Do Pimples Pay? Acne, Human Capital, and the Labor Market

May 5, 2017 Hugo M. Mialon Department of Economics Emory University 1602 Fishburne Drive Atlanta, GA 30322 [email protected] Erik T. Nesson Department of Economics Ball State University 2000 W University Ave., WB 201 Muncie, IN 47306, [email protected]

JEL classification: I12, I26, J24 Keywords: Acne, grades, educational attainment, wages

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Do Pimples Pay? Acne, Human Capital, and the Labor Market

Abstract We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health to investigate the association between having acne in middle to high school and subsequent educational and labor market outcomes. We find that the shock of having acne is positively associated with overall grade point average in high school, grades in high-school English, history, math, and science, and the completion of a college degree. The associations are stronger for women and whites than for men and blacks. We also find some evidence that acne is associated with higher personal labor market earnings for women. Knowledge of these associations may provide consolation and hope to teenagers suffering from acne. We further explore possible channels through which acne may affect education and earnings.

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1. Introduction “Adolescence is just one big walking pimple.” –Carol Burnett The role of shocks in individual choice is a central question in economics. In this paper, we investigate the role of a physical shock, having acne during adolescence, on human capital investment. Acne vulgaris is the eighth most common disease among humans, affecting approximately 645 million people worldwide and 85 percent of young adults aged 12–25 years (Vos et al. 2015, Hay et al. 2014, Lynn et al. 2016). Having acne during the formative years of adolescence may significantly alter a person’s self-image and behavior. We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) to analyze the effects of acne on educational attainment and labor market earnings. In the sample, nearly 50 percent of high-schoolers report having pimples occasionally, often or every day. We find that the shock of having acne in high school is positively associated with overall GPA, mathematics GPA, and science GPA in high school; positively associated with earning an A in high-school math, science, history/social studies, and English; and positively associated with completing a Bachelor’ Degree. The associations are stronger for women than for men, consistent with prior research showing that women are more likely than men to develop anxiety from having acne (Skroza et al. 2016), and stronger for whites than for blacks, consistent with acne blemishes being more visible on white skin than on black skin. We also find some evidence that acne is associated with higher personal labor market earnings for women. These results have potentially important implications: (1) “Given that I am suffering from acne, how bleak is the outlook for me?” Knowledge of the associations between having acne and educational and labor market outcomes may provide hope to teenagers suffering from acne—whether or not the associations are causal. It is

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possible that having acne will cause teens to be more shy and focus more on their studies, increasing their later educational attainment and earnings. But it is also possible that having acne is correlated with unobservable personality characteristