespeare in letters.[198] He drank in moderation and precisely recorded gambling wins and losses, but Washington disliked the excessive drinking, gambling, smoking, and profanity that was common in colonial Virginia. Although he grew tobacco, he eventually stopped smoking, and considered drunkenness a man’s worst vice; Washington was glad that post-Revolutionary Virginia society was less likely to “force [guests] to drink and to make it an honor to send them home drunk.”[199]
279
51.10.1
Slavery
Main article: George Washington and slavery Washington was the only prominent Founding Father to arrange in his will for the manumission of all his slaves following his death.[205] He privately opposed slavery as an institution which he viewed as economically unsound and morally indefensible. He also regarded the divisiveness of his countrymen’s feelings about slavery as a potentially mortal threat to the unity of the nation.[206] Yet, as general of the army, president of the Constitutional Convention, and the first president of the United States, he never publicly challenged the institution of slavery,[207][208] possibly because he wanted to avoid provoking a split in the new republic over so inflammatory an issue.[209]
Washington had owned slaves since the death of his father in 1743, when at the age of eleven, he inherited 10 slaves. At the time of his marriage to Martha Custis in 1759, he personally owned at least 36 slaves, which meant he had achieved the status of a major planter (historians defined this in the Upper South as owning 20 or more slaves). The wealthy widow Martha brought at least 85 "dower slaves” to Mount Vernon by inheriting a third of her late husband’s estate. Using his wife’s great wealth, Washington bought more land, tripling the size of the plantation at Mount Vernon, and purchased the additional slaves needed to work it. By 1774, he paid taxes on 135 slaves (this figure does not include the “dowers”). The last record of a slave purchase by him was in 1772, although he later received some slaves in repayment of debts.[210] Washington also used Washington suffered from problems with his teeth through- some hired staff[143] and white indentured servants; in April out his life. He lost his first adult tooth when he was 1775, he offered a reward for the return of two runaway twenty-two and had only one left by the time he became white servants.[211] President.[200] John Adams claims he lost them because he used them to crack Brazil nuts but modern historians sug- Washington came to oppose slavery on both moral and gest the mercury oxide, which he was given to treat ill- economic grounds. Before the American Revolution, he nesses such as smallpox and malaria, probably contributed had expressed no moral reservations about slavery. But to the loss. He had several sets of false teeth made, four by 1779, he would tell his manager at Mount Vernon that when the war ended, if the of them by a dentist named John Greenwood.[200] Con- he wished to sell his slaves[212] Americans were victorious. He concluded that maintrary to popular belief, none of the sets were made from taining a large, and increasingly elderly, slave population wood. The set made when he became President was carved at Mount Vernon was no longer economically profitable, from hippopotamus and elephant ivory, held together with [201] and that people who were compelled to work would never Prior to these, he had a set made with gold springs. [213] [202] Washington could not legally sell the “dower work hard. likely ones he purchased from “sevreal human teeth, slaves”, and because they had long intermarried with his eral unnamed 'Negroes,' presumably Mount Vernon slaves” [203] own slaves, he could not sell his slaves without breaking up Dental problems left Washington in constant in 1784. [214] [204] In 1786, Washingfamilies, which he wanted to avoid. pain, for which he took laudanum. This distress may be apparent in many of the portraits painted while he was ton wrote to Robert Morris, saying, “There is not a man I do, to see a plan still in office,[204] including the one still used on the $1 living who wishes more sincerely than [215] [197][Note 14] adopted for the abolition of slavery.” bill. As president, following the transfer of the national capital to Pennsylvania in 1790, Washington brought eight en-
280 slaved people to work for him in the President’s House in Philadelphia, where state law would have automatically granted freedom to any slaves who had resided in the state for more than 6 months. He circumvented that provision of the law by maintaining that he was not a Pennsylvania resident and ensuring that neither he nor any of his slaves stayed in the state for more than six months at a time.[216] When one of the slaves, Oney Judge, a personal attendant to Martha, escaped, Washington complained that the slave had fled “without the least provocation,” and he secretly sent agents to hunt her down. Washington could not legally free Judge, since she was Martha’s dower slave. Martha urged Washington to advertise a reward for her capture, and the ad was placed in the Pennsylvania Gazette on May 24, 1796. When the escaped former slave was spotted in New Hampshire, she said that she would agree to return out of affection for the Washington family, but only if they would guarantee her freedom, a proposal the Washingtons refused. They were still trying, surreptitiously, to recapture her two years later.[217][218] Another slave, Hercules, who served as Washington’s chef in the Presidential House in Philadelphia, managed to escape from Mount Vernon despite Washington’s suspicions that he had been planning it.[219][220] Washington would eventually replace the slaves at the President’s House with immigrant German indentured servants. By 1794, as he contemplated retirement, Washington began organizing his affairs so that in his will he could free all the slaves he owned outright.[221] As historian Gordon S. Wood writes in his review of Joseph Ellis' biography of Washington, “He did this in the teeth of opposition from his relatives, his neighbors, and perhaps even Martha. It was a courageous act, and one of his greatest legacies.”[213] At the time of Washington’s death in 1799, 317 slaves lived at Mount Vernon: 123 were owned by Washington himself, 154 were held by his wife as “dower slaves”, and 40 others were rented from a neighbor.[222] Washington’s will provided for all of his slaves to be unconditionally freed upon the death of his widow, his heirs being expressly forbidden from selling or transporting those slaves out of Virginia. Hercules, who had earlier escaped Washington, was freed and no longer a fugitive slave. The will also provided for the training of the younger former-slaves in useful skills and for the creation of an old-age pension fund for the older ones.[223] George and Martha emancipated no slaves during their lifetimes and when Martha died on May 22, 1802, all of the slaves she was legally responsible for were not freed. Her human property Elisha went to her grandson George Washington Custis,[224] the slaves from her first husband’s estate - the dower slaves as well as the slaves she held in trust - went to his inheritors.[208]
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
51.10.2
Religion
Main article: George Washington and religion The exact nature of Washington’s religious beliefs has been debated by historians and biographers for over two hundred years. For his entire life he was affiliated with the Anglican and, later, Episcopal church. He served as a vestryman and as church warden for both Fairfax Parish in Alexandria and Truro Parish,[225] administrative positions that, like all positions in Virginia while it had an official religion, required one to swear they would not speak or act in a way that did not conform to the tenets of the Church. Numerous historians have suggested that theologically, Washington agreed largely with the Deists. However, he never made a statement one way or the other. He often used words for the deity, such as “God” and “Providence,” while avoiding using the words “Jesus” and “Christ.” In his collected works, they appear in an official letter to Indians that might have been drafted by an aide. At the time, Deism was a theological outlook, not an organized denomination, and was compatible with being an Episcopalian. Historian Gregg Frazer argues that Washington was not a deist but a “theistic rationalist.” This theological position rejected core beliefs of Christianity, such as the divinity of Christ, the Trinity and original sin. However, unlike the deists, the theological rationalists believed in the efficacy of prayer to God.[226] Historian Peter A. Lillback argues that Washington was neither a deist or a “theistic rationalist” but a Christian who believed in the core beliefs of Christianity.[2] Washington, as commander of the army and as president, was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all religious denominations. He believed religion was an important support for public order, morality and virtue. He often attended services of different denominations. He suppressed antiCatholic celebrations in the Army.[227] Eyewitness accounts exist of Washington engaging in private devotions.[228] Washington frequently accompanied his wife to church services. Although third-hand reports say he took communion,[229] he is usually characterized as never or rarely participating in the rite.[230][231] He would regularly leave services before communion with the other noncommunicants (as was the custom of the day), until, after being admonished by a rector, he ceased attending at all on communion Sundays.[232] Chernow, in a 2010 podcast, summed up Washington’s religious views: There has been a huge controversy, to put it mildly, about Washington’s religious beliefs. Before the Revolutionary War he was Anglican
51.11. POSTAGE AND CURRENCY
281
– Church of England – which meant after the war, he was Episcopalian. So, he was clearly Christian ... He was quite intensely religious, because even though he uses the word Providence, he constantly sees Providence as an active force in life, particularly in American life. I mean, every single victory in war he credits to Providence. The miracle of the Constitutional Convention he credits to Providence. The creation of the federal government and the prosperity of the early republic, he credits to Providence ... I was struck at how frequently in his letters he’s referring to Providence, and it’s Providence where there’s a sense of design and purpose, which sounds to me very much like religion ... Unfortunately, this particular issue has become very very politicized.[1]
Michael Novak and Jana Novak suggest that it may have been “Washington’s intention to maintain a studied ambiguity (and personal privacy) regarding his own deepest religious convictions, so that all Americans, both in his own time and for all time to come, might feel free to approach him on their own terms—and might also feel like full members of the new republic, equal with every other”.[233] They The George Washington Masonic National Memorial, Alexandria, conclude: “He was educated in the Episcopal Church, to Virginia which he always adhered; and my[sic] conviction is, that he believed in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity as usually taught in that Church, according to his understand- 51.11 Postage and currency ing of them; but without a particle of intolerance, or disrespect for the faith and modes of worship adopted by ChrisSee also: US Presidents on US postage stamps and History tians of other denominations.”[234] of Virginia on stamps
51.10.3
Freemasonry
Washington was initiated into Freemasonry in 1752.[235] He had a high regard for the Masonic Order and often praised it, but he seldom attended lodge meetings. He was attracted by the movement’s dedication to the Enlightenment principles of rationality, reason and fraternalism; the American lodges did not share the anti-clerical perspective that made the European lodges so controversial.[236] In 1777, a convention of Virginia lodges recommended Washington to be the Grand Master of the newly established Grand Lodge of Virginia; however, Washington declined, due to his necessity to lead the Continental Army at a critical stage, and because he had never been installed as Master or Warden of a lodge, he did not consider it Masonically legal to serve as Grand Master.[237] In 1788, Washington, with his personal consent, was named Master in the Virginia charter of Alexandria Lodge No. 22.[238]
Since 1847, one of the defining hallmarks of a U.S. President is his appearance on U.S. currency and postage. George Washington appears on contemporary U.S. currency, including the one-dollar bill and the U.S. quarter dollar. On U.S. postage stamps Washington, along with Benjamin Franklin, appeared on the nation’s first postage stamps in 1847. Throughout U.S. postal history Washington appears on many postage issues, more than all other presidents combined.[178] Not only is Washington pictured in regular issues, he is commemorated in central events at the Founding, the “Father of his country”. Washington’s victory over British General Cornwallis was commemorated with a 2-cent stamp on the 150th anniversary of the Battle of Yorktown on October 19, 1931.[239] The 150th anniversary of the signing of the Constitution with George Washington as presiding officer was celebrated with a 3-cent issue on September 17, 1937, was adapted from the painting by Julius Brutus Stearns.[240] Washington’s inauguration as President under the new Con-
282
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
stitution at Federal Hall in New York City was celebrated on its 150th anniversary on April 30, 1939.[241] • Washington, issue of 1862, 24c • Washington, issue of 1895, 2c • Washington-Franklin Issues of 1908–1923, 5c • Washington at Prayer, Valley Forge, issue of 1928, 2c • Congressional Gold Medal voted for George Washington by Second Continental Congress, March 25, 1776. • A 1928 United States one-dollar bill. Note it is identified as a "United States Note" rather than a Federal Reserve Note.
51.12 See also • American gentry • Conotocaurious (Town Destroyer), a nickname given to Washington by Iroquois Native Americans • List of federal judges appointed by George Washington • List of Notable Freemasons • List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience • List of slave owners • Where’s George?, a website that tracks the circulation of American paper money
51.13 Notes [1] Contemporary records, which used the Julian calendar and the Annunciation Style of enumerating years, recorded his birth as February 11, 1731. The provisions of the British Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, implemented in 1752, altered the official British dating method to the Gregorian calendar with the start of the year on January 1 (it had been March 25). These changes resulted in dates being moved forward 11 days, and for those between January 1 and March 25, an advance of one year. For a further explanation, see: Old Style and New Style dates.
[2] Engber, Daniel (January 18, 2006). “What’s Benjamin Franklin’s Birthday?". Slate. Retrieved May 21, 2011. (Both Franklin’s and Washington’s confusing birth dates are clearly explained.) [3] Ellis and Ferling, for example, do not discuss this stance in reference to Washington’s French and Indian War service, and cast it almost exclusively in terms of his negative experiences dealing with the Continental Congress during the Revolution. See Ellis (2004, p. 218); Ferling (2009, pp. 32– 33, 200, 258–272, 316). Don Higginbotham places Washington’s first formal advocacy of a strong central government in 1783. Higginbotham (2002, p. 37). [4] The term comes from the Roman strategy used by General Fabius against Hannibal’s invasion in the Second Punic War. [5] Ferling and Ellis argue that Washington favored Fabian tactics and Higginbotham denies it. Ferling (2010, pp. 212, 264); Ellis (2004, p. 11); Higginbotham (1971, p. 211). [6] Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress called its presiding officer “President of the United States in Congress Assembled”. That person had no executive powers, but the similarity of titles has confused some into thinking there were other presidents before Washington.[119] [7] Under the system in place at the time, each elector cast two votes, with the winner becoming president and the runnerup vice president. All electors in the elections of 1789 and 1792 cast one of their votes for Washington; thus it may be said that he was elected president unanimously. [8] Washington was aware that his actions would set precedents for later American presidents. He wrote to James Madison: ""As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part that these precedents be fixed on true principles.” Washington to James Madison, May 5, 1789, cited by Unger, 2013, p. 76. [9] At least three modern medical authors (Wallenborn (1997), Shapiro 1975, Scheidemandel 1976) concluded that Washington most probably died from acute bacterial epiglottitis complicated by the administered treatments. These treatments included multiple doses of calomel (a cathartic or purgative), and extensive bloodletting (with at least 2.365 total liters of blood being taken, which is slightly less than half of a normal adult’s blood volume). • See Vadakan (2005, Footnotes) for Shapiro and Scheidemandel references. Vadakan’s article also directly quotes Doctors Craik and Dick’s account (as published in the Times of Alexandria newspaper) of their treatment of Washington during his fatal illness. [10] Historians Jay A. Parry and Andrew M. Allison declare that Washington “was the dominant personality in three of the most critical events in that founding: the Revolutionary War, the Constitutional Convention, and the first national administration. Had he not served as America’s leader in those three events, all three likely would have failed. And America as we know it today would not exist.” Parry, 1991, p. xi.
51.14. REFERENCES
[11] The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as the Father of (His/Our/the) Country is in the frontispiece of a 1779 German-language almanac. With calculations by David Rittenhouse and published by Francis Bailey in Lancaster County Pennsylvania, Der Gantz Neue NordAmericanishe Calendar has Fame appearing with an image of Washington, holding a trumpet to her lips from which the words "Der Landes Vater" (translated as “the father of the country” or “the father of the land”) comes forth.
283
[4] Parry (1991, p. xi) [5] Unger (2013, pp. 61, 146) [6] Chernow (2010) [7] Michael Kazin, eds et al. (2009). The Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History. (Two volume set). Princeton University Press. p. 589. ISBN 1400833566. [8] Unger (2013, pp. 236–237)
[12] In Bell (2005), William Gardner Bell states that when Washington was recalled back into military service from his retirement in 1798, “Congress passed legislation that would have made him General of the Armies of the United States, but his services were not required in the field and the appointment was not made until the Bicentennial in 1976, when it was bestowed posthumously as a commemorative honor.” How many U.S. Army five-star generals have there been and who were they? states that with Public Law 94-479, President Ford specified that Washington would “rank first among all officers of the Army, past and present. “General of the Armies of the United States” is only associated with two people...one being Washington and the other being John J. Pershing. [13] The rest of the Top 20 street names are all descriptive (Hill, View and so on), arboreal (Pine, Maple, etc.) or numeric (Second, Third, etc.). [14] The Smithsonian Institution states in “The Portrait—George Washington: A National Treasure” that: Stuart admired the sculpture of Washington by French artist Jean-Antoine Houdon, probably because it was based on a life mask and therefore extremely accurate. Stuart explained, “When I painted him, he had just had a set of false teeth inserted, which accounts for the constrained expression so noticeable about the mouth and lower part of the face. Houdon’s bust does not suffer from this defect. I wanted him as he looked at that time.” Stuart preferred the Athenaeum pose and, except for the gaze, used the same pose for the Lansdowne painting.[204]
51.14 References [1] Chernow, Ron (October 18, 2010). Ron Chernow on George Washington (MP3). We The People Stories (Podcast) (Philadelphia: National Constitution Center). Retrieved December 29, 2011. [2] Lillback, Peter; Newcombe, Jerry (2006). George Washington’s Sacred Fire (1st ed.). Bryn Mawr, Pa.: Providence Forum Press. ISBN 978-0978605261. [3] Encyclopedia Of The Enlightenment Ellen Judy Wilson, Peter Hanns Reill, 2004 p. 148, retrieved April 26, 2012
[9] Rupert Cornwell, “George Washington: The father of the nation” (January 17, 2009). . The Independent [10] Grizzard (2002, pp. 105–107) [11] Unger (2013, p. 18) [12] Unger (2013, p. 236) [13] Cayton, Andrew (September 30, 2010). “Learning to Be Washington”. The New York Times. Retrieved September 30, 2010. [14] O'Brien (2009, p. 19) [15] Cunliffe (1958, pp. 24–26) [16] “Bible Record for Washington Family”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on January 1, 2008. Retrieved January 26, 2008. [17] Randall (1997, pp. 8, 11) [18] Ellis (2004, p. 8) [19] Dorothy Twohig, “The Making of George Washington” in Hofstra (1998) [20] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 28 [21] “George Washington’s Family Chart”. Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. Retrieved November 12, 2011. [22] “Burials at George Washington Birthplace National Monument”. George Washington Birthplace National Monument. National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 23, 2008. Retrieved January 29, 2011. [23] Freeman (1948, pp. 1:15–72) [24] “Life Before the Presidency”. American President: George Washington (1732–1799). Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved November 12, 2011. [25] Ferling (2010, pp. 5–6) [26] Freeman (1948, p. 1:199) [27] Chernow (2010, p. 53) [28] Flexner (1974, p. 8) [29] Freeman (1948, p. 1:264)
284
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
[30] Freeman (1948, p. 1:268)
[58] Flexner (1974, pp. 42–43)
[31] Randall (1997, p. 67) [32] Freeman (1948, pp. 1:274–327).
[59] “Guide to American Presidents: George Washington 1732– 99”. Burke’s Peerage and Gentry. Archived from the original on December 24, 2010. Retrieved September 14, 2010.
[33] Lengel (2005, pp. 23–24)
[60] Rasmussen & Tilton (1999, p. 100)
[34] Washington, George. The Journal of Major George Washington, Sent by the Hon. Robert Dinwiddie to the Commandment of the French Forces in Ohio. New York: Reprinted for J. Sabin, 1865.
[61] “Washington As Land Speculator: Western Lands and the Bounty of War”. George Washington: Surveyor and Mapmaker. Manuscript Division, Library of Congress. Retrieved January 24, 2011.
[35] Grizzard, Frank E. George Washington: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2002.
[62] Grizzard (2002, pp. 135–137) [63] Ellis (2004, pp. 41–42, 48)
[36] Lengel (2005, pp. 31–38) [64] Ferling (2000, p. 44) [37] Anderson (2000, pp. 53–58) [65] Ferling (2000, pp. 43–44) [38] Paul R. Misencik (2014). George Washington and the Half-King Chief Tanacharison: An Alliance That Began the French and Indian War. McFarland. p. 131. ISBN 9781476615400. [39] Grizzard (2002, pp. 115–119) [40] Ellis (2004, pp. 17–18) [41] Anderson (2005, pp. 100–101) [42] Ellis (2004, p. 22)
[66] Pogue, Dennis J. (January 2004). Shad, Wheat, and Rye (Whiskey): George Washington, Entrepreneur (PDF). The Society for Historical Archaeology Annual Meeting. St. Louis, Missouri: Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. pp. 2–10. [67] Pogue, Dennis J. (Spring–Summer 2003). “George Washington And The Politics of Slavery” (PDF). Historic Alexandria Quarterly (Virginia: Office of Historic Alexandria). Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[45] Ellis (2004, p. 38)
[68] Fox hunting: Ellis (2004, p. 44). Mount Vernon economy: Ferling (2010, pp. 66–67); Ellis (2004, pp. 50–53); Bruce A. Ragsdale, “George Washington, the British Tobacco Trade, and Economic Opportunity in Pre-Revolutionary Virginia”, in Higginbotham (2001, pp. 67–93).
[46] Lengel (2005, pp. 75–76, 81)
[69] Fischer (2004, p. 14)
[47] Chernow (2010, ch. 8)
[70] Ferling (2000, pp. 73–76)
[48] Freeman (1968, pp. 135–139); Flexner (1974, pp. 32–36); Ellis (2004, ch. 1); Higginbotham (1985, ch. 1); Lengel (2005, pp. 77–80).
[71] Freeman (1968, pp. 174–176)
[49] Ellis (2004, pp. 38, 69)
[73] Ferling (2010, p. 100)
[50] Fischer (2004, p. 13) [51] Higginbotham (1985, pp. 14–15)
[74] Cont'l Cong., Credentials of the Delegates from Virginia, in 1 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789 23 (Library of Cong. eds., 1904).
[52] Lengel (2005, p. 80)
[75] Rasmussen & Tilton (1999, p. 294)
[53] Higginbotham (1985, pp. 22–25)
[76] Bell (2005)
[54] Freeman (1968, pp. 136–137) [55] Ferling (2000, p. 34)
[77] Cont'l Cong., Acceptance of Appointment by General Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 17741789 91-92 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
[56] Ferling (2000, pp. 33–34)
[78] Ellis (2004, pp. 68–72)
[57] Chernow (2010, p. 103) Washington may not have been able to admit to his own sterility while privately he grieved over not having his own children. Bumgarner (1994, pp. 1–8)
[79] Cont'l Cong., Commission for General Washington, in 2 Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789 96-7 (Library of Cong. eds., 1905).
[43] Flexner (1965, p. 138) [44] Fischer (2004, pp. 15–16)
[72] Randall (1997, p. 262)
51.14. REFERENCES
285
[80] Cont'l Cong., Instructions for General Washington, in 2 [100] Peale, Charles Willson. “Frederick William Augustus, Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789 100-1 (LiBaron Von Steuben”. Portraits from the Middle Theater, brary of Cong. eds., 1905). American Revolutionary War. Independence National Historical Park, National Park Service Museum Collections. [81] Higginbotham (1985, ch. 3) Retrieved June 2, 2011. [82] “Creation of the War Department”. Papers of the War De- [101] “This Day in History: American Revolution – June 18, 1778, partment, 1784–1800. Fairfax, Virginia: Center for History British abandon Philadelphia”. History.com. Retrieved June and New Media. January 20, 2011. Retrieved June 3, 2011. 2, 2011. [83] Carp (1990, p. 220)
[102] “Battle of Monmouth 1778”. Rediscovering George Washington. PBS. 2002. Retrieved June 2, 2011.
[84] Jensen, Richard (February 12, 2002). “Military History of the American Revolution”. Jensen’s Web Guides. University [103] of Illinois at Chicago. Retrieved January 18, 2011. [104] [85] Stephenson, Orlando W. (January 1925). “The Supply of Gunpowder in 1776”. The American Historical Review (University of Chicago) 30 (2): 271–281. doi:10.2307/1836657. [105] JSTOR 1836657. [86] Lengel (2005); Higginbotham (1985, pp. 125–134)
Grizzard (2002, p. 303) Barbara Alice Mann (2008). George Washington’s War on Native America. U. of Nevada Press. p. 106. ISBN 9780803216358. Lancaster & Plumb (1985, p. 311)
[106] Mann (2005, p. 38); Lancaster & Plumb (1985, p. 254).
[87] Bickham, Troy O. (January 2002). “Sympathizing with [107] “Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter W” (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 28, Sedition? George Washington, the British Press, and British 2014. Attitudes during the American War of Independence”. The William and Mary Quarterly (Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture) 59 (1): 101–122. [108] Kohn, Richard H. (April 1970). “The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat”. doi:10.2307/3491639. ISSN 0043-5597. JSTOR 3491639. The William and Mary Quarterly (Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture) 27 (2): 187–220. [88] McCullough (2005, pp. 186–195) doi:10.2307/1918650. JSTOR 1918650. [89] Ketchum (1999, p. 235) [109] Wright, Robert K.; Morris J. MacGregor (1987). “The Peace Establishment (George Washington, Sentiments on a [90] Fischer (2004, p. 367) Peace Establishment, 2 May 1783)". Soldier-statesmen of the [91] “American Presidents: George Washington”. AmericanConstitution. U.S. Army Center of Military History (U.S. Presidents.com. 2011. Retrieved November 13, 2011. Government). p. 193. Retrieved September 7, 2012. [92] Buchanan (2004, p. 226) [93] Higginbotham (1971, ch. 8)
[110] Wright, Robert K.; Morris J. MacGregor (1987). “The Articles of Confederation”. Soldier-statesmen of the Constitution. U.S. Army Center of Military History (U.S. Government). p. 27. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
[94] Heydt, Bruce (December 2005). "'Vexatious Evils’: George Washington and the Conway Cabal”. American History 40 [111] Washington, George. “Letter to Continental Army, Novem(5): 50–73. ber 2, 1783, Farewell Orders; Letter to Henry Knox, November 2, 1783”. George Washington Papers, 1741– [95] Chai, Jane; Homol, Lindley (2009). “The Forging of an 1799: Series 3b Varick Transcripts. Library of Congress. Army”. Pennsylvania Center for the Book. Pennsylvania Retrieved November 13, 2011. State University. Retrieved January 19, 2011. [112] Wood (1992, pp. 105–106) [96] “History & Culture”. Valley Forge National Historical Park. National Park Service. Retrieved January 19, 2011. [113] Brookhiser (1996, p. 103) [97] Fowler, William Morgan, Jr. “Valley Forge”. World Book [114] John Shi, “Review,” Journal of Southern History (May 1990) Encyclopedia 20 (2002 ed.). World Book Inc. p. 266. 46:2 p. 336. [98] Rogers, J. David. “George Washington: God’s Man for [115] “George Washington, Covenanter squatters Historical America” (PDF). Missouri University of Science and TechMarker”. ExplorePA. WITF. 2011. Retrieved January 7, nology. Retrieved January 19, 2011. 2014. [99] Ferling (2000, p. 186)
[116] Unger (2013, p. 33)
286
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
[117] “The President’s House: Freedom and Slavery in the Making [137] Varg, Paul A. (1963). Foreign Policies of the Founding Faof a New Nation”. Independence National Historical Park. thers. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. pp. National Park Service. Retrieved January 3, 2011. 95–122. OCLC 425621. [118] “Constitution of the United States”. The Charters of Free- [138] Grizzard (2005, p. 263) dom. National Archives and Records Administration. Re[139] Lengel (2005, p. 357) trieved January 3, 2011. [140] “VI. Religion and the Federal Government”. Religion and the Founding of the American Republic. Library of Congress Exhibition. Retrieved November 13, 2011. [120] “Presidential Oaths of Office”. Presidential Inaugurations. Library of Congress. Retrieved November 13, 2011. [141] Washington, George (1796). “Washington’s Farewell Ad[119] Jensen (1948, pp. 178–179)
[121] Chernow (2010, Kindle location 11,386) [122] Unger (2013, p. 79) [123] John Spencer Bassett (1906). The Federalist System, 17891801. Harper & Brothers. p. 155. [124] Ellis (2004, pp. 197–198)
dress”. Avalon Project. Yale Law School, Lillian Goldman Law Library. Retrieved November 29, 2010. [142] Matthew Spalding, “The Command of its own Fortunes: Reconsidering Washington’s Farewell Address” in Fishman, Pederson & Rozell (2001, ch. 2); Virginia Arbery, “Washington’s Farewell Address and the Form of the American Regime” in Gregg & Spalding (1999, pp. 199–216)
[125] White, Leonard D. (1948). The Federalists: A Study in Ad- [143] Breen, Eleanor E.; White, Esther C. (December 2006). “A Pretty Considerable Distillery—Excavating George Washministrative History. New York: Macmillan Co. p. 100. ington’s Whiskey Distillery” (PDF). Quarterly Bulletin of the OCLC 1830658. Archeological Society of Virginia (Archeological Society of [126] Unger (2013, p. 237) Virginia) 61 (4): 209–220. Retrieved November 4, 2011. [127] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, p. 290)
[144] Chernow (2010, ch. 57, note 38)
[128] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, pp. 240, 285, 290, 361)
[145] Dalzell & Dalzell (1998, p. 219); Purchasing power was calculated at Officer, Lawrence H.; Williamson, Samuel H. [129] Chernow, Ron (2004). Alexander Hamilton. New York: (2011). “Purchasing Power of Money in the United States Penguin Press. p. 427. ISBN 1-59420-009-2. from 1774 to Present”. MeasuringWorth. Retrieved December 29, 2011. [130] Webb, William B.; Wooldridge, John (1892). “Chapter IV: Permanent Capital Site Selected”. In Crew, Harvey W. [146] Kohn, Richard H. (1975). Eagle and Sword: The Federalists Centennial History of the City of Washington, D.C. Dayton, and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, Ohio: United Brethren Publishing House. p. 87. OCLC 1783–1802. New York: Free Press. pp. 225–42. ISBN 2843595. Retrieved December 29, 2011. 0-02-917551-8. [131] Coakley, Robert W. (1996) [1989]. The Role of Federal [147] Grizzard (2005, p. 264) Military Forces in Domestic Disorders, 1789–1878. DIANE Publishing. pp. 43–49. ISBN 978-0-7881-2818-9. Re- [148] “Lucius (Titus) Quinctius Cincinnatus”. Kentucky Educational Television. Retrieved May 20, 2014. trieved November 13, 2011. [132] Kohn, Richard H. (December 1972). “The Washington Ad- [149] Kristin Fahrenbruck Baumgartner. “American Cincinnatus”. characterfirst online library. Retrieved May 20, 2014. ministration’s Decision to Crush the Whiskey Rebellion” (PDF). The Journal of American History 59 (3): 567–584. [150] “The Poems of Philip Freneau, Volume II (of III)". Project doi:10.2307/1900658. JSTOR 1900658. Gutenberg. Retrieved 2014-09-06. [133] Ellis (2004, p. 225)
[151] “Ode to Napoleon Buonoparte”. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
[134] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, pp. 335–354)
[152] Vadakan, Vibul V. (Winter–Spring 2005). “A physician looks at the death of Washington”. The Early America Review 6 (1).
[135] Elkins & McKitrick (1995, ch. 9)
[136] Estes, Todd (Autumn 2000). “Shaping the Politics of Public [153] “James Craik (1730-1814)". George Washington’s Mount Opinion: Federalists and the Jay Treaty Debate”. Journal of Vernon. Retrieved June 4, 2013. the Early Republic 20 (3): 393–422. doi:10.2307/3125063. JSTOR 3125063.; Estes, Todd (2001). “The Art of Presi- [154] Lear, Tobias (1799). Page 257 Tobias Lear to William Audential Leadership: George Washington and the Jay Treaty”. gustine Washington December 15, 1799 (The Writings of The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 109 (2): George Washington, Volume 14). G. P Putman & Sons. p. 257. Retrieved June 4, 2013. 127–158. JSTOR 4249911.
51.14. REFERENCES
[155] Ernst, Edzard; Singh, Simon (2008). Trick or Treatment: The Undeniable Facts about Alternative Medicine. New York: W.W. Norton. pp. 9–12. [156] Mitgang, Herbert (December 14, 1999). “Death of a president: a 200-year-old malpractice debate”. New York Times.
287
1837, when the door of the inner vault was closed and the key thrown in the Potomac. [169] Safire, William, ed. (2004). Lend Me Your Ears: Great Speeches in History. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 185. ISBN 0-393-05931-6. Retrieved December 29, 2011.
[157] Felisati, D; Sperati, G (February 2005). “George Wash- [170] Hindle, Brooke (1980) [1964]. David Rittenhouse. New ington (1732-1799)". Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica 25 York: Arno Press. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-405-12569-0. Re(1): 55–58. PMC 2639854. PMID 16080317. trieved October 7, 2010. [158] Lear, Tobias (December 14–25, 1799). “Tobias Lear’s Jour- [171] 5 U.S.C. § 6103 nal Account of George Washington’s Last Illness and Death 14-25 December 1799”. Papers of George Washington [172] Hughes (1926, pp. 1:24, 501) (University of Virginia). Archived from the original on July [173] Grizzard (2002, pp. 45–47) 6, 2006. Retrieved June 1, 2013. [159] Wallenborn, White McKenzie (November 5, 1997). [174] Cohen, Sheldon S. (April 1991). “Monuments to Greatness: George Dance, Charles Polhill, and Benjamin West’s De“George Washington’s Terminal Illness: A Modern Medical sign for a Memorial to George Washington”. Virginia MagAnalysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washazine of History and Biography 99 (2): 187–203. JSTOR ington”. The Papers of George Washington (University of 4249215. Virginia). Archived from the original on April 13, 2005. Retrieved June 1, 2013. [175] Savage, Kirk (2009). Monument Wars: Washington, D.C., the National Mall, and the Transformation of the Memorial [160] Craik, James; Dick, Elisha (December 31, 1799). “Doctors Landscape. Berkeley,Calif: Univ.of California Press. pp. Craik and Dick’s Account of Washington’s Last Illness and 32–45. ISBN 978-0-520-25654-5. Death”. The Papers of George Washington (University of Virginia). Archived from the original on July 6, 2006. Re[176] “Washington Monument State Park”. Annapolis, MD: trieved June 1, 2013. Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved December 11, 2010. [161] Abbott, John Stevens Cabot (1860) [1855]. The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte. London: S.O. Beeton. p. 137. OCLC [177] Schwartz, Barry (1990) [1987]. George Washington: The 721101833. Making of an American Symbol. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-02-928141-5. [162] “Rare Letter from Martha to George Washington Returns to Mount Vernon”. Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. February 3, 2003. Archived from the original on June 4, 2004. [178] Kloetzel, James E., ed. (2009). Scott 2010 Specialized Catalogue of United States Stamps & Covers. Sidney, OH: Scott Retrieved November 12, 2011. Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-89487-446-8. [163] “Today in History: May 22”. Library of Congress. Re[179] Callahan, Charles H. (1998) [1913]. Washington: The Man trieved June 2, 2011. and the Mason. Kila, Mont: Kessinger. pp. 329–342. ISBN [164] “The Funeral”. The Papers of George Washington. Univer0-7661-0245-9. Retrieved August 25, 2010. sity of Virginia. Archived from the original on July 5, 2006. [180] Weber, John (2009). An Illustrated Guide to the Lost Symbol. Retrieved July 3, 2011. London: Simon & Schuster. p. 137. ISBN 1-4165-2366-9. [165] Boorstin, Daniel J. (1965). The Americans: The National Retrieved August 25, 2010. Experience. New York: Vintage Books. pp. 349–350. [181] “Map of Washington”. Worldatlas. Retrieved January 3, ISBN 0-394-70358-8. 2011. [166] Johnston, Elizabeth Bryant (1889). Visitors’ Guide to Mount Vernon (16th ed.). Washington, D.C: Gibson Brothers, [182] “George Washington’s 50 Guinea Draft”. Philadelphia: C.V. Starr Center for the Study of the American Experiprinters. pp. 14–15. OCLC 22376201. Retrieved July 3, ence. December 23, 1782. Archived from the original on 2011. June 9, 2010. Retrieved December 17, 2011. [167] Washington, George; Jefferson, Thomas; Peters, Richard (1847). Knight, Franklin, ed. Letters on Agriculture. Wash- [183] “Board of Visitors and Governors”. Chestertown, Maryland: Washington College. Archived from the original on August ington, The editor; Philadelphia, W. S. Martien. pp. 177– 19, 2011. Retrieved December 17, 2011. 180. OCLC 3347675. Retrieved November 13, 2011. [168] “Mount Vernon Visited; The Home of Washington As It Ex- [184] “Most Common U.S. Street Names”. Washington, D.C.: National League of Cities. 2010. Retrieved January 19, ists Today”. The New York Times. March 12, 1881. p. 2. The body was placed in this sarcophagus on October 7, 2013.
288
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
[185] “July 4th Marks 150th Anniversary of the Dedication Of [201] Glover, Barbara (Summer–Fall 1998). “George Union Square’s George Washington Monument”. City of Washington—A Dental Victim”. The Riversdale LetNew York Parks & Recreation. 2006. Retrieved July 7, ter. Retrieved June 30, 2006. 2012. [202] Dentures, 1790-1799, George Washington’s Mount Vernon [186] “The George Washington Equestrian Monument”. The VirEstate, Museum and Gardens ginia State Capitol History Project. Retrieved July 7, 2012. [203] Mary V. Thompson, “The Private Life of George Washing[187] “Virginia Washington Monument”. National Park Service. ton’s Slaves”, Frontline, PBS Retrieved July 7, 2012. [204] “The Portrait—George Washington:A National Treasure”. [188] “The Great Seal of the Confederacy”. Home of the AmeriSmithsonian National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved January can Civil War. June 1, 2002. Retrieved January 18, 2011. 21, 2011. [189] “The addition of the statue of President George Washing- [205] Chernow (2010, ch. 66) ton to the National Statuary Hall Collection”. Office of the Clerk, US House of Representatives. Retrieved July 14, [206] Striner, Richard (2006). Father Abraham: Lincoln’s Relent2012. less Struggle to End Slavery. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-518306-1. [190] “Houdon Statue of George Washington”. The GW and Foggy Bottom Encyclopedia. December 21, 2006. Re- [207] Stewart, David O. (2007). The Summer of 1787. New York: trieved August 24, 2010. Simon & Schuster. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-7432-8692-3. [191] Fitzpatrick, John (ed). “Writings of George Washington – [208] Dunbar, Erica Armstrong (February 16, 2015). “George Online Fitzpatrick edition”. University of Virginia. ReWashington, Slave Catcher”. New York Times. Retrieved trieved March 7, 2011. February 16, 2015. [192] Lengel, Edward G. (ed.). “The Papers of George Wash[209] Twohig, Dorothy (October 1994). "'That Species of Propington: Digital Edition”. University of Virginia. Retrieved erty': Washington’s Role in the Controversy Over Slavery”. March 7, 2011. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on April 13, 2005. Retrieved [193] “NYC Auction Of George Washington Document Sets November 14, 2011. Record”. CBS News New York. Retrieved June 22, 2012. [194] Dann, John C. (May 8, 2004). “Case 5—Family Back- [210] Hirschfeld (1997, pp. 11–12) ground, Part I”. George Washington: getting to know the [211] Haworth, Paul Leland (2004) [1915]. George Washington: man behind the image. University of Michigan: William L. Farmer. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger Publishing. pp. 78–80. Clements Library. Retrieved December 19, 2011. ISBN 1-4191-2162-6. Retrieved November 14, 2011. [195] Homans, Charles (October 6, 2004). “Taking a New Look at George Washington”. The Papers of George Washington: [212] Ellis (2004, p. 192) Washington in the News. Alderman Library, University of [213] Wood, Gordon (December 16, 2004). “The Man Who Virginia. Archived from the original on September 1, 2006. Would Not Be King”. The New Republic (carried at powRetrieved September 28, 2007. ells.com). Retrieved August 4, 2006. [196] “FAQ > George Washington, 1732–1799”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. n.d. Archived [214] Slave raffle linked to Washington’s reassessment of slavery: Wiencek (2003, pp. 135–36, 178–88). Washington’s from the original on March 30, 2015. Retrieved May 4, decision to stop selling slaves: Hirschfeld (1997, p. 16). 2015. Influence of war and Wheatley: Wiencek (2003, ch. 6). Dilemma of selling slaves: Wiencek (2003, p. 230); Ellis [197] Stuart, Gilbert. “George Washington (the Athenaeum por(2004, pp. 164–167); Hirschfeld (1997, pp. 27–29). trait)". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved December 18, 2011. [198] Chernow (2010, pp. 172–176) [199] Chernow (2010, pp. 187–189)
[215] Washington, George (April 12, 1786). “Letter to Robert Morris”. The Papers of George Washington: The Confederation Series, Volume 4. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on May 3, 2006. Retrieved November 14, 2011.
[200] Lloyd, John; Mitchinson, John (2006). The Book of General Ignorance. New York: Harmony Books. p. 97. ISBN 978- [216] Lawler Jr., Edward. “Washington, the Enslaved, and the 0-307-39491-0. Retrieved July 3, 2011. 1780 Law”. Retrieved July 21, 2012.
51.15. BIBLIOGRAPHY
289
[217] Nash, Gary B. (2006). “For Whom will the Liberty Bell [236] Chernow (2010, pp. 27, 704) Toll? From Controversy to Cooperation”. In James Oliver Horton & Lois E. Horton. Slavery and Public History: The [237] Harris, R. W. Claude (August 25, 2000). “Washington and Freemasonry” (PDF). Lodge Anecdotes. AlexandriaTough Stuff of American Memory. Chapel Hill: University Washington Lodge No. 22, A.F. & A.M. Retrieved Decemof North Carolina Press. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-0-8078ber 28, 2011. 5916-2. [218] Lawler Jr., Edward. “Oney Judge”. Retrieved July 21, 2012. [238] “History”. Alexandria-Washington Lodge No. 22, A.F. & A.M. Retrieved December 28, 2011. [219] For the text of Washington’s letters in which he contests the law, see http://www.ushistory.org/presidentshouse/slaves/ [239] Trotter, Gordon T., “Yorktown Issue”, Arago: people, washingtonand8.htm postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed April 17, 1014. [220] Craig LaBan, "A birthday shock from Washington’s chef", Philadelphia Inquirer, February 22, 2010, accessed April 2, [240] Trotter, Gordon T., “Constitution Sesquicentennial Issue”, 2012 Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed April 17, 1014. [221] Grizzard (2005, pp. 285–286) [222] “The Will of George Washington: Slave Lists”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. June 1799. Archived from the original on April 27, 2005. Retrieved August 6, 2009. [223] Ferling (2009, p. 364) [224] “Martha Washington and Slavery”. www.mountvernon.org. George Washington’s Mount Vernon/Mount Vernon Ladies’ Association. Retrieved March 26, 2015. [225] Thompson, Mary (2008). In The Hands of a Good Providence. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8139-2763-3. [226] Gregg L. Frazer, The Religious Beliefs of America’s Founders: Reason, Revelation, and Revolution (University Press of Kansas, 2012) [227] Paul F. Boller, “George Washington and Religious Liberty.” William and Mary Quarterly (1960): 486-506. in JSTOR [228] Sparks, Jared (1839). The Life of George Washington. Boston: F. Andrews. pp. 522–523. OCLC 843523. Retrieved December 20, 2011. [229] Johnson (1919, pp. 87–195) [230] Chernow (2010, ch. 12) [231] Espinosa (2009, p. 52) [232] Chernow (2010, ch. 12, note 14) [233] Novak, M. and Novak, J., Washington’s God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country, Basic Books, 2007, p. 158.
[241] Haimann, Alexander T., “Washington Inauguration Issue”, Arago: people, postage & the post, National Postal Museum online, viewed April 17, 1014.
51.15
Bibliography
For a list of written works, see George Washington bibliography.
• Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-375-40642-3. • Anderson, Fred (2005). The War That Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War (abridged ed.). New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-67003454-3. • Bell, William Gardner (2005) [1983]. Commanding Generals and Chiefs of Staff, 1775–2005: Portraits & Biographical Sketches of the United States Army’s Senior Officer. Washington, D.C: Center of Military History, United States Army. pp. 52–53, 66–67. ISBN 0-16-072376-0. CMH Pub 70–14. • Boller, Paul F. (1963). George Washington & Religion. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press. OCLC 563800860.
[234] Novak, M. and Novak, J., Washington’s God: Religion, Liberty, and the Father of Our Country, Basic Books, 2007, p. 161.
• Boller, Paul F. (1995). Not So!: Popular Myths About America from Columbus to Clinton. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509186-8.
[235] Mackey, Albert G. (November 4, 1852). “Washington as a Freemason”. Charleston, SC: Phoenixmasonry Masonic Museum and Library. Retrieved February 17, 2010.
• Brookhiser, Richard (1996). Founding Father: Rediscovering George Washington. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-82291-1.
290 • Buchanan, John (2004). The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780-471-44156-4. • Bumgarner, John R. (1994). The Health of the Presidents: The 41 United States Presidents Through 1993 from a Physician’s Point of View. Jefferson, N.C: McFarland & Co. ISBN 0-89950-956-8. • Carp, E. Wayne (1990) [1984]. To Starve the Army at Pleasure: Continental Army Administration and American Political Culture, 1775–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 220. ISBN 978-08078-4269-0. Retrieved November 13, 2011. • Chernow, Ron (2010). Washington: A Life. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-266-7., Pulitzer Prize • Cunliffe, Marcus (1958). George Washington, Man and Monument. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 58007859. • Dalzell, Robert F., Jr.; Dalzell, Lee Baldwin (1998). George Washington’s Mount Vernon: At Home in Revolutionary America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512114-7. • Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric (1995) [1993]. The Age of Federalism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509381-0., standard political history of 1790s
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON • Fischer, David Hackett (2004). Washington’s Crossing. Oxford, England; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517034-2. • Fishman, Ethan M.; Pederson, William D.; Rozell, Mark J., eds. (2001). George Washington, Foundation of Presidential Leadership and Character. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-96868-5. • Flexner, James Thomas (1965). George Washington: the Forge of Experience, 1732–1775. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 426484. • Flexner, James Thomas (1974). Washington: The Indispensable Man. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-31628605-2. • Freeman, Douglas Southall (1948). George Washington, a Biography 7 v. New York: Scribner. OCLC 732644234. • Freeman, Douglas Southall (1968). Harwell, Richard Barksdale, ed. Washington. New York: Scribner. OCLC 426557. • Gregg, Gary L., II; Spalding, Matthew, eds. (1999). Patriot Sage: George Washington and the American Political Tradition. Wilmington, Del: ISI Books. ISBN 1-882926-38-2. • Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. (2002). George Washington: A Biographical Companion. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABCCLIO. ISBN 1-57607-082-4.
• Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His Excellency: George Washington. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-40004031-0.
• Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. (2005). George!: A Guide to All Things Washington. Buena Vista, Va: Mariner Pub. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2.
• Espinosa, Gastón (2009). Religion and the American Presidency: George Washington to George W. Bush with Commentary and Primary Sources. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-143325.
• Higginbotham, Don (1971). The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789. New York: Macmillan. OCLC 142627.
• Ferling, John E. (2000). Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513409-5. • Ferling, John E. (2009). The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon. New York: Bloomsbury Press. ISBN 978-159691-465-0. • Ferling, John E. (2010) [1988]. First of Men: A Life of George Washington. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539867-0.
• Higginbotham, Don (1985). George Washington and the American Military Tradition. Athens: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-0786-6. • Higginbotham, Don, ed. (2001). George Washington Reconsidered. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 0-8139-2005-1. • Higginbotham, Don (2002). George Washington: Uniting a Nation. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 0-7425-2208-3. • Hirschfeld, Fritz (1997). George Washington and Slavery: A Documentary Portrayal. Columbia: University of Missouri Press. ISBN 0-8262-1135-6.
51.16. EXTERNAL LINKS • Hofstra, Warren R., ed. (1998). George Washington and the Virginia Backcountry. Madison, Wis: Madison House. ISBN 0-945612-50-8. • Hughes, Rupert (1926). George Washington... New York: W. Morrow & Co. OCLC 17399028. • Jensen, Merrill (1948). The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774–1781. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. OCLC 498124. • Johnson, William (1919). George Washington, the Christian. New York: The Abingdon Press. OCLC 19524242. Retrieved December 29, 2011. • Ketchum, Richard M. (1999) [1973]. The Winter Soldiers: The Battles for Trenton and Princeton. New York: Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-6098-7. • Lancaster, Bruce; Plumb, John H. (1985). The American Revolution. New York: American Heritage Press. ISBN 0-8281-0281-3., heavily illustrated • Lengel, Edward G. (2005). General George Washington: A Military Life. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-4000-6081-8. • Mann, Barbara Alice (2005). George Washington’s War on Native America. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-98177-0. • Middlekauff, Robert. Washington’s Revolution: The Making of America’s First Leader (2015), the revolution from General Washington’s perspective Excerpt • McCullough, David (2005). 1776. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2671-2. • O'Brien, Conor Cruise (2009). First in Peace: How George Washington Set the Course for America. Foreword by Christopher Hitchens. Cambridge: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81619-2.
291 • Unger, Harlow Giles (2013). “Mr. President” George Washington and the Making of the Nation’s Highest Office. Boston: Da Capo Press, A Member of the Perseus Book Group. ISBN 978-0-306-82241-4. • Vadakan, Vibul V., M.D. (Winter–Spring 2005). “A Physician Looks At The Death of Washington”. The Early America Review (DEV Communications) 6 (1). ISSN 1090-4247. • Wallenborn, White McKenzie, M.D. (November 5, 1997). “George Washington’s Terminal Illness: A Modern Medical Analysis of the Last Illness and Death of George Washington”. The Papers of George Washington. University of Virginia. • Wiencek, Henry (2003). An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN 0-37417526-8. • Wood, Gordon S. (1992). The Radicalism of the American Revolution. New York: A.A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-40493-7.
51.16
External links
• George Washington at DMOZ • “Dec. 14, 1799: The excruciating final hours of President George Washington” (PBS) • American President: George Washington (1732– 1799) at the Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia • George Washington: A Resource Guide at the Library of Congress • George Washington Resources at the University of Virginia Library
• Parry, Jay A.; Allison, Andrew M. (1991). The Real George Washington: The True Story of America’s Most Indispensable Man. United States: National Center for Constitutional Studies. ISBN 978-0-88080-014-3.
• Original Digitized Letters of George Washington Shapell Manuscript Foundation
• Randall, Willard Sterne (1997). George Washington: A Life. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0-80502779-3.
• The Papers of George Washington, subset of Founders Online from the National Archives
• Rasmussen, William M. S.; Tilton, Robert S. (1999). George Washington-the Man Behind the Myths. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. ISBN 08139-1900-2.
• The Papers of George Washington at the Avalon Project
• George Washington’s Mount Vernon Estate, Museum & Gardens • Discover the Real George Washington: New Views from Mount Vernon, a traveling exhibit
292
CHAPTER 51. GEORGE WASHINGTON
• George Washington Birthplace National Monument, Virginia from the National Park Service • Copies of the wills of General George Washington: the first president of the United States and of Martha Washington, his wife (1904), edited by E. R. Holbrook • Rediscovering George Washington at PBS • “What Made George Washington a Good Military Leader?". EDSITEment: Lesson Plans. National Endowment for the Humanities. • Works by George Washington at Project Gutenberg • Works by or about George Washington at Internet Archive • Works by George Washington at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Chapter 52
George Wythe George Wythe (1726 – June 8, 1806) was the first American law professor, a noted classics scholar and Virginia judge, as well as a prominent opponent of slavery.[1] The first of the seven Virginia signatories of the United States Declaration of Independence, Wythe served as one of Virginia’s representatives to the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention.[2] Wythe taught and was a mentor to Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, Henry Clay and other men who became American leaders.[3]
soon returned to Williamsburg. There, Wythe made law and scholarship his life, as he began what would become a distinguished career in public service. His motto was “Secundis dubiisque rectus”, translated as “Upright in prosperity and perils.”[7]
52.2.1
Colonial politician, lawyer and mentor
In October 1748, family connections (Benjamin Waller was related to Zachary Lewis) probably helped Wythe secure his first government job, as clerk to two powerful committees of the House of Burgesses, Privileges and Elections and Propositions and Grievances. Wythe also continued to practice law before those committees and the General Court in Williamsburg, as was permitted at the time. In 1750, Wythe was first elected as one of Williamsburg’s aldermen.[8] Wythe also briefly served as the king’s attorney general in 1754-1755, appointed by lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie while Peyton Randolph traveled to London on the burgesses’ behalf to appeal Dinwiddie’s charging a one pistole fee to affix an official seal to land patents. Wythe resigned when Randolph returned from his unsuccessful mission. Lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie returned to England less than three years after Peyton Randolph’s return.[9]
52.1 Early life and education
Wythe was born in 1726 at Chesterville, the plantation operated by three generations of the Wythe family in what was then Elizabeth City County but is now Hampton, Virginia. His maternal great-grandfather was George Keith, a Quaker minister and early opponent of Negro slavery, who returned to the Church of England but was sent back as a missionary to the East Coast before ultimately returning to England.[4] His mother, Margaret Walker of Kecoughtan, a learned woman probably raised as a Quaker, instilled a love of learning in her son. In his later years, Wythe became known for his outdated Quaker dress, as well as his gentle manner, which could cause even a surly dog to “unbend and wag his tail.”[5] After the early death of his father, Wythe probably attended grammar school in Williamsburg before beginning legal training in the office of his uncle, Stephen Meanwhile, Wythe began his legislative career, while still Dewey, in Prince George County. maintaining a private law practice. In the session of August 22, 1754, Wythe replaced the deceased Armistead Burwell as the burgess representing Williamsburg.[10] In 1755, Wythe’s elder brother, Thomas, died, childless. Wythe in52.2 Career herited the family’s Chesterville plantation, and was soon Wythe was admitted to the bar in Elizabeth City County in appointed to his brother’s (and formerly his father’s) place 1746, the same year in which his mother died.[6] He then on the Elizabeth City County court. moved to Spotsylvania County to begin legal practice in several Piedmont counties. He soon married the daughter of his mentor, Zachary Lewis. However, Ann Wythe died on August 8, 1748, about eight months after their Christmas season marriage. The childless and bereaved widower
However, Wythe probably continued to live in Williamsburg, for his legislative work continued, and he married Elizabeth Taliaferro. Her father, planter Richard Taliaferro, built a house for them in Williamsburg, which is still called the George Wythe House even though Wythe
293
294 only had a life estate in the property after Taliaferro’s death. Wythe served as Williamsburg’s delegate through the sessions of 1754 and 1755 (but not in the sessions of the Assembly of 1756–1758).[11] During that gap, Wythe was reappointed clerk to the committees on Privileges and Elections and Propositions and Grievances, as well as to the Committee for Courts of Justice, and in 1759 to the Committee of Correspondence (with the colony’s agent in England).[12] In 1759, The College of William and Mary elected Wythe as its burgess to replace Peyton Randolph, and reelected Wythe in 1760 and 1761.[13] Wythe helped oversee defense expenditures related to the French and Indian War,[14] and later with Richard Henry Lee retirement of the paper money issued to fund the war, which became a scandal in 1766, as discussed below. For the Assemblies of 1761, 1765 and 1767, Wythe was one of the two burgesses representing Elizabeth City County.[15] Although known for his modesty and quiet dignity, Wythe eventually gained a radical reputation for his opposition to the Stamp Act of 1765 and later attempts by the British government to regulate the overseas colony. Meanwhile, Wythe maintained close friendships with successive Governors, Francis Fauquier and Norborne Berkeley, 4th Baron Botetourt. Wythe also earned a reputation for personal integrity, which years later led Rev. Lee Massey to call Wythe “the only honest lawyer I ever knew.”[16] Fauquier, Wythe and college professor William Small often socialized together—conversing about philosophy, natural history, languages, history and other matters. In 1762, Small suggested Wythe supervise the legal training of a star student, Thomas Jefferson, which had profound impact that went beyond their lives.[17]
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE money) at the Cumberland Court House. Indicted for murder, Chiswell was brought under armed guard to Williamsburg for trial in the next session of the General Court (which included many men from distant counties who also served as Burgesses and was thus usually held at the same time). Before the group reached the Williamsburg jail, three judges (John Blair, Presley Thornton and Byrd) stopped them on the street and allowed Chiswell to post bail until September, since the next court session began in October. Meanwhile, the publisher of the Virginia Gazette had died. When it became clear in the spring of 1766 that the Stamp Act was not going to be enforced, two printers set up shops in Williamsburg. Both papers thrived in the ensuing controversies.[19] On July 4, Judge Blair explained in a published letter that the judges had relied upon assurances of “three eminent Lawyers” that they could grant Chiswell bail, as well as two depositions that Routledge had run himself on Chiswell’s sword, while stressing that the high bail of 6,000 pounds sterling could be recovered should Chiswell fail to show for trial.[20] In response, 'Dikephilos’ wrote that his own investigation agreed that Routledge had been drunk, but Chiswell was not, and further that neither deponent favoring Chiswell had witnessed the brawl. He predicted popular violence if the trial unfairly favored the aristocratic defendant. More published letters followed. On August 1, Wythe identified himself in print as one of the consulted lawyers and said his opinion had been limited to the legal bail issue. After Chiswell returned to Williamsburg in September, his attorney John Wayles published the two depositions given to the judges, which proved to be from Wayles himself and the Cumberland undersheriff. Judge Blair was furious when Wayles added a detail to the published copy of his own deposition (which he had gotten from the court records), apparently in order to track the undersheriff’s deposition.[21] Judge Byrd, on the other hand, joined with Wayles to demand a libel indictment against Col. Robert Bolling, Jr., claiming Bolling wrote the anonymous criticism of the bailment published on July 11.[22] The grand jury refused, issuing a no-bill instead. However, Wythe’s sterling reputation may have been tarnished.[23] When the assembly reconvened, Robert Carter Nicholas was appointed treasurer, Peyton Randolph became speaker, and his brother John Randolph became king’s attorney general, a post to which Wythe had aspired. Chiswell died unexpectedly in his Williamsburg home on October 15, before his trial could begin. Jefferson decades later in his Kentucky Resolution echoed the anononymous 'Virginia Gazette' writer of September 12, 1766, who stated, “Distrust, the parent of security, is a political virtue of unspeakable utility.”[24]
In the summer of 1766, three events occurred which profoundly influenced Wythe, Jefferson and several other Virginians who became Founding Fathers and insisted upon the separation of powers between three branches of the new government. When John Robinson, the powerful speaker of the House of Burgesses, died, his estate was nearly insolvent (with many debts, as well as outstanding loans), and the accounts Robinson kept as Treasurer were also irregular. Instead of destroying redeemed paper currency after the French and Indian War, Robinson had lent it to his political supporters (fellow southern Virginia planters). Keeping the money in circulation helped these allies pay their own debts, but also tended to devalue the currency, as well as defied the redemption laws the legislature had passed. Robinson’s executors kept the names of the politically powerful loan beneficiaries secret for decades, but did not manage to end the John Robinson estate scandal before the century itself ended.[18] Moreover, on June 20, 1766, Colonel John Chiswell, father of Robinson’s widow and business Wythe continued his thriving legal practice with Jefferpartner of Robinson, governor Fauquier and William Byrd son’s assistance. In 1767, Wythe introduced Jefferson to III, killed merchant Robert Routledge (to whom he owed the bar of the General Court, and was himself appointed
52.2. CAREER clerk to the House of Burgesses. The following year, Wythe wrote the colony’s London agent to secure copies of the burgesses’ complete journals from the colony’s founding until 1752, which were supposed to be transmitted annually to the king, secretary of state and Lords of Trade, stressing “it be not made public nor attended with great expense.”[25] The secrecy may have related to continuing unrest in Massachusetts against the Townshend Acts or the administrative interregnum between Fauquier’s death in March and Botetourt’s arrival in October.[26] Wythe also ordered printed journals of the House of Commons and case law books from London. Wythe’s social standing remained high, for fellow aldermen elected him Williamsburg’s mayor for the 1768 to 1769 term. Fellow parishioners also elected Wythe to the vestry of Bruton Parish Church in 1769. Botetourt arrived on October 26, 1768, as Virginia’s first governor to rule the colony in person in sixty years. Although Botetourt dissolved the House of Burgesses the following spring, following a royal order to all colonial governors after protests in Massachusetts against the Townshend Acts, Wythe managed to stave off the governor’s clerk so the delegates could publish a resolution of protest before receiving the dissolution order.[27] The burgesses then repaired to the Raleigh Tavern, where they passed the Virginia Nonimportation Resolutions on May 18, 1769. Some speculate that Wythe’s own status as clerk kept his name off that document. In any event, the burgesses gave a spectacular party for Botetourt that Christmas, and his funeral ceremonies the following fall were the most elaborate in Virginia history. They also voted for a marble statue of the governor to be erected at public expense.[28]
52.2.2
295 Sons of Liberty had the Boston Tea Party. Dunmore tried to reconvene the delegates the following May. On May 24, 1774, the House of Burgesses passed a resolution declaring June 1 as a day of fasting and prayer, which resolution Wythe signed and posted. Enraged, Dunmore dissolved the assembly. The delegates moved to conduct their business at the Raleigh Tavern, and meet again mid-March in Richmond. Wythe attended the Second Virginia Convention as Williamsburg’s representative. The meeting was held in St. John’s Episcopal Church, in whose graveyard Wythe would be buried about three decades later. Patrick Henry stirred the delegates with his “Give me liberty or give me death” speech. The delegates agreed to convene militia, and the prospect of armed resistance caused Dunmore to try to remove military supplies from Williamsburg to the British naval ships offshore. Wythe enlisted in the militia immediately upon returning home.[32] In the Gunpowder Incident of April 20, 1775, Peyton Randolph, Robert Carter Nicholas and Carter Braxton helped diffuse Henry’s attempt to force return of the gunpowder by negotiating payment from Dunmore.
Revolutionary
The next royal Governor, John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, brought Wythe and Virginia to and past the brink of revolution. Dunmore arrived in Williamsburg from New York on September 26, 1771. Rumors of his year as the other colony’s governor, which included accusations of graft and companions roughing up local judges, soon followed.[29] Although some cheered his military offensive against the Indians (later known as Lord Dunmore’s War) as strengthening Virginia’s land claims, Wythe, Jefferson and many others soon took offense at Dunmore’s haughty personality.[30] Dunmore attempted to govern without the burgesses, but counterfeiting and other money troubles forced him to convene the Assembly in early 1773. Delegates began by voicing concerns that suspects in the burning of the revenue vessel 'Gaspee' in Rhode Island could be tried in England. When on March 3, 1773 they resolved to establish a Committee of Correspondence, Dunmore prorouged (postponed) the assembly.[31] Moreover, Parliament passed the Tea Act in May, 1773 and on December 16, the
In John Trumbull's The Declaration of Independence, Wythe is in profile farthest to the viewer’s left. Trumbull’s painting was used for the back of the U.S. $2 bill, but Wythe’s image was cut out of that depiction.[33]
On May 10, 1775, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia. When war seemed inevitable, Wythe was elected as Virginia’s delegate to replace George Washington, who took command of the continental forces. George and Elizabeth Wythe moved to Philadelphia by September, and were inoculated against smallpox, as were fellow delegate Francis Lightfoot Lee and his lady and others. By October, Thomas Jefferson had rejoined the Congress to work with his former teacher and the other delegates, although personal tragedy forced him to leave for five months in the winter and spring. Wythe accepted many assignments relating to military, currency and other matters. He, John Dickinson and John Jay also went to
296 New Jersey that winter and convinced that colony’s assembly to maintain a united front.[34] When petitions and other attempts failed to resolve the crisis by the following summer, all while Dunmore’s raiders harassed Virginia settlements from its waterways, Wythe moved and then voted in favor of the resolution for independence that Jefferson had drafted upon his return. His fellow Virginia delegates in Philadelphia held Wythe in such esteem, that they left the first space open for Wythe when they signed the Declaration of Independence.[35] Moreover, John Adams, who did not like many Virginians, thought so highly of Wythe that he wrote 'Thoughts on Government' concerning establishing constitutions for state governments after the war.[36][37] Earlier in the session, Wythe also exchanged humorous verses with his friend delegate William Ellery of Rhode Island despite their political differences.[38] Wythe thus signed the Declaration of Independence upon his (and his wife’s) return to Philadelphia in September. The signers’ names were not made public until the following January, for all knew the declaration was an act of treason, punishable by death should their rebellion fail.[39] As did many of the founding fathers, Wythe paid dearly for supporting independence. The farmer to whom he had leased Chesterville, Hamilton Usher St. George, proved to be a British spy, although acquitted of those charges on April 23, 1776.[40] As documented in British archives, St. George invited British raiding parties that not only damaged neighboring plantations, but also Williamsburg and other settlements along the James River. British troops encamped at Portsmouth went on raids such as the skirmish at Waters Creek. In January 1781, Benedict Arnold led British raiders that forced Governor Thomas Jefferson to flee Richmond, as well as set fires which burned the fledgling state capital and destroyed many colonial records. Just weeks earlier, on New Year’s Eve, Wythe reportedly helped scare another raiding party back to their British ship, while hunting partridge.[41] Finally, four boatloads of neighbors attacked Hamilton St. George at his house on Hog Island on September 21, 1781, forcing him to flee to Chesterville, and ultimately New York and England. Chesterville sustained significant damage before Wythe evicted Mrs. St. George in order to move into the house with Elizabeth while French allies used their Williamsburg home.[42] During the Yorktown campaign which led to General Cornwallis' surrender, American and French troops camped at Williamsburg, and Count Rochambeau occupied the George Wythe house. On December 21, 1781 fire burned down the Governor’s Palace and also destroyed a wing of the College which included Wythe’s beloved library and physics instruments.[43]
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
52.2.3
Founding father
Hurrying back to Virginia from Philadelphia, on June 23, 1776, Wythe began helping Virginia establish its new state government. Virginia’s constitutional convention had begun months earlier (and had voted on May 15 to instruct the its federal delegates to move a declaration of independence).[44] Despite his late arrival, Wythe served on a committee with George Mason which jointly designed the Seal of Virginia, inscribed with the motto Sic Semper Tyrannis, which remains in use today. The reverse side shows three Roman goddesses, Libertas surrounded by Ceres and Aeternitas.[45] Wythe’s most noteworthy contributions in establishing the new state government began when he again returned from Philadelphia that winter. Wythe served on a committee with Thomas Jefferson and Edmund Pendleton to revise and codify its laws, and also helped establish the new state court system. Although few of their 100+ separate proposed bills were ever passed, some concepts such as religious freedom, public records access, and education became important concepts in the new republic, as did the concept of intermediate appellate courts.[46] When a fall incapacitated Pendleton, Jefferson and Wythe redrafted his portion (much to Pendleton’s dismay). Wythe also replaced Pendleton as Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates the following term (17771778). Wythe also continued working to establish the new nation. In 1787, Wythe became one of Virginia’s delegates to the Constitutional Convention. Fellow delegate William Pierce considered Wythe “one of the most learned legal Characters of the present age” and known for his “exemplary life,” but “no great politician” because he had “too favorable opinion of Men.”[47] In any event, Wythe, Alexander Hamilton and Charles Pinckney, served on the committee which established the Convention’s rules and procedures. However, Wythe left Philadelphia in early June to tend to Elizabeth, who was dying. The following year, York County neighbors elected Wythe and John Blair to represent them at the Virginia Ratifying Convention. As Chairman of the Committee of the Whole, Wythe presided over oft-heated exchanges until the final day. Stepping down from the chair, Wythe spoke to urge ratification. Pendleton later wrote Wythe’s “adherence to the Constitution” gave the margin for ratification, when otherwise would have proven “grave for the Union.”[48]
52.2.4
Teacher
Wythe’s teaching career began with his appointment in 1761 to the Board of Visitors of the College of William and Mary, and often both overlapped and drew upon his legal and judicial careers. During more than twenty years,
52.2. CAREER Wythe taught many legal apprentices, as well as students at the college. Among the most famous were future presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe; future senators Henry Clay, Littleton Waller Tazewell and John Breckinridge, future Virginia judges St. George Tucker and Spencer Roane; and John Marshall, future Chief Justice of the US Supreme Court. Proficient in Latin and Greek, as well as known for his devotion to books and learning, Wythe initially taught students on a near-individual apprenticeship basis. Especially after Elizabeth’s death in 1787, some private pupils boarded at Wythe’s home and received daily instruction in classical languages, as well as political philosophy and law.[49] Of all these men, Wythe remained closest to Jefferson, with whom he worked and corresponded many times in the ensuing decades. In their friendship, together the two men read all sorts of other material, from English literary works, to political philosophy, to the ancient sages. In 1779, Governor Jefferson appointed Wythe to the newly created Chair of Law and Police, making Wythe the first law professor in the United States.[50] As a law professor, Wythe introduced a lecture system based on the Commentaries published by William Blackstone, as well as Matthew Bacon’s New Abridgement of the Law, and Acts of Virginia’s Assembly. Wythe also developed experiential tools, including moot courts and mock legislative sessions, which tools are still used today.[51] However, apprenticeship remained the main mode of learning law in that era, followed by examination before several practicing lawyers. Thus, not only did Marshall and Monroe attend Wythe’s lectures for a time, they also affiliated themselves with more experienced lawyers before being admitted to the bar. The college suspended classes during the later days of the revolutionary war, after which Wythe both taught in Williamsburg and performed his duties as judge (mostly in Richmond as the new capital) until the 17881789 term. Wythe then resigned from the college and announced that he planned to move to Richmond to concentrate on his judicial duties. Travel to the new capital for the four judicial sessions each year may have become onerous, many of Wythe’s friends and colleagues had died or moved, and Williamsburg’s intellectual and cultural life had also declined after the state capital moved upriver. Litigation involving professor Rev. John Bracken also distressed Wythe.[52]
297 George Tucker, his one time student and fellow judge, succeeded Wythe as the college’s law professor, and published an annotated edition of Blackstone’s work before also resigning in 1804 to succeed Edmund Pendleton on Virginia’s Supreme Court of Appeals. In 1920, the college (now a university) established a law school, which it named after Wythe and Marshall.
52.2.5
Virginia judge
Although Wythe served as what would now be called a justice of the peace in Elizabeth City County during colonial times, his reputation as the “American Aristides"[55] derived from Wythe’s judicial service performed after Virginia became a state, as well as from his scholarship discussed above. The oath Wythe drafted for its admiralty judges indicates his judicial philosophy, “You shall swear that ... you will do equal right to all manner of people, great and small, high and low, rich and poor, according to equity and good conscience, and the laws and usages of Virginia, without respect to persons. ... And, finally, in all things belonging to your said office, during your continuance therein you shall faithfully, justly and truly, according to the best of your skill and judgment, do equal and impartial justice, without fraud, favor or affection, or partiality.”[56] Wythe also designed the Chancery Court seal to illustrate the punishment of the Persian judge Sisamnes, killed and skinned after taking a bribe.[57]
In 1777, Wythe became one of the three judges on the new High Court of Chancery. Administering equity and developing that branch of the law became his mission for the rest of his life.[58] Wythe was elected to serve as a federal judge on the Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture in 1780, but declined to serve.[59][60] Wythe particularly despised lawyers who protracted litigation at great cost to the parties, though to their own benefit, and even in his last days regretted the burden delays placed upon those seeking justice from his court.[61] In the judicial reorganization of 1788, Wythe became sole Judge of the Chancery Court of Virginia, refusing to be promoted with Edmund Pendleton to the Supreme Court of Appeals (now known as the Virginia Supreme Court). Both men refused offers from President George Washington of judgships on the new In Richmond, Wythe continued his pursuit of knowledge, federal courts, although their colleague John Blair accepted and even began learning Hebrew from Rabbi Seixas.[53] an appointment to the United States Supreme Court.[62] In One of Wythe’s last pupils, William Munford, called Wythe 1802, the legislature created two more territorial Chancery “one of the most remarkable men I ever knew” and partic- Courts, but Wythe remained in Richmond.[63] ularly remembered Wythe’s scholarly philosophy, “Don't In the 1782 Commonwealth v. Caton[64] opinion, Wythe skim it; read deeply, and ponder what you read; they beupheld judicial review of legislative actions, in what became gin to make lawyers now without the 'biginti annorum lua predecessor to Justice Marshall’s decision in Marbury v. cubrationes’ (twenty years of reflection) of Lord Coke; they Madison. After Virginia courts had convicted Caton and [54] are mere skimmers of the law, and know little else.” St. two other men of treason, they appealed to the legislature
298 for pardons. The House of Delegates approved their pardon request, but the state Senate refused. Wythe decided that not only did the court have the right to review that pardon, the judiciary was obliged to “say to them, here is the limit of your authority; and hither, shall you go, but no further.”[65] Pendleton and Blair agreed with this principle of judicial review, although on slightly different grounds. Nonetheless, after the decision, both legislative houses pardoned the men, sparing them execution.[66] However, Chancellor Wythe’s decisions were modified or overruled many times, particularly by the appeals court that his former student Spencer Roane joined in 1794. In 1795, Wythe published analyses of some of his cases and subsequent appellate decisions, and added a few more pamphlets later.[67] Although this publication offended Pendleton, he decided against replying in kind.[68] One of Wythe’s most famous decisions (unpopular at the time), Page v. Pendleton, upheld the authority of the 1783 federal peace treaty with Great Britain which required debts to British merchants be paid under the contract terms, although Virginia had passed a law (used by Edmund Pendleton and other executors of the will of Speaker John Robinson discussed above) that allowed payment in depreciated paper currency.[69] In Roane v. Innes, Wythe upheld revolutionary war soldiers’s pension claims, but was reversed.[70] Pendleton died in 1803, just before he could deliver an opinion attempting to reverse Wythe in Turpin v. Lockett, which dealt with the sale of the disestablished church’s glebe lands, nominally at least to support the poor.[71]
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE Virginia legislators forbad members of slave emancipation societies from serving on juries involving slave freedom suits, which probably affected Wythe as a judge in such cases, as well as led the Virginia Abolition Society to all but disappear in that year.[76] In 1800 Governor James Monroe called out troops that crushed the rebellion led by Gabriel Prosser near Richmond, and 35 slaves were executed.[77] Further rumors of slave insurrections led to alarms and executions, sometimes without judicial process, in 1802 and 1803. Also, in the legislative session that began in the spring of 1806, the year of Wythe’s death, a law passed requiring freed slaves to leave the state within 12 months, although a later modification allowed local courts to allow certain manumitted slaves to remain.[78]
52.3.1
Move to Richmond and manumissions
After Elizabeth died in 1787 (their only child, a daughter, having died in infancy decades earlier), Wythe returned some slaves whom her father had bequeathed to Elizabeth to her remaining relatives. Wythe filed manumission papers for his long-time housemaid and cook Lydia Broadnax on September 15, 1787, a month after Elizabeth’s death. Four years later, Lydia accompanied Wythe as he moved to Richmond, where he had previously commuted four times yearly to deal with Chancery Court business.[79] In addition, a young mixed-race youth, Michael Brown, born free in 1790, lived in Wythe’s household.[80] By 1797 Broadnax owned her own home, where she and Brown lived, and took in boarders. Wythe had taken an interest in Brown, taught 52.3 Wythe and slavery him Greek and shared his library with him.[81] On January 29, 1797, Wythe also freed Benjamin, another adult slave One scholar states, without extensive documentation, that who continued to work as his servant in Richmond; Wythe the problem of slavery preoccupied Wythe in his last also named Benjamin a beneficiary in his 1803 will, which [79] years.[72] In 1785, Jefferson assured English abolitionist also included money for Brown’s continued education. Richard Price that Wythe’s sentiments against slavery were Fawn M. Brodie, who linked Jefferson and Sally Hemings, unequivocal.[73] During the first two decades after the war, suggested that Broadnax was Wythe’s concubine and Brown so many Virginians freed slaves that the percentage of free was their son. Wythe’s biographer Imogene Brown noted blacks in the state rose from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 both Brown’s last name and Broadnax’s age made such unpercent by 1810.[74] However, this era also saw the develop- likely. Philip D. Morgan notes that there had been no docment of increasingly harsh slave laws, particularly as slave- umented gossip about Wythe and Broadnax at the time, unholders feared rebellions similar to the Haitian Revolution like the case of Jefferson and Hemings, covered by newswhich began in 1791. Tensions increased in 1793 when 137 papers and in individuals’ letters and diaries.[79] vessels bearing French refugees from Haiti (and their slaves) arrived in Richmond. John Marshall and other prominent citizens wrote Governor Light Horse Harry Lee about slave 52.3.2 Judicial decisions rebellion rumors, and white militia armed.[75] Also, invention of the cotton gin in 1794 made cotton production us- Wythe for years followed Virginia precedent (including the ing slave labor particularly profitable in the lower south, and 1768 case Blackwell v. Wilkinson[82] ) as he adjudicated those planters imported slaves from Maryland and Virginia, chancery cases treating slaves as property.[83] Slavery matespecially when importing slaves from Africa and Britain’s ters often went to chancery, because there were no remeCaribbean colonies became illegal and difficult. In 1798, dies at law. Virginia slave laws also became more severe as
52.4. DEATH SCANDAL Richmond’s importance as a slave trading center for points further south continued to increase, and French planters from what became Haiti came to Virginia with thousands of slaves. Wythe authored two legal opinions that attempted to steer Virginia away from the slave-based legal and economic system that entrenched in the early 19th century. Wythe and Pendleton both sat on the Chancery court bench which granted freedom to slaves in Pleasants v. Pleasants. However, that decision was appealed, and in 1799, after Virginia passed a law forbidding abolitionists from serving on juries in freedom suits, Wythe’s decision was modified by the appellate court led by Pendleton and Roane. This case concerned a Quaker’s 1771 will, which purported to free slaves before Wythe and Jefferson drafted the 1782 law which legalized manumission in Virginia. Robert Pleasants and some of his siblings had freed about 100 slaves as his late father had requested, after that became legal and they became 30, as the will specified. Robert Pleasants also lobbied extensively for manumission laws and founded the Virginia Abolition Society in 1790. John Marshall and John Warden represented the slaves seeking their freedom, and Pleasants as executor of his father’s will, as they jointly sued the siblings who failed to obey the testamentary instruction.[76] Each justice on the Court of Appeals in 'Pleasants v. Pleasants,' 2 Call 338-339 (1799) agreed with Wythe that the will could be enforced and called the slaves free. However, none of the justices (all slaveholders) thought Wythe’s grant of backpay proper, and they all also agreed that children borne to slave parents would not actually gain their freedom until they repaid their owners’ expenses in raising them, which in the intervening decades became quite large. Thus, although John Pleasants died holding over 530 slaves, fewer than a quarter received their freedom.
299 and Bett vs. Ashley, which held that Massachusetts’ constitution upheld freedom for all men. When Hudgins appealed to the Virginia Supreme Court after Wythe’s murder, all judges unanimously affirmed Wythe’s decision allowing Wright freedom, but only on limited grounds. Wythe’s former student St. George Tucker affirmed Wythe’s ruling only on the particular and limited nature of Indian enslavement in the state. The other extensive opinion in the case was by Judge Spencer Roane, who contrasted the presumption of freedom for Indians, as well as condemned Hudgins for failing to introduce evidence of any black ancestry of those seeking their freedom. Thus, all the appellate judges held that the two-decades old Declaration of Rights did not apply to blacks. Although Tucker (a slaveholder) rejected this judicial route to freedom, he had written in favor of [emancipation] and continued to fight for emancipation in other political venues.[89]
52.4
Death scandal
Main article: George Sweeney Trial By 1805, Wythe’s sister’s grandson, 17 year old George Wythe Sweeney, had come to live with his elderly namesake. The following spring, Wythe realized Sweeney stole some of his books, probably to repay gambling debts and support a dissolute lifestyle.[90] Wythe also revised his will in early 1806 because Thomas Jefferson had agreed to educate the young mulatto,[91][92] although those new provisions would have no effect if Brown died before Sweeney, as happened.
In one of Wythe’s last cases, Hudgins v. Wright[84] (1806), Wythe “singlehandedly tried to abolish slavery by judicial interpretation,” according to Paul Finkelman.[85] Jackey Wright, a slave, sued Houlder Hudgins (who, incidentally, had purchased Chesterville from Wythe)[86] for freedom for herself and her two children. Jackey based her claim on her descent from American Indians, including a woman named Butterwood Nan.[87] Indians were considered free in Virginia by this time.[88] Wythe ruled in favor of Wright on two grounds. He examined the women and noted that all three generations of the family showed only Indian and white ancestry, and no evidence of African ancestry. Because Hudgins did not provide definite proof of Wright’s descent from a slave mother (though he argued Wright’s grandmother was Betty Mingo not Hannah), Wythe conGeorge Wythe gravestone at St. John’s Episcopal Church in sidered Wright and her children “presumptively free”. AlRichmond, Virginia ternatively, Wythe held that “all men were presumptively free in Virginia in consequence of the 1776 Declaration of On Pentecost Sunday, May 25, Wythe, Broadnax and Rights.” This was similar to a contemporary ruling in Brom Brown all became violently ill. Richmond’s leading doc-
300 tors, Wythe’s old friend James McClurg, James McCaw and his personal physician William Foushee at first suspected cholera, dismissing Wythe’s claims of being poisoned.[93] Two days later, Sweeney tried to cash a $100 check drawn on Wythe’s account, which the bank found suspicious because Wythe’s illness had become news throughout the city. The bank retrieved several earlier checks, which Wythe had previously denied signing. Gravely ill but still trying to work on legal matters, Wythe refused to post bail for Sweeney, who was jailed.[94] Upon hearing that Brown had died on June 1, Wythe signed a codicil to his will drafted by Edmund Randolph that disinherited George Sweeney in favor of Charles, Jane and Ann Sweeney. Wythe also told the doctors “cut me.” Although McClurg often used bloodletting,[95] the doctors agreed that Wythe actually called for an autopsy after his death, which happened on June 8, 1806. Oddly, Houlder Hudgins served as administrator for at least two of the siblings, who soon became Wythe’s heirs.[96]
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
52.5
Legacy and honors
In his will, Wythe left his large book collection to Thomas Jefferson. This was part of the collection which Jefferson later sold to create the Library of Congress. Jefferson praised Wythe as "... my ancient master, my earliest and best friend, and to him I am indebted for first impressions which have [been] the most salutary on the course of my life.”[105] However, Jefferson later refused an offer of Wythe’s lecture notes and other legal papers, believing they should go instead to what became the Library of Virginia.[106] Last reported either in the possession of Spencer Roane(who burned many papers before his own death) or his ally Thomas Ritchie(publisher of the Richmond Enquirer), they were reported lost by the 1830s.[107]
Broadnax recovered (although she ultimately suffered the effects for the rest of her life, and received some support from Jefferson). Broadnax told many people that she had seen Sweeney put a powder in their morning coffee.[97] Other black witnesses saw Sweeney drop paper from the jail, which appeared to contain rat poison. However, both trial judges agreed that Virginia race laws prohibited blacks from testifying at the trial. After Wythe died, Sweeney was charged with poisoning Wythe and Brown with arsenic. Prominent attorneys William Wirt and Edmund Randolph defended Sweeney. The prosecutor was Philip Norborne Nicholas, Randolph’s son-in-law. Early on, the judges quashed the murder charge relating to Brown, because of his race. A jury acquitted Sweeney of Wythe’s murder. Some attributed the verdict to the botched autopsy (which failed to use wellknown tests for arsenic),[98] and equivocal testimony by the physicians.[99] Others blamed Virginia law, which since 1732 forbade testimony by black witnesses, whether free or enslaved. [100][101] In a separate trial for check forgery, Sweeney was convicted. However, that conviction was overruled on appeal based on a technicality in the forgery law that Wythe and Jefferson had drafted years earlier (recognizing the crime only against individual victims, not against corporations such as the bank).[102] Sweeney left for Tennessee. There, he reportedly was later convicted and Will of George Wythe, 1806, leaving books to Thomas Jefferson jailed for stealing a horse. Afterward he disappeared in Places associated with Wythe remain preserved today, and history.[103] over the centuries other places have been named in his Wythe’s funeral was the largest in state history until that honor: time. Richmond businesses closed for the day, and thousands lined the funeral route. The service was conducted at the state capitol.[104] Wythe was buried at St. John’s Church • Wythe’s home in Williamsburg, Virginia stands next in Richmond. to Bruton Parish Church, of which Wythe was a vestryman.[108] His house was acquired by the Colonial
52.6. SEE ALSO Williamsburg Foundation in 1938. Today it is operated as a museum, the Wythe House. • Several places in Virginia were named for him: Wythe County, Virginia, its county seat Wytheville; high schools in Wytheville and Richmond; an elementary school in Hampton; a section of US-301 named Wythe Street in Petersburg; and the Olde Wythe Neighborhood in Hampton. • The Marshall-Wythe School of Law at the College of William and Mary in Virginia. • George Wythe University in Salt Lake City, Utah.
301
52.6
See also
• George Wythe House • Founding Fathers of the United States • List of members of the Virginia House of Burgesses • U.S. Constitution, nationalist organizer in Convention.
52.7
Notes
[1] Robert M. Cover, Justice Accused: Antislavery and the Judicial Process, New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1975, pp. 51-55 [2] usconstitution.net Notes on the Constitution, US Constitution [3] Online site for Colonial Williamsburg [4] Alonzo Thomas Dill, George Wythe, Teacher of Liberty (Williamsburg, 1979), 5 [5] Dill at p. 12 indirectly citing George Wythe Mumford. [6] Dill, p. 10. [7] Dill p. 3. [8] Dill, pp. 12-15. [9] Imogene Brown, American Aristides (New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press 1981) at pp. 38-39. [10] Stanard, William G. and Mary Newton Stanard. The Virginia Colonial Register. Albany, NY: Joel Munsell’s Sons Publishers, 1902. OCLC 253261475, Retrieved July 15, 2011. p. 133. [11] Stanard, 1902, pp. 135, 137, 139, 140–146.
Thomas Jefferson's notes on biography of Wythe, 1820
• George Wythe Hotel in Wytheville. • George Wythe Randolph, Jefferson’s grandson who became the Secretary of War of the Confederate States of America. The actor William Bakewell played Wythe in the 1965 episode entitled “George Mason” of the NBC documentary series, Profiles in Courage, based on writings of John F. Kennedy. Laurence Naismith portrayed Mason, and Arthur Franz played James Madison.[109]
[12] Brown at pp. 47-48 argues that Wythe served as burgess from Elizabeth City Country during 1756, and the College of William and Mary in 1758, but Chiswell defeated Wythe for the Williamsburg seat and he also lost the Elizabeth City County election, according to Robert Bevier Kirtland, George Wythe: Lawyer, Revolutionary Judge, University of Michigan thesis 1983 (University microfilms available through ProQuest) at p. 89 (hence Kirtland), more difficult to find but presumably more polished even if still doublespaced is the book of the same title published in 1986 by Garland Publishing Inc. of New York. [13] Stanard, 1902, pp. 146–154. [14] Dill, p. 15. [15] Stanard, pp. 154–170–179.
302
[16] Brown, p. 36, citing William Meade, Old Churches, Ministers and Families of Virginia (Vol. 1)(Philadelphia 1856) p. 238 and a eulogy by Parson Weems reprinted in R.D. Anderson, “Chancellor Wythe and Parson Weems,” William and Mary Quarterly series 1, vol. 25 (July 1916) pp. 13-19. [17] Brown pp. 75-79. [18] Kirtland, p. 63. [19] Kirtland, at pp. 66-71. [20] Kirtland at 73. [21] Kirtland at p. 82. [22] Kirtland at pp. 82-83. [23] According to Kirtland at p. 84, since Routledge died intestate and without heirs, his estate ultimately became a substantial endowment for Hampden-Sydney College. [24] Kirtland at p. 86, quoting Marcus Fabius and Marcus Curtius, “To Metriotes,” Virginia Gazette (P&D), 12 September 1766.
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
[45] Kirtland pp. 107-108; Brown at p. 142. The other members, Richard Henry Lee and Robert Carter Nicholas, were not active in the design. For an explanation of the changed back motto, see Susan Dunn, Dominion of Memories: Jefferson, Madison & the Decline of Virginia (New York: Basic Books, 2007) p. 31. [46] Kirtland at pp. 110-118; Brown at pp. 174-196. George Mason and Thomas Ludwell Lee, while also appointed to the committee, soon resigned, citing health problems and lack of formal legal training. [47] Kirtland p. 5, citing William Pierce, “Character Sketches of Delegates to the Federal Convention” in Max Ferrand, The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 Vol. III p. 94. available at http://www.usconstitution.net/constframe.html [48] Brown at p. 241 citing David J. Mays, “Address on the Occasion of the Unveiling of the Bust of George Wythe"(Richmond: National Society of the Colonial Dames of America in the Commonwealth of Virginia, 1964) p. 8. [49] Brown at p. 220.
[25] Brown at pp. 85-86.
[50] Courthouse History, U.S. District Court, Washington, DC
[26] Brown at pp. 97-100. Wythe served as Fauquier’s executor with Robert Carter III.
[51] Brown, at p. 203.
[27] Kirtland, pp. 95-86. [28] Brown at pp. 100-101. [29] Brown, p. 101 citing Griffith, Virginia House of Burgesses, p. 51. [30] Brown at p. 101. [31] Brown at pp. 102-103. [32] Brown at p. 102-103. [33] “Key to Trumbull’s picture”, AmericanRevolution.org [34] Brown at p. 121. [35] Dill, p.1.
[52] Kirtland at pp. 155-158. [53] Brown p. 88. [54] Brown, p. 227 citing William and Mary Quarterly, series I, Vol. 6, pp. 182-83. [55] Brown at p. 225, citing John Tyler to Thomas Jefferson, November 12, 1810. [56] Thomas W. Strahan, Retainer from the Lord (Iowa, 1976) p. 34. [57] John T. Noonan, Jr., Persons and Masks of Law (New York: Farrar Straus, 1976) p. 31. [58] Kirtland pp. 172-188. [59] Library of Congress, Journals, Vol. 16, 79.
[36] Brown, pp. 114-116. [60] Library of Congress, Journals, Vol. 16, 254. [37] Kirtland, p. 104. [38] Brown, pp. 149-157. [39] Brown at p. 144. [40] Brown, pp. 93-94, 103-104, 143; Kirtland, p. 9. [41] Brown at p. 228. [42] Brown at p. 210.
[61] Kirtland pp. 183, 187. [62] Brown, pp. 254-257. [63] Kirtland pp. 180-181. [64] “Commonwealth v. Caton 1782”. Virginia1774.org. Retrieved 2013-09-11.
[43] Brown at pp. 210-212; Kirtland at pp. 128-129.
[65] Stanard at p. 39 citing 4 Call pp. 7-8. Caton is not listed as a party in the microfilm of Wythe’s critical volume.
[44] Kirtland p. 106; Brown p. 140-141.
[66] Brown at p. 249.
52.7. NOTES
[67] Kirtland pp. 179-180. The 1954 University of Virginia microfilm of the rare volume contains very few pages, although the index refers to more than 150 pages. For example, although the first numbered pages, 20-21, refer to Carter Braxton paying hard money debts in depreciated currency, the single-page index lists two cases concerning Braxton, the opposing litigants being Gregory in that beginning on the missing p. 13 and Love in the opinion supposedly beginning at the missing p. 58. [68] David J. Mays, Edmund Pendleton (Harvard University Press 1953) vol II, p. 296. [69] Pendleton was a named party in six other matters, for which the critical microfilm pages are missing. In addition to Page (beginning at the missing p. 127), the parties opposing a Pendleton in criticized decisions were Hinde (missing p. 145), Hoomes (missing p. 4), Lomax (missing p. 90), Ross (missing p. 147) and Whiting (missing p. 94). The 1814 Supreme Court case in which Justice Marshall wrote the opinion, Alexander v. Pendleton, 12 U.S. 462 (1814), was filed in 1806 against Nathanial Pendleton. [70] Judge Spencer Roane or a relative may have been the named party opposing Innes (as mentioned in the index as beginning on the missing p. 62--and Innes could have been another former Wythe student and lawyer Harry Innes, who became Kentucky’s first U.S. district judge). The index also mentions another matter involving a Roane opposing Hearne and his wife (which began on the missing p. 111). Pendleton’s co-executor and fellow Judge Peter Lyons might be the party opposing Dandridge in another case, in an index entry concerning an opinion starting on the missing p. 30. The carryover opinion on p. 32 concerns mistreatment of slave mothers causing their children to die. [71] Brown pp. 265-266. Roane wrote the 1804 opinion allowing the sale, though the degree to which he affirmed Wythe is unclear. 'Turpin v. Turpin' appears in the microfilmed index of Wythe’s volume of criticized cases issued years earlier, as starting on the missing p. 22. Roane’s opinion is discussed in Edwin J. Smith and William Edward Dodd, Spencer Roane (Randolph-Macon College: 1903) at pp. 1415. available free at google books but not downloading properly on 12/29/12. [72] Robert Cover, see note 1. [73] Noonan at p. 33. [74] Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619-1977, New York: Hill and Wang, 1993, p. 73. [75] Virginius Dabney, Richmond: The Story of a City (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, rev. ed. 1990) pp. 51-52. Six ships carrying between 500 and 1000 black Catholic refugees, some free and wealthy and some enslaved, arrived in Baltimore in July 1791 and/or June 1793 after unsuccessful stops in Charleston, South Carolina and Norfolk, Virginia. Successively led by Sulpician priests themselves fleeing the French Revolution, and later
303
Redemptorists and Jesuits, these black Catholics worshipped in the basement of St. Mary’s Seminary, then the basement chapel of St. Ignatius Church (renamed for St. Peter Claver) before eventually forming America’s first black parish, St. Francis Xavier Church (Baltimore, Maryland) during the Civil War era. Josephite priests also became associated with the parish a decade later, and the parish also moved in 1932 and 1968. http://www.josephite.com/parish/md/ sfx/page2.html http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker= 7563 These early Haitian refugees also founded the Oblate Sisters of Providence in 1828, which order continues its teaching mission. http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp? marker=5559 [76] “Virginia Abolition Society”. Richmondfriends.org. 200404-05. Retrieved 2013-09-11. [77] Dabney pp. 52-57. [78] Dabney at p. 60. [79] Philip D. Morgan, “Interracial Sex in the Chesapeake”, in Sally Hemings and Thomas Jefferson: History, Memory and Civic Culture, Eds. J.E. Lewis and P.S. Onuf. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999, pp. 55-60. [80] Bruce Chadwick, “The Mysterious Death of George Wythe”, American History, on History.net, February 2009, pp. 36-41 [81] Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, “George Wythe”, in Lives of the Signers to the Declaration of Independence, New York: William Reed & Co., 1856, pp. 364-372, accessed 6 April 2011 [82] Jefferson’s Rep. 73, 77 (1768), where the General Court had rejected his arguments against treating slaves as property [83] Noonan at pp. 46, 55-60. [84] Vernellia R. Randall (2010-01-01). “Hudgins v. Wrights (1806)". Academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved 2013-09-11. [85] Paul Finkelman, “Thomas Jefferson and Slavery: The Myth Goes On”, The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 102, No. 2, April 1994, p. 211. [86] Kirtland, pp. 164-167. Wythe sold Chesterville to Daniel Hylton in October 1792, which may have helped Wythe to move to Richmond. However, Hylton advertised the property for sale or exchange for property in New York, New Jersey or Philadelphia in 1795, and Wythe foreclosed on the property in 1800 and again became its owner by sheriffs sale in June 1801. The cause of the default is uncertain, for the records are thought destroyed by fire in April 1865. Wythe resold Chesterville to prominent landowner Houlder Hudgins of newly created but nearby Mathews County, Virginia via an Indenture dated December 6, 1802, in Elizabeth City County Deed and Will Book, no. 12, pp. 232-234. This Houlder Hudgins also became guardian for Charles and Jane Sweeney, and probably Anne Sweeney, as appears in an 1811 action for partition brought by John Cary and Anne
304
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
Sweeney Cary after their marriage, in vi, Henrico County [108] Williamsburg site, supra record order book no. 16, p.223 [109] ""George Mason” in Profiles in Courage, May 2, 1965”. [87] “Hudgins v. Wright Case Material”, Digital Archive: Internet Movie Data Base. Retrieved March 16, 2013. Tucker-Coleman Papers, Swem Library, William and Mary, available online, accessed 16 December 2012. [88] Ariela J. Gross (2008), What Blood Won't Tell: A History of Race on Trial in America, pp. 23-4 ISBN 978-0-674-031302
52.8
External links
[89] Cover (1975/1984), Justice Accused, p. 54.
• Philosophy and Biography on Wythe, George Wythe College, website
[90] Chadwick, Bruce, I am Murdered: George Wythe, Thomas Jefferson and the Killing that Shocked a New Nation (John Wiley and Sons, 2009) pp. 123-124.
• “Hudgins v. Wright Case Material”, Digital Archive: Tucker-Coleman Papers, Swem Library, William and Mary, available online
[91] Daniel Berexa, The Murder of Founding Father George Wythe Tennessee Bar Journal December 21, 2010, available at http://www.tba.org/journal/ the-murder-of-founding-father-george-wythe
• Rev. Charles A. Goodrich, “Biography of George Wythe”, 1856, Colonial Hall Website
[92] despite Jefferson questioning blacks’ mental capacities in Notes on the State Of Virginia available at http://frank.msu. edu/~{}lnelson/Jefferson-Slavery.html
• Wythepedia: The George Wythe Encyclopedia, Wolf Law Library, College of William & Mary
[93] Chadwick pp. 25-26. [94] Chadwick p. 124. [95] Chadwick p. 181. [96] Kirtland, pp. 166-167 citing an 1811 petition for partition in Vi, Henrico County Court Order Book, No. 16, p. 223. [97] “George Sweeney Trial: 1806”. encyclopaedia.com. Retrieved 2013-09-11. [98] Chadwick pp. 167-194. [99] Chadwick pp.195-215 [100] “George Sweeney Trial: 1806 - Sweeney Poisons Wythe And Is Tried For Murder - Coffee, Brown, Michael, and Pot - JRank Articles”. Law.jrank.org. Retrieved 2013-09-11. [101] Chadwick pp. 228-232. [102] Chadwick pp. 233-234. The legislature soon corrected the statute. [103] Chadwick pp. 238-249. [104] Chadwick, Bruce. “The Mysterious Death of Judge George Wythe”. Historynet.com. Retrieved 2013-09-11. [105] William & Mary Law School (1954-09-25). “William & Mary Law - George Wythe”. Law.wm.edu. Retrieved 201309-11. [106] Brown pp. 224-225. [107] Brown, p. 226; Kirtland, pp. 279-281. However, in the 1950s, David J. Mays, with the help of many others, managed to locate other reportedly long lost papers of that era, which enabled him to write Edmund Pendleton’s biography.
• George Wythe at Find a Grave
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
305
52.9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 52.9.1
Text
• Oliver Ellsworth Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Ellsworth?oldid=663214477 Contributors: Minesweeper, Angela, LouI, Jiang, Jengod, Jwrosenzweig, Dimadick, Chuunen Baka, RedWolf, Calmypal, Postdlf, Philwelch, Fishal, Jonel, Chrisn4255, Kuralyov, M1ss1ontomars2k4, D6, Bender235, Aude, Tom, Orlady, JW1805, Rajah, Krellis, Marianocecowski, Bbsrock, Msclguru, Mikeo, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Jason Palpatine, OCNative, BD2412, BorgHunter, MZMcBride, Qqqqqq, Gurch, Scott Mingus, Gwernol, YurikBot, Phantomsteve, Pigman, Anders.Warga, Chaser, Homagetocatalonia, Stilltim, Whobot, T. Anthony, Markvs88, NeilN, Philip Stevens, SmackBot, Cdogsimmons, Floydspinky71, Gilliam, Hmains, Andy M. Wang, Chris Hoffmann, EncMstr, Antonrojo, GoodDay, Sumahoy, Badbilltucker, SnappingTurtle, Rigadoun, Jperrylsu, Jmcneill2, BillFlis, Iridescent, Richard75, Jztinfinity, Supertigerman, JForget, Dk1965, Wooyi, American Saga, Cydebot, Dugwiki, AntiVandalBot, Davidderiso, DarkAudit, Noroton, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, GomiTaroGeorge42, Billmckern, The Mystery Man, DerHexer, PhantomS, JoDonHo, JayJasper, AntiSpamBot, Dcmacnut, Foofighter20x, Tomticker5, Packerfansam, Scewing, VolkovBot, WOSlinker, Godingo, Jdcrutch, GcSwRhIc, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Evanshine33, Qblik, Edward Jayne, Flyer22, Monegasque, Polbot, Kumioko (renamed), Diego Grez, Helmut Cabbage, BradMajors, TaerkastUA, Florentino floro, Duffy2032, Brigcmccoy, ClueBot, DFRussia, The Thing That Should Not Be, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, NuclearWarfare, 7&6=thirteen, Galaxy250, DumZiBoT, Joffle, Captain Omega, AlanM1, Autograph3, Rreagan007, Skarebo, MarmadukePercy, Good Olfactory, Cbrown285, Deineka, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Favonian, Acemisfit, Lightbot, Dimitris, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Bob Burkhardt, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Andrewmin, Raprchju, Eric Blatant, Krscal, TheVirginiaHistorian, Ben76266, Valerian456, DrilBot, W E Hill, Onel5969, Bento00, Jennhclark, ImprovingWiki, Asfdhasdf, Pokemon3988, Wikipelli, Housewatcher, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, CimanyD, Robert Keiden, Jschape, Lugia2453, McKeoJ, Telfordbuck, DavidLeighEllis, Alifmahmoud, Monkbot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 127 • Roger Sherman Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Sherman?oldid=663555208 Contributors: Someone else, Infrogmation, HollyAm, Tango, Ahoerstemeier, LouI, JASpencer, Jengod, Marknen, Zoicon5, Nv8200pa, Topbanana, Bearcat, Gentgeen, Postdlf, Inter, Fishal, Utcursch, Gzuckier, DragonflySixtyseven, Chrisn4255, Kuralyov, Neutrality, Mike Rosoft, D6, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Bender235, Kaisershatner, Huntster, Aude, Tom, RoyBoy, Triona, Orlady, Bobo192, Smalljim, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Sam Korn, Merope, Alansohn, Swimmerim21, AzaToth, Ksnow, Velella, Quaestor~enwiki, Vcelloho, Bsadowski1, GabrielF, Shawn Pickrell, TigerShark, Camw, Kosher Fan, MONGO, Bluemoose, Toussaint, Prashanthns, Abd, BD2412, Stmoose, Jweiss11, Compmary, Stilgar135, TrafficBenBoy, Durin, Yamamoto Ichiro, Leithp, Qqqqqq, FlaBot, KFP, AaronB0413, DVdm, Kellywatchthestars, Hall Monitor, Phantomsteve, Madkayaker, Hydrargyrum, Rsrikanth05, Afelton, Window, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Retired username, Kewp, Wknight94, Closedmouth, Whobot, Markvs88, Katieh5584, West Virginian, Sardanaphalus, Crystallina, SmackBot, Britannicus, Quinzy, Delldot, Floydspinky71, Sedonaarizona, Gilliam, Hmains, Betacommand, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Persian Poet Gal, Master of Puppets, Neo-Jay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Scray, Jeff DLB, Rrburke, Jared, MichaelBillington, Wybot, Sigma 7, BrotherFlounder, Kukini, Catapult, RomanSpa, A. Parrot, BillFlis, Slakr, Mr Stephen, Bryan the Magnificent, BranStark, Amakuru, Richard75, Blehfu, Adam sk, Tawkerbot2, Daniel5127, Albertod4, Liberal Freemason, Skybon, Gregbard, ProfessorPaul, Slazenger, Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Studerby, Shirulashem, 4321pickle, Epbr123, N5iln, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Mmortal03, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Quadrabev, Jj137, Noroton, Breffni Whelan, North Shoreman, Yellowdesk, Golgofrinchian, Robina Fox, Triviaa, Mantion, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, VoABot II, Tedickey, NyyDave, Waacstats, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, DerHexer, Esanchez7587, MartinBot, Arjun01, Johnpacklambert, KingJms407, Tgeairn, Calstanhope, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Eliz81, Dang Fool, Nyles7, JayJasper, Dmitri Yuriev, NewEnglandYankee, Clariosophic, Genisc, Malerin, Cometstyles, Zach425, Thismightbezach, 28bytes, VolkovBot, Sdehrer, Kwsn, Rizalninoynapoleon, Dancer111~enwiki, GcSwRhIc, Raepetersen, Dewey Finn, Dererman, Cerebellum, Ddd133, Broadbot, Ryuhaku, McM.bot, Andrewrost3241981, Historygeek too, Falcon8765, Turgan, TexieK, Onthetoiletseat, Bfpage, SieBot, Brenont, Keilana, Breawycker, Flyer22, Radon210, JD554, Monegasque, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Cbl62, Oculi, RSStockdale, Macy, Kumioko (renamed), Jzhaohd, Seaaron, BradMajors, Bee Cliff River Slob, WikipedianMarlith, Faithlessthewonderboy, Jpleban, ClueBot, Professor Hubert Farnsworth, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Uncle Milty, TypoBoy, Stadiumstatus, Excirial, Earthlinkyle, PixelBot, Chapmlg, Abrech, DeltaQuad, Kaiba, Royalmate1, Thingg, Aitias, Life of Riley, AncientToaster, Avoided, NellieBly, MarmadukePercy, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Gc1mak, Crazysane, LightSpectra, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, MonkeyGirl95, Download, Chamal N, Debresser, Shnookysiesta, DatelHacker, Tide rolls, MuZemike, Markvo, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Donfbreed, Floquenbeam, Tobymacfan32, Piano non troppo, Auranor, RobertEves92, Knickerbockervillage, Bob Burkhardt, JohnnyB256, Neurolysis, ArthurBot, Randy Seltzer, GenQuest, Subwsurban, Erik9, A.amitkumar, RightCowLeftCoast, Dan6hell66, BoomerAB, FrescoBot, Foax08, Recognizance, TheVirginiaHistorian, Salisburymiddleschool, Citation bot 1, I dream of horses, A8UDI, Tim1357, PiRSquared17, Yunshui, Miracle Pen, Mr Serjeant Buzfuz, Seahorseruler, Reboota, Raileyred, Mhall0256, XXColonistXx, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Woogee, RjwilmsiBot, Regancy42, Tsmith3452, CanadianPenguin, EmausBot, Dewritech, Wikipelli, K6ka, ZéroBot, PS., John Cline, PBS-AWB, Fæ, Josve05a, Naviguessor, Shellbell122, Alpha Quadrant (alt), SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Lokpest, ClueBot NG, MoJoe252, RogerShermanIsBoss, MelbourneStar, Ryananderson92, Dgieringer, O.Koslowski, Snakehed01, Widr, Amric913, Calabe1992, BG19bot, Apela, Blm123456, Mark Arsten, Rm1271, SJCJR, Insidiae, Glacialfox, Conifer, Camarobeo, Vibetech, YFdyh-bot, Myeah123, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Moranctffa96, Rotten regard, Randomwhoman, JC1008, Kmp62, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Jianhui67, MrScorch6200, OccultZone, Vieque, Beau8585, CowmanFTW, TranquilHope, Caliburn, MrTripplebob, Zebra213, Calzander, Infinite0694, KasparBot, JG1987, RERossbacher and Anonymous: 565 • George Read (U.S. statesman) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Read_(U.S._statesman)?oldid=663711757 Contributors: Someone else, Jengod, Sebastian Wallroth, Lord Emsworth, Adam Carr, Robbot, Earl Andrew, Postdlf, Everyking, Michael Devore, Jackrepenning, TiMike, D6, MBisanz, Tom, Kevin Myers, Rockhopper10r, Alansohn, Arthena, DLJessup, Bbsrock, Tainter, Fdewaele, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Bluemoose, Toussaint, Behun, GoldRingChip, Parmaestro, BD2412, Bhadani, Cincgreen, FlaBot, Scott Mingus, Metropolitan90, RobotE, RussBot, Lord Voldemort, Grafen, Camerafiend, Cleared as filed, Moe Epsilon, Stilltim, Livitup, Whobot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Brianyoumans, Floydspinky71, Jcbarr, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Bill Slawski, MichaelBillington, Ligulembot, Ohconfucius, CFLeon, BillFlis, Darry2385, Bibliopath, Drinibot, Chicheley, Cydebot, Studerby, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Big Bird, Noroton, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, VoABot II, Waacstats, Mgroop, RokinRyan, BaomoVW, MartinBot, J.delanoy, EATC, TomasBat, SJP, Packerfansam, Thismightbezach, Soliloquial, Ryuhaku, Illinoisavonlady, Dough4872, Matthew Yeager, Pubdog, AngelOfSadness, AMbot, BradMajors, Brigcmccoy, ClueBot, Halleygator, DragonBot, Thingg, SoxBot III, PS12, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Deineka, Addbot, Ironholds, Ashanda, Tide rolls,
306
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
Patent.drafter, ZX81, Eric-Wester, Synchronism, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Rydrobot, RevelationDirect, Bob Burkhardt, Capricorn42, GrouchoBot, Vincent pearse, Omnipaedista, Drdpw, Bgymnast, FrescoBot, Recognizance, TheVirginiaHistorian, Jun Nijo, Arctic Night, ActivExpression, Amn12, Miracle Pen, Diannaa, Stj6, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ScottyBerg, EleferenBot, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Dgjarvis, Joal Beal, Midas02, QEDK, L Kensington, ClueBot NG, Jamo58, IgnorantArmies, Hewhoamareismyself, BattyBot, Khazar2, VIAFbot, DavidLeighEllis, JC1008, JaconaFrere, Tjdunn1979, Ethelred unraed, Iswag12, KasparBot and Anonymous: 128 • Gunning Bedford, Jr. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunning_Bedford%2C_Jr.?oldid=663709932 Contributors: Mav, HollyAm, Rossami, Jengod, Dinopup, Sunray, Vikingstad, Jason Quinn, Antandrus, TiMike, DanielCD, Bender235, CanisRufus, Bobo192, Richi, Mindriot, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Versageek, Tainter, Brookie, Shimeru, Boothy443, Tabletop, Bluemoose, BD2412, Mendaliv, Kane5187, Qqqqqq, FlaBot, WillC, Wars, Skin, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, NawlinWiki, Acetic Acid, Mike Dillon, Stilltim, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, TimBentley, Bill Slawski, Smallbones, Boomshadow, Waggers, Shoreranger, Chicheley, Cydebot, Travelbird, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Smooth pappa, Ioeth, Mgroop, Veronica Mars fanatic, CBHistorians, Johnpacklambert, PrestonH, J.delanoy, Rgoodermote, 3mr0x0x, ABF, Junkdog8, Oshwah, Sniperz11, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, SieBot, Ipankonin, Monegasque, JSpung, BradMajors, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Brewcrewer, Echani419, RogDel, Addbot, Ashanda, Tassedethe, Zorrobot, Ben Ben, AdjustShift, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Jeffrey Mall, TheVirginiaHistorian, RedBot, Callanecc, Miracle Pen, Onel5969, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Lucifers Army, ZéroBot, Joal Beal, ClueBot NG, Widr, MusikAnimal, BattyBot, Khazar2, Lugia2453, Crow, Aristrudel, KasparBot and Anonymous: 74 • John Dickinson (Pennsylvania and Delaware) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dickinson_(Pennsylvania_and_Delaware)?oldid= 663873662 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, LouI, Jengod, Maximus Rex, TedErnst, HarryHenryGebel, Mark.murphy, Ich, Xinoph, Bovlb, Bgoldenberg, Bobblewik, Danny Rathjens, Adamsan, Neutrality, Adashiel, D6, Diagonalfish, Rich Farmbrough, Ibagli, Sc147, El C, QuartierLatin1968, Stesmo, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Ardric47, Polylerus, Danski14, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Complex01, Great Scott, DLJessup, Bbsrock, BDD, Urban~enwiki, Fdewaele, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Dodiad, Cbustapeck, Bluemoose, 12818894, BD2412, Icey, Kane5187, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Kinu, FlaBot, WillC, Ubernerd68, Alphachimp, PKM, IrishWolfhoundJC, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, Agamemnon2, Gwernol, Kralahome, YurikBot, Gaius Cornelius, Flyguy33, NawlinWiki, SpeDIt, Welsh, Moe Epsilon, EEMIV, Stilltim, Josh3580, Npeters22, Mais oui!, NeilN, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, KMcD, Ma8thew, Jcbarr, Moralis, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bill Slawski, Darth Panda, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Geoffrey Matthews, Shalom Yechiel, Smallbones, Carnifex, Onorem, Rrburke, Mhym, Pastorwayne, Downwards, Ligulembot, EMan32x, Valfontis, AnonEMouse, Gobonobo, Roman Spinner, Shlomke, JHunterJ, BillFlis, Wikster72, Andreworkney, Wallstreethotrod, Richard75, Dlohcierekim, Woudloper, PurpleChez, Dk1965, Missivonne, NickW557, NE Ent, Chicheley, Slazenger, Cydebot, Ntsimp, Gogo Dodo, Pascal.Tesson, SeanMon, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Drupprec, Vidor, James086, Smooth pappa, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, Sabar, FHSerkland, Casper Claiborne, Noroton, Lonestar662p3, Midnightdreary, Sitethief, Hut 8.5, Meredithand, Wildhartlivie, Freshacconci, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Granite26, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, Lenschulwitz, DerHexer, Ronwass, Stevepaget, Que sera sera, Jim.henderson, CommonsDelinker, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Colonelcordiall, Uncle Dick, Sirtrebuchet, Piuslxix, Thucydides411, Sutermeister, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Abercali, KylieTastic, Jevansen, Vanished user 39948282, MBlue2020, Octalswiki, Jordalus, CWii, JGHowes, Lear’s Fool, Pattleyd, Kameyama, Rasillon, Philip Trueman, Ilyjordanx33, T-bonham, Charbroil, CleanUp2, Leviton, Skrappyj, Ryuhaku, Tcarterva, Giantgroundsloth, Madhero88, Insanity Incarnate, Why Not A Duck, Cindamuse, I'm nonpartisan, SieBot, Daking321, Revent, Keilana, Rosspz, Homeschoolrulez, Lightmouse, Kumioko (renamed), Segregold, Fullobeans, BradMajors, Denisarona, Randy Kryn, Danicalove79, Luatha, Dovidl, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hult041956, Piece.of.eight, Bbb2007, Jusdafax, Sun Creator, M.O.X, Wkharrisjr, SchreiberBike, NERIC-Security, XLinkBot, Gnowor, Hbslant, Dthomsen8, Rigby27, PL290, Rcdhac, Proofreader77, DOI bot, Jojhutton, Latinology~enwiki, Stemurph88, Fieldday-sunday, Fluffernutter, Epicadam, MacLennon, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Patent.drafter, Yobot, Fraggle81, Manoridius, AnomieBOT, PonileExpress, Marauder40, Kingpin13, Miri99, Careful Cowboy, Citation bot, OllieFury, RevelationDirect, Xqbot, Meanskeeps, Sketchmoose, Cureden, GenQuest, Amaury, Nitpyck, FrescoBot, Tchoumphioue, TheVirginiaHistorian, Dirtlawyer1, Citation bot 1, Lvb314, RandomStringOfCharacters, Reconsider the static, Jrmurad, Ndickinson1, Javierito92, Canuckian89, PleaseStand, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Guy Knapp, GoingBatty, Ppjffntghzsdx, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Midas02, MonoAV, Puffin, TYelliot, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Mm6119, Tappinquaker595, Cbhunter65, Jamo58, Jacknorris12354, Helpful Pixie Bot, Alafarge, Risukarhi, Calabe1992, Ramaksoud2000, KLBot2, Marsohod17, Mariorules24, Jweaver28, MusikAnimal, GramereC, Epicurus B., America treasure, YoSoySalvadorDali, Orikrin1998, Simeondahl, Lukas²³, Vanished user lt94ma34le12, GoShow, Soni, VIAFbot, Jackstupz, Big daddy875, Epicgenius, BreakfastJr, Toonlink91, Ginsuloft, OccultZone, Archwayh, Monkbot, SmartBunnyGirl9810, BethNaught, Heckjoe, TranquilHope, Aristrudel, KasparBot and Anonymous: 320 • Richard Bassett (politician) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Bassett_(politician)?oldid=663709865 Contributors: LouI, Jengod, HarryHenryGebel, Vikingstad, Everyking, Jonel, Pmanderson, TiMike, Neutrality, D6, Bender235, Tom, Kevin Myers, Merope, Mindriot, DLJessup, Boothy443, Bluemoose, BD2412, Kbdank71, FlaBot, Wars, Bgwhite, RussBot, Jim Campbell, Rayc, Stilltim, Marc29th, Whobot, That Guy, From That Show!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Hmains, TimBentley, Sadads, Bill Slawski, Smallbones, JJstroker, Valfontis, Roman Spinner, Makyen, WilliamJE, Cydebot, Khatru2, Studerby, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Smooth pappa, Wildhartlivie, Bencherlite, Mgroop, KConWiki, Kraxler, CommonsDelinker, JSweit8573, Malerin, Packerfansam, Thismightbezach, Ryuhaku, Flyer22, AMbot, ClueBot, Arjayay, Gavin Mitchell, Thingg, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Tassedethe, Golom1223, Luckas Blade, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Citation bot, RevelationDirect, Meanskeeps, GrouchoBot, Boleyn3, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Joal Beal, ClueBot NG, Jamo58, Widr, IgnorantArmies, Khazar2, ToBeFree, VIAFbot, Ecward, Haminoon, KasparBot and Anonymous: 44 • Jacob Broom Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Broom?oldid=663763903 Contributors: Jengod, Wereon, TiMike, RobbieFal, D6, Bobo192, Alansohn, BRW, Bluemoose, Allen3, FlaBot, JdforresterBot, DVdm, YurikBot, NawlinWiki, Doncram, Stilltim, Npeters22, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Grazon, Chairman S., Mdd4696, Smallbones, CBM, Chicheley, Cydebot, HokieRNB, Omicronpersei8, Smooth pappa, DuncanHill, Magioladitis, Waacstats, Mgroop, Darrenemerath23, Philip Trueman, Woilorio, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, BOTijo, Gaelen S., Dough4872, Calabraxthis, Monegasque, Oxymoron83, Escape Orbit, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, CasualObserver'48, Brewcrewer, EstherLois, DumZiBoT, AgnosticPreachersKid, RogDel, Rror, Dthomsen8, LeheckaG, MystBot, Addbot, Guoguo12, Jncraton, Swarm, Killiondude, Ipatrol, RevelationDirect, Harper8, Doulos Christos, Vrenator, RjwilmsiBot, Slon02, EleferenBot, Joal Beal, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Glacialfox, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Kyle mcdowell, Johnuy, OccultZone, WordSeventeen, KasparBot, Jacobbroom and Anonymous: 63 • William Few Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Few?oldid=652044761 Contributors: Mav, LouI, Jengod, SatyrTN, Academic Challenger, Vikingstad, Rpyle731, Stevietheman, Jonel, Jossi, TiMike, Neutrality, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Wolfman, Aude, Tom, Alansohn, Arthena, Mikeo, GabrielF, Daniel Case, Bluemoose, Descendall, BD2412, Koavf, Valentinejoesmith, DoubleBlue, WillC, Rsrikanth05, Calsicol,
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
307
THB, Novasource, Theda, Marc29th, JuJube, Whobot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Grazon, Floydspinky71, Hmains, TimBentley, Evets70, IronGargoyle, BillFlis, Swampyank, Iridescent, Roswell native, Blehfu, JoannaSerah, Drinibot, Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Khatru2, Chrislk02, Bluedog423, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Smooth pappa, Eleuther, Magioladitis, Connormah, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, Tlmclain, JaGa, Thompson.matthew, J.delanoy, Useight, SoCalSuperEagle, Thismightbezach, Susan Few Adams, Hammersoft, Philip Trueman, Ryuhaku, McM.bot, SpecMode, Eagles4life123, BotMultichill, Monegasque, CutOffTies, Polbot, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, Brigcmccoy, ClueBot, NickCT, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Special Education Squad, Lord Cornwallis, RogDel, Exit70, Addbot, 2D, Materialscientist, Dude1337, Maniadis, Xqbot, Meaghan, Jhbuk, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Cdtew, EmausBot, Jlrmoody, WFP kla.met, Sweettart66, ZéroBot, PS., John Cline, Whirdrag, MonoAV, Donner60, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, BG19bot, Wiki13, Altaïr, ProudIrishAspie, BattyBot, Griot-de, Godot13, GorgoloxTheDestroyer, JC1008, StevenD99, OccultZone, Hovenweep and Anonymous: 107 • Abraham Baldwin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham_Baldwin?oldid=660743356 Contributors: The Anome, Modster, Docu, Whkoh, LouI, Gh, Jengod, Radiojon, Johnleemk, Bearcat, Sunray, Hadal, UtherSRG, Vikingstad, Davidcannon, Nunh-huh, Zigger, Gamaliel, Jonel, Chrisn4255, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, Trevor MacInnis, D6, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Holford, Kaisershatner, Shanes, Tom, Bjoel5785, Kevin Myers, Alansohn, FeanorStar7, Camw, JRHorse, Bluemoose, Bhadani, Ground Zero, Wars, BradBeattie, Briaboru, RadioFan, NihilisticMystic, Syrthiss, Rwalker, Closedmouth, Npeters22, Whobot, Staxringold, Allens, Sycthos, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Grazon, Rrius, KocjoBot~enwiki, Floydspinky71, Gilliam, Betacommand, TimBentley, Sadads, GoodDay, RFD, Hammer1980, Mathmannix, Attucks, Pilotguy, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, SuperNova, Catapult, Vinland~enwiki, BillFlis, Fac Id, Jetman, Roswell native, Richard75, Lbr123, JForget, Wooyi, Cydebot, Shirulashem, Andyjsmith, Michael A. White, Smooth pappa, Magioladitis, Connormah, VoABot II, Pvmoutside, Mgroop, Robotman1974, Johnpacklambert, Aboutmovies, Woodega, SJP, Dcmacnut, Ja 62, Airbornehannah, Scewing, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, Lear’s Fool, Kameyama, Philip Trueman, Ryuhaku, Bentley4, Fiddy Nine, Pizzle433, Synthebot, Cbjohnny, Qblik, Revent, Keilana, Monegasque, Granf, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Lightmouse, Polbot, SH84, Crisis, Sean.hoyland, BradMajors, TubularWorld, ClueBot, Parkwells, Auntof6, Rhatsa26X, Terra Xin, 7&6=thirteen, Pputter, The Special Education Squad, Onstar, Versus22, SoxBot III, RogDel, Nepenthes, Good Olfactory, Deineka, Addbot, Richmond96, AndersBot, XRK, Abdulh42, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Gowser, Maxis ftw, 1946ph, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Outback the koala, DrilBot, Pinethicket, A412, Rheave, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Joal Beal, 1234r00t, Shortdwarf13, L Kensington, DASHBotAV, Taliesin717, ClueBot NG, Beththelibrarian, Frietjes, Compfreak7, Fylbecatulous, SD5bot, VIAFbot, 069952497a, DMB112, Linonia, OccultZone, Xenxax, Jayakumar RG, Aminder15, Happycowmoo, KasparBot and Anonymous: 138 • William Houston Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Houston?oldid=656097122 Contributors: Ixfd64, Everyking, TiMike, TonyW, JW1805, Wtmitchell, FeanorStar7, Rjwilmsi, Compmary, Awotter, GusF, SmackBot, Dangherous~enwiki, Cool3, Fuhghettaboutit, Mary Read, Serpentinite, BillFlis, Woodshed, Tex, Jowan2005, Cydebot, Waacstats, MartinBot, Tikkun37, Labbitman, Ryuhaku, SieBot, Monegasque, Techman224, BradMajors, ClueBot, Cygnis insignis, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, LoveStreamFlow, Addbot, Cte411, Elemented9, Download, Omnipaedista, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Hajatvrc, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Widr, Mjfaber, WebTV3, The Illusive Man, VONKEYSEr, Epicgenius and Anonymous: 29 • William Pierce (politician) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pierce_(politician)?oldid=660683746 Contributors: Zoicon5, Postdlf, Everyking, Utcursch, D6, Kevin Myers, Shreevatsa, Scott Mingus, RussBot, Lordbalfour, SmackBot, Bluebot, Euchiasmus, Jwalte04, Mike 7, Cydebot, ST47, Luna Santin, Waacstats, ClovisPt, Loonymonkey, DrSciencePHD, J.delanoy, Jrcla2, DidacticRogue, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, BOTijo, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, ClueBot, Addbot, Favonian, Lightbot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Tad Lincoln, Full-date unlinking bot, RjwilmsiBot, Wikipelli, Joal Beal, ClueBot NG, Encycloshave, ChrisGualtieri, VIAFbot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 28 • Daniel Carroll Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Carroll?oldid=662786140 Contributors: LouI, Jengod, Francs2000, Gentgeen, Vikingstad, Jonel, TiMike, Picapica, D6, Paul August, Mateo SA, CanisRufus, Aude, Tom, Smalljim, Kevin Myers, Alansohn, Cypocryphy, Bluemoose, SMC, Ground Zero, NekoDaemon, Bgwhite, Stephenb, Richardcavell, Whobot, T. Anthony, Nick-D, West Virginian, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Hmains, TimBentley, JackyR, Sadads, Ohconfucius, BillFlis, Arnebeck, Wallstreethotrod, Onathinwhiteline, CWY2190, Chicheley, Cydebot, Bazzargh, Omicronpersei8, Nick Number, Smooth pappa, Escarbot, AuburnPilot, Xn4, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, MartinBot, HOT L Baltimore, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Bobianite, Thismightbezach, GrahamHardy, Kameyama, T-bonham, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Gibson Flying V, Toddst1, Lightmouse, BradMajors, Randy Kryn, Deanlaw, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mgafan, LizardJr8, Parkwells, Addbot, Andrewsthistle, Fieldday-sunday, Mragsdale, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Shahsan, Yobot, RockfangBot, AnomieBOT, JPWfriesland, Dogwood123, Jim1138, Flewis, GenQuest, Rushbugled13, Skyerise, A8UDI, Nora lives, Trappist the monk, Suffusion of Yellow, RjwilmsiBot, Chris Rocen, DASHBot, GoingBatty, ZéroBot, Anir1uph, Rails, Amish 01, Kilopi, Akasseb, ClueBot NG, Mannanan51, MusikAnimal, Snow Blizzard, BattyBot, SD5bot, MadGuy7023, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Yoloswagstee, Heyheyheybye, KasparBot and Anonymous: 83 • James McHenry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McHenry?oldid=660741899 Contributors: LouI, John K, Jengod, Zoicon5, Mackensen, Hadal, Gamaliel, DRE, TiMike, Klemen Kocjancic, DMG413, Grunt, D6, ESkog, Brian0918, Jmboothe, JW1805, PaulHanson, Buaidh, Complex01, Snowolf, Bbsrock, Urban~enwiki, Boothy443, Woohookitty, MK2, Jeff3000, Ardfern, Bluemoose, Youngamerican, Mandarax, Kbdank71, Rogerd, Ian Pitchford, Vclaw, Gurch, DVdm, YurikBot, GusF, Gaius Cornelius, GeeJo, Aeusoes1, Evrik, Emijrp, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Delldot, ERcheck, Chris the speller, Liamdaly620, Sadads, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, JJstroker, Jperrylsu, Wash West 191, JHunterJ, MrDolomite, Jim856796, Jwalte04, Fdp, HennessyC, Cydebot, Gnfnrf, Rougher07, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Therequiembellishere, Samwisep86, Smooth pappa, Midnightdreary, Hut 8.5, Connormah, Wikidudeman, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, Kraxler, STBotD, Packerfansam, Thismightbezach, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Kameyama, Philip Trueman, Celtus, Cosmic Latte, GcSwRhIc, Qxz, Snowbot, Bahamut0013, BOTijo, Kernel Saunters, Monegasque, BradMajors, ClueBot, Niceguyedc, Parkwells, Auntof6, DragonBot, JGMcCurdy, Searcher 1990, Lord Cornwallis, Writergeek7, RogDel, Corker1, Ejosse1, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Atethnekos, LightSpectra, Ronhjones, GW2000, Favonian, Tide rolls, Historyetc, Luckas-bot, BoringHistoryGuy, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Maddie!, Burntdog, A412, Lars Washington, Full-date unlinking bot, Orenburg1, SongspiritUSA, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Slon02, Wiitraitor, EmausBot, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, MithrandirAgain, Cyberdog958, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Murry1975, Qhuiakck4001, MusikAnimal, TejasDiscipulus2, V.greglan, Achowat, NitRav, VIAFbot, Markhhill11, Tentinator, Somchai Sun, OccultZone, Wikmac~enwiki, KasparBot and Anonymous: 105 • John Francis Mercer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Francis_Mercer?oldid=660335190 Contributors: LouI, Bearcat, Tom, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Dhartung, Jack Cox, FlaBot, WillC, NekoDaemon, RussBot, Whobot, West Virginian, IP4240207xx, Sardanaphalus, Smack-
308
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
Bot, RobStreatham, Hmains, Mairibot, GoodDay, Ohconfucius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BillFlis, Wallstreethotrod, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Tedickey, Waacstats, J.delanoy, M-le-mot-dit, Thismightbezach, Ryuhaku, Toddst1, PbBot, BradMajors, ImageRemovalBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Lightbot, Citation bot 1, RedBot, RjwilmsiBot, Lmeeth, ClueBot NG, Glacialfox, BattyBot, VIAFbot, Duckduckstop, Ginsuloft, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, OccultZone, Monkbot, Kdong1775, KasparBot and Anonymous: 22 • Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer?oldid=631698197 Contributors: D, LouI, Jengod, Vikingstad, Lupo, Everyking, DMG413, D6, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, Mateo SA, Kaisershatner, CanisRufus, Tom, Kevin Myers, Alansohn, DLJessup, Ksnow, Cypocryphy, Bluemoose, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, RussBot, Zafiroblue05, Gustavb, Obey, AjaxSmack, Stilltim, Sardanaphalus, Pennywisdom2099, Kintetsubuffalo, Chris the speller, Sadads, Kotjze, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, BillFlis, Joseph Solis in Australia, Courcelles, Marek69, Smooth pappa, AntiVandalBot, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, J.delanoy, Thismightbezach, Indubitably, Kameyama, Ryuhaku, Liberalartist, Rontrigger, Qblik, Krawi, Pubdog, Lightmouse, BradMajors, Danio, Bibliophylax, ClueBot, Addbot, Jojhutton, CanadianLinuxUser, Favonian, Jaydec, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Captain-n00dle, LucienBOT, VS6507, I dream of horses, Antirapper0809, GoingBatty, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Wayne Slam, Thine Antique Pen, Färber, ClueBot NG, Jweaver28, AvocatoBot, Snow Blizzard, VIAFbot, JC1008 and Anonymous: 44 • Elbridge Gerry Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elbridge_Gerry?oldid=662535194 Contributors: The Cunctator, LA2, Danny, Rmhermen, Enchanter, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Zoe, Hephaestos, Pit~enwiki, Tgeorgescu, Minesweeper, Egil, Docu, Kingturtle, Darkwind, LouI, Kaihsu, John K, Jengod, Emperorbma, Tedius Zanarukando, Fvw, Dimadick, Robbot, Postdlf, Fuelbottle, Raeky, Ruakh, Xyzzyva, Christopher Parham, WHEELER, Golbez, Lst27, Jonel, JimWae, Ellsworth, Sam Hocevar, TiMike, Edsanville, Jewbacca, Muijz, D6, Freakofnurture, Eyrian, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Sahasrahla, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Kwamikagami, Tom, Bobo192, AKGhetto, JW1805, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Slof, Fat pig73, DLJessup, TommyBoy, Bart133, MattWade, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, BaronLarf, Proski, RandomWalk, Kazvorpal, Fdewaele, Bastin, Jcbarret, Angr, Rorschach, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, TigerShark, LOL, Toussaint, Driftwoodzebulin, Mandarax, GoldRingChip, BD2412, Ted Wilkes, Ittiz, FlaBot, WillC, Margosbot~enwiki, NekoDaemon, Str1977, CJLL Wright, YurikBot, Simtropolitan, Rjensen, Howcheng, Ospalh, Kmusser, Zzuuzz, Silverhorse, Fang Aili, Katieh5584, Tim1965, NeilN, Philip Stevens, Stephennarmstrong, Kf4bdy, Harriman~enwiki, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Rrius, B3rnd, Eskimbot, Cessator, Hmains, Betacommand, Durova, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Kurykh, Emufarmers, Darth Panda, AKMask, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Dlippman, Jajhill, Samuel 69105, Nakon, JJstroker, MichaelBillington, Pilotguy, Bcasterline, CPMcE, Volcycle, Ocatecir, Thomas Gilling, BillFlis, AQuandary, Swampyank, Jetman, CapitalR, Richard75, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, Woodshed, JayHenry, Eastlaw, HennessyC, Spacini, JForget, Dk1965, American Saga, Fletcher, Cydebot, Mike65535, Rougher07, Thijs!bot, Lord rune 9, Devilhonky, John254, Astynax, Massimo Macconi, Rhelmerichs, Maxhawkins, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Noroton, Settler, Accordionman, Yellowdesk, Mwprods, Tigga, Deflective, MER-C, Midnightdreary, Jjacobsmeyer, Wildhartlivie, Magioladitis, Connormah, VoABot II, JNW, Waacstats, Pvmoutside, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, Neonblak, MartinBot, R'n'B, Johnpacklambert, J.delanoy, Rrostrom, MrBell, It Is Me Here, Aboutmovies, JayJasper, Robertgreer, Jjmillerhistorian, Foofighter20x, UnitedStatesIndia, Thismightbezach, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, ABF, Tesscass, EchoBravo, TXiKiBoT, Rizalninoynapoleon, Maximillion Pegasus, Davehi1, GcSwRhIc, Raymondwinn, Snowbot, Andrewrost3241981, Spikethedog, Wenli, Enviroboy, Turgan, Monty845, Logan, NHRHS2010, Alex Middleton, WRK, Keilana, Flyer22, Lightmouse, SimonTrew, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, Iamwisesun, Bee Cliff River Slob, Joshandjea, MenoBot, ClueBot, Sean0399, All Hallow’s Wraith, Ventusa, Timberframe, Piledhigheranddeeper, DragonBot, Excirial, Rhododendrites, The Special Education Squad, Thingg, Aitias, RogDel, Noctibus, Brandflake88, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, RandySavageFTW, Jojhutton, ContiAWB, Cst17, Download, Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, Andresswift, Celoron, Magicpiano, Materialscientist, Jape57, Maxis ftw, Jayarathina, TinucherianBot II, X3nogears, GenQuest, Heslopian, AbigailAbernathy, Omnipaedista, Cekli829, James1902004, TheVirginiaHistorian, Fenway14, Jack Bornholm, Jun Nijo, Maher27777, I dream of horses, Fandriampahalamana, Jonesey95, Sumone10154, Diannaa, Ammodramus, EugeneKay, RjwilmsiBot, Allieani, ZipperScooter, EmausBot, Minimac’s Clone, ZéroBot, Ὁ οἶστρος, SporkBot, Wjddbsals, Kmartis, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, Ejensyd, Treydle, Slslslsldustin, Candleabracadabra, Jweaver28, Brian5450, Achowat, YFdyh-bot, SD5bot, Khazar2, Mogism, VIAFbot, Hillbillyholiday, Danno629, FallingGravity, OccultZone, Diva14lolz, ConstitutionWarrior, Monkbot, Ilikeguuda, Jackhhay, Acarrieri, Junky One Nine, KasparBot and Anonymous: 205 • Nathaniel Gorham Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Gorham?oldid=660891981 Contributors: Mav, Zoe, Paul A, Darkwind, LouI, Jiang, Jengod, Emperorbma, Mackensen, Chuunen Baka, Bearcat, Calmypal, Phil5329, Nunh-huh, Bkonrad, Bobblewik, Golbez, Btphelps, Gadfium, Patteroast, Cape cod naturalist, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, Rfl, Zarxos, Bender235, Bobo192, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Alansohn, LtNOWIS, AzaToth, DLJessup, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Bluemoose, Paxsimius, Mandarax, GoldRingChip, Rjwilmsi, Smismumi7654967845, Surferdude4000, Sailorfiddle, SchuminWeb, Harmil, Bgwhite, Kafziel, Fram, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Bluebot, SchfiftyThree, Nakon, Kotjze, Iridescent, Paora, Newyorkbrad, Chamberlian, Cydebot, Besieged, Scooteristi, NorwegianBlue, Smooth pappa, Prolog, RedCoat10, Dan D. Ric, Connormah, Xb2u7Zjzc32, Waacstats, Mgroop, Kiore, AlexiusHoratius, Aboutmovies, Jjmillerhistorian, KylieTastic, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, AmesG, Kameyama, Philip Trueman, XavierGreen, FitzColinGerald, Zero9bumb, Anna Lincoln, Martin451, Ryuhaku, McGrupp10799, CutOffTies, RSStockdale, BradMajors, ClueBot, Vivio Testarossa, Dspark76, Cedarkey1, Stas.klos, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Cst17, Kaj1mada, Lightbot, Againme, AnomieBOT, RatOmeter2, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, Pmaier4, Coingeek, Dranster, Mìthrandir, TheVirginiaHistorian, BenzolBot, Redrose64, Javierito92, Diannaa, RjwilmsiBot, Lilniz2, Zerotonin, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, L Kensington, Senjuto, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vickigorham, BG19bot, MrBill3, TBrandley, Bill1229, VIAFbot, JC1008, Dodaniel, Monkbot, Budderbruh, KasparBot and Anonymous: 83 • Rufus King Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rufus_King?oldid=664233479 Contributors: Rmhermen, Ezubaric, Someone else, Ixfd64, Minesweeper, Ahoerstemeier, LouI, John K, EdH, Jengod, Smith03, RickK, JCarriker, Zoicon5, Saltine, SEWilco, Francs2000, KuatofKDY, Dimadick, Chuunen Baka, Postdlf, Rasmus Faber, SoLando, Seth Ilys, Nunh-huh, Everyking, Bobblewik, Alanl, Quadell, Kuralyov, Neutrality, Kevyn, D6, Discospinster, Farkas2029, Rich Farmbrough, Vsmith, Moki80, Bender235, Tom, Smalljim, Kevin Myers, Krellis, Alansohn, Arthena, Complex01, DLJessup, Youngholla, Brholden, Dan East, Hbdragon88, Damicatz, Bluemoose, Cuchullain, BD2412, Angusmclellan, Koavf, Habap, Old Moonraker, King of Hearts, Scott Mingus, Bgwhite, Eweisser, RussBot, NawlinWiki, Joshdboz, Rjensen, Moe Epsilon, Tony1, BusterD, Wknight94, Ray Chason, Whobot, Dennishidalgo, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Aelfthrytha, KnowledgeOfSelf, Floydspinky71, Maarten1963, Gilliam, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, Sadads, Quackslikeaduck, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jwillbur, Rrburke, Wine Guy, Bigturtle, TGC55, BinaryTed, Rory096, Jperrylsu, BuckyRea, IronGargoyle, G1076, Wjejskenewr, Namiba, Travisl, Vazor20X6, Wafulz, Neelix, Chicheley, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Doug Weller, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Dogaroon, Mojo Hand, Amarok Star, Marek69, Smooth pappa, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Mdotley, Gökhan, Leuko, Postcard Cathy, Hello32020, Plm209, Hut 8.5, PhilKnight, Connormah, Canjth, VoABot II, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, Catgut, Animum, The Mystery Man, Kraxler, Rettetast, Keith D, Zeete,
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
309
Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Rrostrom, 8th Ohio Volunteers, S searfus, JayJasper, ZACHEASTWOOD, Robertgreer, Fusek71, Biglovinb, Juliancolton, Foofighter20x, Zach425, Thismightbezach, Station1, Philip Trueman, Moogwrench, GcSwRhIc, SteveStrummer, Dukeofbilliam, Madacho, Hburg, LeaveSleaves, Snowbot, Cremepuff222, Captainkt, BOTijo, NHRHS2010, Canoescanoes, SheepNotGoats, Mikebar, Pubdog, Monegasque, Oxymoron83, Kumioko (renamed), Chadoz, StaticGull, BradMajors, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, SuperHercules, Moopy13, Wysprgr2005, MorganaFiolett, Brettlesbo, TheSmuel, Kevin Yie, Grmsbballa, Hattak, 7&6=thirteen, Joeproszek, Thingg, Mklobas, Mylo727, Ari Publican, AgnosticPreachersKid, RogDel, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Jojhutton, Download, LaaknorBot, Lightbot, Spaceman101, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Ambire21, Xqt, Asimonds, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, Materialscientist, Mkcbmore, GrouchoBot, Dranster, TheVirginiaHistorian, Ben76266, Moonraker, White Shadows, Roseohioresident, Kgrad, Professor Fiendish, Canuckian89, Wantonlife, Jesuschristtheman2, Jesuschristtheman3, DASHBot, EmausBot, Jensenli, Yinglichao, Yinglireyes, Super48paul, Pokemon3988, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Rcsprinter123, Chewings72, ChuispastonBot, Special Cases, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Trev2196, Widr, WikiPuppies, Calabe1992, Moore2012, BG19bot, Hippywhip123, Amp71, Wikih101, Glacialfox, Onemilenorth, Kkhowlee, Jackvigdor, Razor678, Dbrice88, ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, Mogism, VIAFbot, Discuss-Dubious, Nimetapoeg, Djg1225, Aby778kkl90, JC1008, OccultZone, Stamptrader, Acarrieri, ADGB1750, Pokermydog, Braj Union, Simonkluger, KasparBot, Chemobruno123 and Anonymous: 274 • Caleb Strong Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caleb_Strong?oldid=661602859 Contributors: Docu, LouI, Jengod, Saint-Paddy, Postdlf, OldakQuill, Kuralyov, D6, Sahasrahla, Tom, Bobo192, Kevin Myers, JoaoRicardo, RandomWalk, Bellhalla, Rjwilmsi, Carbonite, WillC, Crisco 1492, Zzuuzz, Whobot, Jaranda, Poulpy, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Ma8thew, RobStreatham, Stev0, Mathwizard1232, GoodDay, Sahmeditor, Jajhill, Mrfeek, G1076, Dk1965, Thijs!bot, Gacggt, Midnightdreary, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, Tedickey, Waacstats, Pvmoutside, The Mystery Man, J.delanoy, Belovedfreak, Packerfansam, Thismightbezach, Baileypalblue, GcSwRhIc, Ryuhaku, McM.bot, Logan, Qblik, Alex Middleton, Monegasque, Volcomdude59, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, Hahaha94, Alexbot, JeffBillman, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Magicpiano, M2545, Full-date unlinking bot, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Cdtew, GA bot, Hantsheroes, ZéroBot, L Kensington, ClueBot NG, Widr, JHEllis, Mark Arsten, SD5bot, Senso crítico, VIAFbot, Godot13, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, IPBiographer, Dms1788, Monkbot, ADGB1750, KasparBot and Anonymous: 29 • William Houstoun (lawyer) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Houstoun_(lawyer)?oldid=660602337 Contributors: LouI, Choster, Chowbok, TiMike, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Bunchofgrapes, Rogerd, RussBot, Jaxl, SmackBot, Hmains, GoodDay, Chicheley, Cydebot, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Acroterion, R'n'B, R36, Snowbot, BOTijo, BradMajors, Rotational, Addbot, Lightbot, Yobot, Piano non troppo, Mistakefinder, Full-date unlinking bot, RjwilmsiBot, Beyond My Ken, Joal Beal, Encycloshave, BG19bot, WebTV3, VIAFbot, Epicgenius, OccultZone, KasparBot and Anonymous: 12 • Nicholas Gilman Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Gilman?oldid=660741812 Contributors: Tango, LouI, John K, JASpencer, Jengod, Davidcannon, Wolf530, Jonel, MisfitToys, D6, Stepp-Wulf, Wolfman, Tom, Bobo192, Sasquatch, Polylerus, Bluemoose, NekoDaemon, Gurch, TexasAndroid, Hugh Manatee, Pb30, Marc29th, Whobot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Ifnord, Floydspinky71, Gilliam, Sadads, Guat6, Cbrown1023, Courcelles, SkyWalker, Ken Gallager, Chicheley, Cydebot, Bezking, James086, Smooth pappa, AntiVandalBot, Tigga, Connormah, Karlhahn, Waacstats, Mgroop, Catgut, Cobi, Oedipalwreck, Thismightbezach, Orphic, Indubitably, Eddyeddyd, Sintaku, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, BOTijo, SieBot, Monegasque, Polbot, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, TubularWorld, MBK004, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Ndenison, The Special Education Squad, RogDel, MarmadukePercy, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Tassedethe, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bob Burkhardt, Shirik, Anotherclown, Calistemon, Full-date unlinking bot, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, NDKilla, ZéroBot, Donner60, ClueBot NG, MusikAnimal, YodaRULZ, Achowat, Anbu121, SD5bot, DebraHardy, VIAFbot, JC1008, Adcetera692, OccultZone, ToonLucas22, KasparBot and Anonymous: 71 • John Langdon (politician) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Langdon_(politician)?oldid=662535659 Contributors: Karada, Minesweeper, Docu, LouI, Lee M, Jengod, RodC, Postdlf, Rasmus Faber, Chrisn4255, Sam Hocevar, TiMike, Neutrality, D6, Kaisershatner, CanisRufus, Shanes, Tom, Darwinek, PaulHanson, Bart133, Bluemoose, Jack Cox, Eubot, NekoDaemon, RexNL, DVdm, RussBot, Leutha, NickBurns, ImGz, Hugh Manatee, Pawyilee, Marc29th, Whobot, Garion96, Staxringold, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Rrius, Floydspinky71, Gilliam, Hmains, Sadads, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Jajhill, George, Special-T, Cyril Washbrook, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, Pfranson, Connormah, Waacstats, Mgroop, Glen, MartinBot, ScooterDe, J.delanoy, Dragonfrik, Beansnrice, JayJasper, Oedipalwreck, Thismightbezach, Kameyama, WOSlinker, TXiKiBoT, Corvus cornix, Ryuhaku, Figureskatingfan, Rjm at sleepers, McM.bot, BOTijo, AlleborgoBot, June w, Proud Ho, Monegasque, Darth Kalwejt, Benea, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, Randy Kryn, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, CounterVandalismBot, The Special Education Squad, RogDel, Badgernet, Good Olfactory, Deineka, Addbot, Proofreader77, Favonian, West.andrew.g, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, Bob Burkhardt, Ben76266, Full-date unlinking bot, Carolina cotton, Mateus Vasco, January, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Lmeeth, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, ClueBot NG, Pluma, HMSSolent, Juro2351, Mark Arsten, RscprinterBot, SD5bot, EuroCarGT, Nofix, Epicgenius, OccultZone, Guest41000, Acarrieri, ShrutiChaudhury1975 and Anonymous: 82 • David Brearley Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Brearley?oldid=660350584 Contributors: Ixfd64, Nach0king, Capitalistroadster, TiMike, ChrisRuvolo, Discospinster, Bender235, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Alansohn, Plange, Gene Nygaard, Bluemoose, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, YurikBot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, TimBentley, Sadads, Kungming2, AP1787, Wickethewok, Slakr, Makyen, Iridescent, Woodshed, Chicheley, Bogframe, Kribbeh, Treybien, Flowerpotman, Corpx, Thijs!bot, Big Bird, Smooth pappa, Tedickey, Mgroop, Djma12, Ian.thomson, Shawn in Montreal, Aboutmovies, Dossar92, Mufka, Krazy kayaker, Urbancybermonk, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Kevinbilly, RogDel, MystBot, Thatguyflint, Addbot, Cte411, Tide rolls, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, SassoBot, FrescoBot, Sourcerails815, Xhaoz, Facing.myself, Vrenator, Bluefist, RjwilmsiBot, EleferenBot, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Widr, Quarkgluonsoup, EuroCarGT, VIAFbot, Paverc7, Bepbep1209, Lakun.patra, Amortias, KasparBot and Anonymous: 70 • Jonathan Dayton Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Dayton?oldid=663618915 Contributors: Malcolm Farmer, Dave Farquhar, LouI, John K, Mxn, Jengod, Calmypal, Steve Casburn, Bobblewik, Kuralyov, TiMike, Neutrality, D6, Qutezuce, Tom, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Rajah, Nsaa, Alansohn, TheParanoidOne, Arthena, DLJessup, Velella, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), ^demon, Schzmo, Bluemoose, Nkrosse, Compmary, King of Hearts, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Tadanisakari, TexasAndroid, Kafziel, RussBot, Dvd Avins, Bronks, Marc29th, Peyna, Whobot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, CRKingston, Floydspinky71, Orser67, Chris the speller, Bluebot, TimBentley, Sadads, AP1787, Makyen, GilbertoSilvaFan, G1076, Newyorkbrad, NickW557, Chicheley, Cydebot, Mblumber, Kcalb2004, Thijs!bot, James086, QuasyBoy, Chilliam, Smooth pappa, AntiVandalBot, Yurimxpxman, Connormah, Mgroop, Vertigo315, The Mystery Man, Jonivy, Kraxler, Gwern, Bowmanka, R'n'B, ScooterDe, J.delanoy, Richard D. LeCour, Norm77, Foofighter20x, Vanished user 39948282, WOSlinker, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Enviroboy, Mr.
310
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
Matté, Srushe, Monegasque, Antonio Lopez, WacoJacko, Kumioko (renamed), Dravecky, BradMajors, Kanonkas, ClueBot, Alexbot, Dthomsen8, Nepenthes, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Cte411, Quissett, Offenbach, Some jerk on the Internet, Lightbot, Matěj Grabovský, Zorrobot, Yobot, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Redvedder, GenQuest, J JMesserly, Youdong, Texas141, YauTou, Full-date unlinking bot, Roseohioresident, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Alph Bot, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Hamish59, Brussellsprouts, SD5bot, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, PhantomTech, JC1008, Dharscheid, Pyrotle, KasparBot and Anonymous: 100 • William Livingston Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Livingston?oldid=660849710 Contributors: Nonenmac, Bewildebeast, LouI, Jengod, AlexPlank, TMillerCA, Hcheney, Nunh-huh, Everyking, Neilc, Fishal, Mr impossible, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, Discospinster, Bender235, FoekeNoppert, JW1805, Alansohn, PaulHanson, DLJessup, Ksnow, WilliamKF, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Bluemoose, Nightscream, Choess, Deyyaz, Random user 39849958, TexasAndroid, Rsrikanth05, Bruxism, Dlyons493, Wknight94, GraemeL, Silverhelm, Mais oui!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Jab843, Brianski, ERcheck, Sadads, GoodDay, Egsan Bacon, Dreadstar, Kotjze, Ohconfucius, Guat6, Rogsheng, Richard75, CmdrObot, Verdi1, Cydebot, Epbr123, Noroton, Spencer, Canadian-Bacon, Milonica, Beyatch91, PhilKnight, Acroterion, Doug Coldwell, Waacstats, Mgroop, Arjun01, Jim.henderson, J.delanoy, Vanished user 39948282, Thismightbezach, Lights, Teh prophet, GcSwRhIc, Ryuhaku, Work permit, Caltas, Monegasque, BradMajors, EoGuy, Brewcrewer, PixelBot, Mikeski24, SchreiberBike, Boleyn, MystBot, Good Olfactory, HexaChord, Addbot, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, A Stop at Willoughby, Gunjones, Jim1138, Justme89, Bluerasberry, Xqbot, Thekrazykerzman, Motherseer, J04n, GrouchoBot, 78.26, VS6507, Boleyn3, Jonesey95, Plucas58, Jschnur, Full-date unlinking bot, Abc518, Natsteel, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, GoingBatty, Sweettart66, Stephanieweibel, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, This lousy T-shirt, Widr, Wiki13, Titanic1000, TejasDiscipulus2, Ryangravener, ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, VIAFbot, Ruby Murray, JC1008, Elshrimpbucket, Ethically Yours, Penalphil123, Awesomeness98584, Smoore31, JohnMConnolly, KasparBot and Anonymous: 103 • William Paterson (judge) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Paterson_(judge)?oldid=662538058 Contributors: John K, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Jwrosenzweig, Maximus Rex, Philip Taron, Postdlf, Hcheney, Philwelch, Tom harrison, Everyking, Jonel, TiMike, D6, ChrisRuvolo, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Tom, Bobo192, Alansohn, Gary, PaulHanson, DLJessup, Super-Magician, Boothy443, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), 2004-12-29T22:45Z, MK2, Bluemoose, Emerson7, BD2412, Kh80, Ground Zero, WillC, KarlFrei, AJR, Scott Mingus, DVdm, Bgwhite, Briaboru, Chaser, Rjensen, Tony1, DeadEyeArrow, Whobot, D Monack, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Cdogsimmons, Delldot, Aksi great, Chris the speller, Sadads, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Egsan Bacon, AP1787, KerathFreeman, Samuel 69105, Savidan, Kotjze, Ohconfucius, Rogsheng, Tagalog Variety, WilliamJE, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Gnome (Bot), Lent, Cydebot, Jack O'Lantern, Studerby, Thijs!bot, TonyTheTiger, Scottmsg, Mentifisto, Wildhartlivie, Mgroop, HOT L Baltimore, Anaxial, Johnpacklambert, J.delanoy, Alex2706, Gabefarkas, Foofighter20x, One Night In Hackney, ABF, Philip Trueman, Zidonuke, GcSwRhIc, LeaveSleaves, Ryuhaku, McM.bot, Snowbot, Snip3190, X-Weinzar, Wiiunite, SieBot, Mr. Matté, Scarian, Kernel Saunters, Radon210, Monegasque, Oxymoron83, Kumioko (renamed), ClueBot, Arakunem, Jusdafax, 7&6=thirteen, Bbylovex3, AlanM1, Rror, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Offenbach, Fieldday-sunday, Download, Tassedethe, Legobot, Yobot, Washburnmav, A Stop at Willoughby, Tempodivalse, Kingpin13, Forrest norman, Materialscientist, Capricorn42, Andrewmin, TheWeakWilled, MLauba, FrescoBot, TheVirginiaHistorian, Full-date unlinking bot, Rempatterson, Fox Wilson, Dinamik-bot, Horacep3000, Surlytrucker, Canuckian89, Orphan Wiki, Gotham77, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Airkalen22, Jay-Sebastos, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mike111177, Jeancey, Ajaxfiore, YFdyh-bot, SD5bot, VIAFbot, Bulba2036, Epicgenius, Monkbot, Pizzaman392, Amortias, Acarrieri, KasparBot and Anonymous: 119 • Alexander Hamilton Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Hamilton?oldid=664214142 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Paul Drye, Kpjas, The Epopt, Mav, The Anome, RobLa, Danny, William Avery, KF, Tbarron, Rickyrab, Mrwojo, Kchishol1970, D, Michael Hardy, Alan Peakall, AlexR, Shoaler, Delirium, Shimmin, Ihcoyc, Ahoerstemeier, Docu, Seneca~enwiki, Ugen64, LouI, John K, Jengod, RickK, Reddi, AWhiteC, JCarriker, Daniel Quinlan, Andrewman327, WhisperToMe, Wik, Markhurd, Tpbradbury, Dinopup, Sweety Rose, Taxman, Publius~enwiki, Bjarki S, Rls, Fvw, Jerzy, David.Monniaux, RadicalBender, Dimadick, Bearcat, Nufy8, AlexPlank, Moncrief, Goethean, Stephan Schulz, COGDEN, Postdlf, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, Justanyone, Dukeofomnium, Rorro, Rholton, Texture, Auric, Timrollpickering, Sunray, Hadal, Modeha, JesseW, Wikibot, Taliswolf, Michael Snow, SoLando, Alanyst, Cecropia, Davidcannon, Nagelfar, Decumanus, Centrx, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Oberiko, AtStart, Halda, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Tom harrison, MadmanNova, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, Curps, Gamaliel, Leonard G., Frencheigh, Duncharris, Dflock, BrendanRyan, JillandJack, Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Ragib, Erekrose, Wmahan, Neilc, Chowbok, Pgan002, Fys, R. fiend, CryptoDerk, Antandrus, MarkSweep, JoJan, MisfitToys, Elembis, Mr impossible, Bcampbell, Rdsmith4, JimWae, Rlquall, Kuralyov, Lucky13pjn, Pmanderson, Howardjp, Sephiroth9611, NoPetrol, Blue387, TiMike, Neutrality, Pitchka, Mschlindwein, Trevor MacInnis, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Grunt, The stuart, Grstain, Kingal86, Quill, D6, Mormegil, Steven Andrew Miller, Rfl, StewartMine, ChrisRuvolo, Ulflarsen, Zarxos, Imroy, Lenglain, CALR, Discospinster, ElTyrant, Rich Farmbrough, Rhobite, Guanabot, Jyp, Wrp103, Deh, YUL89YYZ, Ahkond, User2004, LindsayH, Ivan Bajlo, Ponder, Exabyte, Carptrash, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Mateo SA, Kaisershatner, Pmetzger, Ylee, CanisRufus, Maclean25, Weed Harper, PedanticallySpeaking, Aude, RoyBoy, Triona, Bobo192, Arlewis, Panzuriel, Kfogel, Infocidal, Richss, Smalljim, Filiocht, Kevin Myers, Jjk, JW1805, Davis21Wylie, Satyadasa, Giraffedata, Ctrl build, Rockhopper10r, La goutte de pluie, Acjelen, TheProject, Darwinek, Osbojos, Redf0x, Haham hanuka, Ral315, Polylerus, Krellis, Nevyn, Vanished user azby388723i8jfjh32, Senatus, Nsaa, Knucmo2, 578, Storm Rider, Alansohn, PaulHanson, GRider, LtNOWIS, 119, Interiot, Mr Adequate, Hipocrite, Logologist, Riana, Great Scott, SlimVirgin, Lightdarkness, DLJessup, AldenWeer, Redfarmer, Plange, Katefan0, VladimirKorablin, Scott5114, Hohum, Snowolf, Ksnow, 64.225.154.226, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, Super-Magician, RPH, Naif, Tony Sidaway, Dzhim, Sleigh, Netkinetic, Ultramarine, Dtobias, Zntrip, Hojimachong, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Rorschach, OwenX, Woohookitty, Camw, MK2, Glennhefley, Jersyko, Squibix, Bratsche, TheoClarke, Brentdax, MONGO, Bkwillwm, Jeremy Bentham, Terence, Bluemoose, Frungi, SDC, Wayward, Jon Harald Søby, Marudubshinki, Dysepsion, Slgrandson, JEB90, Jack Cox, Cuchullain, BD2412, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, RxS, Windrider~enwiki, Mendaliv, Edison, Casey Abell, Mr.X~enwiki, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Eoghanacht, Coemgenus, Koavf, Compuboks, Jake Wartenberg, Collins.mc, Vary, Linuxbeak, Seraphimblade, Sdornan, Feydey, MZMcBride, Vegaswikian, Funnyhat, Stilgar135, Equinox137, Ligulem, Tstockma, Salanth, Brighterorange, Jrlevine, Yamamoto Ichiro, Exshpos, FlaBot, Wikiliki, Naraht, Direwolf4, Ground Zero, Irshgrl500, Fëaluinix, Crazycomputers, Alhutch, Who, Nivix, Chanting Fox, Andy85719, RexNL, Gurch, Ayla, Wars, TheDJ, Saketh, Kuribosshoe, TeaDrinker, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Noitall, Birdible, Dsewell, Chobot, El Slameron, DVdm, Korg, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Debivort, EamonnPKeane, Roboto de Ajvol, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, Chanlyn, TexasAndroid, Jadon, Sceptre, Dannycas, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Allister MacLeod, Robert A West, Lexi Marie, Hogeye, Igo4U, SoroSuub1, Hydrargyrum, SoundGod3, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Salsb, NawlinWiki, BigCow, Bruxism, Bruguiea, Jmarkman, Grafen, Tfine80, NickBush24, DavidH, Rjensen, Katochnr, Waterguy, Cleared as filed, Irishguy, Dcrean, Tjarrett, Banes, GHcool, JPMcGrath, Lockesdonkey, Gad-
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
311
get850, Scope creep, Jpeob, Black Falcon, Josh177, Wknight94, Leptictidium, FF2010, Alarob, Manjithkaini, Zzuuzz, Encephalon, J. Van Meter, Saranghae honey, Theda, Closedmouth, Fang Aili, Dr.alf, GraemeL, Kestenbaum, Zuwiki, JoanneB, Shyam, Smurrayinchester, Kevin, Mais oui!, NickJones, ArielGold, Rakumend, Katieh5584, Kungfuadam, NeilN, John Broughton, Rtd2101, DVD R W, Vulturell, Luk, Sardanaphalus, Bishopoffun, SmackBot, Looper5920, YellowMonkey, Unschool, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Bjelleklang, Od Mishehu, Diplomacy Guy, Blue520, Delldot, Jab843, Floydspinky71, Cessator, Frymaster, Petgraveyard, Drbauman, TheDoctor10, BigD527, RBX3, HalfShadow, Xaosflux, Yamaguchi , PeterSymonds, Brendancharney, Gilliam, Stan weller, Hmains, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Marek4, Persian Poet Gal, Postoak, KHarbaugh, Sirex98, Tree Biting Conspiracy, Roscelese, SchfiftyThree, Ikiroid, Nbarth, EdgeOfEpsilon, DHNbot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Yanksox, GoodDay, XSG, Tom guyette, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jahiegel, Shalom Yechiel, AP1787, Writtenright, Dkmontreal, Ahudson, OrphanBot, Xopher, MJBurrage, RebelAt, Rrburke, GRuban, JesseRafe, Edivorce, Spliph, Billy 704, Jmlk17, Idran, Flyguy649, Downwards, Bigturtle, NorseOdin, Nakon, Savidan, Oanabay04, JJstroker, EVula, A.R., Only, Andrew c, Hammer1980, Jklin, Wizardman, BiggKwell, Metamagician3000, Evlekis, RossF18, Wikipedical, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Lambiam, Esrever, Nishkid64, ArglebargleIV, Bcasterline, AThing, BrownHairedGirl, Rklawton, Trojan traveler, Kfrogers, Kuru, Mathiasrex, AnonEMouse, Jperrylsu, Syrcatbot, F15 sanitizing eagle, PseudoSudo, Xjennyoh, Heyitspete, Ben Moore, Avshah100, Omnedon, Yashkochar, BillFlis, Martinp23, Avs5221, Stizz, Niniel1970, Funnybunny, JCScaliger, Northmeister, Ryulong, Condem, Dr.K., AEMoreira042281, AQuandary, Norm mit, Levineps, Nehrams2020, Woodroar, Iridescent, Genegrid, Cashmoneypure, TwistOfCain, Grblomerth, Wfgiuliano, Muéro, Hawkestone, Roswell native, J Di, Shoreranger, Richard75, Civil Engineer III, Phoenixrod, Courcelles, LonelyPilgrim, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, 1+1=2~enwiki, IronChris, Aristotle1990, EddieAtari, GoldenMean, HennessyC, SilenceDoGood, Zotdragon, JForget, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Dycedarg, Clindberg, Rawling, Picaroon, Xanderer, Runningonbrains, CWY2190, Lmcelhiney, Dk1965, Mhenneberry, ShelfSkewed, FlyingToaster, Avillia, Moreschi, Rnedbal, Ken Gallager, Sanket14, Chicheley, Myasuda, Gregbard, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Clappingsimon, Ryan, Red4tribe, Smart Man~enwiki, Steel, Jack O'Lantern, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, Chasingsol, Pascal.Tesson, Ricknightcrawler, Nmajdan, Krator, Tawkerbot4, Shirulashem, Doug Weller, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Plasticbadge, PubliusH, Omicronpersei8, LarryQ, Gimmetrow, Rougher07, Rosser1954, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Daa89563, Biruitorul, Ante Aikio, Nschomer, Pd63425, Daniel, Bear475, Andrewgw, Kablammo, Bigwyrm, Hcberkowitz, Mayor Pez, Mojo Hand, Amswango, Marek69, Qwarto, Jamaeolus, Kathovo, SomeStranger, Caelifera, James086, Tellyaddict, JustAGal, PJtP, Dfrg.msc, Edchi, EdJohnston, Therequiembellishere, Dratboy, Michael A. White, Nick Number, Floridasand, Metrocat, Betathetapi545, I already forgot, Dantheman531, Porqin, KrakatoaKatie, Ialsoagree, AntiVandalBot, Luna Santin, Mick65, Seaphoto, Sparkhurst, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, StringRay, Loyd415, Prolog, Protocoldroid, F McGady, Dr who1975, DudeOnTV, Btraven, Jj137, Zweifel, Noroton, Gregalton, Tjmayerinsf, Cjs2111, Pheoinixflame, Modernist, LibLord, North Shoreman, Spencer, Iandron, AlekseyFy, Ozgod, Altamel, Washod, Dryke, Tigga, Leuko, Husond, Davewho2, Barek, MER-C, Skomorokh, Caracaskid, BCube, Seddon, Adjwilley, Db099221, Midnightdreary, Andonic, Noobeditor, AlmostReadytoFly, Snowolfd4, Vgmaster, Dan4J, SteveSims, Dann Dobson, Magioladitis, Connormah, Lenny Kaufman, Skyemoor, Karlhahn, MDChan, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Ishikawa Minoru, Scanlan, QuizzicalBee, JamesBWatson, Darth28, Think outside the box, Ajsteffl, SineWave, CTF83!, Highheat649, WikiXan, DBovasso, Robertaroberts, Mapetite526, Avicennasis, Mgroop, KConWiki, Catgut, Jbgrace505, Quickstopnirvana, Dab295, Ranger1991, The Mystery Man, Lian1721, Dellis21, ArmadilloFromHell, Mokru, Rbb1787, Rif Winfield, DerHexer, GhostofSuperslum, Kraxler, Wi-king, JediLofty, TheRanger, Patstuart, IvoShandor, JRWalko, DGG, Dakotajones, Gjd001, SUNE~enwiki, Kornfan71, Hdt83, MartinBot, Onlynone, Ahamiltonsucks, Partnerintime12, Rettetast, Roastytoast, Blazintommyd, Pauli67, PTR, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Nathan Wilson, Rogerson9, Fconaway, PrestonH, WelshMatt, Zeete, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Experimentthingy, DrKiernan, Sholt8, Rrostrom, Must67fast, Numbo3, Catmoongirl, LeeroyJenkins1, Uncle Dick, Thegreenj, WarthogDemon, Amcde, Alex2706, St.daniel, Fluffiliscious, Bigmac31, Thomas Larsen, Samtheboy, Memory palace, Livefastlovelife, Engunneer, Jurassic4, JayJasper, AntiSpamBot, (jarbarf), Lamemonument, Knight of BAAWA, Hut 6.5, NewEnglandYankee, SmilesALot, AA, Master shepherd, FJPB, Lobster123456789, Cometstyles, RB972, Foofighter20x, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Everlast1910, Henitsirk, Natl1, Andy Marchbanks, Bricology, BobilyDobily, RjCan, Jordanporter, Scewing, Thismightbezach, Funandtrvl, Skaboy5000, Black Kite, Lights, X!, Sam Blacketer, Ripberger, UnicornTapestry, Deor, VolkovBot, Marylandwizard, Safemariner, Christophenstein, Jeff G., Indubitably, Jmrowland, ROxBo, AdamSommerton, Philip Trueman, Cvllelaw, Ricosuave12, Jaiden101, Moogwrench, MAtchley911, BlueCanary9999, Gilmore Guy, Scott jackman, RyanB88, Lf89, GcSwRhIc, Finlux, Qxz, Imasleepviking, Corvus cornix, Leafyplant, Bearian, Historygeek too, Adam on a Airplane, Maxim, Tdetillier, KarenJo90, Monsieurdl, Greswik, AmerHisBuff, 88wolfmaster, Gangsta666, Wikilicki, MacPhilbin, BobTheTomato, Hasotweb, Falcon8765, Drutt, Unamis99, FAKEYFAKEFAKE, Bahamut0013, Darth Ragnarok, Hamilton989, The Devil’s Advocate, Bobo The Ninja, Praefectorian, Milowent, W4chris, Seaalm, Agent 56289, Bob sageto loco, Da arwin, SieBot, Ttony21, K. Annoyomous, Tresiden, Citizen, Canoescanoes, BotMultichill, Gosox5555, Hertz1888, Parhamr, Sexxxyboi34, Dawn Bard, RJaguar3, Indiaointment, Kerrychick85, Lucasbfrbot, Mothmolevna, Keilana, McGrupp10799, Aillema, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Oysterguitarist, Hashemmurad234, Cowpoke49, Oda Mari, Dinmakthedeathttouch, Mikewarne, Rosspz, Monegasque, Lagrange613, Allmightyduck, Wredfearn, Cameron, Granf, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, Byrialbot, AngelOfSadness, Lightmouse, Ks0stm, Bigbanger23, Kumioko (renamed), Jtbassett, Vercillo, Jay Turner, Reneeholle, Cyfal, The Four Deuces, Seaaron, BradMajors, Maralia, Dabomb87, Hornje, M4, Jons63, Escape Orbit, Xnatedawgx, Randy Kryn, Occur Curve, A.C. Norman, Jamesdreherjr, Switterss, Troy 07, Explicit, ObfuscatePenguin, Invertzoo, WikipedianMarlith, RegentsPark, Jiminezwaldorf, MBK004, Cclear44, ClueBot, NickCT, Binksternet, Trfasulo, The Thing That Should Not Be, Stanleywinthrop, Rodhullandemu, Meisterkoch, Prodes111, Boo1210, Wysprgr2005, Pairadox, CasualObserver'48, Frmorrison, SuperHamster, Timberframe, Niceguyedc, Jsanders5552000, Ahnyah, Joeytheshark, LizardJr8, Parkwells, P. S. Burton, Born in ok, Born in oklahoma, Fodient, Arbeit Sockenpuppe, Born in oklahoma 2, 3 DRAGONS, John J. Bulten, Arunsingh16, Swvalaw, Pandabearr, Lmcleodson, Stadiumstatus, Gordon Ecker, APUSHFREAK, Excirial, Jusdafax, Monobi, Oocluz, Abrech, SamCopenhagen, Lartoven, Hauterfly, Dspark76, Teacherguy, Bracton, Octavian history, Antodav2007, Eddaido, Ember of Light, Rajthapar, 7&6=thirteen, M.O.X, Gtva1234, Tseno Maximov, Thingg, Aitias, Nakomaru, 7, Lord Cornwallis, Itsuki Midoriba, Pulseofthemaggots55, Burner0718, Caketastic1, Goodvac, Indopug, Bücherwürmlein, Ace2209, DumZiBoT, Templarion, Finalnight, Pitt, Gnowor, Pitcher59, Sherreyes, Wikiuser100, Tsagoy, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Jeffhagen, ErkinBatu, NellieBly, Spoonkymonkey, MarmadukePercy, Jbeans, Jrmerl, ESO Fan, Good Olfactory, Ejosse1, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Proofreader77, Ramesses191, Willking1979, Ocrasaroon, Popiloll, Beamathan, Snowmenrevil, Jojhutton, Vollayballchic, Guoguo12, Wsvlqc, Captain-tucker, Hda3ku, Drexlerlk, Dvnwlkr, GSMR, 15lsoucy, Ronhjones, Davrosuk, Jncraton, Startstop123, Feťour, Vishnava, Reedmalloy, Sdlatham, AdRem, Jamzac93, Proxima Centauri, Jonathan Logan, Glane23, Bassbonerocks, Z. Patterson, Glass Sword, Debresser, MacLennon, Favonian, Doniago, LinkFA-Bot, WarrenShawHistorian, Dayewalker, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Jojocool117, Krano, Mohsenkazempur, Bartledan, Kenobilewis, Luckas-bot, ZX81, Yobot, 2D, Flasunco, Washburnmav, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Mwpool, KamikazeBot, Pohick2, Gmanfour, BoringHistoryGuy, NYIsles4, Gunjones, Nyhistory1804, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Utinomen, EmmaRoad, Granttrial~enwiki, IRP, Galoubet, Apocryphal Healer, EHRice, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Ksferrante, Citation bot, Kieran4, Fontiso3, Dtruman5, Nurs-
312
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
eryRhyme, Schoolidnumber, Quebec99, Cliftonian, Sketchmoose, Intelati, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Thekrazykerzman, 4twenty42o, TheWeakWilled, Grim23, Jmundo, BritishWatcher, Tiller54, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Dukejansen, Omnipaedista, Amaury, Burntdog, Caseynjoe, Doulos Christos, IShadowed, AlasdairEdits, BunnehBoy, AustralianRupert, SchnitzelMannGreek, PM800, Samwb123, Griffinofwales, Green Cardamom, Mtownene, Legobot III, FrescoBot, Dogposter, Cargoking, HJ Mitchell, Ben76266, Jun Nijo, Gothica36, Pinethicket, Focus, Calmer Waters, Tinton5, Mutinus, Fat&Happy, Jschnur, Cullen12, HowardJWilk, Snooker, Île flottante, Cmguy777, Meaghan, HarringtonSmith, December21st2012Freak, Trappist the monk, PiRSquared17, Callanecc, Elliotkim999, SeoMac, Umpeereevo, Andries Van den Abeele, Specs112, WCCasey, Diannaa, ThinkEnemies, Adi4094, Tbhotch, Minimac, Sideways713, Steelers295, Mr.rightsideup, Woogee, RjwilmsiBot, Codehydro, 7mike5000, NerdyScienceDude, Dcjackman, Jacoblala7, Deagle AP, DASHBot, Christoph Braun, Tannerbowles, John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Stevo unknown, Carlospicywenier, Spencerxsays, Stevo known, Hantsheroes, Pete Hobbs, Racerx11, Sumsum2010, Poguemack, RA0808, RenamedUser01302013, Gwillhickers, CMAH, Stephencdickson, The Mysterious El Willstro, Tommy2010, Princess Lirin, Wikipelli, K6ka, AsceticRose, Shreck741, Yorkshireccc, Susfele, Illegitimate Barrister, Penzz, Idonotlikebabies, JAK0723, Mewashere, Alpha Quadrant, Jonpatterns, Angel55555, Aeonx, Bdittrich2288, SporkBot, TurquoiseThreads, NGPriest, Wayne Slam, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, MeriwetherLewis, TyA, Steeldx, Δ, L Kensington, CordwainerBird, Donner60, BBrad31, Larast, Chewings72, ChuispastonBot, Evilemporer007, Specialboy7000, Barrowhighschool99723, DASHBotAV, Lqdslvr, Rocky967, Petrb, LM2000, ClueBot NG, CreatureKawa, Tomfoolery987, Jake.durant, Galilsnap, Mravuniak, MelbourneStar, Chrisdoyleorwell, West.andrew.g.norb, Orororal, ForgottenHistory, Piast93, Dfarrell07, Vacation9, Lawandtech, Slowking4, Tddartmouth, Snotbot, A wild Rattata, Frietjes, Braincricket, Mesoderm, Dakotalamothe, CarrottopCrusader, Marechal Ney, Widr, Crohall, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calidum, Calabe1992, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Independent2100, Walrus068, Ymblanter, Chandlery, Quarkgluonsoup, Scale7, Lowercase Sigma, MusikAnimal, J991, Mark Arsten, Kirananils, Zach Vega, MadZarkoff, Unicornhowl100, 397eryagq, AdamBombbbb, LeftAire, Dayshade, Jonwurl, TejasDiscipulus2, Imalooser, Edthed, Glacialfox, Vladi Dadi, Jcombs8902, Matthew David González, Klilidiplomus, Achowat, Dezastru, TheCentristFiasco, BattyBot, Tutelary, XCentristFiasco, Teammm, Mdann52, Ijschnirman, Medo9, DoctorKubla, Libby995, Dexbot, Ibekarl, Webclient101, Mogism, JimmyS900, Spicysenor, Lugia2453, Frosty, Graphium, Jamesx12345, ColaXtra, Faizan, Epicgenius, FallingGravity, Godot13, Yupwewin, Jamesmcmahon0, Melonkelon, Eyesnore, Kogmaw, Msundqvist, EvergreenFir, Brewersfanjd, Eaglesrock731, Johnpalfrey, Chris troutman, DavidLeighEllis, Schladow, Gicantor93, Indefatigable2, NinjaTurtle10, Sunshine9914, Ginsuloft, SNUGGUMS, OccultZone, Anrnusna, Poppamunz, 1982vdven, Crow, JaconaFrere, Gruntldr, TropicAces, Vieque, JoshuaSoccerBeast, Pizzaman392, Limos64, Bagriffin1114, Young shaggy, Chrishandlebar, A guy saved by Jesus, Gerald1757, Goweegie2, Barry Windham Fan, TheMagikCow, CSSEYS86, Keyarakeyala, Cryfe, Jspits97, Michaelthecoolkid, Hellothere1234567891011121314, AshFranklinxx00, Pishcal, Ngoldrich, Orduin, Mlbruno, Kyle Sedgewick, Raid4Daze, Tacobellcheezeburgerderpydur, Uspzor, Krubel35, Cinnabunny214, Kendrajr11, Niggs52, Poopynuggets123, TheBritishCritic, Lutie, KasparBot, Toilet Paper Needed and Anonymous: 2267 • John Lansing, Jr. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lansing%2C_Jr.?oldid=659730083 Contributors: Rmhermen, Deb, LouI, Zoicon5, Biggins, Wjhonson, Jackol, LiDaobing, Discospinster, Dave souza, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Velella, Woohookitty, Daniel Case, Tabletop, Akira625, Tarmstro99, Koavf, Vclaw, RussBot, Wknight94, FF2010, SmackBot, Hmains, Betacommand, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, J Crow, Fuzzy510, Topspinslams, DeLarge, Cydebot, Repliedthemockturtle, Epbr123, Big Bird, VoABot II, Jllm06, Waacstats, Kraxler, Diane M, Shawn in Montreal, Thismightbezach, Classical geographer, Omegastar, Philip Trueman, Hotjohnny, Ryuhaku, Alexandraflorant, Onceonthisisland, Man It’s So Loud In Here, BradMajors, Denisarona, ClueBot, Excirial, The Special Education Squad, Addbot, Lightbot, Purplebackpack89, Full-date unlinking bot, 52lewis52, Difu Wu, RjwilmsiBot, Spanish Terrorist, ZéroBot, Joal Beal, ClueBot NG, Writ Keeper, BattyBot, Anonomous175, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, VA Duck and Anonymous: 47 • Robert Yates (politician) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Yates_(politician)?oldid=660691315 Contributors: Tpbradbury, Anthony, Christopher Parham, RayBirks, Bumm13, D6, Discospinster, ESkog, Czrisher, Beau99, JW1805, Woohookitty, Tabletop, Nihiltres, YurikBot, Royalbroil, Ibjhb, Aldux, SmackBot, Bluebot, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jwy, Kuru, TicketMan, Studerby, James086, JNW, Waacstats, StrangeBum, Kraxler, J.delanoy, Mbrooksr, Warlordwolf, Specter01010, Malik Shabazz, GcSwRhIc, Emilyclark, Ryuhaku, SaltyBoatr, Superflush, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, Iohannes Animosus, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Haruth, Tide rolls, Lightbot, AnomieBOT, DSisyphBot, Omnipaedista, Jeffzer, FrescoBot, L Burt Rocktog, BenzolBot, Oracleofottawa, Hornlitz, RjwilmsiBot, Dcanyc, Chewings72, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Widr, Jweaver28, Mrt3366, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, TreeJay, Epicgenius, FallingGravity, JC1008, Nanam329, KasparBot and Anonymous: 80 • William Blount Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Blount?oldid=660822556 Contributors: Ugen64, John K, Jengod, Ed g2s, Lord Emsworth, PBS, Postdlf, Davidcannon, Bkonrad, Alvestrand, Rlquall, F13nd, Sayeth, Neutrality, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Kaisershatner, Tom, Orlady, Bobo192, PaulHanson, Mlessard, DLJessup, HenkvD, Guy M, Bluemoose, BD2412, MZMcBride, SMC, Eubot, Awbeal, Subsurd, Awiseman, Lockesdonkey, Wknight94, Marc29th, Whobot, Brvynky, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Sadads, A. B., GoodDay, TCY, AP1787, Addshore, Stevenmitchell, Zeamays, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Diverman, Namiba, LeRoi, Harej bot, Cydebot, Studerby, DumbBOT, Missvain, Diezba, Smooth pappa, RobotG, Dryke, Joehall45, Magioladitis, Connormah, Fundamentaldan, VoABot II, Waacstats, Nyttend, Mgroop, J.delanoy, 8th Ohio Volunteers, Reedy Bot, Aboutmovies, Vinsfan368, Thismightbezach, ModRocker86, WOSlinker, Philip Trueman, Bms4880, GGGeoff, Ryuhaku, Baxterguy, Enigmaman, BOTijo, Qblik, Monegasque, Nanophys, BradMajors, LarRan, ClueBot, Foofbun, Snocrates, DragonBot, Thingg, Lord Cornwallis, Piglicker, Boleyn, Noctibus, MystBot, Good Olfactory, RWReagan, Rockymountmuseum, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Pyfan, Favonian, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Yobot, Lemonsquares, AnomieBOT, William Tennent, Xqbot, GenQuest, J JMesserly, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Jay-Sebastos, Willthacheerleader18, Sunshine4921, ClueBot NG, Emmammartin, Mark Arsten, The Determinator, Altaïr, V.greglan, Sni56996, SD5bot, Khazar2, VIAFbot, Melonkelon, JC1008, DanteC723, Ais4Inky, AlisonHinderliter, KasparBot and Anonymous: 75 • William Richardson Davie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Richardson_Davie?oldid=660749670 Contributors: Absecon 59, John K, SecretAgent, Fredrik, Seth Ilys, Golbez, Wmahan, Pdefer, TiMike, Neutrality, Klemen Kocjancic, D6, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough, LeeHunter, Cmdrjameson, Kevin Myers, PaulHanson, Bbsrock, Bellhalla, MK2, Tabletop, Cbustapeck, Jack Cox, Rjwilmsi, CarolGray, Awbeal, Nlu, Theodolite, Sardanaphalus, Jcbarr, Thunder8, Gilliam, Bluebot, Bartimaeus, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, MisterHand, Rrburke, Kotjze, Yellowspacehopper, Chronicler3, Eastfrisian, Chicheley, Cydebot, Ebyabe, AntiVandalBot, Darklilac, DShamen, Ioeth, MartinBot, Cromwells Legacy, Scewing, Thismightbezach, TXiKiBoT, Fulghum, Dorney, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Lamro, Pubdog, Monegasque, Torchwoodwho, JiggeryPokery, Boleyn, Rreagan007, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Deineka, Addbot, Artichoke2020, TarHippo, EricCable, Lightbot, LostOldPassword, Zorrobot, Yobot, RockfangBot, Magicpiano, AdjustShift, Xqbot, Cabashon, DrilBot, Fat&Happy, Canuckian89, VernoWhitney, Cdtew, John of Reading, Mr. rickerson, ZéroBot, H3llBot, Mogism, VIAFbot, Annalieu, Cialdarmo, KasparBot and Anonymous: 43
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
313
• Alexander Martin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Martin?oldid=660749652 Contributors: Docu, LouI, Postdlf, Seth Ilys, Tom harrison, Golbez, N-k, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Tom, Kevin Myers, DLJessup, Youngamerican, Jack Cox, Awbeal, YurikBot, Closedmouth, Whobot, JLaTondre, Sardanaphalus, Mathwizard1232, GoodDay, Chronicler3, Cydebot, JodyB, Connormah, Carom, Vanished user 342562, Thismightbezach, TXiKiBoT, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, S2grand, BOTijo, Qblik, Monegasque, Kumioko (renamed), ClueBot, CounterVandalismBot, The Special Education Squad, Acabashi, Addbot, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Xqbot, Bejinhan, Bismarckboy, Bensvader, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Cdtew, EmausBot, ZéroBot, DASHBotAV, Vacation9, Ianolivermartin, Alfred899, SD5bot, Tommyboi112, VIAFbot, HelloYoutube, OccultZone, KasparBot and Anonymous: 29 • Richard Dobbs Spaight Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dobbs_Spaight?oldid=660749660 Contributors: HollyAm, Delirium, Jengod, Postdlf, Seth Ilys, Golbez, Valadius, Mike Rosoft, D6, Bender235, Alansohn, Arthena, Bellhalla, Bluemoose, Jack Cox, Tarmstro99, Bcwright, NekoDaemon, Scott Mingus, Awbeal, RussBot, Shell Kinney, Bojette, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Pgk, Commander Keane bot, Hmains, Sadads, GoodDay, Michael David, BrownHairedGirl, Dhp1080, Eastfrisian, JForget, Cydebot, Studerby, Stevencho, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, AntiVandalBot, Magioladitis, AuH2ORepublican, VoABot II, Waacstats, Mgroop, Johnpacklambert, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Aboutmovies, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Ryuhaku, Dollar Stripper, Qblik, Monegasque, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, PipepBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Excirial, Gulmammad, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, EricCable, Lightbot, Yobot, Corymchapman, Jambobambo, Ksferrante, GorgeCustersSabre, FrescoBot, Americus55, DrilBot, Bejinhan, RedBot, Jeffrd10, WCCasey, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, GoingBatty, RA0808, EleferenBot, Joal Beal, ClueBot NG, CatCaroline, BattyBot, VIAFbot, Jamesx12345, JC1008, KasparBot and Anonymous: 54 • Hugh Williamson Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Williamson?oldid=660739796 Contributors: LouI, Jengod, JCarriker, Postdlf, Meelar, Vikingstad, Nat Krause, TiMike, Neutrality, Syvanen, Kevyn, D6, Discospinster, Smalljim, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Pharos, Sbeath, Riana, Malo, Kmg90, Bluemoose, Stardust8212, NekoDaemon, Nagytibi, Awbeal, RussBot, Shanel, Wiki alf, Moe Epsilon, Evrik, Shyam, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, M dorothy, Thunder8, Hmains, TimBentley, Marco polo, A. Parrot, Iridescent, Courcelles, Eastlaw, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Alaibot, PamD, Thijs!bot, Marek69, Myanw, Adjwilley, Magioladitis, T@nn, Waacstats, Mgroop, JaGa, Johnpacklambert, 72Dino, Andy Marchbanks, DoorsAjar, Crohnie, Ryuhaku, Wikipedian64, Bhu z Crecelu, SieBot, Qblik, Monegasque, KathrynLybarger, BradMajors, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Steelduck281, GoRight, NuclearWarfare, Vanished User 1004, Joffle, Dthomsen8, Skarebo, Addbot, CanadianLinuxUser, Cst17, Artichoke2020, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Maxis ftw, RadManCF, Omnipaedista, Erik9, I dream of horses, Full-date unlinking bot, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Bob2145, ClueBot NG, Widr, North Atlanticist Usonian, Titodutta, J R Gainey, Simeondahl, Mogism, VIAFbot, Soundwave0110, Jacknasty123, Rybec, Curaçao1634, OccultZone, IsThatLavender, ADGB1750, KasparBot and Anonymous: 82 • George Clymer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Clymer?oldid=660841194 Contributors: Someone else, Paul A, LouI, Jengod, Sebastian Wallroth, Gamaliel, Bobblewik, Jonel, Adamsan, TiMike, Neutrality, DMG413, D6, Stepp-Wulf, Discospinster, Ffirehorse, Qutezuce, JW1805, Alansohn, Complex01, SteinbDJ, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, SDC, Toussaint, Mayumashu, NekoDaemon, 10stone5, Petmal, Npeters22, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Gilliam, Betacommand, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, AMK152, MichaelBillington, Khazar, Wickethewok, BillFlis, Roswell native, Richard75, HennessyC, Misteraznkid, American Saga, Cydebot, Shirulashem, DBaba, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, Marek69, AntiVandalBot, Noroton, Esintrich, Midnightdreary, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, Tedickey, Waacstats, Mgroop, Esanchez7587, Adavidb, McSly, Katee vogell, Useight, Thismightbezach, VolkovBot, Mosmof, Snowbot, Yintan, Bentogoa, Flyer22, Monegasque, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, KenFollis, Djmaschek, TypoBoy, DragonBot, WhatsuppJESS, Excirial, Dmsdrew, Gray6394, Hepcat748, Thingg, EstherLois, Boleyn, XLinkBot, Dthomsen8, Avoided, Kbdankbot, Addbot, ConCompS, Ronhjones, Tassedethe, Jim1138, Philareader, Xqbot, Capricorn42, GrouchoBot, Wikipe-tan, Jun Nijo, MJ94, Tim1357, Suffusion of Yellow, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Tommy2010, Josve05a, Joal Beal, 2tuntony, Mentibot, Virginiaheart, ClueBot NG, Theopolisme, Ivoriluv, MusikAnimal, BattyBot, Ezioklr, Mogism, VIAFbot, Newtack101, Tentinator, JC1008, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, OccultZone, Steelersman4399, Caliburn, KasparBot and Anonymous: 91 • Thomas Fitzsimons Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Fitzsimons?oldid=660786674 Contributors: Zocky, Dori, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, LouI, JASpencer, Jengod, Wik, Fredrik, Naelphin, UnbannableOne, Fishal, Jonel, TiMike, Neutrality, Rich Farmbrough, Jaberwocky6669, JW1805, Alansohn, Notthe9, Joriki, MK2, Bluemoose, Rjwilmsi, Compmary, Ground Zero, NekoDaemon, Korg, Bgwhite, T, Dspradau, Npeters22, T. Anthony, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Bluebot, Sadads, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Smallbones, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, BillFlis, Cydebot, Truthman20, Finn krogstad, Thijs!bot, Mrmdog, AuH2ORepublican, Waacstats, Mgroop, Johnpacklambert, Belovedfreak, Thismightbezach, Sswonk, Scienceguy2005, Andreas Kaganov, Ryuhaku, Youshouldask, Lightmouse, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, Yoyoyoyoyoyo123, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Glane23, Lightbot, Yobot, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Maria Sieglinda von Nudeldorf, Americus55, Jonesey95, Cmagha, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Susfele, Joal Beal, Akasseb, Delaywaves, Golamh, Hallows AG, Rossfitz, Mark Arsten, Jacklax100, VIAFbot, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, OccultZone, KasparBot and Anonymous: 43 • Benjamin Franklin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin?oldid=663283882 Contributors: Magnus Manske, MichaelTinkler, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Koyaanis Qatsi, Malcolm Farmer, Mark, RK, Andre Engels, Hajhouse, Rmhermen, Ortolan88, DavidLevinson, Nonenmac, AdamRetchless, B4hand, Fonzy, Isis~enwiki, Hephaestos, Someone else, Rickyrab, Rbrwr, Spiff~enwiki, Frecklefoot, Edward, Kchishol1970, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, EvanProdromou, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, Dante Alighieri, Kate Secor, Dominus, MartinHarper, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Lquilter, Shoaler, Paul A, SebastianHelm, Kosebamse, Looxix~enwiki, Ahoerstemeier, Stan Shebs, Docu, Snoyes, Matpe815, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Jebba, Kingturtle, Exixx, Black Widow, Haabet, Bogdangiusca, LouI, Vzbs34, Cimon Avaro, Evercat, Efghij, John K, Jacques Delson, Lukobe, Pizza Puzzle, JASpencer, Jengod, Agtx, Eszett, Charles Matthews, PaulinSaudi, Dcoetzee, Andrevan, RickK, Reddi, Ike9898, Jm34harvey, Pladask, Jay, MaineI30, Daniel Quinlan, Dandrake, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Timc, Tpbradbury, Jeffrey Smith, Furrykef, RayKiddy, Alight, Racomedia, Buridan, Phoebe, Bevo, Jonhays0, Morn, Joy, Fvw, Stormie, Metasquares, Pakaran, Proteus, SonofRage, BenRG, JorgeGG, Mjmcb1, Owen, Dimadick, Riddley, AlexPlank, Robbot, Paranoid, Earl Andrew, Pigsonthewing, Fredrik, Silver Surfer, Donreed, Dittaeva, Smallweed, Calmypal, Ianb, Mirv, Postdlf, Wjhonson, TimR, Texture, KellyCoinGuy, LGagnon, Wlievens, Hadal, UtherSRG, Modeha, JesseW, Dhodges, Anthony, Lupo, SoLando, Cyrius, Rsduhamel, Dina, Jooler, Stirling Newberry, Ancheta Wis, Albatross2147, Centrx, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Beno1983, Harp, Inter, Nunh-huh, Cobaltbluetony, Ævar Arnfjörð Bjarmason, Tom harrison, Lupin, Wilfried Derksen, Zigger, Peruvianllama, Everyking, No Guru, Jacob1207, Curps, Michael Devore, Gamaliel, Jdavidb, Sublium, Waltpohl, Niteowlneils, ChessPlayer, Frencheigh, Guanaco, Alensha, Per Honor et Gloria, Eequor, Solipsist, SWAdair, Bobblewik,
314
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
Jsavage, Jrdioko, Ryanaxp, SiusWibisono~enwiki, Esrogs, Fishal, SoWhy, Pgan002, Joaotg~enwiki, Geni, R. fiend, CryptoDerk, SarekOfVulcan, LucasVB, Quadell, Blankfaze, Antandrus, Williamb, Evertype, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Scottperry, Jossi, Polyfrog, 1297, Adamsan, Rdsmith4, JimWae, Ruzulo, DragonflySixtyseven, Gene s, CBDroege, Kevin B12, Bodnotbod, ScottyBoy900Q, Pmanderson, Gscshoyru, JHCC, B.d.mills, TonyW, Neutrality, Pitchka, Joyous!, Jcw69, Michael L. Kaufman, Buickid, Nulzilla, Bbpen, Ukexpat, Jh51681, Klemen Kocjancic, Deglr6328, DMG413, Damieng, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Eisnel, ELApro, The stuart, Lacrimosus, Jimaginator, Alsocal, Mike Rosoft, Roger.smith, Freakofnurture, Ulflarsen, Redlemur, Zarxos, DanielCD, Mindspillage, Dablaze, AgentSteel, Alexrexpvt, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, KneeLess, Hydrox, Treebiter, Jbou, Osrevad, Warpflyght, Ericamick, Chowells, User2004, Xezbeth, TheWama, Paul August, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, ZeroOne, Android79, BruceJohnson, Sc147, MattTM, Kaisershatner, The Iconoclast, Dalexcoffin, MyNameIsNotBob, Aranel, LJade728, CanisRufus, PedanticallySpeaking, Borofkin, Mwanner, Shanes, Tom, Sietse Snel, RoyBoy, Mairi, Deanos, Jpgordon, Bill Thayer, Dralwik, Kremit, Infocidal, Smalljim, Nyenyec, Func, Rackham, BrokenSegue, Shenme, Filiocht, Viriditas, Kevin Myers, Dungodung, JW1805, Arcadian, Jag123, Alberuni, Toh, Emhoo~enwiki, Nk, Kanpai, Lokifer, Sam Korn, Ral315, Polylerus, Krellis, JesseHogan, Hooperbloob, Perceval, Xideum, Mareino, Eje211, Jumbuck, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Hektor, Neonumbers, Carbon Caryatid, Babajobu, User6854, Andrew Gray, Primalchaos, SHIMONSHA, Calton, Gaytan, Lightdarkness, Viridian, DLJessup, Sligocki, Mac Davis, SFTVLGUY2, Redfarmer, TommyBoy, InShaneee, Spangineer, Malo, Scott5114, Bootstoots, BillGarrisonJr, Samohyl Jan, Ayeroxor, Wtmitchell, Schapel, Bbsrock, Binabik80, Mrbusy, Fordan, Saga City, *Kat*, Jon Cates, RainbowOfLight, Drat, Duff, Brholden, Rentastrawberry, T1980, The1pato, SteinbDJ, Matthew kokai, Tobyc75, Markaci, Richard Weil, Adrian.benko, EricLong, Kenyon, Dismas, AlexTiefling, Feezo, Roylee, WilliamKF, Angr, Ebakunin, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, Billhpike, Contrarian, Hottscubbard, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, TigerShark, Jdorje, LOL, Yansa, Jwcm, Carcharoth, Ekem, Kzollman, Bratsche, Kosher Fan, JeremyA, MONGO, MrDarcy, Zaorish, Odeveli, Oldie~enwiki, Bbatsell, Flyers13, Bluemoose, GregorB, M412k, Hard Raspy Sci, Crazysunshine, Brendanconway, Wayward, , Toussaint, Btyner, Prashanthns, Gimboid13, Alan Canon, DavidFarmbrough, DESiegel, Zpb52, Xiong, Pfalstad, A3r0, Marudubshinki, Emerson7, Youngamerican, Paxsimius, Slgrandson, Lalalala7789, Raguks, Graham87, E090, WBardwin, Magister Mathematicae, GoldRingChip, Raivein, BD2412, Galwhaa, Deadcorpse, MikeDockery, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, Bardnet, GrundyCamellia, Jclemens, Melesse, Mendaliv, Fcoulter, Casey Abell, Canderson7, Ketiltrout, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Eoghanacht, Ponsard, Koavf, Erebus555, DeadlyAssassin, Tombseye, Ikh, Lugnad, Tangotango, Stardust8212, Tawker, Seandop, Vegaswikian, ThatDamnDave, DonSiano, Equinox137, Merrilee, Bensin, The wub, Olessi, Schaengel89~enwiki, GregAsche, Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Iol, Titoxd, FlaBot, Da Stressor, Ian Pitchford, DDerby, RobertG, Ground Zero, WB2, Doc glasgow, Mac Drizzle, Arasaka, Chsh, Crazycomputers, Harmil, Chanting Fox, Aeon17x, Celestianpower, Novium, Tuneman42, Havergal, RexNL, Wctaiwan, Gurch, Briguy52748, Mordien, DevastatorIIC, OrbitOne, CoolFox, ViriiK, Subversive, The Dogandpony, Codex Sinaiticus, Preslethe, Alphachimp, Fsguitarist, Bmicomp, Tysto, Tedder, Piniricc65, SteveBaker, Russavia, Gurubrahma, Erp, Colenso, Chris is me, Chobot, Celebere, Sharkface217, Citizen Premier, VolatileChemical, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Digitalme, NSR, Gwernol, Debivort, Flcelloguy, Littlerob1221, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hutchk26, Sceptre, Blightsoot, Brandmeister (old), RussBot, EDM, Anonymous editor, Briaboru, Chroniclev, Splash, Lexi Marie, Sasuke Sarutobi, DanMS, GusF, OhNoItsColin, Dbulwink, Stephenb, Hyperbole, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, Philopedia, Salsb, Wimt, Tyugar, Anomalocaris, K.C. Tang, Marcus Cyron, Magnoliasouth, Shanel, NawlinWiki, JD79, Shreshth91, Nowa, Wiki alf, Paki.tv, Borbrav, Obarskyr, Lfanzini, Joshdboz, -asx-, AKeen, NickBush24, Johann Wolfgang, Welsh, Joel7687, Mmccalpin, Proyster, Korny O'Near, Rjensen, RazorICE, Howcheng, Unfit2rule, Journalist, Thiseye, Chooserr, Ragesoss, Retired username, Mshecket, Banes, Dppowell, Jpbowen, Krakatoa, Ruhrfisch, Larry laptop, Ergbert, Raven4x4x, Ezeu, Misza13, OettingerCroat, Tony1, Zwobot, Bucketsofg, JPMcGrath, Ajmoonz1, Syrthiss, DGJM, Lockesdonkey, Dissolve, Wangi, Harami2000, CDA, DeadEyeArrow, Psy guy, Neovita, Caspian, Evrik, Tachyon01, Newshounder, Siyavash, Phenz, Nlu, Avraham, Maoririder, Jth299, Cjmazzanti, FF2010, KateH, Ario, Deville, PTSE, Manticore126, BGC, Stilltim, Teiladnam, Nikkimaria, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Sir ducksworthy, Theda, Closedmouth, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Kestenbaum, JoanneB, SyntaxPC, Carabinieri, Kryzadmz, Mozkill, Whobot, Mais oui!, Spliffy, Scottyboy777, Whouk, GMan552, Kungfuadam, FrobozzElectric, RG2, Meegs, Otto ter Haar, NeilN, Quebron, GrinBot~enwiki, SkerHawx, DVD R W, WesleyDodds, Knowledgeum, Per Appelgren~enwiki, Vulturell, West Virginian, Luk, UltimatePyro, DocendoDiscimus, Akrabbim, Sardanaphalus, AlexKraj, Crystallina, SmackBot, Elonka, DJH47, Tlozano, Nickel Chromo~enwiki, Moeron, Bobet, Robotbeat, Pfly, Reedy, Cynic 74, InverseHypercube, Griot~enwiki, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, Hydrogen Iodide, McGeddon, Skeezix1000, Grazon, Bjelleklang, Pgk, C.Fred, Rrius, Jacek Kendysz, Kingfoot, Allixpeeke, Davewild, Itobo, Jfurr1981, Pkirlin, Renamed user 1, Delldot, Cla68, Hardyplants, Cylik, PJM, Frymaster, Kintetsubuffalo, TharkunColl, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Alsandro, NathanB~enwiki, Xaosflux, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Bkoopa6464, Hmains, The Famous Movie Director, Aaron of Mpls, The Gnome, Betacommand, Nfgii, Drknexus, OldsVistaCruiser, DarkAdonis255, Qtoktok, Planetthoughtful, Schmiteye, Izehar, Wigren, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, Kurykh, Keegan, Audacity, Joefaust, Father McKenzie, Geneb1955, Lanfranc, Iwwobbly, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Omniphile, Master of Puppets, Thumperward, Alan smithee, Brooktroutman, Liamdaly620, Miquonranger03, MalafayaBot, Rhtcmu, SchfiftyThree, JoeBlogsDord, Whispering, CMacMillan, Robth, Jxm, Ardik, DHN-bot~enwiki, Cassan, Colonies Chris, Literalsystems, Slumgum, A. B., Electrictiara88, MaxSem, Zsinj, Muboshgu, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Zhuravskij, The Prophet a.k.a. JD, EaglesFanInTampa, Derekbridges, Smallbones, Fiziker, Onorem, Nixeagle, Al-Kadafi, Yackytaffy, TheKMan, Rrburke, TonySt, Homestarmy, Pevarnj, LeContexte, Bolivian Unicyclist, Kcordina, GrahameS, Madddogmatt, PrivateWiddle, JanusKN, Elendil’s Heir, Blueboar, Dwishart, Seduisant, JSmith9579, Jmlk17, Soosed, ConMan, DenisDiderot, Rgrant, Downwards, Jwy, Nakon, Fullstop, Oanabay04, TedE, Theodore7, Zvis~enwiki, RaCha'ar, Dreadstar, Aking, Wirbelwind, Exoir, Akriasas, Hgilbert, Weregerbil, Zero Gravity, Wisco, Jklin, DMacks, Ultraexactzz, Quatloo, Kotjze, MilesVorkosigan, Akifbayram, EvaGears, Where, Zeamays, Pilotguy, Kukini, SSTwinrova, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Michael David, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Esrever, Nishkid64, Ckpeter, Rory096, RexRex84, Swatjester, Dlz28, Caxambu, Rklawton, Guyjohnston, Minaker, MartrtinS, Srikeit, Rebelx24, Kuru, John, Vgy7ujm, Mathiasrex, Ocanter, Bydand, Ishmaelblues, Eprose819, Xornok, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Edwy, JosephusDavid, Edward Morgan Blake, Richard Bladen, IronGargoyle, Pennyforth, Syrcatbot, PseudoSudo, ZincOrbie, Omnedon, Drumlineramos, Shamrox, Chrisvarns, BillFlis, Andypandy.UK, Slakr, Special-T, Gandalfxviv, Davemcarlson, Beetstra, Wallball5, Mr Stephen, Godfrey Daniel, Mrhurtin, PRRfan, Clark S. Colvin, Dcflyer, JCScaliger, Popotlan, Simonjp80, Novangelis, Glen Pepicelli, RMHED, Tombright, Jfellows, Caiaffa, Swampyank, MrDolomite, Shadow Puppet, KJS77, Tawkerbot, Rabble Rouser, Norm mit, Martynelmy, Dschuster17, BranStark, Nick030~enwiki, Nehrams2020, Seqsea, Dkaffka, Cat’s Tuxedo, JMK, Pwforaker, Grblomerth, Clarityfiend, Joseph Solis in Australia, Rhillman, Shoeofdeath, Nygiantsbfm, Lincarnate, Smilestone, J Di, Delta x, Darth Borehd, Cartyboi, AHBroccoli, OKTerrific, Dp462090, Civil Engineer III, Leebert, Az1568, Lent, Anmolgoel, Bhoward mvus, Anger22, Bottesini, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Benfranklinlover, Ehistory, Godgundam10, Jwalls, FatalError, Hajec, INkubusse, Tairaa, Armpitsquidbob, JForget, Unidyne, KNM, Mapsax, Wikisara, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Cemsentin1, Zin V, Jameswatt, Van helsing, Clindberg, Ilikefood, Bowie60, Xanthoxyl, Charvex, TVC 15, PurpleChez, GHe, Kylu, Thomasmeeks, Pgr94, Casper2k3, HTA, Ken Gallager, Tex, Chicheley, Bbagot, Ksoileau, Lookingforgroup, Rtrac3y, Gregbard, Nauticashades, Nilfanion, Jowan2005, TJDay, WikiEdit, AndrewHowse, Cydebot, Clappingsimon, Heim-
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
315
lich Himmler, Terryroe, Kanags, Reywas92, Treybien, Kygora, DrunkenSmurf, Gogo Dodo, Lilmike612, Khatru2, Hebrides, ST47, Mvoltron, Monkeybait, Strom, Alphageekpa, B, Tawkerbot4, JCO312, Ameliorate!, Lee, Sdgundam89, After Midnight, Tlucente, Omicronpersei8, Coby2, AVIosad, Lunarian, JohnClarknew, Mydoghasworms, The machine512, Sosomk, Kugland, JamesAM, BlacKeNinG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Donkeyton, Wackojak07, Yo Dude, Biruitorul, Skarvle, M.Shadows, Islescape, CSvBibra, Dasani, Chench, Daniel, Ucanlookitup, CheckPlus, Hazmat2, Ksgibson, Mojo Hand, Anupam, Afitillidie13, Marek69, Tomshakely, John254, A3RO, Jakerake, Java13690, Top.Squark, Jimbob234, Keelm, JustAGal, Mnemeson, Zonfire, Leon7, Disconnect 6, Farrtj, CharlotteWebb, Therequiembellishere, Michael A. White, Chavando, Crazycarolina, Heroeswithmetaphors, Crazy head, Mcchrisfan, VistaReady, Scunizzo, Hmrox, Porqin, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Majorly, Luna Santin, Kramden4700, Aletheia, Blue Tie, Arrad49, Hifrafdiot, MetaManFromTomorrow, Sparkhurst, Themetalgod, Carolmooredc, Mkallgren, Sue Sims, FHSerkland, Jayron32, Edokter, Dr who1975, Jj137, Noroton, RobJ1981, Fiendo, Postlewaight, Dr. Submillimeter, Primebiography, North Shoreman, Dognsuds, Gdo01, Politicaljunkie23, Davidlondon~enwiki, Rico402, Brettslocum, Arx Fortis, JAnDbot, Judaschrist666, D99figge, Leuko, The penfool, Arch dude, Fetchcomms, Ermeyers, Midnightdreary, Vickilp, Triviaa, Dcooper, Roleplayer, Hut 8.5, Wilchett, CrankyScorpion, Gu3st, Kerotan, Mrmdog, GoodDamon, Amitkinger, Steveprutz, .anacondabot, SiobhanHansa, Acroterion, Yahel Guhan, Wildhartlivie, Freshacconci, 01kkk, Akuyume, Frankly speaking, Livingtrust, Magioladitis, Connormah, WolfmanSF, Hroðulf, VoABot II, BrightGirl, AuburnPilot, 3anime3, QuizzicalBee, Aznguy93, GearedBull, IronCrow, NeoAC, Puddhe, Ling.Nut, Doug Coldwell, Tedickey, Boozerker, Klausok, NightHedgehog, Pvmoutside, Justice for All, Pachaaspaisa11, Mgroop, DrewGlover, Thefarmer, KConWiki, Hesterm77, ClovisPt, Srice13, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, The Mystery Man, Graemepark, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Scraimer, LoNe Yu, Dimts, Velocicaptor, Sentroid91, Darkrangerj, Jtl6713, Shravmehta, EstebanF, Glen, DerHexer, JaGa, Philg88, 1549bcp, Evil Hobo, Edward321, Coffeepusher, Serfy, WLU, Garik 11, RoninDH, Edton, Laura1822, DGG, Oroso, Gwern, Pvosta, Chumpai, Dr. Morbius, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Dr.T Bagger, Student8, JenniferMarkisoto, Jim.henderson, Jonbollo33, Centpacrr, WhatUpPeopole, Dutchman Schultz, Glendoremus, Stlcardinalsn8, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, LittleOldMe old, DarkArbiter, Wikiman232, Djshaw06, J.delanoy, Ditcuc, Rrostrom, Njndirish, Warren Allen Smith, ChrisfromHouston, Ronaldblue, CodeCarpenter, Extransit, Bragr, SandyFace, Oxguy3, Ben dude56, Marcsin, Brother Officer, Bigmac31, Jeepday, Arrgh406, Peter22james, JayJasper, Janet1983, Chriswiki, RoboMaxCyberSem, Malplaquet, Plasticup, Allreet, NewEnglandYankee, Clariosophic, Trilobitealive, MEMcNeil, DadaNeem, Touch Of Light, Robinoftheblackfang, Nrobin9, Shoessss, Ambalog, Sunderland06, Cmichael, Harrycroswell, Christopher norton, KylieTastic, Juliancolton, Evbwiki, Magalamb, VampOfTheDeep, Geekdiva, Csavoia, Whbonney, Shaulceder, Natl1, Pdcook, Packerfansam, Andy Marchbanks, Magicfap, Niall2, Kwabeski, HighKing, Useight, Bwalach, Indestructible~enwiki, Halmstad, Scewing, Rpeh, Josette, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Djflem, Barbar123, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, Bricks2183, Murderbike, The Duke of Waltham, Maxumum12, Danbloch, Tacoxmitch, PlaysInPeoria, Chienlit, Yoho2001, TXiKiBoT, Rocknroll3d, Java7837, Rklahn, Bigpoppa36, Jakesoo, Tomsega, Olympicking, Belzeron, Stacy lee1, Grant5678, GcSwRhIc, Sean D Martin, Ptaul, Someguy1221, Cwebbiverson, X1a4muse, Piperh, Acidulantes, Voorlandt, Vi Veri Veniversum Vivus Vici, John Carter, Dendodge, FreedomByDesign, Guitarplayer7741, Martin451, LeaveSleaves, ^demonBot2, Justinfr, Snowbot, Vgranucci, BotKung, Josephabradshaw, Quindraco, Eubulides, Brian Huffman, Dave00327, Rhvanwinkle, BobTheTomato, PeterHuntington, Richwil, Abdi234, Piperdown, Ceranthor, Benpalladinoiscoolalot, Cbjohnny, Qworty, Milowent, Melfarr, Sparklingjacket, David305, Brandon97, Williesnow, Benny111~enwiki, Austriacus, Beaster77, Evergreen1056, AdRock, Ian Glenn, SieBot, Alessgrimal, Jmg2493, K. Annoyomous, YanaGator, BotMultichill, Æthelwold, Archantos15, Josh the Nerd, Raffzahn, Gnr1967, Thoreau 222, Cwkmail, Lucasbfrbot, Psychless, CarlsonEric, Miliberty, Merotoker1, Sirwerd1, Yenaledluap, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Rosedora, Jmwise, Mister Krubbs, Darth Kalwejt, Drczar, Jack1956, Herrnieman, Bassist531, Android Mouse Bot 3, Californiadrew, Fearedhallmonitor, ResearchChannel, Lightmouse, G.-M. Cupertino, Ewiger Besserwisser, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Sugarcubez, Lemonmonkye, BradMajors, ManOnPipes, Mctd, Hans yulun lai, Pinkadelica, Posidon09, Jons63, Randy Kryn, Jimmy Slade, W.M. O'Quinlan, Vanhorn, TheCatalyst31, WikiMrsP, SLSB, Faithlessthewonderboy, Twinsday, Anthony R. Hansen, Brprivate, Jiminezwaldorf, Codyfinke6, ClueBot, Jbening, Robobogle, The Thing That Should Not Be, Rodhullandemu, Trivia23, ImperfectlyInformed, Wwheaton, Djm22, Jdb00, Der Golem, Polyamorph, Joao Xavier, Hafspajen, Bevinbell, Iconoclast.horizon, Niceguyedc, MARKELLOS, Blanchardb, Richerman, Hooktonnfonnix, LonelyBeacon, Parkwells, P. S. Burton, Tatzach, Punkrokgrl, Raybomb, Nyctoz, Redstikjoe, Damslerset, Auntof6, AsherJ, SamuelTheGhost, Dwaparayuga, Excirial, Miley1425, Gnome de plume, Bamberg3, Quercus basaseachicensis, Vtcarter6, Barrazzabonzii, Baseballbaker23, Hioply105, Coly21, Ziko, Lartoven, Rhododendrites, Sun Creator, NuclearWarfare, Deedeedee Steven, Jotterbot, 7&6=thirteen, Kryptonian250, Ajvalido94, Eatmybubbles hope, Durindaljb, M.O.X, Wkharrisjr, Razorflame, Nafakim, The Special Education Squad, Alexyo50, Leroyinc, Djb371, Thingg, Abh9h, Lord Cornwallis, JDPhD, Carlson288, Brokky, Kevinli123, Fragy, Berean Hunter, Canihaveacookie, Mcdruid, DumZiBoT, Darkicebot, Pillsberry, Therealsamab, XLinkBot, Nathan565, MarmotteNZ, GordonUS, Etherington0326, Imagine Reason, Dmg46664, Dthomsen8, Also We Brief, Mm40, WikiDao, Vianello, ZooFari, Good Olfactory, Airplaneman, Mr. IP, Zachthox, Kbdankbot, Writer130, Dodoïste, Addbot, Xp54321, Rdanneskjold, Cxz111, Wildgriffin, LemieuxNHL66, DOI bot, Yoenit, Jojhutton, Nikolay N. Ivanov, HoodKicka21, Benschroeter, Wulf Isebrand, Ronhjones, Movingboxes, Fieldday-sunday, Suckafish69, Khauswirthless, 96jessie, Leszek Jańczuk, Dr.porky, Jpoelma13, Cst17, Dtm824, MrOllie, Protonk, Stuttermullet1, Ld100, Hawk08210, Chzz, More random musing, Debresser, Favonian, Pinto92, Thatalguy, Bettafish2hamsters, Yanks4ever, LemmeyBOT, LinkFA-Bot, AngelaVietto, Equine-man, Pmcyclist, Dcook0424, Tassedethe, Walthamolian, Personalinformation, Clareybutt, E.S. Blofeld, Jestaz, DubaiTerminator, TriniMuñoz, LarryJeff, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Dronk, Gail, Bartledan, Mytruck, Mwiegand, Scappy5, Markvo, Drpickem, Camosoldier, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bmagsc, GTO 53090, FranklinFan, 2D, JJARichardson, Ptbotgourou, Senator Palpatine, Les boys, Amirobot, Jumping Jim 10, Mikey xl55, Washburnmav, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Jeddy919, Ballass22, Jchow123, Jolandiantrenprasilo, Axpde, Friendofmicrochips, Jjjjjack, Jjjjjjjjjjack, BoringHistoryGuy, Martin-vogel, BlkWIGeezer, Gunjones, Mustangmach, AnomieBOT, Herald1400~enwiki, AaRH, PonileExpress, Galoubet, Short Brigade Harvester Boris, JackieBot, Piano non troppo, Lecen, Bobisbob2, Justme89, Rbatchelor40, Chikalot135, Jtmorgan, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Aster Selene, Jamiemaloneyscoreg, LilHelpa, PhantomWSO, Xqbot, Eivindsol, Live Light, DSisyphBot, Gilo1969, Wyklety, Mayankmmmx, Srich32977, Raprchju, GrouchoBot, Riotrocket8676, Ute in DC, ProtectionTaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Gonzo12345~enwiki, Sandtwin, Sewblon, Shadowjams, Universalss, PM800, Griffinofwales, Green Cardamom, Tktru, Hyperboreer, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Dolly1313, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Racingstripes, Globalearth, BBrisingr9753, Yx7791, TheVirginiaHistorian, Squidwiggle, Ben76266, PasswordUsername, Louperibot, Citation bot 1, DigbyDalton, Abductive, Plucas58, Londonjackbooks, Wally2121, Tinton5, Skyerise, Tomcat7, GrapedApe, RedBot, MastiBot, HowardJWilk, Wikitanvir, Gypsypkd, Cmguy777, Cyrus40540057, Secret Saturdays, HarringtonSmith, SW3 5DL, Corinne68, Dr.Szląchedzki, Lightlowemon, Russot1, Indexme, Alexanderblake, TobeBot, Pitcroft, Lotje, Dinamik-bot, Leondumontfollower, Defender of torch, Dorshil, Tediouspedant, Tbhotch, Unioneagle, 7mike5000, Mzsabusayeed, Bossanoven, Beyond My Ken, Mandolinface, Crocblock, Steve03Mills, Mr. Anon515, EmausBot, John of Reading, BillyPreset, Brandov, GoingBatty, NotAnonymous0, Gwillhickers, Bettymnz4, AgRince, Italia2006, Newspaperpublisher, Hhhippo, Werieth, Philippe277, Samporo, AvicBot, ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, Ida Shaw, Illegitimate Barrister, Dolovis, W1 m2, Junkie.dolphin, Other Choices, Ae-
316
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
sopposea, VWBot, H3llBot, Zloyvolsheb, EWikist, XMithrandirx, SporkBot, Jess567, Jacobisq, Augurar, Sgvogel, JeanneMish, Brandmeister, Coasterlover1994, Mimono1997, Jackedup010, Washington28, Nukesarecool, L Kensington, Jj98, Tomisbeotch, Accotink2, Peachebaby, Guayaki69, Emailsmurf, Emailsmurfg, Larast, C0rrupt3dd, Lalhkop, Taylorhs92, Killercriscotwister, Billwall2, Rodmarcia, Herbert Chang, Blake nowak, Woodlandwalk, Armenia81, Ebehn, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Mm6119, Alexcoldcasefan, SusikMkr, Goose friend, Jangodom, Osterluzei, Slayer2448, Eric Douglas Statzer, A wild Rattata, CopperSquare, Jdperkins, Zakhalesh, Joshuajohnson555, Ec3243, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Sherlockian87, Newyork1501, Sam-Tap, Calidum, Mike28968, BG19bot, Chandlery, Kaltenmeyer, KendallK1, حمید نادریان, Jordatech, VirusKA, Jedysurya, MegustaManiac, Nultiaaliyah1, DistributorScientiae, J R Gainey, Youreallycan, Ndtronerud, Thecliffhanger64, Rytyho usa, Jason from nyc, TheCentristFiasco, Fiddlersmouth, XCentristFiasco, CodyTCBY, Vedanta5, SD5bot, Khazar2, Futurist110, MrNiceGuy1113, Dexbot, CluelessJoeJackson, NTWofPenna., Spicysenor, Sidelight12, VIAFbot, Rott7, Georgethewriter, BurritoBazooka, Nimetapoeg, Ekips39, Godot13, Sengbe7, Inglok, JohnMarkOckerbloom, Msundqvist, Maria M Lopes, Lindenhurst Liberty, DavidLeighEllis, ArmbrustBot, Murus, Robert4565, Floric19, SouthGal62, E E Ballew, 636Buster, N0n3up, Mmpozulp, Pending, Jordan0300, Dai Pritchard, KH-1, Aedokpayi, Spiderjerky, FriarTuck1981, TehSharp, Aidan721, Writer freak, KasparBot, Jamesarmistead25, Jeremylinvip and Anonymous: 1386 • Jared Ingersoll Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jared_Ingersoll?oldid=660741794 Contributors: LouI, Jengod, Bearcat, Steve Casburn, Btphelps, TiMike, Neutrality, Willhsmit, D6, Paul August, Shanes, JW1805, Alansohn, DLJessup, Spangineer, Joriki, FeanorStar7, Bluemoose, Kbdank71, Lendorien, Yamamoto Ichiro, AJR, Roboto de Ajvol, Briaboru, Npeters22, Garion96, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, D C McJonathan, Gilliam, RFD, Joe67Saint, Makyen, Boomshadow, G1076, Cbrown1023, Richard75, Eastlaw, Beforemath, Zarex, JustAGal, Smooth pappa, Porqin, AntiVandalBot, Jm4392, Connormah, Waacstats, Mgroop, Matthias Blume, Jim.henderson, HOT L Baltimore, JayJasper, Jjmillerhistorian, Thismightbezach, WOSlinker, GcSwRhIc, Ryuhaku, Qblik, WereSpielChequers, Monegasque, BradMajors, ClueBot, Dmanskater11, Mild Bill Hiccup, Echani419, NuclearWarfare, Dthomsen8, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bob Burkhardt, LilHelpa, Analphabot, Capricorn42, Thekrazykerzman, Mark Schierbecker, Locobot, Ben76266, HRoestBot, SpaceFlight89, RjwilmsiBot, Gwillhickers, PBS-AWB, L Kensington, ClueBot NG, Widr, BattyBot, VIAFbot, Choor monster, JC1008, OccultZone, TerryAlex, KasparBot and Anonymous: 61 • Thomas Mifflin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Mifflin?oldid=662716654 Contributors: MichaelTinkler, The Epopt, Vicki Rosenzweig, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Rmhermen, Caltrop, Zoe, Someone else, LouI, Jiang, Rl, Jengod, Emperorbma, Bearcat, Calmypal, Postdlf, Wjhonson, Fuelbottle, Seth Ilys, Reeding Lessons, Beno1983, Golbez, TiMike, Klemen Kocjancic, Adashiel, D6, Rich Farmbrough, Paul August, Bender235, ESkog, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Polylerus, Alansohn, Great Scott, DLJessup, Boothy443, FeanorStar7, Schzmo, Bluemoose, Jack Cox, Nihiltres, Scott Mingus, IrishWolfhoundJC, YurikBot, GPS Pilot, CambridgeBayWeather, Wrightchr, Ruhrfisch, Homagetocatalonia, Stilltim, Npeters22, Elliskev, Ehrentitle, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Renesis, Ghosts&empties, Chris the speller, Miquonranger03, Sadads, Colonies Chris, A. B., GoodDay, Nick Levine, EaglesFanInTampa, Fumo7887, MichaelBillington, Blauwkoe, Ace ETP, Michael David, BillFlis, Courcelles, PurpleChez, Nilfanion, Cydebot, Pascal.Tesson, KnoxSGT, LarryQ, Thedirkus, Sparkhurst, Connormah, Freedomlinux, VoABot II, Waacstats, Mgroop, JaGa, Micagi, Superken, Johnpacklambert, Zeete, J.delanoy, NewEnglandYankee, Thismightbezach, Split Infinity, WOSlinker, Ryuhaku, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Madhero88, SieBot, Pubdog, McGrupp10799, PolarBot, Mailman9, V8m8i, RSStockdale, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, ClueBot, PipepBot, Jan1nad, Piledhigheranddeeper, Damslerset, Auntof6, Stas.klos, Thingg, Lord Cornwallis, Fromseatoshiningsea, Joffle, Gnowor, Kbdankbot, HexaChord, Jojhutton, Climbingfool, Rklear, Fieldday-sunday, LarryJeff, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Murchadah, Againme, Ulric1313, Citation bot, Jayarathina, Purplebackpack89, Tyrol5, GrouchoBot, Zipotur, FrescoBot, Yx7791, Codyrules2014, Tinton5, Qwertywashere, Fry1989, Minimac, RjwilmsiBot, Lilniz2, BandBHawks, Furryweasle, Anirudh Emani, ZéroBot, L Kensington, Chapin IV, Nirakka, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Mediran, SD5bot, Annapolishistory, JC1008, Monkbot, KasparBot and Anonymous: 120 • Gouverneur Morris Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gouverneur_Morris?oldid=660765257 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Karada, CrucifiedChrist, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Darkwind, LouI, Jiang, John K, Jengod, Sebastian Wallroth, Zoicon5, Tpbradbury, Jmabel, Yelyos, Sunray, Hadal, Decumanus, Inter, Nunh-huh, Ferkelparade, Bkonrad, NeoJustin, Pmanderson, Aramgutang, DMG413, D6, Stepp-Wulf, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Stefzechef, ESkog, Jensbn, Eddieuny, QuartierLatin1968, Tom, Kfogel, Polylerus, Nsaa, Alansohn, Atlant, Moanzhu, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, Brholden, JBellis, Bluemoose, Wayward, Paxsimius, Jack Cox, Cuchullain, ConradKilroy, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, MZMcBride, Smismumi7654967845, MarnetteD, Surferdude4000, RexNL, Gurch, Bgwhite, Awbeal, YurikBot, Lexi Marie, Kyorosuke, Wimt, Joshdboz, Clashfrankcastle, Rjensen, Patchyreynolds, Voidxor, Xgu, Nlu, Tocqueville, Emijrp, Whobot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Edgar181, Gilliam, Andy M. Wang, Durova, Chris the speller, Bduke, JoshNarins, Jprg1966, Sadads, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, AP1787, WaldoJ, Quatloo, Mathmannix, Ericl, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, Serein (renamed because of SUL), Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Jperrylsu, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Linden Salter, IronGargoyle, BillFlis, Stwalkerster, Peyre, MJO, Az1568, Courcelles, Billy Hathorn, RCMorris, Lahiru k, MightyWarrior, FlyingToaster, Rnedbal, Ksoileau, Funnyfarmofdoom, Cydebot, JellyFish72, Epbr123, SGGH, Luna Santin, Cjs2111, Adjwilley, Joshua, Freshacconci, Meeples, Billmckern, JNW, Kinston eagle, Waacstats, CaptainP, Mgroop, Animum, Owl523, The Mystery Man, DerHexer, Kraxler, Mike6271, JBC3, Caladon, J.delanoy, Filll, Psycho Kirby, Ayecee, Natty4bumpo, Reedy Bot, Ryan Postlethwaite, Bilbobee, AntiSpamBot, Jwh335, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Sedi911, JavierMC, Useight, Xiahou, GrahamHardy, Mrandolph, Sintaku, Ryuhaku, PeterHuntington, Pxl Buzzard, AlleborgoBot, Milowent, Hans.brough, Mikebar, Revent, Finley, Pubdog, Granf, Oxymoron83, Treehill, Lightmouse, JohnSawyer, BradMajors, Pinkadelica, Elassint, ClueBot, Jsanders5552000, Malen101, Revotfel, Joe N, Bald Zebra, Aitias, Silas Maxfield, Mr kc, Canihaveacookie, DumZiBoT, RogDel, SuperZONic, Avoided, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Fireinacrowdedtheatre, Addbot, JReyer, Buster7, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Pohick2, Asimonds, Fahadsadah, Flewis, Citation bot, LovesMacs, Stuff2314, The Banner, GenQuest, KutieKay0, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Ruy Pugliesi, FrescoBot, Jc3s5h, Americus55, BenzolBot, HRoestBot, Cmguy777, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Surlytrucker, Canuckian89, Caractecus, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Fabled44, J36miles, EmausBot, Racerx11, RA0808, Lithistman, Steeldx, Carmichael, William Maury Morris II, Senator2029, ClueBot NG, EricWR, Joefromrandb, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jweaver28, MusikAnimal, IluvatarBot, Dezastru, Pratyya Ghosh, Abbyquack, Soni, Mogism, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, NathanWubs, JC1008, Billybob2002, Yorkmba99, Jackmcbarn, OccultZone, Gruntldr, ADGB1750, KasparBot and Anonymous: 254 • Robert Morris (financier) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)?oldid=661137068 Contributors: Shsilver, Deb, Jinian, Tregoweth, LouI, Efghij, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Sebastian Wallroth, Daniel Quinlan, Topbanana, Pollinator, Bearcat, Mcasey666, Postdlf, Rholton, Lupo, Gamaliel, Varlaam, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Btphelps, Alexf, Adamsan, Chrisn4255, Pmanderson, TiMike, EagleOne, Mike Rosoft, D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Kwamikagami, Tom, Bobo192, Longhair, Kevin Myers, JW1805, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Nsaa, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Scott5114, Ksnow, Fdewaele, MK2, Bluemoose, Toussaint, Kevind81, Wbkelley,
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
317
Youngamerican, Mandarax, FreplySpang, Search4Lancer, Stmoose, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Lockley, SMC, Vegaswikian, Ligulem, DoubleBlue, Ground Zero, OpenToppedBus, Bgwhite, RussBot, Bovineone, Rjensen, Xdenizen, Evrik, KateH, 21655, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Fram, Whobot, Argos’Dad, DVD R W, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Pwt898, Hydrogen Iodide, Floydspinky71, PeterSymonds, Gilliam, Betacommand, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Whispering, Robt Morris, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Smallbones, Racklever, Stevenmitchell, Decltype, MichaelBillington, DMacks, Ericl, DCB4W, Simpsonic1111, IronGargoyle, BillFlis, Iridescent, Courcelles, Swfong, RCMorris, Dlohcierekim, CmdrObot, Dk1965, KnightLago, Neelix, AndrewHowse, Jane023, Cydebot, Jack O'Lantern, Mathpianist93, Canute, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Missvain, Therequiembellishere, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Seaphoto, SummerPhD, Noroton, Brockthepaine, Robtmorris, Deflective, Gtorell, Dheller, Hut 8.5, Beaumont, Wildhartlivie, Magioladitis, Connormah, VoABot II, Appraiser, CTF83!, Waacstats, WODUP, Mgroop, Alekjds, The Mystery Man, Loonymonkey, JTGILLICK, Emw, Kraxler, ForgottenManC, Incredibleshrinkingman, MartinBot, Mike6271, Cromwells Legacy, KTo288, Cdamama, Katharineamy, Zdtrlik, Dcmacnut, Spshu, WithGLEE, Cometstyles, Pnoble805, Thismightbezach, Philip Trueman, DiYaLun, NPrice, JRDeVoll, Leafyplant, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, James Seneca, Turgan, SalomonCeb, Hughey, SieBot, Ipankonin, Brenont, 4wajzkd02, Crippled Conservative, Flyer22, Arbor to SJ, Ciscokid21, Bxmuchacho, Oxymoron83, Kumioko (renamed), Ward20, BradMajors, Escape Orbit, Randy Kryn, Tomdobb, ClueBot, Cab.jones, Rodhullandemu, CasualObserver'48, Cp111, Timberframe, Parkwells, Piledhigheranddeeper, Arunsingh16, DragonBot, Excirial, Theused13, Three-quarter-ten, Sun Creator, Thingg, Lord Cornwallis, StatesManship, EstherLois, DumZiBoT, Mtroy, Little Mountain 5, Richard-of-Earth, Dmcm2008, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Brentdickson, Fieldday-sunday, Groundsquirrel13, Epicadam, Chzz, Tassedethe, Dr Jorgen, Tide rolls, Lightbot, JohnnyPolo24, Markvo, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, RockfangBot, Momsaid, DarthKieduss, BoringHistoryGuy, AnomieBOT, Ulric1313, Materialscientist, Smithhemb, Bob Burkhardt, KHirsch, GenQuest, Tyrol5, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, Burntdog, RayRaphael, Haploidavey, Evetswal, GT5162, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, Tcummins1, Moderndayhistorian, Lucas Duke, Adyingpoet, Kidzcummins, 12string, HJ Mitchell, Salisburymiddleschool, A little insignificant, Inirasta, Technolalia, Calmer Waters, Rushbugled13, Fat&Happy, SpaceFlight89, Mejkravitz, Biofuelmaker, WCCasey, Canuckian89, Tbhotch, Mrodri429, RjwilmsiBot, Canada Hky, Acather96, K6ka, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Billiesdead, Donner60, Chewings72, Rocketrod1960, Virginiaheart, ClueBot NG, MoJoe252, Akuindo, Ime-Ventures, Slowking4, Widr, WikiPuppies, Helpful Pixie Bot, Wiki13, Jweaver28, Mark Arsten, Applestodecap, GramereC, Stallion01, Anbu121, Popopo8776, SD5bot, DeLear2012, Andrew Mlynarski, VIAFbot, EoTN, Epicgenius, Godot13, Spiritsaudio, Harlem Baker Hughes, Username17~enwiki, DavidLeighEllis, No2123, JC1008, JamesZhou13, OccultZone, Daniellagreen, Jerry Y 1945, Heydawg69, CPMacalister, Scribbler101, Amortias, KasparBot, ABCDEFAD and Anonymous: 334 • James Wilson Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wilson?oldid=664052446 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Zoe, Hephaestos, Paul A, Ahoerstemeier, Derek davis, Katagelophobia, John K, Jengod, Jon Roland, AlexPlank, Big Jim Fae Scotland, Postdlf, Philwelch, Tom harrison, Gamaliel, OverlordQ, PDH, TiMike, Kelson, Neutrality, Coburnpharr04, Usrnme h8er, Dryazan, D6, AliveFreeHappy, Discospinster, Bender235, PedanticallySpeaking, Bobo192, Stesmo, Smalljim, Kevin Myers, JW1805, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Alansohn, PaulHanson, Arthena, Hydriotaphia, Moanzhu, Lightdarkness, DLJessup, Velella, Binabik80, Fdewaele, MK2, Mfields1, Bkwillwm, Bluemoose, BD2412, Coemgenus, JHMM13, MZMcBride, Kurt, Yamamoto Ichiro, Wragge, AJR, Gurch, FRED, Spikebrennan, Scimitar, Rmbyoung, YurikBot, Pip2andahalf, RussBot, Pigman, Pseudomonas, Thane, Wiki alf, Joshdboz, Rjensen, Howcheng, Irishguy, Number 57, Alex43223, Dbfirs, DeadEyeArrow, Evrik, TransUtopian, NorsemanII, Stilltim, Marc29th, Npeters22, Mais oui!, MatthewSMaynard, Sardanaphalus, KnightRider~enwiki, SmackBot, Bobet, Cdogsimmons, C.Fred, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Persian Poet Gal, EncMstr, Mattythewhite, Fromgermany, A. B., GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Rrburke, Addshore, Samuel 69105, Nakon, MichaelBillington, Sergiu.dumitriu, Serein (renamed because of SUL), BrownHairedGirl, Iglew, Edwy, BillFlis, Waggers, RMHED, Swampyank, Joseph Solis in Australia, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Tawkerbot2, Emote, Eastlaw, Dragoon91786, Dk1965, Uga booga, Cydebot, A Softer Answer, Pgg7, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, TonyTheTiger, Marek69, Dfrg.msc, Nick Number, Raditzu, Dalliance, AntiVandalBot, Sparkhurst, Opelio, DragonBlazer57, Noroton, Ioeth, Leuko, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Almightyuk, Tedickey, Klausok, Mgroop, Allstarecho, Cpl Syx, DerHexer, MikeLHenderson, Superken, PhantomS, MartinBot, Jim.henderson, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Cyrus Andiron, J.delanoy, 8th Ohio Volunteers, SJP, JHeinonen, KylieTastic, Burzmali, Foofighter20x, Regenspaziergang, Scewing, Thedjatclubrock, Philip Trueman, Slvrstn, BlueCuzco, Andrews for president, Prevenient, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, James Seneca, Billinghurst, Meters, Squalk25, Insanity Incarnate, SarahSeneca, Scarian, MrDavidLaw, Bellboi, Keilana, McGrupp10799, Bob98133, Oxymoron83, Android Mouse Bot 3, Polbot, Techman224, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, Rick.heli, Finetooth, Randy Kryn, Faithlessthewonderboy, ClueBot, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, Taquito1, Shantidude, Excirial, Jusdafax, 7&6=thirteen, Badjamie, Thingg, Useight’s Public Sock, Lord Cornwallis, Gegitech, SoxBot III, Davidabram, EstherLois, DumZiBoT, Joffle, Captain108, AlanM1, RogDel, Dthomsen8, Estmann, Skarebo, Frood, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Jojhutton, CanadianLinuxUser, Leszek Jańczuk, Fluffernutter, Jwrs87, Tide rolls, Lightbot, SPat, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, RockfangBot, Reindra, AnomieBOT, Kingpin13, Law, Careful Cowboy, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, Apollo, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Thekrazykerzman, Ruy Pugliesi, Omnipaedista, 78.26, Astatine-210, Samwb123, Nitpyck, TheVirginiaHistorian, Salisburymiddleschool, Louperibot, Technolalia, Tinton5, MastiBot, Salohcin111, DASHBot, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, RA0808, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, PBSAWB, Fæ, Other Choices, Jhjacob, Monterey Bay, Makecat, Grundgesetz~enwiki, Stephanieweibel, Spicemix, Taliesin717, ClueBot NG, Rich Smith, Tachero23, This lousy T-shirt, Joefromrandb, DTParker1000, Cntras, Samlewcoh, Widr, Newyorkadam, Drewhunter14, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, DBigXray, Nkpedersen, Ctm3343, Jfabianwitt, Bookwyrm838, 08cam08, YodaRULZ, Michaellit690, Princezuko1225, TBrandley, Hghyux, Lanedamindyd15000, GoShow, AnnicAllus, Thephrozenpiklez, Lugia2453, Bulba2036, Andurilas, Bubblebuttz, JoeMeas, Jakec, , SNUGGUMS, OccultZone, 8shane, Monkbot, Bobmagilica, Taytocrisp, Adrian hare, RRWWIISSAWESOME, Margaret S. (History Student), Jhugfulper2254, KasparBot and Anonymous: 306 • Pierce Butler Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierce_Butler?oldid=662539484 Contributors: Sannse, LouI, Jengod, Gutsul, Frazzydee, Bearcat, Vikingstad, Alan Liefting, Michael Devore, Bobblewik, Fergananim, Jonel, Trevor MacInnis, D6, Discospinster, Turias, QuartierLatin1968, Tom, Sole Soul, BrokenSegue, Rye1967, Alansohn, PaulHanson, DLJessup, Saga City, Woohookitty, MK2, Tabletop, Bluemoose, Kbdank71, Ketiltrout, Rjwilmsi, Gurch, RussBot, Briaboru, SpuriousQ, Josh3580, Marc29th, Whobot, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Floydspinky71, Gilliam, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Durova, Chris the speller, TimBentley, Djln, Sadads, GoodDay, Smallbones, Mitchumch, Coredesat, BillFlis, Ofsevit, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, Jerry Jones, Wooyi, Ghandi669, Cydebot, Peripitus, Thijs!bot, Kablammo, Phoe, Smooth pappa, Rlitwin, Modernist, Thefear, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, VoABot II, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, Johnpacklambert, J.delanoy, SJP, KylieTastic, KudzuVine, Thismightbezach, Tesscass, Philip Trueman, NPrice, Ryuhaku, McM.bot, Mannafredo, Monsieurdl, Falcon8765, Kernel Saunters, Jack1956, Kumioko (renamed), Dravecky, BradMajors, Iamwisesun, Steelduck281, Parkwells, DavidBlackwell, Monthneedbe, Papassaudi, Lord Cornwallis, Fromseatoshiningsea, EstherLois, RogDel, Good Olfactory, NonvocalScream, Kbdankbot, Addbot, IXJoe, Download, Glane23, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, BoringHistoryGuy, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, JLDAGH, Dge1102, Xqbot, Capri-
318
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
corn42, Doulos Christos, Samwb123, A.amitkumar, Green Cardamom, FrescoBot, DryHornet, Full-date unlinking bot, Lotje, Canuckian89, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Joal Beal, Suslindisambiguator, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Snotbot, Widr, BG19bot, MusikAnimal, RscprinterBot, Lukas²³, SD5bot, VIAFbot, Rainadoodles, American In Brazil, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Eliasnajmzuzu4, American Starkiller, LiamJColeman, KasparBot and Anonymous: 104 • Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney?oldid=661981863 Contributors: Shsilver, SimonP, DavidLevinson, D, Docu, LouI, John K, Jengod, JCarriker, Dysprosia, Ed g2s, Pollinator, KuatofKDY, Dimadick, Altenmann, Catbar, Lupo, Phil5329, Bkonrad, Varlaam, LockeShocke, Utcursch, Anythingyouwant, Kuralyov, Lacrimosus, D6, Guanabot, Vsmith, Grick, Clarkbhm, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Zachlipton, Alansohn, DLJessup, Snowolf, Binabik80, Dbrett480, Woohookitty, FeanorStar7, Schzmo, Bluemoose, Skywriter, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ground Zero, WillC, SouthernNights, Scott Mingus, Awbeal, RussBot, Pseudomonas, Fnorp, Joshdboz, Lowe4091, Rjensen, DeadEyeArrow, Wknight94, PGPirate, West Virginian, Sardanaphalus, Diplomacy Guy, Edgar181, Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Rlevse, Smallbones, Meepster, Emre D., RFD, Mathmannix, DCB4W, Workman, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Mathiasrex, Swampyank, Dakart, Joseph Solis in Australia, Richard75, Ale jrb, Wooyi, Myasuda, Cydebot, Mato, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, Wbolger, Chickenflicker, Therequiembellishere, Floridasand, AntiVandalBot, DuncanHill, Giler, Connormah, Professor marginalia, Goshr, Waacstats, Mgroop, Septuagent, Kraxler, Gwern, Gotyear, DrKiernan, McSly, JayJasper, Knight of BAAWA, Sunderland06, Spellcast, Johnny Au, WOSlinker, Andreas Kaganov, Jehorn, SieBot, Qblik, BotMultichill, Mikebar, Caltas, Kumioko (renamed), Elassint, ClueBot, Arakunem, Parkwells, Rockfang, Excirial, Alexbot, Aitias, Versus22, Unknown103, Aerotwelve, Dthomsen8, Good Olfactory, Addbot, TAlbinoni, Some jerk on the Internet, Ronhjones, Mr. Wheely Guy, AndersBot, Lightbot, TheSuave, A Stop at Willoughby, Magicpiano, IRP, Materialscientist, GrouchoBot, Maddox210, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Joaquin008, FrescoBot, Ben76266, Tilden76, Julien1978, TBloemink, Caractecus, RjwilmsiBot, Joraejean, Racerx11, BurtAlert, PS., ClueBot NG, Moore2012, MusikAnimal, Frze, J R Gainey, VIAFbot, Little green rosetta, Wywin, Nimetapoeg, Peyton Mott, Sengbe7, Grinquest11, PhantomTech, , DavidLeighEllis, ☼, ADGB1750, Vball swag, KasparBot and Anonymous: 159 • Charles Pinckney (governor) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Pinckney_(governor)?oldid=660881755 Contributors: Eloquence, JeLuF, Ducker, Docu, NEWONE, LouI, John K, Jengod, Andrewman327, Postdlf, Davidcannon, Everyking, Bkonrad, D6, Discospinster, User2004, Paul August, Tom, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Snowolf, Ceyockey, Fdewaele, Robert K S, Bluemoose, Eoghanacht, NekoDaemon, Scott Mingus, DVdm, Bgwhite, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, RussBot, DanMS, Grafen, Rande M Sefowt, Whobot, West Virginian, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Hydrogen Iodide, Gilliam, Hmains, Rmosler2100, Chris the speller, TimBentley, GoodDay, Shalom Yechiel, Nakon, The undertow, Wickethewok, IronGargoyle, Eastfrisian, TwistOfCain, Richard75, JoannaSerah, CmdrObot, MrFish, Cydebot, Gamecock, Studerby, LarryQ, Epbr123, AntiVandalBot, Connormah, Waacstats, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, Sibi antony, Vanished user 342562, MetsFan76, Juliancolton, Thismightbezach, ABF, Soliloquial, WOSlinker, Bms4880, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, DianaGaleM, Ryuhaku, Tcarterva, Insanity Incarnate, Rontrigger, SieBot, Qblik, Flyer22, Radon210, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Parkwells, SchreiberBike, DumZiBoT, RogDel, Avoided, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Guoguo12, Hexermich, Debresser, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Apau98, SassoBot, E0steven, TheVirginiaHistorian, Cannolis, RedBot, Cmguy777, Shanmugamp7, Canuckian89, RjwilmsiBot, Hughcherry, K6ka, Olekinderhook, ZéroBot, Mayur, Mentibot, DASHBotAV, Petrb, ClueBot NG, O.Koslowski, Widr, Cncmaster, Mejoribus, Yellowjellow12, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Frosty, Nimetapoeg, Peyton Mott, Eyesnore, Tentinator, Sam Sailor, OccultZone, KasparBot and Anonymous: 122 • John Rutledge Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Rutledge?oldid=662109268 Contributors: Sannse, Stan Shebs, Docu, LouI, Jiang, John K, Jengod, Smith03, RickK, Jwrosenzweig, Lord Emsworth, Dcsohl, Huangdi, Dimadick, RedWolf, Calmypal, Postdlf, Rholton, Ydorb, Philwelch, Everyking, Chowbok, Antandrus, Vina, Adamsan, Anythingyouwant, Chrisn4255, Gscshoyru, Mike Rosoft, D6, DanielCD, Bender235, ESkog, Mateo SA, MBisanz, Tom, Bobo192, Kevin Myers, Rajah, PaulHanson, DLJessup, TommyBoy, Bbsrock, Dbrett480, Yuckfoo, Msclguru, RainbowOfLight, Djsasso, Woohookitty, Jersyko, JustDerek, Tabletop, Bluemoose, Macaddct1984, OCNative, Skywriter, Mb1000, Kralizec!, Mandarax, Jack Cox, BD2412, BorgHunter, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Coemgenus, Vary, MZMcBride, Boccobrock, Krash, Teddythetank, WillC, Choess, Captain Scotch, YurikBot, Carolynparrishfan, RussBot, Pigman, Chaser, Gaius Cornelius, Dhwani1989, Deskana, Dureo, Dlyons493, Wknight94, Homagetocatalonia, Iwalters, Mais oui!, Kungfuadam, Philip Stevens, Elliskev, Krótki, West Virginian, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Cdogsimmons, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Hmains, Chris the speller, Rmt2m, Tree Biting Conspiracy, EncMstr, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Slackermonkey, Solomon Taibi, Stevenmitchell, Samuel 69105, Tiki2099, DMacks, Ericl, Johnor, Ohconfucius, Cyberevil, Ameliejane, Esrever, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Jmcneill2, IronGargoyle, Lampman, Iridescent, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Blehfu, Supertigerman, Jontomkittredge, Briancua, JForget, CmdrObot, Wooyi, Yarnalgo, Eggy49er, American Saga, Cydebot, Gamecock, MWaller, DumbBOT, Rougher07, JamesAM, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, C-Star, Bobblehead, Mattfrye, Floridasand, AntiVandalBot, RedCoat10, DuncanHill, MER-C, RedZebra, Richrobison, Tedickey, Mgroop, The Mystery Man, DerHexer, PhantomS, Poeloq, Anaxial, Tadpole9, J.delanoy, BigrTex, Rrostrom, Thugmoavation, Dirtymoney101, Burzmali, Jamesontai, Foofighter20x, UnitedStatesIndia, Al.locke, Philip Trueman, Ryuhaku, Raymondwinn, McM.bot, Snowbot, J. J. in PA, Why Not A Duck, Qblik, Tiptoety, Parttaker, Monegasque, Android Mouse Bot 3, Polbot, Fratrep, Kumioko (renamed), BradMajors, TaerkastUA, Yair rand, Florentino floro, Duffy2032, Danicalove79, Sokari, ClueBot, DFRussia, Snigbrook, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, CounterVandalismBot, Jmn100, Savage23man, Excirial, Papassaudi, NuclearWarfare, 7&6=thirteen, Jaob, Life of Riley, Tealwisp, Otr500, AlanM1, Pichpich, Avoided, Rreagan007, PL290, Noctibus, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Cbrown285, Gshaunm, Addbot, Pkgoldberg, Some jerk on the Internet, Fieldday-sunday, Krano, Dimitris, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Magicliz33, EchetusXe, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Jim1138, Citation bot, Bob Burkhardt, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Jayarathina, Raprchju, J04n, Zipotur, Krscal, Drdpw, Recognizance, TheVirginiaHistorian, Americus55, Jun Nijo, DrilBot, Reconsider the static, SeoMac, Canuckian89, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, NerdyScienceDude, Ddrichman, Ebe123, RenamedUser01302013, Tommy2010, Wikipelli, Olekinderhook, John Cline, H3llBot, Tolly4bolly, ClueBot NG, Kuffers, Rmwwalker, Snotbot, O.Koslowski, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatfish2, Quarkgluonsoup, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Altaïr, J R Gainey, Mrt3366, Khazar2, Bulba2036, Verifirs, Marxistfounder, Monkbot, Vieque, Mr.gangsta, Dr.Cocktor, SCHistographer, Tuckerjameschelsea, Tracegingerich12, KasparBot and Anonymous: 229 • John Blair, Jr. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Blair%2C_Jr.?oldid=653412101 Contributors: Rmhermen, William Avery, D, Ronz, John K, Jengod, Nyh, Postdlf, Vikingstad, Philwelch, Quadell, TiMike, Kelson, Neutrality, D6, Bender235, PedanticallySpeaking, Elipongo, Kevin Myers, Alansohn, DLJessup, Bkwillwm, Bluemoose, BD2412, Mayumashu, WillC, Wars, Rjensen, Mais oui!, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Folajimi, Hmains, Dwain, TimBentley, Colonies Chris, GoodDay, Kristbg, Neo139, Samuel 69105, Flyguy649, DMacks, Optakeover, Shoeofdeath, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Chicheley, Cydebot, Pauljeffersonks, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Smooth pappa, Vic226, Mack2, Hut 8.5, Geniac, Connormah, Mgroop, Allstarecho, PhantomS, J.delanoy, PC78, DadaNeem, Jrcla2, VASupCtHist, Foofighter20x, Guyzero,
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
319
Doctoroxenbriery, Clarince63, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Caltas, Monegasque, Aruton, G.-M. Cupertino, ClueBot, SuperHamster, Swvalaw, Auntof6, Robert Skyhawk, Excirial, 7&6=thirteen, Thingg, AlanM1, RogDel, Good Olfactory, Addbot, DougsTech, Mr. Wheely Guy, Tmsandefur, Lightbot, Timosch, Swarm, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Pohick2, N1RK4UDSK714, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, IRP, Ulric1313, Rar, Xqbot, Capricorn42, Purplebackpack89, Tiller54, Zipotur, Waluyb, FrescoBot, Full-date unlinking bot, Wikipelli, Nickpapagorgio187, ZéroBot, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Widr, Drewhunter14, Helpful Pixie Bot, KLBot2, DBigXray, Anbu121, Bulba2036, Godot13, Sauron458, Monkbot, Nyancat12356487, Nyancat1234, MicahSH0708 and Anonymous: 96 • James Madison Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison?oldid=663627982 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, RobLa, Jeronimo, Lorax, BenBaker, Eclecticology, Youssefsan, Danny, JeLuF, William Avery, Mincus, Dwheeler, Hephaestos, Someone else, Leandrod, Lorenzarius, Infrogmation, Dante Alighieri, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Dcljr, Minesweeper, Stw, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Angela, Kingturtle, Ugen64, Peter Kaminski, LouI, Jiang, John K, Raven in Orbit, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Bemoeial, RickK, AWhiteC, Fuzheado, Haukurth, Tpbradbury, Dinopup, Thue, Lord Emsworth, Wetman, Bcorr, Jusjih, Johnleemk, Eugene van der Pijll, Flockmeal, Dimadick, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, Chris 73, Calmypal, Postdlf, Merovingian, Chris5369, Hemanshu, Sunray, Hadal, UtherSRG, Dina, Vaoverland, Centrx, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Gtrmp, Wikilibrarian, Nat Krause, Wilfried Derksen, Obli, Everyking, Bkonrad, Maha ts, Curps, Ab762, Cantus, H-2-O, Guanaco, Ezhiki, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Golbez, Gregory Watson, Fishal, Chowbok, Pgan002, Lst27, SarekOfVulcan, Quadell, PeterLB~enwiki, Antandrus, Doops, MisfitToys, Daniel,levine, Incka, Jossi, JimWae, RetiredUser2, Chrisn4255, Pmanderson, Icairns, Cynical, Neutrality, Binand, Coburnpharr04, Marcus2, Joyous!, Ukexpat, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft, Alexrexpvt, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, KarlaQat, ThomasK, Vsmith, Bishonen, Paul August, Ultimatum479, Stbalbach, Bender235, ESkog, Kaisershatner, Dkpiatt, Wolfman, Brian0918, Ylee, CanisRufus, PedanticallySpeaking, Omnibus, Mwanner, Kross, Laurascudder, Aude, Tom, Susvolans, Fuxx, Bastique, Sole Soul, Bobo192, NetBot, Infocidal, Clawson, John Vandenberg, Dreish, Filiocht, Cmdrjameson, Kevin Myers, AKGhetto, Adrian~enwiki, JW1805, Rockhopper10r, Rajah, Rje, Starchild, DCEdwards1966, Lokifer, Peaceman, Sam Korn, Krellis, Nsaa, Perceval, Jumbuck, Jiminy Krikkitt, Merenta, Alansohn, Qwghlm, AzaToth, McMuff, Fat pig73, DLJessup, TommyBoy, Fawcett5, Plange, Hu, Malo, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Bbsrock, Binabik80, Super-Magician, Fledgeling, ReyBrujo, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Msclguru, Docboat, Closeinch2, Carioca, RainbowOfLight, Sciurinæ, Bsadowski1, Kleinheero, Oldkinderhook, Adrian.benko, Novacatz, Boothy443, Rorschach, Firsfron, OwenX, FeanorStar7, Georgia guy, Camw, Mark K. Jensen, Mazca, Bonus Onus, Qaddosh, MONGO, Uris, Insomniac By Choice, Damicatz, PhattyFatt, Bluemoose, OCNative, Plrk, Zzyzx11, DaeX, Wayward, , Prashanthns, Gimboid13, Csberger, Dysepsion, Rtcpenguin, Youngamerican, Mandarax, Jcuk, Graham87, GoldRingChip, BD2412, Kbdank71, FreplySpang, GrundyCamellia, StevenJRossi, Mendaliv, Enzo Aquarius, Casey Abell, Stmoose, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus, Koavf, Jake Wartenberg, Vary, MZMcBride, Terribleman, Funnyhat, Boccobrock, Notorious4life, Yamamoto Ichiro, Vuong Ngan Ha, Dsnow75, Titoxd, WikiAce, FlaBot, Cglied, Ground Zero, WillC, Draktorn, AI, Shadow007, RexNL, Gurch, Wars, Jrtayloriv, Str1977, Maltmomma, Alphachimp, Snailwalker, Imnotminkus, Dsewell, Chobot, Sharkface217, DVdm, Antiuser, Bgwhite, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Gwernol, Awbeal, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Angus Lepper, Blightsoot, Fearwig, Ghouse, Brandmeister (old), Phantomsteve, Freiberg, Kauffner, Red Slash, Anders.Warga, GusF, CanadianCaesar, Pburani, Ihope127, Pseudomonas, Salsb, Wimt, Brad Rousse, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Aeusoes1, Rhythm, Rjensen, Sylvain1972, Howcheng, Waterguy, Bmdavll, JamesMadison, Nick, Retired username, Banes, InvaderJim42, Ruhrfisch, Pyroclastic, Syrthiss, Aaron Schulz, Deckiller, Lockesdonkey, BOT-Superzerocool, Gadget850, Ejl, Psy guy, Bota47, CorbieVreccan, Doncram, Supspirit, Gamingexpert, Engineer Bob, Nlu, Tonym88, Wknight94, FF2010, Dmcc, 21655, Mattratt9, Ioudas omnis, Ninly, Joshmaul, Celtic Knight, Closedmouth, Ketsuekigata, Peoplez1k, Rande M Sefowt, Kestenbaum, Fram, Whobot, Yazid97, Mais oui!, Junglecat, RG2, Philip Stevens, Qoholeth, Kf4bdy, Bibliomaniac15, West Virginian, Sycthos, Sardanaphalus, Jmchuff, SmackBot, YellowMonkey, Haymaker, Kast~enwiki, Mangoe, Bobet, Cdogsimmons, Prodego, Griot~enwiki, KnowledgeOfSelf, Royalguard11, K-UNIT, Pgk, Lawrencekhoo, Rrius, Rokfaith, Fheo, Blue520, Klschmidt, Jfurr1981, Anastrophe, Delldot, Eskimbot, Jab843, PJM, Imzadi1979, Nil Einne, Jpvinall, TypoDotOrg, Notea42, Cool3, Gilliam, Hmains, Rmosler2100, Kappus, Durova, Qtoktok, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Keegan, TimBentley, Aryeztur, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Jprg1966, Master of Puppets, Lusanders, Miquonranger03, Freshmutt, LaggedOnUser, SchfiftyThree, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Whispering, DHN-bot~enwiki, Lance Corporal Everett T. Myers, Antonrojo, Darth Panda, GoodDay, Rama’s Arrow, Brsox2445, Jlove1982, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jahiegel, Derekbridges, Zentuk~enwiki, Writtenright, Chlewbot, T00h00, Borkencode, Tmacjunior, TheKMan, Xiner, Jajhill, Andy120290, Mbertsch, Leoboudv, Addshore, Kcordina, Jjjsixsix, Pax85, SundarBot, Phaedriel, Threeafterthree, Cameron Nedland, Stevenmitchell, Khoikhoi, Krich, Boothman, Downwards, Nibuod, AdamWeeden, Nakon, Jiddisch~enwiki, JJstroker, Zdravko mk, A.R., Warren, Rjp0i, Wisco, Mtelewicz, SpiderJon, Metamagician3000, Mitchumch, Bidabadi~enwiki, RossF18, Pilotguy, Wikipedical, Kukini, Kristenq, Keyesc, Efrem7, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, SirIsaacBrock, SashatoBot, ArglebargleIV, Robomaeyhem, Swatjester, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Gloriamarie, Rklawton, Kuru, John, Heimstern, Catapult, Bo99, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Bucksburg, Accurizer, Thomas Gilling, Gregory Wonderwheel, Kjgold, Eivind F Øyangen, Omnedon, Special-T, Stwalkerster, Davemcarlson, Noah Salzman, Martinp23, SimonATL, Kayeighty, Maksim L., Waggers, TastyPoutine, Ryulong, Tripower, RMHED, Tombright, Dodo bird, Galactor213, Christian Historybuff, Hu12, Spongesquid, Levineps, BranStark, Nehrams2020, Nonexistant User, Iridescent, K, Slicedoranges, CzarB, Joseph Solis in Australia, Shoeofdeath, Wjejskenewr, Hawkestone, Wikifreak25, Jtesorie, Nfutvol, Igoldste, Cbrown1023, Amakuru, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles, LonelyPilgrim, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, Dlohcierekim, Capt Jack Doicy, Ehistory, Eastlaw, LeRoi, JForget, Exhartland, Ale jrb, Kevin j, Bicycleboybilly, Paul Armstrong, Van helsing, Scohoust, Umedard, Ihotten, Wooyi, Jimknut, Pseudo-Richard, Djus, WeggeBot, Moreschi, Ken Gallager, MrFish, Gregbard, JStarStar, Sopoforic, Cydebot, Jack O'Lantern, DrunkenSmurf, Gogo Dodo, Travelbird, Timchik, Khatru2, DVokes, Elmo89m, Studerby, Coach Gipper, Odie5533, DavidRF, DumbBOT, Youzwan, Chrislk02, JCO312, Em-jay-es, Omicronpersei8, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Coby2, Bridgemo, PamD, RickDC, Rocket000, Rougher07, Click23, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, AJseagull1, Welsh4ever76, CouchTurnip, Chench, Kablammo, The Editor 2, Minutiaman, Mojo Hand, Berria, Sopranosmob781, Headbomb, Steve p, Marek69, John254, Frank, JSmith60, SGGH, Horologium, Astynax, Villedre, JustAGal, Mnemeson, E. Ripley, Phoe, Mwcob, Therequiembellishere, Eleuther, Libs23, Mentifisto, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, Jeames, Jusenkyoguide, Callisthenes, Sparkhurst, Emeraldcityserendipity, Opelio, Bm gub, Willscrlt, Mackan79, Settler, Modernist, North Shoreman, Gdo01, Spencer, Ozgod, Politicaljunkie23, Chrias~enwiki, Pemilligan, TorynHill, Myanw, Lembut, Dan D. Ric, Leuko, Husond, Samar, MER-C, Stevewk, Italiavivi, Adjwilley, Hut 8.5, Acroterion, Geniac, FaerieInGrey, Pzg Ratzinger, GT7Bassman4JC, Connormah, Skyemoor, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Khan singh, RHSydnor, AuburnPilot, UnusedAccount, A10brown, KingWen, Robby, Tedickey, Billymeade, Jatkins, Twsx, Aka042, Brusegadi, Avicennasis, Mgroop, Deliriousandlost, KConWiki, Catgut, Blackthunder326, The Mystery Man, Loonymonkey, Allstarecho, Stevvers, Jtl6713, Glen, DerHexer, Valerius Tygart, Textorus, Defenestrating Monday, Seba5618, Bigsprinta, Jonathan Stokes, Rhino131, Rettetast, LurkingInChicago, Keith D, Night owl, Kostisl, R'n'B, Zack1413, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Rogerson9, Tgeairn, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, JS ftw, Bogey97, EATC, Hans Dunkelberg, Allahhhhhh, Jerry, WarthogDemon, Vanished user 342562, Octopus-Hands, Écrasez l'infâme, WikiTorch, Scipio&hannibal, Kata-
320
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
laveno, McSly, J2121, JayJasper, Malplaquet, Knight of BAAWA, Mcgoof, NewEnglandYankee, Marrilpet, Lizzy2656, Cobi, MKoltnow, Kraftlos, 4c3 Defender, Sean0987, McCorganism, ParvatiBai, MetsFan76, 2help, Juliancolton, Peepeedia, JazzyGroove, Foofighter20x, Natl1, MishaPan, Packerfansam, Andy Marchbanks, JavierMC, UnitedStatesIndia, Useight, Sonai54, Dianewms, Ronbo76, Jason120, JohnDoe0007, Propygod, Scewing, Getinvanihavecandy, Xiahou, Squids and Chips, Thismightbezach, Funandtrvl, C32, KaiHenderson, Wikieditor06, X!, Deor, Megstop, Xelous, Sshelby76, Cireshoe, Marylandwizard, CWii, Mudwater, Gxmxrx, The Duke of Waltham, Jacqipapa, Jeff G., Indubitably, Butwhatdoiknow, VasilievVV, EchoBravo, Station1, Yoho2001, Count DeSheep, Philip Trueman, Fran Rogers, Thepinkparade06, TXiKiBoT, Jomasecu, Tavix, Qureus1, Jfra94, OverSS, Vipinhari, GDonato, Rei-bot, Mathwhiz 29, Soccerfc35, GcSwRhIc, Someguy1221, Seraphim, Melsaran, Brunton, Don4of4, Broadbot, Sniperz11, Aspire3623WXCi, LeaveSleaves, Bentley4, Snowbot, Philogik, Gonçalo-Manuel, Pishogue, Madhero88, 88wolfmaster, BobTheTomato, Vlbritten95, Eulergy, Enviroboy, Sylent, Justmeherenow, Ceranthor, Onceonthisisland, AlleborgoBot, Nagy, Tvinh, EmxBot, Seaalm, Ponyo, SieBot, StAnselm, Dusti, Hans.brough, Tiddly Tom, Krawi, Gerakibot, Alex Middleton, Matthew Yeager, Xymmax, Doug4422, Keilana, Bentogoa, Tiptoety, Radon210, Heidiweidel, Darth Kalwejt, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, AngelOfSadness, 1.21 jigwatts, Lightmouse, Alex.muller, Macy, GutzmanK, G.-M. Cupertino, Anakin101, StaticGull, Jfromcanada, BradMajors, Mygerardromance, Realm of Shadows, WikiLaurent, Ascidian, Dabomb87, Randy Kryn, Primespot, Atif.t2, RegentsPark, MBK004, Elassint, ClueBot, Traveler100, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Snigbrook, Ctiefel, The Thing That Should Not Be, Supertouch, Wysprgr2005, R000t, Arakunem, CasualObserver'48, Drmies, Cp111, Mild Bill Hiccup, DanielDeibler, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Danaronowitz, Parkwells, Neverquick, Flame1009, Puchiko, Auntof6, Somno, DragonBot, Dead velvet elvis, Excirial, Jusdafax, I Da-BomBeD It!, Noneforall, Culp99, Reedo202, Heyoh123, Mindcry, Vivio Testarossa, NuclearWarfare, Vivafilipinas, 842U, Highfly3442, RC-0722, Halo Beast96, TheRedPenOfDoom, Ember of Light, M.O.X, Razorflame, Huntthetroll, Thebigcheese699, Gundersen53, Gigiteach78, Calor, Thingg, Versus22, Teleomatic, Murdochst, Mythdon, SoxBot III, Indopug, DumZiBoT, Robloxer6, SMP0328., Bearsona, BarretB, RogDel, Spitfire, Pichpich, Wertuose, BodhisattvaBot, Rror, Greek2, Duncan, PSWG1920, Shieber, Little Mountain 5, Newimportanceunlikely, NellieBly, Mifter, Jd027, Noctibus, MarmadukePercy, Jbeans, Eleven even, ZooFari, MystBot, JCDenton2052, Dfoxvog, Good Olfactory, Thatguyflint, Osarius, Harleydude55, HexaChord, Patriciapaul93, Millsipoolovesme, Addbot, ERK, Proofreader77, Willking1979, Arizcarol, RandySavageFTW, AVand, Pres-scholar, Ajackson34, Jojhutton, The Twenty Thousand Tonne Bomb, Otisjimmy1, Muscleman9812734, OmgItsTheSmartGuy, Rbbloom, Operation donut, Ronhjones, TutterMouse, Megan397, Jncraton, Eduardo1111111111, Fieldday-sunday, Mr. Wheely Guy, Laurinavicius, Bob1996tn, Vishnava, CanadianLinuxUser, Ryanfootball65, NjardarBot, Skyezx, Tjlstud1379, Download, Cdawg227h, Chamal N, Thom443, Junkfooded, Glane23, Hybrazil, AndersBot, Favonian, Jfknrh, LinkFA-Bot, Godemperorofdune, Tassedethe, Numbo3bot, Tide rolls, SDJ, Jafd88, Gail, David0811, JEN9841, Quantumobserver, Windward1, Bhentze, Frehley, Margin1522, Arxiloxos, Ben Ben, Legobot, Math Champion, Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Vague, Kartano, Ptbotgourou, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Diandian1, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Hyumby, Jimjilin, KamikazeBot, Eric-Wester, BoringHistoryGuy, Tempodivalse, Gstar3, Magog the Ogre, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, XL2D, 1exec1, Jim1138, IRP, Dwayne, JackieBot, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Piano non troppo, Ipatrol, AdjustShift, Kingpin13, Brandiisthename101, Ulric1313, Userresuuser, Crystal whacker, Flewis, Giants27, Hunnjazal, Citation bot, OllieFury, NumbChuckNorris, JohnnyB256, BlurTento, GB fan, Clark89, Firsthotmailpass, Quebec99, Bethers326, Xqbot, Luuvabot, Sionus, Capricorn42, Automattic322, Peekatyou, Yousuckdick, Andrewmin, BETcHHEAD15, Rockrox27, Live Light, DSisyphBot, PanacheCuPunga, Etherealstill, Jmundo, Ched, Maddie!, Bobmanisme, Bobisafreak, Srich32977, Sexylearner, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Dankins, Riotrocket8676, Call me Bubba, Alien fire, Taylorswift3316, Kbaylor, Hipthecownamedbob, Carrite, Krscal, Airveiw95, Doulos Christos, Lawliet89, GhalyBot, Smallman12q, Losmog, Leif8100, Franklinville, Vlastimil Svoboda, Green Cardamom, Fingerz, FrescoBot, Ongshoes, Tangent747, PwnzerfaustMonk, Ryangoldston, Paine Ellsworth, Funky Hum24n, Jc3s5h, Ndboy, Michael93555, Charmander123456789, SpectreAgent, Colby Farrington, TheVirginiaHistorian, Unitanode, Nicktfx, HJ Mitchell, LyndsySimon, Ben76266, Americus55, Random232, Jnthn0898, Wireless Keyboard, Jun Nijo, Novaseminary, Citation bot 1, Landon2009, Pagemoral4983, Sammie02890, Spenaust, Smittyx93, HRoestBot, Blindguy48, Rudz102, Bmclaughlin9, King of midnight, RedBot, Pikiwyn, Σ, Cmguy777, Shadowhanz05, RandomStringOfCharacters, HonouraryMix, Cramyourspam, Blckmgc, Turian, Jauhienij, TobeBot, Shrimpledoo, FFM784, Train2104, Dexinity, Javierito92, GregKaye, Raidon Kane, Manstud122333, Gilly of III, WCCasey, Canuckian89, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, GUIDO122, Keegscee, Lolz12345678, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Cathardic, Woogee, Blakedapimp38, Blakedapimp39, Blakedapimp40, Iceveen, Crazyraven, Skooter0070, 0ldPPLBuRning14, Balph Eubank, Slon02, DASHBot, Sbrianhicks, EmausBot, Acather96, Aimeetran2, DolleyMadison, Gwillhickers, Zulchaz, Lamsuet, OnePlusTwelve, Princess Lirin, AlexaxelA, Shearonink, Zictor23, Buzz1948, Npellegrino, AvicAWB, H3llBot, AndrewOne, Bumblesnug, Zap Rowsdower, Quae legit, Wayne Slam, MeriwetherLewis, L Kensington, 47SweetBirdofYouth85, Eichlmat, Donner60, Amheritage, BBrad31, Yashshahiwriter, RIchmondAtty, LikeLakers2, Dan Wang, ClueBot NG, CreatureKawa, Jmgould, DTParker1000, Chancestrickland, HantersSpade, Frietjes, Pbmaise, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Slslslsldustin, SKWills, Lowercase sigmabot, JoJaEpp, Quarkgluonsoup, Cyberpower678, BizarreLoveTriangle, Jumpy2219, Chipnuts, Ilikeapples123xf, Gaylencrufts, Glittergirl706, Stevoisiake, Bzweebl, ChrisGualtieri, Sermadison, SD5bot, JYBot, Kumioko, AutomaticStrikeout, P3Y229, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Br'er Rabbit, Kennywood fan, Spicysenor, AldezD, Aapelle, Ashbeckjonathan, NathanWubs, WholphinLuver12, FallingGravity, Godot13, Earthbatslast, Pauldu16, Jojo1613016, Sengbe7, Ratha K, DavidLeighEllis, PointerSister4, CensoredScribe, Billybob2002, ObruniYaa, JosephSpiral, Ephemera1234, SNUGGUMS, Dndacey, OccultZone, Vinícius94, Timmy9834, Mr.gangsta, Ephemeratta, Marcelo Armando, Kdkd131313, Catalinandrei7, Lutie, KasparBot and Anonymous: 1863 • George Mason Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Mason?oldid=663815533 Contributors: Zoe, Dwheeler, Cyp, Stan Shebs, Notheruser, Darkwind, Ugen64, LouI, Rossami, Etherialemperor, MatrixFrog, Raul654, Cluth, Mcasey666, Dina, Christopher Parham, Tom harrison, Michael Devore, Pooji Dung, Antandrus, OverlordQ, Anythingyouwant, Husnock, Pmanderson, Herrick~enwiki, Atemperman, Neutrality, Pitchka, Klemen Kocjancic, Mike Rosoft, D6, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Qutezuce, Autiger, Bishonen, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, Wolfman, Sfahey, Aude, Bobo192, Kevin Myers, ParticleMan, Nk, Lokifer, Chicago god, Nsaa, Alansohn, Atlant, Complex01, Lord Pistachio, Spangineer, Velella, Bbsrock, Sciurinæ, Donwilson, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Woohookitty, GVOLTT, Bkwillwm, Kbdank71, Bardnet, Rjwilmsi, Eoghanacht, Hiberniantears, The wub, Bhadani, DoubleBlue, Ttwaring, Sango123, RexNL, ApprenticeFan, Chills42, Scoops, DVdm, Aceino, Cjs56, YurikBot, Chanlyn, Anders.Warga, RadioFan2 (usurped), Stephenb, Pseudomonas, Nicke L, Wimt, RadioKirk, Skritek, Dustin3lee, UDScott, Awiseman, Bobak, Epipelagic, Ke5crz, BusterD, Wknight94, Chris93, Nsevs, West Virginian, IP4240207xx, SmackBot, M dorothy, Zanter, Bjelleklang, Delldot, Jkp1187, Gilliam, Skizzik, Jeremywick, TimBentley, Rickythesk8r, John Reaves, Writtenright, Pax85, Signof4, Mrdempsey, GARS, Blake-, SnappingTurtle, Dreadstar, DavidJ710, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Kuru, Ian Dalziel, Iridescent, Ivysaur, Tony Fox, LonelyPilgrim, Tawkerbot2, Timrem, JForget, KCcat, Blameless, Epistemophiliac, Genkimark, That Asian Guy, Funnyfarmofdoom, Mmoyer, Cydebot, RenamedUser2, Besieged, Red Director, Yeanold Viskersenn, Codetiger, Thenewestdoctorwho, Sailoralea, Gimmetrow, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Nitro.ajb, John254, Asaba, Big Bird, AntiVandalBot, VvV-Aez, Bigtimepeace, North Shoreman, Natehal, Hut 8.5, Grimmt, Magioladitis, Connormah, Desktopia, Billmckern, VoABot II, Fusionmix, Tedickey, Aka042, Animum, Cpl Syx, JaGa, Patstuart, Ed-
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
321
ton, MartinBot, Trevor Burnham, Ralphwalters, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, UBeR, Cdamama, IngSoc BigBrother, Dayleyj, JayJasper, Rocket71048576, CFBancroft, NewEnglandYankee, Mrspock08, Mercatus, STBotD, Markub, TheNewPhobia, VolkovBot, CWii, Zygomorph, Narwhalhistory, TXiKiBoT, Vipinhari, Areyes123, Bass fishing physicist, Corvus cornix, Don4of4, Irtrav, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, JimmySlade, Snowbot, Ilyushka88, Icabob7, Zain Ebrahim111, Danieljnugent, SaltyBoatr, SieBot, Tiddly Tom, King of Corsairs, GrooveDog, Ketone16, Pubdog, Flyer22, Radon210, Oxymoron83, Mygerardromance, Mr. Stradivarius, Denisarona, Randy Kryn, ClueBot, Tucker001, The Thing That Should Not Be, Lawrence Cohen, Unbuttered Parsnip, Barnwani, HenrikErlandsson, CounterVandalismBot, Americaswinner, Stadiumstatus, Excirial, Rabitfoot, Razorflame, Huntthetroll, Zcxvcbvnbmn, Brookie070392, Thingg, Fattyboy66, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Rror, NellieBly, MarmadukePercy, Navigood, MystBot, Elizard16, Addbot, Grandalf the Greyhead, DOI bot, O.magro, Glane23, Debresser, AtheWeatherman, Joe Corley, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Magicpiano, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, Adam1024, Stickybombs, Citation bot, The sock that should not be, TechBot, DSisyphBot, Srich32977, Ten-pint, Natural Cut, Catsue, FrescoBot, LucienBOT, TheVirginiaHistorian, PasswordUsername, Jun Nijo, HamburgerRadio, Citation bot 1, Froggirll, I dream of horses, Arctic Night, Pikiwyn, Jumpytoo, Meaghan, January, SnoFox, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, RjwilmsiBot, Chandkghs, Skamecrazy123, DASHBot, WikitanvirBot, Tjhiggin, RA0808, Spider1999, Cmlloyd1969, Wikipelli, Reboot1787, K6ka, PBS-AWB, Illegitimate Barrister, Hgudin, H3llBot, Maceking909, Wayne Slam, Donner60, Cgt, ClueBot NG, Cj005257, Cntras, Morgan Riley, Johnklarke, Helpful Pixie Bot, Braces710, Strike Eagle, BG19bot, Jweaver28, CitationCleanerBot, Hi there its a fact, Barryjjoyce, Gotrice229, Webclient101, Scarybigblack, Lugia2453, VIAFbot, Jamesx12345, ToFeignClef, Goobydobla, Nonsenseferret, Socr8ez, Ginsuloft, YouDontKnowMeSoThere, OccultZone, Rereaves, Sauron458, Filedelinkerbot, Greedo8, Captain of, Tylergrace, DashWinglet123, Gjffyigygiy, KasparBot and Anonymous: 494 • James McClurg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_McClurg?oldid=660335197 Contributors: HollyAm, Docu, Bearcat, Caknuck, TiMike, Neutrality, MPS, JW1805, Plange, Stemonitis, Youngamerican, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Preslethe, YurikBot, Dkostic, Syrthiss, Evrik, Caerwine, SpLoT, Crystallina, SmackBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Wash West 191, Cydebot, EdiOnjales, Alibrarian, Waacstats, Martin451, Ryuhaku, Snowbot, Srushe, Monegasque, ClueBot, Od Mishehu AWB, Rockfang, Thehelpfulone, RogDel, Addbot, GageSkidmore, AmphBot, MegaSloth, RjwilmsiBot, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Encycloshave, Abolkonskiy, BenTROLLtimdanstave, Jweaver28, VIAFbot, JaconaFrere, KasparBot and Anonymous: 24 • George Washington Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington?oldid=663665716 Contributors: Magnus Manske, Kpjas, The Epopt, The Cunctator, Derek Ross, Eloquence, H.J., Vicki Rosenzweig, Dan~enwiki, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, RobLa, Jeronimo, Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, RK, Zunbot, Andre Engels, Danny, Shsilver, Chris_mahan, Rmhermen, PierreAbbat, 0, SimonP, Shii, DavidLevinson, Zoe, Heron, Camembert, Blue~enwiki, Jaknouse, Q~enwiki, Mintguy, Isis~enwiki, Branko, Hephaestos, Someone else, Rickyrab, Stevertigo, Mrwojo, Edward, Lorenzarius, Infrogmation, JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, GABaker, Kwertii, Fred Bauder, Oliver Pereira, Jtdirl, Dominus, Gabbe, Chuck SMITH, CORNELIUSSEON, Ixfd64, Two16, Dcljr, Cyde, Sannse, Shoaler, Gbleem, SebastianHelm, Minesweeper, Goatasaur, Looxix~enwiki, Ronabop, Mkweise, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, Docu, William M. Connolley, Snoyes, Plop, Angela, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, JWSchmidt, Kingturtle, DropDeadGorgias, Ugen64, LouI, Vzbs34, Jiang, Evercat, JamesReyes, Efghij, Rl, Chelman, Wfeidt, Skyfaller, Prawn, Vargenau, Seth ze, Hashar, Jengod, Feedmecereal, Emperorbma, Invalid username 12583~enwiki, Charles Matthews, Timwi, RickK, Reddi, CTSWyneken, Choster, Paul Stansifer, Tedius Zanarukando, Radgeek, Daniel Quinlan, Jwrosenzweig, Fuzheado, WhisperToMe, Zoicon5, DJ Clayworth, Haukurth, CBDunkerson, Patrick0Moran, Tpbradbury, Zeiden, Maximus Rex, Morwen, Itai, Nv8200pa, Publius~enwiki, MiLo28, Thue, Mackensen, Fvw, Raul654, Scott Sanchez, Hawstom, Wetman, Gakrivas, Bcorr, Johnleemk, Camerong, Eugene van der Pijll, Flockmeal, Adam Carr, David.Monniaux, Frazzydee, Francs2000, RadicalBender, KuatofKDY, Dimadick, Aenar, Gentgeen, Nufy8, AlexPlank, Robbot, Dale Arnett, ChrisO~enwiki, Fredrik, PBS, Schutz, Jredmond, Donreed, Jmabel, Fifelfoo, Goethean, Netizen, Yelyos, Modulatum, Calmypal, Lowellian, Mirv, Postdlf, Merovingian, Academic Challenger, Nach0king, Hemanshu, Texture, ZekeMacNeil, Meelar, DHN, Davodd, Sunray, Moink, Hadal, UtherSRG, Modeha, JackofOz, David3565, Mushroom, Ruakh, Mandel, Lupo, Zaui, Seth Ilys, Mattflaschen, GreatWhiteNortherner, Dina, Alan Liefting, Vaoverland, Clementi, Decumanus, Centrx, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Jacoplane, MPF, Fennec, Oberiko, Wikilibrarian, Barry21, Nat Krause, Nichalp, Inter, Nunh-huh, BenFrantzDale, Tom harrison, Lupin, IRelayer, Obli, Bradeos Graphon, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Bkonrad, No Guru, Curps, Michael Devore, Tim Schmidt, Cantus, Guanaco, Per Honor et Gloria, Prosfilaes, Gugilymugily, JillandJack, ElfMage, Jackol, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Golbez, Sesel, Ryanaxp, ALargeElk, Wmahan, Chowbok, Gadfium, Utcursch, SoWhy, Andycjp, Tim706, DavidBrooks, Ruy Lopez, Telso, Geni, CryptoDerk, Opera hat, Ran, Antandrus, BozMo, DevINE, Doops, MisfitToys, Piotrus, Scottperry, Kaldari, Incka, Jossi, CaribDigita, Rdsmith4, Mikko Paananen, JimWae, Anythingyouwant, DragonflySixtyseven, Mpiff, Zerbey, Kevin B12, Husnock, Pmanderson, Necrothesp, Icairns, Hammersfan, Sam Hocevar, Sycocowz, Smartypants~enwiki, B.d.mills, K-squire, Asbestos, Neutrality, Sam, Coburnpharr04, Marcus2, Joyous!, Jh51681, Klemen Kocjancic, Syvanen, J d noonan, BeakerK44, Grm wnr, M1ss1ontomars2k4, Kasreyn, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, TheObtuseAngleOfDoom, Grunt, The stuart, Gazpacho, Mr.President~enwiki, Mike Rosoft, D6, Ta bu shi da yu, ThaddeusFrye, Rfl, Dufekin, Freakofnurture, Spiffy sperry, DanielCD, Mindspillage, Plexust, Discospinster, Themadmac, ElTyrant, Solitude, Patricknoddy, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Brutannica, Supercoop, Kdammers, ThomasK, TomPreuss, Rupertslander, Ardonik, Jetfire85, Mjpieters, Rummey, Alistair1978, Paul August, Indrian, Bender235, ESkog, Khalid, Android79, BruceJohnson, Andrejj, Kbh3rd, Kaisershatner, BookWorm, Evice, Wolfman, Brian0918, Aranel, Appleboy, Ylee, CanisRufus, PedanticallySpeaking, JustPhil, Sfahey, Fenevad, Kwamikagami, Mwanner, Kross, Chairboy, Aude, PhilHibbs, Shanes, Tom, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, Bookofjude, Mike Garcia, Jpgordon, Causa sui, Kompas, JRM, Bobo192, Valentino, Janna Isabot, Vanished user sdfkjertiwoi1212u5mcake, BW, TomStar81, NetBot, Dr.Quidam, Dystopos, Clawson, BrokenSegue, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, .:Ajvol:., AllyUnion, Silver Proxy, Kevin Myers, Maurreen, Runnerupnj, JW1805, Alberuni, Rockhopper10r, La goutte de pluie, Jojit fb, Nk, Gunnernett, Rje, Kbir1, Ardric47, DCEdwards1966, Lokifer, Obradovic Goran, Sam Korn, Pharos, Sss4r, Chicago god, JesseHogan, SPUI, Perceval, Tom Yates, Jumbuck, Cyrloc, Mrzaius, Alansohn, JYolkowski, Ocean57, ChrisGlew, Sherurcij, Mo0, Polarscribe, Jordan117, Interiot, Mharo, Philip Cross, Mr Adequate, Jeltz, Andrewpmk, M7, Craigy144, Fornadan, Wrinkles, Andrew Gray, Monado, ABCD, Anittas, Jnothman, Yamla, Great Scott, SHIMONSHA, Derumi, Lectonar, MarkGallagher, Gaytan, SlimVirgin, Fat pig73, Ddlamb, Lightdarkness, DLJessup, AldenWeer, Mailer diablo, TommyBoy, Batmanand, InShaneee, Gblaz, Cdc, Kingbob~enwiki, CJ, Plange, Spangineer, Hu, Malo, Katefan0, Bart133, MattWade, Hohum, Ksnow, Cookiemobsta, Ginkgo~enwiki, Ashlux, Bbsrock, Benson85, Binabik80, Hygraed, BanyanTree, Fordan, ClockworkSoul, RPH, Rebroad, Evil Monkey, Closeinch, Harej, Grenavitar, Randy Johnston, TenOfAllTrades, Sciurinæ, Frapster, AN(Ger), Kaiser matias, Computerjoe, Kusma, Jguk, Itsmine, Freyr, Versageek, Pwqn, Stepheno, Redvers, Dan East, Jshayden, Johntex, Avram Fawcett, Martian, Blaxthos, HenryLi, Bookandcoffee, Dan100, Markaci, Pennywisefan, Tariqabjotu, Mahanga, Ekedolphin, Gmaxwell, Duoraven, Weyes, Boothy443, Kelly Martin, Rorschach, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Woohookitty, Henrik, FeanorStar7, Georgia guy, TigerShark, Scriberius, LOL, MamaGeek, Uncle G, Thivierr, Mfields1, Bratsche, Benbest, Bonus Onus, Mms, Jamehec, Chochopk, MONGO, Sdgjake, Tabletop, Jeremy Ben-
322
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
tham, Schzmo, Grika, Firien, Jleon, Ledouche, Bbatsell, Damicatz, Terence, Thebogusman, Mangojuice, Bluemoose, GregorB, OCNative, Skywriter, Zzyzx11, Wayward, Ghjffg, Toussaint, Gimboid13, DESiegel, Stefanomione, Benuski, Csberger, Dysepsion, Rtcpenguin, MrSomeone, Youngamerican, Paxsimius, Tslocum, SqueakBox, Ashmoo, Graham87, DavidLambert, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, GoldRingChip, A Train, BD2412, MC MasterChef, Kbdank71, Lanoitarus, FreplySpang, Bardnet, RxS, Davogones, Jitsuman, Ryan Norton, Canderson7, Drbogdan, Akubhai, Coneslayer, Stmoose, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Fahrenheit451, Coemgenus, Koavf, Rogerd, Gryffindor, Wikibofh, 1wheel, Commander, Vary, Ikh, PinchasC, Amire80, Bert-25, Josiah Rowe, Linuxbeak, JHMM13, Tangotango, MZMcBride, Tawker, BCV, Funnyhat, ElKevbo, Merrilee, BBabe223, Durin, Oscar Sanchez, The wub, Bhadani, Keimzelle, The Bob Talbot, Hermione1980, MikeJ9919, GregAsche, Sango123, HughJorgan, Oo64eva, Yamamoto Ichiro, Nam, FayssalF, FuelWagon, Titoxd, FlaBot, Ageo020, Eddiekuns, Bobber1, G Clark, RobertG, Dowlingm, WillC, Doc glasgow, Red Deadeye, Winhunter, Crazycomputers, Alhutch, Hiding, Harmil, Who, AI, Hottentot, Kerowyn, Mark83, SportsMaster, Pathoschild, RexNL, Ivymike21, Gurch, Pcj, Billybobfred, Kertrats, TheDJ, NoSeptember, Str1977, Brendan Moody, Fosnez, OrbitOne, Ben2umbc, CoolFox, TeaDrinker, Maltmomma, EronMain, Alphachimp, Bmicomp, Tysto, Ej0c, Jdurbach, Srleffler, Spikebrennan, Physchim62, Idaltu, Dsewell, Butros, King of Hearts, DougOfDoom, Guanxi, Chobot, Glamphere, Nagytibi, Citizen Premier, Gdrbot, Billybobjoehik, VolatileChemical, 334a, Cactus.man, Hall Monitor, Digitalme, WriterHound, Gwernol, Dúnadan, Wingchi, Flcelloguy, Banaticus, Jpfagerback, UkPaolo, YurikBot, Wavelength, TexasAndroid, Aleahey, Radishes, RobotE, Taneya, Extraordinary Machine, Kinneyboy90, Sceptre, Wester, Taurrandir, Hairy Dude, Davehatcher911, Brandmeister (old), Anglius, RussBot, Sputnikcccp, Dimimimon7, Crazytales, Tjss, Kauffner, Mdsmedia, Jtkiefer, EDM, WAvegetarian, Saucy Intruder, BrewBelly, Anonymous editor, KamuiShirou, Acefox, Splash, CanadianCaesar, Kirill Lokshin, Tonywiki, RadioFan, Akamad, Stephenb, Shell Kinney, Hyperbole, Gaius Cornelius, CambridgeBayWeather, Pseudomonas, ConeyCyclone, Tungsten, Salsb, Wimt, Arwesterdale, Ritchy, Lusanaherandraton, Ugur Basak, TopAce~enwiki, Nis81, Shanel, NawlinWiki, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, Magicmonster, Skritek, Madcoverboy, Cryptoid, Robertvan1, Veledan, LaszloWalrus, Joshdboz, Arichnad, Deskana, Jaxl, SpeDIt, Johann Wolfgang, Proyster, Rjensen, MDolson22, Valhallia, Sylvain1972, Nightmare X, Howcheng, Adamn, Robchurch, Joelr31, Tcorell~enwiki, SCZenz, Tearlach, Cleared as filed, JDoorjam, Irishguy, Retired username, Anetode, Banes, Dppowell, Cynj, Edwardlalone, Darkmeerkat, CPColin, StrykerJ, PhilipO, ScottyWZ, Ezeu, Misza13, Tony1, Bucketsofg, Syrthiss, Aaron Schulz, Roche-Kerr, Lockesdonkey, Roy Brumback, Gadget850, Duncan Delp, DeadEyeArrow, Robby159, Psy guy, Bota47, Supspirit, DRosenbach, Obi-WanKenobi-2005, Tachyon01, Essexmutant, Thestegasarus, Abrio, CLW, Bronks, Gohiking, Nick123, Wknight94, Daverd, Avraham, Ke6jjj, WAS 4.250, FF2010, Pastricide, 21655, Preczewski, Homagetocatalonia, Pinikas, TheKoG, Marketdiamond, Gtdp, Joshmaul, Hager jeff, Bayerischermann, Silverhorse, Nikkimaria, Theda, Jwissick, Spondoolicks, Esprit15d, David Justin, LordJumper, BorgQueen, GraemeL, Aeon1006, Kestenbaum, JoanneB, TBadger, SyntaxPC, Heathhunnicutt, Ajpisharodi, HereToHelp, Whobot, Willtron, JLaTondre, Paul White, Mais oui!, GinaDana, Jaranda, Spliffy, Pádraic MacUidhir, Fourohfour, Easter Monkey, Curpsbot-unicodify, Garion96, Katieh5584, Sam Diener, Kungfuadam, Bdve, RG2, DATeymer, Lawyer2b, Paul Erik, Philip Stevens, Airconswitch, Roke, Elliskev, Bill, Wallie, DVD R W, One, Jimerb, Eenu, WesleyDodds, Bibliomaniac15, Matt Heard, Arcadie, Dupz, West Virginian, Luk, Chaostails, Trevorloflin, Kalsermar, Schizobullet, Sardanaphalus, Sarah, Joshbuddy, A bit iffy, SmackBot, Pwt898, Amcbride, Wikiman13, YellowMonkey, DannyBoy7783, Nofitty376, Elonka, Sprocket, Yellowfeverlime, Mangoe, Oxford Comma, Tastyflesh, Peckerwood, Pfly, Reedy, Burroughsks88, Prodego, Anarchist42, Griot~enwiki, KnowledgeOfSelf, Olorin28, K-UNIT, McGeddon, Grazon, Kimon, Pgk, Grye, AndyZ, Rrius, Jacek Kendysz, KocjoBot~enwiki, Allixpeeke, Thunderboltz, Setanta747 (locked), IainP, Mattvargo, Gregory j, DanielPenfield, Anastrophe, Delldot, Dominic.sedghi, Niehaus~enwiki, Trevdna, Daren, Televators, Mdd4696, PJM, Frymaster, Brossow, Arniep, Vilerage, Wildbassplayer, Warfvinge, Edgar181, HalfShadow, Mauls, Flux.books, Alexisrael, ElAmericano, Neville Longbottom, Xaosflux, Cool3, Marktreut, Macintosh User, Sloman, Gilliam, 1337pwn, Ohnoitsjamie, Wlmg, DividedByNegativeZero, Hmains, Betacommand, Oscarthecat, Arash red, ERcheck, Benyielding, Dark jedi requiem, Psiphiorg, Durova, Marc Kupper, Poulsen, Anwar saadat, Izehar, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, Kurykh, Useradmin, Audacity, Thurifer, Geneb1955, Samosa Poderosa, Persian Poet Gal, Ian13, Jprg1966, Jordanhurley, Master of Puppets, Bonesiii, Liamdaly620, Kwleslie, Miquonranger03, ViolinGirl, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, LaggedOnUser, SchfiftyThree, JoeBlogsDord, Deli nk, Ryecatcher773, Tito2000, Oni Ookami Alfador, Calebegg, Dlohcierekim’s sock, Leoni2, Dustimagic, Robth, DHN-bot~enwiki, Krsnajinana, Colonies Chris, Mkamensek, Angliciste, Antonrojo, GoodDay, Forehand, MaxSem, Wasp2020, Seifip, Asiddons, Meatboy3, Snk 444, Brideshead, Modest Genius, Royboycrashfan, PeRshGo, Zsinj, Quaque, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Scott3, Brandonspangler, Chile, Frog on a log, Bsd987, Jumonville, AP1787, Quake20044, Onorem, KaiserbBot, DanDanRevolution, RebelAt, Amoi~enwiki, William percy, Ww2censor, TheKMan, RHJesusFreak40, Xiner, Jajhill, TonySt, Pevarnj, Xyzzyplugh, Andy120290, Ilcantar, Tyche151, Flubbit, Alexmsoto, Yalto, Shannen~enwiki, SundarBot, Phaedriel, Elendil’s Heir, Blueboar, Grover cleveland, Estephan500, Nshaver, Rbdevman, Khoikhoi, Dharmabum420, Amazon10x, Pepsidrinka, YankeeDoodle14, Krich, Zrulli, Flyguy649, Mildew93, Warhol13, Radagast83, Khukri, Otomshank, Bowlhover, Nakon, Savidan, Astrogeek, Johnhu 2005, VegaDark, Jiddisch~enwiki, JJstroker, Nick125, Jpg3722, MikeRaz212, Dream out loud, SnappingTurtle, Dreadstar, Articuno~enwiki, WookMuff, Black Butterfly, A.R., Vedek Dukat, Dcamp314, Thegraham, Bwyche, ShaunES, Mini-Geek, Tomtom9041, Hgilbert, Jan.Kamenicek, Joemeuser, Jbergquist, YummyGum, The PIPE, DMacks, Bobby1005, Wizardman, 953332, DragonFlySpirit, Kotjze, Kendrick7, Ericl, Shawn2082, Mitchumch, Trappy77, KHK009, DDima, Tyar, Pilotguy, Kukini, LanternLight, Zoolfoos, Andrei Stroe, Clicketyclack, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, Thejerm, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Esrever, Nishkid64, Tbbooher~enwiki, Rory096, Producercunningham, Krashlandon, Xenaphon, Swatjester, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, SilverStar, Dlz28, Rklawton, Theazianho, Rayonne, Mouse Nightshirt, Srikeit, Epstein.Mark, Deborahdotk, Kuru, Akendall, John, Buchanan-Hermit, Mathiasrex, Mugsywwiii, AnonEMouse, SilkTork, MikeyChalupaUSN, Calum MacÙisdean, CPMcE, Pat Payne, SabreMau, DWillis44, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Neovu79, Edwy, Chodorkovskiy, Joe31187, Coredesat, Minna Sora no Shita, Dumelow, Drek258, Tillalb, Mgiganteus1, ManiF, Jeromealden 85, Boven, Joshua Scott, IronGargoyle, Trosk, Don't fear the reaper, Syrcatbot, PseudoSudo, Babygrand1, Danyealle, XFlame2, Thomas Gilling, Wikipedialuva, Ekrub-ntyh, Falstaff85, Nosehairshaver, The Man in Question, 2sexy4u~enwiki, Omnedon, Blayton, Congo23, Comicist, JHunterJ, MarkSutton, BillFlis, Agathoclea, Willy turner, Ultrmrns, Astuishin, 2562, Sivius, Beetstra, Martinp23, StanBrinkerhoff, SimonATL, Freyr35, Grandpafootsoldier, Jayus, Kyoko, Sumolddude, Redskins0756, Clq, Mets501, Neddyseagoon, Funnybunny, Dcflyer, Tuspm, Mattabat, Midnightblueowl, Davesilvan, Magere Hein, Ryulong, RichardF, Andrwsc, Jrt989, Dodo bird, LaMenta3, Galactor213, Tonster, Impm, Haveronjones, Gasparovic, MrDolomite, Eastfrisian, PDXblazers, ShakingSpirit, Christian Historybuff, Iluvcole711, DryvBy, Mkoyle, Norm mit, Chephyr, General Eisenhower, Levineps, Mrguy122887, Nick030~enwiki, Nehrams2020, Wizard191, Phreaknite, Guszy, Harrison888, NEMT, Hookup buddy, AlexHarris, Xinyu, MFago, Clarityfiend, Judgesurreal777, DoggieStyle, Rufusgriffin, Ehrb, Shoeofdeath, Newone, Tmac2419, Papa McDaddy, J Di, JamesMaxwell, JamesGrant, Temerson, Kerigirl, Twas Now, MJO, Phantom920, NETTKNUT, Fsotrain09, Andyjay729, Sadf, RekishiEJ, Shoreranger, Lenoxus, Dp462090, Hedpeguyuk, Newyorkbrad, Richard75, Kingsoham159, Mepat111, Ewulp, Color probe, AGK, Ytny, Maelor, Civil Engineer III, W123, Ratnipintar, Matcreg, Tubezone, Jack Expo, Eluchil404, N8tivVA, Fdp, 012345, Oblongpoo, PenialFetish, Billy Hathorn, Tawkerbot2, RCMorris, Dlohcierekim, Hum richard, The Letter J, MOOSEOFDOOM, Lakashvin, Ryt, Gnosbush,
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
323
Pink Fae, Hihi123, MightyWarrior, Cdizzle~enwiki, Sk8erpunk3102, Greg the main man, Swordman182, Tachi, Bigbenwallace, Spacini, JForget, Jsmlw, Thedemonhog, TORR, Anthony22, GregaR89, Catch22 moviegoer, DDawg, S ried, CmdrObot, Timothy Chavis, Badaffinity, Ale jrb, Bobisfat, Zarex, Dycedarg, Kevin j, Blueski, Xzas4, Van helsing, Comrade42, Scohoust, Iced Kola, Avanu, Thebandman, False Prophet, Sky jets, Coyle022, Nunquam Dormio, R9tgokunks, TVC 15, MegZilla, Caitie0210, GHe, Harej bot, Pastor Kam, Agoodperson, Jsmaye, Kylu, Jesse Viviano, Sinalco, Opblaaskrokodil, Cumulus Clouds, Mctaviix, Timothylord, WeggeBot, Old Guard, Fatalbert, Casper2k3, Neelix, Rnedbal, StayinAnon, BigBang19, Andkore, Chicheley, MrFish, Trunks6, Mmace91, Thomas Hale, AndrewHowse, Rakwiki, Themightyquill, Doctormatt, Dvk!!!, Cydebot, Aodhdubh, RJo625, Justinnizza, Conversion script, The Librarian at Terminus, Red4tribe, Ejpointguard, Treybien, Eljackso, Bulgary16, Bentleymrk, Sammy Houston, MC10, Steel, Zeppelin462, Shortysmall, Gogo Dodo, Wordbuilder, Red Director, Llort, ST47, Proberton, Redxiii121, Olz06, ANTIcarrot, Redsox00002, Studerby, Jlmorgan, Airviper, Dancter, Krator, Tawkerbot4, Sparkhurst17, Doogo~enwiki, DumbBOT, Gtva2413, Ddanna13, JCO312, RGorman, BulldogPete, GoLeafsGo2626, Kygr89, Rtsmithiv, Plasticbadge, Jay32183, Thenewestdoctorwho, 10sion, Narayanese, FastLizard4, Optimist on the run, Robert.j.oppenheimer, Robert oppenheimer, Pauljeffersonks, Aftershock89, Kozuch, Daven200520, Brad101, A Musing, Omicronpersei8, Urmomsmom, Victoriaedwards, Softballangie12, Daniel Olsen, Lunarian, Familyguy2007, Johndoe316, Longhorn966, JuliaJulia, Jack-a-wack, Adfsfdasdfdsfads, Cubfanpgh, TAIWAN, Gimmetrow, Corlen, Byronsalty, D Bentley, Centuriono, Mamalujo, Cquacks77, Rougher07, Casliber, TimFrisbie, FrancoGG, Rjm656s, Canute, Thijs!bot, Daa89563, Biruitorul, Valedc03ls, Willworkforicecream, Andypham3000, Kablammo, Ucanlookitup, Sagaciousuk, Wonkothesane42, Smokeythecat, Minutiaman, Eaglejon67, ClosedEyesSeeing, Figgles49, Headbomb, Id447, Newton2, Hamsterman, Mdb1370, Dtgriscom, West Brom 4ever, John254, Fame, Tapir Terrific, A3RO, Welzen, Astynax, Hoonoseme, Top.Squark, Sexypig, Keelm, Wolverine456, Chcklatboy, Dmws, Psycholilbunny, Easter rising, Pavsing, NigelR, Scottmsg, Warfwar3, Jimhoward72, Colicor, Jw91, Purplemartlet, Therequiembellishere, Michael A. White, Sir Robert Castellano, Signaleer, Srose, Binarybits, JugglaTweek, Bulldogclip101, Eal~enwiki, Natalie Erin, Eiffelle, Escarbot, Oreo Priest, Libs23, Lizzleguy, KrakatoaKatie, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Luedhup2, Majorly, Luna Santin, Kramden4700, Takethisandshoveit, Javb33, Sparkhurst, Opelio, SummerPhD, Bigtimepeace, Lilaznpookid, Fyunck(click), Wecklenator, CharlieNJ, Hagrinas, Dr who1975, Zeven90, LinaMishima, Matt Thorn, Tmopkisn, Lordmetroid, Scepia, Remi1992, Sprite89, Turnip Wars, Modernist, North Shoreman, Hoponpop69, David Shankbone, Davidlondon~enwiki, Kuzco391, BALCK, TorynHill, Aaronhumes, Janepuke, Cbrodersen, RisingJapaneseSun, Dmerrill, Eleos, Canadian-Bacon, Si50325, Darrenhusted, Res2216firestar, HolyT, Kariteh, Mad Pierrot, Erxnmedia, Bsabresfan18, JAnDbot, Jimerl, Gbdill, Thaimoss, Gcoop20, Sjzukrow, Parsnip13, MER-C, CosineKitty, Kedi the tramp, Stevewk, Stellmach, Forkzzile, Fetchcomms, Robertjohnsonrj, Db099221, Midnightdreary, Altitude balloon company ltd., Dheller, LongBay, Nevermore27, Andonic, SteveMetsker, Wolverine458, Leolaursen, Helge Skjeveland, Rothorpe, Vaylance, Pinosh, Taksen, Lyphard Melody, McRowdy, Georgewienbarg, Nevereatsoggywheat, .anacondabot, SiobhanHansa, Henry Corvel, Freshacconci, Magioladitis, I LIKE BOYZ, Connormah, Akhenaten521, Pedro, Washingtoncollege, Bennybp, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Khan singh, AuburnPilot, Professor marginalia, MastCell, Stephencolbert, Tireddriftin, Mpbosco11, Thrashmasterd, GearedBull, Mbc362, UnusedAccount, Yappa, Downwithbush, MinusRJ, Caymon, Stephen M. Colbert, Mattkopera, Doug Coldwell, SineWave, Tedickey, Coolnumber1dude, Destroy101, Applebirthday, Jacobo0789, Skibum475, Pvmoutside, Pip1776, Sebben76, WODUP, Miccola, Marcmal856, Avicennasis, DXRAW, Mgroop, BertieBasset, Isaiahcambron, Notary137, KConWiki, Kazao, Catgut, Animum, Blingbling1000, D.Kurdistani, Stiny91, KBtoys09, Blackthunder326, The Mystery Man, Sesesq, Ormaaj, Emw, Gomm, As3id, Anthonykern, Jtl6713, Glen, DerHexer, Philg88, Matt B., Grunge6910, Edward321, Pan Dan, Strider01, Lynx Austin, Steveywonder1, TrebloCnehpetS, Wi-king, WLU, Swegam, Patstuart, Atlantic Gateways, Tonymessina, Shiznits123, Tejindermangat, Al-Nofi, Dwp2000, RokinRyan, I I K I I, Donaldlogue, Flowanda, Randyfurlong, Ilovepinkelefant, Pacemaster, Kids4jesus, MartinBot, FlieGerFaUstMe262, Mermaid from the Baltic Sea, Jondaman21, Firespread3, Tvoz, Robin63, Timothy Titus, Goiobre, UnfriendlyFire, Braningillespie, Aladdin Sane, Charles Edward, Centpacrr, Jay Litman, Uriel8, Cinnamonntoast4, Mschel, Kostisl, R'n'B, Hilltoppers, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Johnpacklambert, Irisheagle, Maxdemian1968, Stagcorpe, Chaz1dave, Maulth, Ultimablah, Wiki Raja, Bondman100, Crazyjo157, Chipdukes, Slash, Paranomia, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, FANSTARbot, DrKiernan, Lucky Lukey, Oonil2, Sholt8, Rgoodermote, Jediforce, Kyubi23, Osakadan, Reshefthedarkbeing123, Adavidb, UBeR, Matt15301, ChrisfromHouston, Xandrodas, Mithman, Dswim279, Lwafler, Nacanacoo1, Cocoaguy, Vanished user 342562, Robospider, LosAngelesT, Alex2706, Mhstebbi, Rufous-crowned Sparrow, Jpisqma, Pheadxdll, Katalaveno, Icurok, Clerks, Cbsteven, Parrotman, Dfoofnik, Xcbluedevil, Zenscifi, HeadBytor, Tony360X, Publicopinion, Festivaone, JayJasper, Robertson-Glasgow, Plasticup, Alexb102072, Pimper~enwiki, Richard D. LeCour, BandG992, Rbakker99, Themoodyblue, Anabate, Kraftlos, Jakdax, Flatterworld, Aatomic1, Robertgreer, Charlesblack, Johndoe1225, Brendan19, Rextrim, Mkluge, Mat 1029, Jrcla2, Glacious, Dpm12, Cluten, Funnyguy123, Eaglestrike7339, Wesleycool, Sleeksleeksleek, Bobbizzle, Shentok, Foofighter20x, SBKT, Sjwk, HiEv, Trip Johnson, Gtg204y, DoubleEagle32, Kckid2599, Namekal, Knikster91, Darkfrog24, Scott Illini, Packerfansam, Andy Marchbanks, The first nobody, Schmidttyschmidtersen, UnitedStatesIndia, Bricology, Pnoble805, Halmstad, Scewing, Dpopnfreshw, Fbarton, Led Head 666, Brynulf, Idioma-bot, Mad1andchili, Will Bates, Funandtrvl, Ttothemac, Lookout rX, Bpplowman, Fharper1961, Fredd218, X!, Sam Blacketer, Dckymt86, Netmonger, Domous, ModRocker86, VolkovBot, Treldonman, Delma1, TreasuryTag, Milnivlek, Metallicaman2112, The deathmonkey, Orphic, Ssiegmund, Science4sail, Neohysterix, Taysonegbert, The Duke of Waltham, Jeff G., Jmrowland, X1starx, Tesscass, Firstorm, Butwhatdoiknow, AlnoktaBOT, Elbarto1193, PlaysInPeoria, Tmohr, Kyriosity, Grammarmonger, Flyingtoaster1337, Randomator, Joey Umbatz, Dkceaser, Dougie monty, Philip Trueman, Hrking, Teg4reven, Iginsberg08, TXiKiBoT, XavierGreen, Jeaniefur, Jakedaniel, Tavix, Zamphuor, BuickCenturyDriver, Xaedra, Tricky Victoria, Muddypuddles, MasterGundo, Jeremy221, Curiouscdngeorge, Miguel Chong, Mgard7331, Homerdudeasd, Razrboy, Maxkin, GcSwRhIc, Gerrish, Rashadara, Ptaul, Qxz, Someguy1221, X1a4muse, Acrostoa, Piperh, Andreas Kaganov, Theavgjoe, Aznshark4, John Carter, Nightnymph100, Tsmall2231, Danielc192, Alex1100, Adambear8888, Dereks1x, Pedvi, TorridTitan, RedAndr, Broadbot, Horselover90909, Supertask, Abdullais4u, CKeelty, Ehttamway, Manchurian candidate, Inventis, Mkpumphrey, Wassermann~enwiki, Thekey147, Rjm at sleepers, Singxmex2xsleep, Snowbot, Sexecutioner, Zmarquar13, Cerberus2007, Josephabradshaw, Gonçalo-Manuel, Iswan, Joewashere, Faliahdahn, Mimswheaties, 1fingerwillie, MearsMan, RadiantRay, Mesh920, Monsieurdl, Peterguy63, Eubulides, Sararaye, 88wolfmaster, Bigshotbeast, Billinghurst, Hoopsam, Patcong, Lerdthenerd, Amyford, Petero9, KurtKotzur, Tribulation725, Michelle192837, BobTheTomato, DrVerlucci, Happyme22, Fearlessfool, Walter p7, Redacteur, Александр Мотин, Jadine, Stephanolmedo, Batman082070, BobJhonson91, Falcon8765, Jake12109222, Bahamut0013, Burntsauce, K out14, MCTales, Seresin, Eclectic and Eccentric, Kakizaki, Coltman61, DL79OL, Littleweb1, The Devil’s Advocate, Justinh456, Somepersonguy, Skittyboy, Mudora hoshi, Markmark28, Showers, Robbiedrobertson, AlleborgoBot, DiRocco, Symane, Hrishikes, Logan, Wizkid007freek, Purpl3spaz, Solicitr, CT Cooper, Brandon97, PAntoni, IndulgentReader, Thatswhatshesaid290, Axel--kh2, Teh C b0x, T5593, Bittertea~enwiki, EmxBot, Majensk, Beaster77, Travis12, Maysballa7, BartLIV, Rainbowkage, Zagnut15, The Random Editor, Trouble982, SieBot, Sgerrard08, Shyjayb, StAnselm, Bobkauss07, Madman, Jarebear23, Zeroman0923, Waldhorn, OberRanks, RockRNC, Tiddly Tom, Trumpetwalrus, Kernel Saunters, BotMultichill, Oldag07, Vicki75, Pcmacman11, Gerakibot, Mungo Kitsch, Dawn Bard, Bradjoe96, Chonniem, Td72777, Leatherwing, Wideeyedraven, Slim lizard, JohnWinterMadisonSouthDakota, Moose1794, Wscttwolfe,
324
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
Bscwik, Dragonfis107, Srushe, Nowherenear1313, Merotoker1, Purbo T, Pi is 3.14159, Bloodobsession, Magicsprite, Scott147, Bobcrankins, McGrupp10799, Quest for Truth, Underpants x, Azzjiggla, The Evil Spartan, Sheeny567, SweetCarmen, Thehobbit19954, Socal gal at heart, Arbor to SJ, Terper, Blackhawk5000, Monegasque, Michael Blohm, CutOffTies, Darth Kalwejt, Dacheatcode, Clarkdude7, Sonicfan01, Ch10023, Shared Thought, Dumkoolman6121990, Antonio Lopez, Henry Delforn (old), Ekocekoc, SkyBlue eagle, Ninjasshoulddie, Smilesfozwood, Yluk, Vincentsharma, Baseball Bugs, 1.21 jigwatts, Davidxcookie, Yellowduck321, Zettlemoyer1, William Henry Harrison, Fearedhallmonitor, Jinix16, Lightmouse, Benvalle21, RSStockdale, Coolbro545, BreakTheEarth8263, Alex.muller, Lynntoniolondon, Kumioko (renamed), AuburnPiIot, G.-M. Cupertino, Reason turns rancid, Dimedude, Videmus Omnia, Lafuzion, Tom297, Rumbledog, Gwyncann, Andyknelson, Anchor Link Bot, Chilihead7, The Four Deuces, Doggy467, Jacob.jose, BradMajors, William Saturn, TaerkastUA, Jackf314, Florentino floro, Duffy2032, Brendel94, Doktorschley, Pinkadelica, Micov, Shinerunner, Iamwisesun, Tom Reedy, H1nkles, Jmesches, Finetooth, A21sauce, Randy Kryn, Mankind07, Myrvin, Peanutbtter11, Troy 07, Ermcki, ImageRemovalBot, MenoBot, Sfan00 IMG, Beeblebrox, MBK004, Renaculas, ClueBot, Volcom5347, Fresh2def849, Avenged Eightfold, Binksternet, Mark Heiden, Milligan333, Kennvido, Cab.jones, The Thing That Should Not Be, All Hallow’s Wraith, Leenunes, Fotoshop, Dudemanpeace, Butthead1031, Hult041956, Mx3, Cheetomuncher212, Redd Baron1, Boo1210, Grawp~enwiki, Grawp the Giant~enwiki, NolanCho, CasualObserver'48, Drmies, Higherededitor2, Hafspajen, DragonflyDC, Iconoclast.horizon, Hjaskater, Peanut4, Billyfutile, Harland1, Parkwells, P. S. Burton, Gerken918, Tsvb911, Grandgrawper~enwiki, Grandmastergrawp, Neverquick, Pedrofb19, Secret (renamed), Ujm90, Auntof6, CrazyLuca, Dillon262, Aua, DragonBot, Jfrager, Spindletree, Ktr101, Excirial, CrazyChemGuy, Congolese fufu, Brendan.Coffey, Cutsman3200, Bmckee13, Dertwev, V Verweij, Optiquest147, Phnxgurl20, Gtstricky, Leonard^Bloom, Nbrad3, Bchaosf, Ultimategamer44, The Founders Intent, Brochill17, Tmoney2677, Echion2, CAVincent, NuclearWarfare, Shadygrove95, Hoffmaz, Jeffschefke, Lawyer2056, Plasticmikey, Ybin94, JamieS93, Iohannes Animosus, 7&6=thirteen, Zamiel69, Durindaljb, M.O.X, Thekattlover, Premoslide, Alannikolai, Bentu, Epiphone324, JasonAQuest, Farternity, La Pianista, Wellsywuzhere13, Ldgunn1, Randolph Hutchins, John Paul Parks, Jfioeawfjdls453, Dumdog101, Clint0601, Thingg, Mprep18, Ben5467718, Nickkid218, Aitias, Cbb0912, Lord Cornwallis, Bigapple35, Moonlit Knight, Burner0718, Berean Hunter, Vybr8, StatesManship, Daniel1212, EstherLois, CODchess098, Jacksonkurtz, Pitt, Ender108, Superdbzfan123456, Mrsticky005, AgnosticPreachersKid, Fastily, Pichpich, GordonUS, Darth Anne Jaclyn Sincoff, Imagine Reason, Sherreyes, Wehsbandgeek09, Feinoha, Ay nako, Gotwot, Facts707, Skarebo, Corker1, SilvonenBot, Sam Chase, Bucsfan1423, MarmadukePercy, Mm40, Da stooges, Intel95, Gaga654, Soriaku234, Ammo amo, Superturtle3, Good Olfactory, Rhino93, TFBCT1, Spynder42, Primarypenguin, Bor25, Kbdankbot, HexaChord, Nxixnxjxa, Jhendin, Ryan-McCulloch, Chris1299, Jmgott, Brad the Raven, Abc Zc, Bazj, Fd1997, Hsuehc, Addbot, Paper Luigi, Stupidtree, Mr0t1633, Bleehmeeh, 321results, Willking1979, Brickbeard, RandySavageFTW, Babygirl4, Offenbach, Seipjere, Pres-scholar, Jojo99221, Jojhutton, The Twenty Thousand Tonne Bomb, Jaliren, Seantobin5, WilliamMThompson, Boston Collage ' 84, Drag9955, Pumpkinx0, Tromatical, Bkmays, Rklear, TutterMouse, Mukmak, KevinnNnNnNn, CanadianLinuxUser, Groundsquirrel13, Musdan77, Hockey2008, NjardarBot, Dtm824, Drlove436, Proxima Centauri, Tamr007, Thom443, AmericanAgrarian, Pie142, Souletrain, Bobeisman, AndersBot, Chzz, Roux, XRK, Favonian, Elite 34, Jfknrh, Hubub123, SamatBot, LinkFABot, William (The Bill) Blackstone, Rosebuds25, Stevensettle, Squandermania, Goodoldgerda, Sklaye, Tassedethe, FlagFreak, Numbo3-bot, EricCable, Konstantinos~enwiki, Alanscottwalker, SDJ, Krano, Jafd88, Zorrobot, Swarm, Callie351, Galljoh, Yobot, VengeancePrime, Themfromspace, JJARichardson, Ptbotgourou, Senator Palpatine, Rsquire3, Rmsmcd, ThinkingTwice, Evans1982, Victoriaearle, Mailer Daemons, 12george1, Pohick2, Magicpiano, Plasticbot, BoringHistoryGuy, Manzach, Dmarquard, Gunjones, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, PonileExpress, Floquenbeam, Bsimmons666, Galoubet, HotHistoryBuff69, Xcollinsx24, Jopie78, Nemesis63, Materialscientist, Josephjames21, RadioBroadcast, Citation bot, Kieran4, Ruby2010, Guersk, GB fan, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Chip34254221, მოცარტი, Luuvabot, Connerite false mythology, Eivindsol, Capricorn42, Assassin60, GrandMattster, Purplebackpack89, Fishman343, Tad Lincoln, Tomwsulcer, BritishWatcher, Srich32977, Dcsheeran, GrouchoBot, Jhbdel, Coingeek, ProtectionTaggingBot, Ten-pint, Speednat, Factchecker1209, Lizardking009, Mychemicalprincess, B4llin4elves, Personrules, Krscal, A Quest For Knowledge, Drdpw, GhalyBot, DITWIN GRIM, Kiwan6750, Misortie, Earwax09, Green Cardamom, Tktru, FrescoBot, Amsterdam360, Paine Ellsworth, Tobby72, Krj373, Esamhk, Dragonmooero, LavenhamHistorian, FkpCascais, Cdw1952, Comder, TheVirginiaHistorian, Unitanode, Erondites, Henswick, HJ Mitchell, Diabo147, Marmzok, Ben76266, PasswordUsername, Strangways, Freebirds, Cannolis, Jun Nijo, Failofbeener, Citation bot 1, TJ13090, AstaBOTh15, Master Sima Yi, Videogeek32, I dream of horses, Spenaust, HRoestBot, PeteHastings, Martin Raybourne, Kingnickslick, Tinton5, 95j, Fat&Happy, GrapedApe, Lars Washington, Labrynthia9856, Motorizer, Cmguy777, Amthernandez, AKD157, Ravensburg13, December21st2012Freak, Kgrad, FoxBot, Chachap, Meow77, TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Bostonian Mike, NortyNort, Lotje, Drpvfx, Clarkcj12, Begoon, Chnou, DelLeslie, Specs112, WCCasey, Canuckian89, Racing18b, Romanlopez2011, Tbhotch, Reach Out to the Truth, Jdshiznit, AYE R, Mean as custard, Arathjp, The Utahraptor, Ebanony, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, Myownworst, Salvio giuliano, CalicoCatLover, Steve03Mills, EmausBot, John of Reading, Adherent of the Enlightenment 10.0, Sky4t0k, Herbie290, Nima1024, GA bot, Pradhankk, Hantsheroes, Gored82, GoingBatty, Active Banana, Bull Market, Gwillhickers, Not Accessible, Unklscrufy, The Mysterious El Willstro, Soccermom98, Shearonink, Evanh2008, NearTheZoo, TheCarterVI, Thesituation32, Illegitimate Barrister, Rafandalucia, Davykamanzi, Usersame, Jenks24, Rhetoricus, Other Choices, 1234r00t, Cymru.lass, Inniverse, UltimaRatio, Jess567, Jpcase, Intelligentsock, MeriwetherLewis, Shaejustine, Τασουλα, CN3777, Sahimrobot, Dcn8943, Hoppyh, Accotink2, Donner60, BBrad31, 2tuntony, Orange Suede Sofa, Adelson Velsky Landis, ChuispastonBot, Jordan3706, Llightex, Batmannanana, Oriolesfan8, Lord Gorbachev, Mankarse, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, TucsonDavid, CreatureKawa, C Saretto, Suid-Afrikaanse, Alexcoldcasefan, Tanbircdq, Lampoonsvacation, Jacksoncw, Nparm16, Jakeking12, Cassandrapybus, Wjjefferies, Themane2, Slowking4, Frietjes, Corusant, Hazhk, Parjlarsson, Auchansa, Runehelmet, Morgan Riley, Drewhunter14, Godwhale, Dibbun, WilliamJustinM, North Atlanticist Usonian, Helpful Pixie Bot, Oklahoma3477, Jcwiki104, Sam-Tap, Ryantang20, Theoldsparkle, Technical 13, Mochblu, TheLoverofLove, Quarkgluonsoup, Camott14, Richskim, Brade900, Wiki-art-name, Gallina3795, SugarRat, Jackie d. alarcón, Melotown, Cadiomals, 123pigs, Mottengott, Wikkicow, GMA7 Powers 2008, Lordmarmont, Nultiaaliyah1, Bokmanrocks01, Medo4, Zedshort, LFevas, Oct13, Matthew David González, Dezastru, REfreakk55, DrKilleMoff, Thecliffhanger64, BattyBot, Plmnji, Dav subrajathan.357, HankW512, Ziggypowe, DemirBajraktarevic, ChrisGualtieri, Medo9, Khazar2, EditorE, 23 editor, Qexigator, Rubenplayer105, AutomaticStrikeout, All Worlds, Dexbot, Br'er Rabbit, Hmainsbot1, DaltonCastle, Texas123g, Cdctmom6712, Kennywood fan, Spicysenor, Zenkai5, Audiluver, Teerapap86, Bluebasket, Newsailormon, IngagedRedBird, Zziccardi, REfreakk5555, Sureshkumarmalayil, Ashbeckjonathan, Captain Jake Smith, NathanWubs, Oude38Hond, Londomollari42, Sengbe7, AmeliaMorgan, Msundqvist, Lindenhurst Liberty, CensoredScribe, Duane E. Tressler, Kuyi123w, Murus, Billybob2002, Wait4it, Hulkster1, Mandruss, Tracield, The Maigne Event, SNUGGUMS, AlexanderYuanata, MagicatthemovieS, Meteor sandwich yum, Vpilato, Rabdill, Jonas Vinther, Monkbot, Greedo8, Ephemeratta, Marcelo Armando, Erik L'Ensle, Malymilo, Queenbwest, Tjdunn1979, Thegodwin, Aedokpayi, Apache107, Zwaertje, Enoels, Oldnewnew, Popish Plot, Prinsgezinde, KasparBot and Anonymous: 2261 • George Wythe Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wythe?oldid=660840802 Contributors: Someone else, HollyAm, Sannse, Stan Shebs, Kingturtle, Rossami, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Radgeek, TMiscia, Postdlf, David Koller, Lurker, Pmanderson, Neutrality, Pitchka, D6,
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
325
Bobo192, Kevin Myers, JW1805, Atlant, Great Scott, Gaytan, Plange, Mrcolj, Dan East, BD2412, WillC, Valentinian, Mbr7975, Awiseman, Moe Epsilon, Grubbmeister, Ms2ger, TrustTruth, West Virginian, SmackBot, Prodego, Grazon, Hmains, Betacommand, Bluebot, MichaelBillington, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Syrcatbot, Joseph Solis in Australia, CmdrObot, Prescottbush, Dk1965, Chicheley, Cydebot, Mattisse, Eliseread, Mojo Hand, Noroton, Wildhartlivie, Connormah, AuburnPilot, MadL, CTF83!, Waacstats, Mgroop, R'n'B, 8th Ohio Volunteers, Bwsmith84, Dom316, Jrcla2, KylieTastic, Zach425, Thismightbezach, Philip Trueman, Slvrstn, GcSwRhIc, Ryuhaku, Spencerhoward, Pubdog, Carlw4514, Kumioko (renamed), StaticGull, BradMajors, Wysprgr2005, Parkwells, Swvalaw, Jusdafax, Madeformv, 7&6=thirteen, Squiresdan, SchreiberBike, Bhickey, Thingg, MarmadukePercy, Good Olfactory, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Rklear, VEB Text, Kenavt, ChenzwBot, Blakeorig, Tassedethe, Sweetpeacock, Lightbot, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Mmxx, Yuma Yale, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Tcip~enwiki, LilHelpa, Analphabot, Capricorn42, Gilo1969, GrouchoBot, FrescoBot, TheVirginiaHistorian, Americus55, RedBot, MastiBot, Sideways713, RjwilmsiBot, NerdyScienceDude, Deadlyops, John of Reading, Lamb99, Mvrb, John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Wayne Slam, Donner60, Peter Karlsen, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Jweaver28, Corlier, Brumdrundrl, Periglio, VIAFbot, WayneyP, Epicgenius, Stephen Hyles, DavidLeighEllis, JC1008, Damián A. Fernández Beanato, Jippolito24, Tjdunn1979, KasparBot and Anonymous: 105
52.9.2
Images
• File:1757_UPenn_Seal.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/1757_UPenn_Seal.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.archives.upenn.edu/histy/features/vis_obj/heraldry/guide.html Original artist: UPenn • File:1789_CastleWilliam_BostonHarbor_MassachusettsMagazine.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/ 1789_CastleWilliam_BostonHarbor_MassachusettsMagazine.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Massachusetts Magazine Original artist: Massachusetts Magazine • File:1795_eagle_obverse_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/1795_eagle_obverse_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Historic Gold Coins of the World, by Burton Hobson, p. 113, see description Original artist: Unknown • File:2006_Quarter_Proof.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/2006_Quarter_Proof.png License: Public domain Contributors: United States Mint Original artist: United States Mint • File:2008-0831-WashingtonandLeeUniversity.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/ 2008-0831-WashingtonandLeeUniversity.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bobak Ha'Eri • File:2012-07_ncc_04.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7b/2012-07_ncc_04.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ziko van Dijk • File:AH_Custom_house_dusk_jeh.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/AH_Custom_house_dusk_jeh.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jim.henderson • File:A_Front_View_of_Yale_College_and_the_College_Chapel_New_Haven_printed_by_Daniel_Bowen.jpg Source: http: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/A_Front_View_of_Yale_College_and_the_College_Chapel_New_Haven_printed_ by_Daniel_Bowen.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Yale University Manuscripts & Archives Digital Images Database [1] Original artist: Daniel Bowen • File:A_Map_of_Washington’{}s_Farms_at_Mt._Vernon_(1830_engraving).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9c/ A_Map_of_Washington%27s_Farms_at_Mt._Vernon_%281830_engraving%29.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: Scanned by the uploader, Centpacrr. Original artist: George W. Boynton (Engraving) • File:Abraham_Baldwin_by_Naegele.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Abraham_Baldwin_by_Naegele. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: Charles Frederick Naegele (American, 1857 - 1944) • File:Act-first-congress-william-blount-tn1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/ Act-first-congress-william-blount-tn1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brian Stansberry (photographer) • File:AlexanderHamiltonUSCapStat.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/AlexanderHamiltonUSCapStat.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Statue: Horatio Stone[1] • File:Alexander_Hamilton3_1956_Issue-\protect\char"0024\relax5.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/ Alexander_Hamilton3_1956_Issue-%245.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Post Office Original artist: US Post Office • File:Alexander_Hamilton_1757_1804_hi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Alexander_Hamilton_1757_ 1804_hi.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: Alonzo Chappel • File:Alexander_Hamilton_1779.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Alexander_Hamilton_1779.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.digital.lib.uh.edu/ Original artist: Hamilton, Alexander • File:Alexander_Hamilton_By_William_J_Weaver.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Alexander_ Hamilton_By_William_J_Weaver.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US State Department Original artist: William J. Weaver • File:Alexander_Hamilton_Grave.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Alexander_Hamilton_Grave.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (StringRay) Original artist: Nathan Stringer • File:Alexander_Hamilton_Signaturert.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Alexander_Hamilton_ Signaturert.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.handwriting.org/ images/samples/ahamiltn.gif Original artist: Connormah, Alexander Hamilton • File:Alexander_Hamilton_by_Conrads,_Central_Park,_NYC_-_02.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/ Alexander_Hamilton_by_Conrads%2C_Central_Park%2C_NYC_-_02.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zeete
326
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
• File:Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_Ezra_Ames-cropped.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/ Alexander_Hamilton_portrait_by_Ezra_Ames-cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/2/22/Alexander_Hamilton_by_Ezra_Ames.jpg Original artist: Ezra Ames • File:Articles_page1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Articles_page1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://bensguide.gpo.gov/9-12/documents/articles/index.html Original artist: the government of the United States • File:Auction_President_James_Madison’{}s_Library.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Auction_ President_James_Madison%27s_Library.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/rbc/rbpe/rbpe18/rbpe186/ 18604200/001dr.jpg Original artist: Elhanon Row • File:BEP-JONES-Franklin_and_Electricity.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/BEP-JONES-Franklin_ and_Electricity.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Restoration by Godot13 Original artist: Alfred Jones, for the Bureau of Engraving and Printing • File:BaltWashMonument.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/BaltWashMonument.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: DavoP • File:Battle_erie.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Battle_erie.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: United States Senate Original artist: William Henry Powell • File:BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/BenFranklin_Waterspout_1806. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NOAA Photo Library: wea00342 Original artist: Benjamin Franklin • File:Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_Issue-1c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Benjamin_Franklin2_1895_ Issue-1c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Post Office Hi-res scan of postage stamp by
Gwillhickers. Original artist: US Post Office • File:Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_ or_Die.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3g05315. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Benjamin Franklin • File:Benjamin_Franklin_1759.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/Benjamin_Franklin_1759.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The White House Historical Association Original artist: Benjamin Wilson • File:Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Benjamin_Franklin_1767.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The White House Historical Association Original artist: David Martin • File:Benjamin_Franklin_1861_Issue-1c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Benjamin_Franklin_1861_ Issue-1c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Post Office / Gwillhickers: Image obtained from hi-res scan of US Postage stamp from private collection. Image rendered to correct color, tone, change image size and to add sharpness: New image file by Gwillhickerks. Original artist: US Post Office; National Bank Note Company • File:Benjamin_Franklin_2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Benjamin_Franklin_ 2-Big-Bens_1918_Issue.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Post Office / image by
Gwillhickers: hi-res scan from private collection. Original artist: US Post Office • File:Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Swampyank at English Wikipedia • File:Benjamin_Franklin_Birthplace_2.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Benjamin_Franklin_ Birthplace_2.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: “King’s Handbook of Boston”, by Moses King published 1881 Original artist: Moses King • File:Benjamin_Franklin_National_Memorial.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Benjamin_Franklin_ National_Memorial.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Mike Parker Original artist: Photo by Michael Parker. James Earle Fraser, sculptor • File:Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Benjamin_Franklin_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced by hand from w:File:Signature of Benjamin Franklin (from Nordisk familjebok).png Original artist: Connormah, Benjamin Franklin • File:Benjamin_Franklin_by_Hiram_Powers.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Benjamin_Franklin_by_ Hiram_Powers.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://americanart.si.edu/collections/search/artwork/?id=20050 Original artist: Hiram Powers • File:Benjamin_Franklin_statue_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4374.JPG Source: commons/4/41/Benjamin_Franklin_statue_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4374.JPG License: Gallery, Public domain Original artist: Billy Hathorn
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ CC0 Contributors: National Portrait
• File:Benjamin_Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Benjamin_ Hawkins_and_the_Creek_Indians.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://siris-artinventories.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?uri=full= 3100001~{}!352160!0#focus Original artist: Unknown • File:Benjamin_West,_English_(born_America)_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_ Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Benjamin_West%2C_English_%28born_America% Public domain Contributors: 29_-_Benjamin_Franklin_Drawing_Electricity_from_the_Sky_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: uwE3TyGK4QGScg at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Benjamin West
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
327
• File:Blount-hall-pitt-nc1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Blount-hall-pitt-nc1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Henry Thomas King, Sketches of Pitt County (Raleigh, N.C.: Edwards & Broughton Printing Company, 1911), p. 52. Downloaded from Google Books, Full View. Original artist: Unknown photographer • File:Blount-mansion-tn2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/Blount-mansion-tn2.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brian Stansberry • File:BustElbridgeGerry.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f1/BustElbridgeGerry.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/art/artifact/ac_vp_busts_Sculpture_22_00005.htm Original artist: Herbert Adams • File:Caleb_Strong_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Caleb_Strong_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://images.virtualology.com/ac/5/i/ency0343.jpg Original artist: Connormah, Caleb Strong • File:Carroll_arms_cropped.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Carroll_arms_cropped.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Some Colonial Mansions, and those who lived in them: With Genealogies of the Various Families Mentioned. Philadelphia: Henry T. Coates & Company. Original artist: Thomas Allen Glenn (born 1864) • File:CharlesCPinckney.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/59/CharlesCPinckney.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.worcesterart.org/Collection/Early_American/Artists/earl_j/pinckney/catalog.html Original artist: James Earl (d. 1796) • File:Charles_Cotesworth_Pinckney_by_Benbridge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/Charles_ Cotesworth_Pinckney_by_Benbridge.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Flickr Original artist: Henry Benbridge (1743-10-20 - 1812-01-25) Photographer: cliff1066 • File:Charlestownmap.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Charlestownmap.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/maps/charlestownmap/charlestownmap.jpeg Original artist: See above • File:Commerce_in_The_Apotheosis_of_Washington.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/Commerce_in_ The_Apotheosis_of_Washington.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Architect of the Capitol information webpage [1] Original artist: Architect of the Capitol • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Constitution_Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Constitution_ Sesquicentennial_1937_Issue-3c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Post Office; Smithsonian National Postal Museum Original artist: Bureau of Engraving and Printing; Imaging and some touch up in banner lettering by
Gwillhickers • File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6c/Constitution_of_the_ United_States%2C_page_1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Constitutional Convention • File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_4.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Constitution_of_the_ United_States%2C_page_4.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration Original artist: Constitutional Convention • File:Couder_Yorktown_Versailles.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Couder_Yorktown_Versailles.JPG License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Auguste Couder • File:DSCN2897_hamilton_statue.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/DSCN2897_hamilton_statue.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Daniel_carroll.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/Daniel_carroll.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Vikingstad at en.wikipedia • File:Daniel_of_St._Thomas_Jenifer_by_John_Hesselius.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Daniel_of_ St._Thomas_Jenifer_by_John_Hesselius.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Painter: John Hesselius (1728 - 177804-09) Photographer: cliff1066 • File:David_Brearly.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/David_Brearly.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/constitution/bioa.htm Original artist: ? • File:Deborah_ReadFranklin.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Deborah_ReadFranklin.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary [1] Original artist: Attributed to Benjamin Wilson • File:Declaration_independence.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Declaration_independence.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: US Capitol Original artist: John Trumbull • File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist: The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).”
328
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
• File:Edward_Savage_-_The_Washington_Family_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ a/a3/Edward_Savage_-_The_Washington_Family_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: -AFSnvzAlFw44A at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Edward Savage (1761 - 1817) (American) (painter, • File:Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://department.monm.edu/classics/images/elbridge%20gerry.jpg Original artist: James Bogle after John Vanderlyn • File:Elbridge_Gerry_House.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Elbridge_Gerry_House.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fletcher6 • File:Elbridge_Gerry_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/Elbridge_Gerry_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Connormah, Elbridge Gerry • File:Emanuel_Leutze_(American,_Schwäbisch_Gmünd_1816–1868_Washington,_D.C.)_-_Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_ -_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Emanuel_Leutze_%28American%2C_Schw% C3%A4bisch_Gm%C3%BCnd_1816%E2%80%931868_Washington%2C_D.C.%29_-_Washington_Crossing_the_Delaware_-_Google_ Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: KAHKUjVORM5STw at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Emanuel Leutze • File:FRANKLIN,_Benjamin_(signed_check).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/FRANKLIN%2C_ Benjamin_%28signed_check%29.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: National Museum of American History • File:Flag_US_Army_Chief_of_Staff.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Flag_US_Army_Chief_of_Staff. svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader; based on File:USChiefofStaffArmy.PNG. Uses elements from File: US-GreatSeal-Obverse.svg. Original artist: Sodacan • File:Flag_of_Assistant_Secretary_of_War.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Flag_of_the_United_States_ Assistant_Secretary_of_War.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Flag_of_Assistant_Secretary_of_War.gif Original artist: Flag_of_Assistant_Secretary_of_War.gif: Us Dept of War • File:Flag_of_Delaware.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Flag_of_Delaware.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on image from xrmap flag collection 2.7, colors from image at World Flag Database Original artist: xrmap flag collection • File:Flag_of_Maryland.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Flag_of_Maryland.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Massachusetts.svg License: Public domain Contributors: from the xrmap flag collection 2.7. Original artist: State of Massachusetts • File:Flag_of_New_Jersey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Flag_of_New_Jersey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_New_York_(1778-1901).svg Source: %281778-1901%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Flag_of_New_York_
• Flag_of_New_York.svg Original artist: Flag_of_New_York.svg: State of New York • File:Flag_of_North_Carolina.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bb/Flag_of_North_Carolina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: from the xrmap flag collection 2.7 Original artist: Simtropolitan, Jean-Pierre Demailly (old version) • File:Flag_of_Washington.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Flag_of_Washington.svg License: Public domain Contributors: SVG generated from EPS file available from State of Washington website. Downloads listed here and file retrieved on 14:25, 2 March 2006 (UTC) from here. Original artist: WA Secretary of State • File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Secretary_of_State.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/Flag_of_the_ United_States_Secretary_of_State.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This vector image includes elements that have been taken or adapted from this:
Flag of a United States ambassador.svg. Original artist: Fry1989 • File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_ the_United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader; based on File: SecretaryOfTheArmyFlag.png. Uses elements from File:US-GreatSeal-Obverse.svg. Original artist: Sodacan • File:Flag_of_the_Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/ Flag_of_the_Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader; based on File:VCSA Flag.jpg. Uses elements from File:US-GreatSeal-Obverse.svg. Original artist: Sodacan • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
329
• File:Fort_Moultrie_flag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Fort_Moultrie_flag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work; originally uploaded to en.wikipedia - Fort Moultrie flag.svg Original artist: K. Aainsqatsi • File:Franklin’{}s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/ Franklin%27s_return_to_Philadelphia_1785_cph.3g09906.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3g09906. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Jean Leon Gerome Ferris • File:Franklin1877.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/89/Franklin1877.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Franklin_SC1_1847.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:Stefan4 using CommonsHelper. Original artist: ? • File:Franklin_bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Franklin_ bust_at_Columbia_University_IMG_0924.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: I (Billy Hathorn (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist: Billy Hathorn (talk) • File:Franklin_stamp_2013.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7e/Franklin_stamp_2013.jpg License: Fair use Contributors: https://www.canadapost.ca/cpo/mc/personal/collecting/stamps/2013/2013_jun_postal_history.jsf Original artist: ? • File:Franklin_the_printer.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Franklin_the_printer.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress reproduction # LC-USZC4-7217 [1] Original artist: Charles E. Mills • File:GWMasonicMemorial.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/GWMasonicMemorial.JPG License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fernando Revilla • File:General_George_Washington_Resigning_his_Commission.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/ General_George_Washington_Resigning_his_Commission.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Architect of the Capitol Original artist: John Trumbull • File:General_George_Washington_at_Trenton_by_John_Trumbull.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/ General_George_Washington_at_Trenton_by_John_Trumbull.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Yale University Art Gallery [1] Original artist: John Trumbull • File:GeorgeWashington1775.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e5/GeorgeWashington1775.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:GeorgeWashingtonByRobertField.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/ GeorgeWashingtonByRobertField.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: unknown Original artist: Robert Field (1800)
• File:George_Clymer_signature.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/George_Clymer_signature.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Us_declaration_independence.jpg Original artist: Originally the United States government, enhanced and modified by
Thingg⊕Thingg⊕Gwillhickers
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
331
• File:James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/James_Madison_Portrait2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3a19159. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Edwin, David, 1776-1841, engraver. • File:James_Madison_Presidential_\protect\char"0024\relax1_Coin_obverse.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/a/a3/James_Madison_Presidential_%241_Coin_obverse.png License: Public domain Contributors: US Mint Pressroom Image Library with direct link. Original artist: United States Mint • File:James_Madison_gravestone_IMG_4299.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/James_Madison_ gravestone_IMG_4299.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Billy Hathorn • File:James_Madison_sig.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/James_Madison_sig.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raeky • File:James_McHenry_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/James_McHenry_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.historyforsale.com/productimages/jpeg/269082.jpg Original artist: James McHenry • File:James_Mchenry.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/James_Mchenry.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: http://digital.lib.uh.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/p15195coll12&CISOPTR=80 Original artist: McHenry, James • File:James_Wilkinson.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/James_Wilkinson.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Independence National Historical Park Collection in Philadelphia, PA. Original artist: Charles Willson Peale • File:James_Wilson_signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/James_Wilson_signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: File:US Declaration of Independence us0036 03.jpg Original artist: James Wilson Created in vector format by Scewing
• File:James_madison-Age82-Edit1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/James_madison-Age82-Edit1.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.picturehistory.com/product/id/12492 Original artist: • Retouched by: Mmxx • File:Jay’{}s-treaty.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Jay%27s-treaty.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/jaytreaty/1.html Original artist: ? • File:JohnDickinson4.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/JohnDickinson4.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:John_Blair_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ee/John_Blair_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made, traced from http://www.colonialwilliamsburg.com/Foundation/journal/Spring06/images/blair_signature.jpg Original artist: Connormah, John Blair • File:John_Dickinson_portrait.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/John_Dickinson_portrait.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by User:PKM using CommonsHelper. Original source Original artist: Charles Willson Peale • File:John_Langdon_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/John_Langdon_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from http://www.liveauctioneers.com/item/2297479 Original artist: Connormah, John Langdon • File:John_Lansing_Jr..jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/John_Lansing_Jr..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:John_Marshall_by_Henry_Inman,_1832.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/John_Marshall_by_ Henry_Inman%2C_1832.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Virginia Memory Original artist: Henry Inman • File:John_Rutledge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/John_Rutledge.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:John_Rutledge_color_painting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/John_Rutledge_color_painting.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.oyez.org/justices/john_rutledge/portrait/ Original artist: Robert Hinckley • File:John_Rutledge_gravestone,_Charleston,_SC_IMG_4577.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/John_ Rutledge_gravestone%2C_Charleston%2C_SC_IMG_4577.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Billy Hathorn • File:John_Rutledge_senate.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/John_Rutledge_senate.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: ? • File:John_Rutledge_sig.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/John_Rutledge_sig.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:John Rutledge sig.png, which was from Image:Constitution_signatures.jpg Original artist: Enhanced, modified, and vectorized by J.delanoy • File:John_Trumbull_-_John_Adams_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/John_ Trumbull_-_John_Adams_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: mAEUfmzRYKb2ig at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: John Trumbull • File:John_langdon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/John_langdon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Darwinek at en.wikipedia
332
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
• File:Libertas_Americana_silver_medallion_1783.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a6/Libertas_Americana_silver_ medallion_1783.jpg License: PD Contributors: “The Cooper Collections” (uploader’s personal collection); Photographs and composite digital illustration created by the uploader, Centpacrr. Original artist: Medallion: Benjamin Franklin (design concept), Esprit-Antoine Giblein (drawings), Augustin Dupré (sculpting/engraving), “Mint for Medals at the Louvre” (minting) Composite image: Centpacrr • File:Libertybell_alone_small.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Libertybell_alone_small.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ben’s Guide (3-5): Symbols of Government -- The Liberty Bell Original artist: • derivative work: Bcrowell • File:Louisiana_purchase_treaty.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Louisiana_purchase_treaty.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Lyon-griswold-brawl.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Lyon-griswold-brawl.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. American Cartoon Prints Collection. http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph. 3a05342 Original artist: Unknown • File:MADISON,_James-President_(BEP_engraved_portrait).jpg Source: MADISON%2C_James-President_%28BEP_engraved_portrait%29.jpg License: Original artist: The Bureau of Engraving and Printing
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/ Public domain Contributors: Restoration by Godot13
• File:Madison_Cottage.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Madison_Cottage.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: item provenance: [1] Original artist: published by Hitchcock, Darling & Co. • File:MadisonsMontpelier.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/MadisonsMontpelier.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Aigrette • File:Martha_Dandridge_Custis_crop.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Martha_Dandridge_Custis_crop. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: • Martha_Dandridge_Custis.jpg Original artist: Martha_Dandridge_Custis.jpg: John Folwell • File:McHenryGrave.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/McHenryGrave.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Midnightdreary • File:Morris_folly.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Morris_folly.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/declaration/bio33.htm Original artist: Engraving by William Birch, from The City of Philadelphia, 1800, Independence National Historical Park • File:Mount_Rushmore2.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Mount_Rushmore2.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress Original artist: Rise Studio, Rapid City, S. Dak. Copyright not renewed. • File:Mount_Vernon,_Virginia_crop.jpg Source: crop.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Mount_Vernon%2C_Virginia_
• Mount_Vernon,_Virginia.jpg Original artist: Mount_Vernon,_Virginia.jpg: David Samuel • File:Mt._Washington_from_Bretton_Woods.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Mt._Washington_from_ Bretton_Woods.JPG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: wwoods • File:Nathaniel_Gorham_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Nathaniel_Gorham_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from File:Constitution Pg4of4 AC.jpg Original artist: Nathaniel Gorham • File:New100front.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/New100front.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.newmoney.gov/newmoney/files/100_Materials/100_GlossyFront_EN_WEB031210.pdf Original artist: Bureau of Engraving and Printing • File:NicholasGilman1790.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/NicholasGilman1790.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.sothebys.com/app/live/lot/LotDetail.jsp?sale_number=N07866&live_lot_id=865 Original artist: John Ramage (1748-1802) • File:Nicholas_Gilman.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Nicholas_Gilman.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/RevWar/ss/p092.jpg Original artist: Albert Rosenthal • File:Nicholas_Gilman_House_Exeter.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Nicholas_Gilman_House_Exeter. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchdetail.cfm?trg=1&strucID=596498&imageID= 1243136&word=gilman&s=1¬word=&d=&c=&f=&k=0&lWord=&lField=&sScope=&sLevel=&sLabel=&total=99&num=0&imgs= 20&pNum=&pos=7 Original artist: Unknown • File:Nicholas_Gilman_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Nicholas_Gilman_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced from File:Nicholas Gilman Treasurer New Hampshire.jpg Original artist: Nicholas Gilman • File:Nicholas_Gilman_Treasurer_New_Hampshire.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Nicholas_Gilman_ Treasurer_New_Hampshire.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/rbc/rbpe/rbpe08/rbpe088/0880260a/001dr.jpg Original artist: Nicholas Gilman, Esq., Treasurer and Receiver General, State of New Hampshire • File:O_Ellsworth_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/O_Ellsworth_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader traced by hand Original artist: Connormah
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
333
• File:Office-book.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project • File:Old_Well_in_front_of_the_South_Building_2005.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Old_Well_in_ front_of_the_South_Building_2005.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Taken by The PNM. Original artist: The PNM. • File:OliverAbigail.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/OliverAbigail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Ralph Earl • File:Oliver_Ellsworth_George_Washington.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Oliver_Ellsworth_George_ Washington.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/mss/mgw/mgw4/110/0900/0963.jpg Original artist: Oliver Ellsworth • File:Oliver_Ellsworth_engraving.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Oliver_Ellsworth_engraving.png License: Public domain Contributors: (1855) The history of Connecticut, from the first settlement of the colony to the adoption of the present constitution, 2, New Haven, CT: Durrie and Peck Retrieved on 14 October 2010. Original artist: Engraved by D.C. Hinman from a miniature by Colonel Trumbull in the Trumbull Gallery, Yale College • File:Onedolar2009series.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Onedolar2009series.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:P_vip.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/P_vip.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Pedro_Américo_-_Voltaire_abençoando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg Source: http: //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Pedro_Am%C3%A9rico_-_Voltaire_aben%C3%A7oando_o_neto_de_Franklin_em_ nome_de_Deus_e_da_Liberdade.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Flickr. Original artist: Pedro Américo • File:PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/ PennsylvaniaHospitalWilliamStrickland.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.brynmawr.edu/iconog/APS%20views/aps.html Original artist: William Strickland (1788-1854) • File:PhelpsGorhamMap_Milliken.gif Source: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/53/PhelpsGorhamMap_Milliken.gif License:
• File:PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/PhiladelphiaPresidentsHouse.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: John Fanning Watson, Annals of Philadelphia (1830), opp. p. 361. Original artist: William L. Breton, artist and lithographer. • File:Philly_2010_transit_071.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/b0/Philly_2010_transit_071.JPG License: GFDL Contributors: own work Original artist: Mimono1997 • File:Pinckneygrave1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/dc/Pinckneygrave1.jpg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Portsmouth,_NH_-_Governor_John_Langdon_House.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/ Portsmouth%2C_NH_-_Governor_John_Langdon_House.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daderot • File:President_Pro_Tempore_US_Senate_Seal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9d/President_Pro_ Tempore_US_Senate_Seal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ruxda • File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist: Tkgd2007 • File:RICHARD_BASSETT_HOUSE,_DOVER,_KENT_COUNTY,_DELAWARE.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/95/RICHARD_BASSETT_HOUSE%2C_DOVER%2C_KENT_COUNTY%2C_DELAWARE.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: JERRYE & ROY KLOTZ MD • File:Read_george002.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6e/Read_george002.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Rembrandt_Peale_-_George_Washington_(Porthole_type)_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Rembrandt_Peale_-_George_Washington_%28Porthole_type%29_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: PwG91fqOnphciA at Google Cultural Institute, zoom level maximum Original artist: Rembrandt Peale • File:Robert_Morris_circa_1876.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Robert_Morris_circa_1876.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ushistory.org/declaration/signers/morris_r.htm Original artist: Ole Erekson
• File:Robert_Morris_signature.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Robert_Morris_signature.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Us_declaration_independence.jpg Original artist: Originally the United States government, enhanced and modified by
Thingg⊕Thingg⊕
Original artist: AgnosticPreachersKid • File:Rufus_King_Minister_Britain_(JQA).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Rufus_King_ Minister_Britain_%28JQA%29.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://riceonhistory.wordpress.com/2012/01/22/ rufus-king-minister-to-the-uk-nomination-1825/ Original artist: Daniel Rice • File:Rufus_King_by_Peale.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Rufus_King_by_Peale.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Uploaded by Sadads at en.wikipedia • File:Rufus_king_signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Rufus_king_signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Connormah • File:STRONG,_Caleb_(ABNC_engraved_portrait).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/STRONG%2C_ Caleb_%28ABNC_engraved_portrait%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Restoration by Godot13 Original artist: James Bannister for the American Bank Note Company • File:Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg Source: cense: Public domain Contributors: The Metropolitan Museum of Art [1] Original artist: John Hoppner
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg Li-
• File:Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/ 9d/Scene_at_the_Signing_of_the_Constitution_of_the_United_States.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The Indian Reporter Original artist: Howard Chandler Christy • File:Seal_of_Delaware.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Seal_of_Delaware.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Self-made, center image extracted from Delaware flag, and altered to fit the seal. Original artist: State of Delaware • File:Seal_of_New_Hampshire.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Seal_of_New_Hampshire.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Transfered from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Zscout370 at en.wikipedia • File:Seal_of_New_Jersey.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/Seal_of_New_Jersey.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Seal_of_North_Carolina.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Seal_of_North_Carolina.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ncdot.org Original artist: NC Department Of Transportation • File:Seal_of_Virginia.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Seal_of_Virginia.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Image:Flag of Virginia.svg Original artist: Charles Keck • File:Seal_of_the_Attorney_General_of_Pennsylvania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Seal_of_the_ Attorney_General_of_Pennsylvania.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: [1] Original artist: Seal_of_Pennsylvania.svg: Henrik • File:Seal_of_the_Governor_of_Massachusetts.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Seal_of_the_Governor_ of_Massachusetts.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, based on File:Seal of Massachusetts.svg and 1 Original artist: Lemmens, Tom • File:Seal_of_the_Governor_of_South_Carolina.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Seal_of_the_ Governor_of_South_Carolina.png License: Public domain Contributors: Government of South Carolina Original artist: Office of the Governor of South Carolina • File:Seal_of_the_President_of_the_United_States.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Seal_of_ the_President_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Extracted from the title page of PDF document at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.pdf Original artist: Unknown
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
335
• File:Seal_of_the_Speaker_of_the_US_House_of_Representatives.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 9/93/Seal_of_the_Speaker_of_the_US_House_of_Representatives.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Seal_of_the_United_ States_Board_of_War.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://etc.usf.edu/ Original artist: United States Board of War and Ordnance • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/ Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The original uploader was Andy85719 at Original artist: United States Department of the Post Office • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Seal_ of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from w:Image:House large seal.png SVG elements from
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Seal_of_the_United_States_ Senate.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Vectorized from
SVG elements from
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_ States_Supreme_Court.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from
SVG elements from
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:SirJohnSherbrookeByRobertField.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/ SirJohnSherbrookeByRobertField.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Halifax Club Original artist: Robert Field
336
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
• File:Sketch_of_Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Sketch_of_ Tun_Tavern_in_the_Revolutionary_War.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Archives images Original artist: ? • File:Sound-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License: LGPL Contributors: Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set • File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Square_compasses.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Square_compasses.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: MesserWoland • File:Standard_of_the_Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Standard_of_the_ Governor_of_Pennsylvania.svg License: Public domain Contributors: • Pennsylvania_Governor.png Original artist: Flag_of_Pennsylvania.svg: xrmap flag collection 2.7 • File:StarSpangledBannerFlag.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/StarSpangledBannerFlag.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Carl Lindberg • File:Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Statue_of_Alexander_Hamilton. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Karen Nutini • File:Stuart-george-washington-constable-1797.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/ Stuart-george-washington-constable-1797.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Athenaeum: Home - info - pic Original artist: Gilbert Stuart • File:Summerseat,_Clymer_Street_&_Morris_Avenue_(Morrisville_Borough),_Morrisville_(Bucks_County,_Pennsylvania).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Summerseat%2C_Clymer_Street_%26_Morris_Avenue_%28Morrisville_ Borough%29%2C_Morrisville_%28Bucks_County%2C_Pennsylvania%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/ cgi-bin/displayPhoto.pl?path=/pnp/habshaer/pa/pa1600/pa1689/color&topImages=571715cr.jpg&topLinks=571715cv.jpg,571715cu.tif& title=pa25&displayProfile=0 Original artist: Unknown, Photographer, • File:Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Surrender_of_Lord_Cornwallis. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.aoc.gov/cc/photo-gallery/ptgs_rotunda.cfm Original artist: John Trumbull • File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil • File:Talleyrand_02.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Talleyrand_02.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.chateau-de-rochecotte.com/uk/history.htm Original artist: François Gérard • File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_with_ red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham) • File:The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1,_January,_1741.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/ a/a3/The_General_Magazine_and_Historical_Chronicle_Vol_1%2C_January%2C_1741.jpg License: PD-US Contributors: “The Cooper Collections” (Scanned by the uploader)
Original artist: B. Franklin • File:The_Gerry-Mander_Edit.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/The_Gerry-Mander_Edit.png License: Public domain Contributors: Originally published in the Boston Centinel, 1812. Original artist: Elkanah Tisdale (1771-1835) (often falsely attributed to Gilbert Stuart)[1] • File:The_Museum_of_Nevis_History_-_Alexander_Hamilton_birthplace.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ f/f4/The_Museum_of_Nevis_History_-_Alexander_Hamilton_birthplace.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daniel Farrell • File:Thomas_Jefferson_George_Wythe_notes_biography.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Thomas_ Jefferson_George_Wythe_notes_biography.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/master/mss/mtj/mtj1/052/0200/ 0217.jpg Original artist: Thomas Jefferson • File:Thomas_Mifflin_Signature2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Thomas_Mifflin_Signature2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Traced in Adobe Illustrator from File:Constitution Pg4of4 AC.jpg Original artist: Thomas Mifflin • File:Tom_Fitzsimmons_Parkway.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Tom_Fitzsimmons_Parkway.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Smallbones • File:UGA_logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/UGA_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: http: //www.sportslogos.net/logo.php?id=hr85j3g1duiqf59eiep9bvnsd Original artist: Brunswickian (
talk) • File:UNC_Chapel_Hill_Cornerstone.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/45/UNC_Chapel_Hill_Cornerstone.jpg License: ? Contributors: Copied from http://museum.unc.edu/exhibits/public_art/cornerstone_old_east/ Original artist: ? • File:US-\protect\char"0024\relax10-SC-1878-Fr.285a.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/US-% 2410-SC-1878-Fr.285a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: National Museum of American History
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
337
• File:US-\protect\char"0024\relax5000-FRN-1928-Fr-2220g.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/US-% 245000-FRN-1928-Fr-2220g.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: National Museum of American History • File:US-Colonial_(GA-124)-Georgia-4_May_1778_OBV.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/ US-Colonial_%28GA-124%29-Georgia-4_May_1778_OBV.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: National Museum of American History • File:US-Colonial_(PA-115)-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/US-Colonial_ %28PA-115%29-Pennsylvania-18_Jun_1764.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: Benjamin Franklin and David Hall (printers) • File:US-Colonial_(VA-69)-Virginia-4_Mar_1773_OBV.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/US-Colonial_ %28VA-69%29-Virginia-4_Mar_1773_OBV.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Image by Godot13 Original artist: National Museum of American History • File:US-DeptOfTheTreasury-Seal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/US-DeptOfTheTreasury-Seal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Extracted from PDF file here. Original artist: U.S. Government. The original 1780s seal is believed to have been designed by Francis Hopkinson. • File:US10dollarbill-Series_2004A.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/US10dollarbill-Series_2004A.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:USS_Constitution_vs_Guerriere.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/USS_Constitution_vs_Guerriere. jpg License: Public domain Contributors: from [1] and cropped Original artist: Michel Felice Corne (1752-1845) • File:US_Capitol_1814c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/US_Capitol_1814c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID ppmsca.02160. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. Original artist: Munger, George, 1781-1825, artist. • File:US_Vice_President_Seal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/US_Vice_President_Seal.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from
SVG elements from
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US_flag_13_stars_–_Betsy_Ross.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/US_flag_13_stars_%E2%80% 93_Betsy_Ross.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I created this image using historical descriptions (commonly known). Inkscape was used to create the SVG. Original artist: DevinCook • File:Union_army_maj_gen_rank_insignia.jpg Source: rank_insignia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e2/Union_army_maj_gen_
• US-O7_insignia.svg Original artist: US-O7_insignia.svg: Ipankonin • File:Union_flag_1606_(Kings_Colors).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Union_flag_1606_%28Kings_ Colors%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Made by Hoshie Original artist: Hoshie • File:United_States_Declaration_of_Independence.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/United_States_ Declaration_of_Independence.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: numerous Original artist: original: w:Second Continental Congress; reproduction: William Stone • File:Virginia_State_Capitol_complex_-_Houdon’{}s_Washington,_seen_from_the_front.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/4/40/Virginia_State_Capitol_complex_-_Houdon%27s_Washington%2C_seen_from_the_front.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Image taken by me for Wikipedia Original artist: User:AlbertHerring • File:WNY5.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/WNY5.PNG License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:WSTM_nathanschneider_0031.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/WSTM_nathanschneider_0031.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Contributed by author. Original artist: This photo was taken by participant/team Nathan Schneider as part of the Commons:Wikis Take Manhattan project on October 4, 2008. • File:Washington’{}s_Farewell_Address.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Washington%27s_Farewell_ Address.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel06.html Original artist: George Washington • File:Washington’{}s_tomb_Mount_Vernon.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Washington%27s_tomb_ Mount_Vernon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/habshaer/va/va1200/va1238/photos/161668pv.jpg Original artist: Historic American Buildings Survey
338
CHAPTER 52. GEORGE WYTHE
• File:Washington_Monument_Dusk_Jan_2006.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Washington_ Monument_Dusk_Jan_2006.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Diliff • File:Washington_Monument_and_Smithsonian_Castle_at_Sunset_Dec_2012.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/4/41/Washington_Monument_and_Smithsonian_Castle_at_Sunset_Dec_2012.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ZeWrestler • File:Washington_Oath_1939_Issue-3c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Washington_Oath_1939_ Issue-3c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Post Office Hi-res scan of postage stamp by
Gwillhickers. Original artist: Bureau of Engraving and Printing • File:Washington_Pennsylvania_Mapb.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Washington_Pennsylvania_ Mapb.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This map is available from the United States Library of Congress's Geography & Map Division under the digital ID g3820.ct000361. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: George Washingtonkbglgi • File:Washington_and_Lafayette_at_Valley_Forge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Washington_and_ Lafayette_at_Valley_Forge.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/91792202/ Original artist: John Ward Dunsmore • File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al. • File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC) Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use official Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by Simon. • File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Wikisource-logo.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Wikisource-logo.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: This file is an original and may be obsolete for general use, but is kept for historical or archival use. As such, it should not be modified or deleted except to correct upload or technical errors. Any modified versions or replacements of this image should be uploaded with a different file name. A version of this file more suitable for general use can be found at Image:Wikisource-logo.svg. Original artist: Nicholas Moreau (all copyrights are transferred to Wikimedia) • File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau • File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky • File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber • File:William-blount-grave-tn1.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/William-blount-grave-tn1.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brian Stansberry • File:William-blount-rosenthal-etching-nypl.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/ William-blount-rosenthal-etching-nypl.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: New York Public Library Digital Gallery Original artist: Albert Rosenthal (etching), Thomas Addis Emmet (reproduction) • File:William-blount-wb-cooper.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/William-blount-wb-cooper.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Tennessee Portrait Project Original artist: Washington Bogart Cooper (1801–1889) • File:WilliamFranklin.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/WilliamFranklin.jpeg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia. Uploaded 2004-02-06 Original artist: Attributed to Mather Brown • File:WilliamRichardsonDavieByCharlesWillsonPeale.jpg WilliamRichardsonDavieByCharlesWillsonPeale.jpg License: pages/4293 Original artist: Charles Willson Peale
Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/ Public domain Contributors: LearnNC.org : http://www.learnnc.org/lp/
• File:William_Blount_Signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/William_Blount_Signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader, traced in Adobe Illustrator from File:Constitution Pg4of4 AC.jpg Original artist: Connormah, William Blount • File:William_Few_signature.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/William_Few_signature.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_4.jpg Original artist: William Few • File:William_Houstoun_silhouette_by_Peale.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/William_Houstoun_ silhouette_by_Peale.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Library of Congress, via Moscow, Henry. The Street Book (1979) Original artist: Charles Willson Peale • File:William_Livingston_1778.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/William_Livingston_1778.jpg License: CC0 Contributors: http://digital.lib.uh.edu/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/p15195coll12&CISOPTR=74 Original artist: Livingston, William
52.9. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
339
• File:William_temple_franklin_by_john_trumbull.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e9/William_temple_ franklin_by_john_trumbull.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/temple/index.htm Original artist: John Trumbull • File:Yorktown_1931_Issue-2c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Yorktown_1931_Issue-2c.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Post Office / Gwillhickers photo image, obtained from hi-res scan of US postage stamp. Original artist: Bureau of Engraving and Printing • File:Young_alexander_hamilton.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Young_alexander_hamilton.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia Original artist: Original uploader was Erekrose at en.wikipedia
52.9.3
Content license
• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
Flag of a United States ambassador.svg. Original artist: Fry1989 • File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_ the_United_States_Secretary_of_the_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader; based on File: SecretaryOfTheArmyFlag.png. Uses elements from File:US-GreatSeal-Obverse.svg. Original artist: Sodacan • File:Flag_of_the_Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/ Flag_of_the_Vice_Chief_of_Staff_of_the_United_States_Army.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work by uploader; based on File:VCSA Flag.jpg. Uses elements from File:US-GreatSeal-Obverse.svg. Original artist: Sodacan • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
Original artist: AgnosticPreachersKid • File:Rufus_King_Minister_Britain_(JQA).JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/Rufus_King_ Minister_Britain_%28JQA%29.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: http://riceonhistory.wordpress.com/2012/01/22/ rufus-king-minister-to-the-uk-nomination-1825/ Original artist: Daniel Rice • File:Rufus_King_by_Peale.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Rufus_King_by_Peale.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia by SreeBot Original artist: Uploaded by Sadads at en.wikipedia • File:Rufus_king_signature.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Rufus_king_signature.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Connormah • File:STRONG,_Caleb_(ABNC_engraved_portrait).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/STRONG%2C_ Caleb_%28ABNC_engraved_portrait%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Restoration by Godot13 Original artist: James Bannister for the American Bank Note Company • File:Sarah_Franklin_Bache1793.jpg Source: cense: Public domain Contributors: The Metropolitan Museum of Art [1] Original artist: John Hoppner
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Board_of_War.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Seal_of_the_United_ States_Board_of_War.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://etc.usf.edu/ Original artist: United States Board of War and Ordnance • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/63/ Seal_of_the_United_States_Department_of_the_Post_Office.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The original uploader was Andy85719 at Original artist: United States Department of the Post Office • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Seal_ of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from w:Image:House large seal.png SVG elements from .svg)
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Senate.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Seal_of_the_United_States_ Senate.svg License: CC BY-SA 2.5-2.0-1.0 Contributors: Vectorized from 
SVG elements from 
.svg)
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Supreme_Court.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Seal_of_the_United_ States_Supreme_Court.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vectorized from 
SVG elements from 
SVG elements from 
Original artist: Ipankonin • File:US_flag_13_stars_–_Betsy_Ross.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/US_flag_13_stars_%E2%80% 93_Betsy_Ross.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I created this image using historical descriptions (commonly known). Inkscape was used to create the SVG. Original artist: DevinCook • File:Union_army_maj_gen_rank_insignia.jpg Source: rank_insignia.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
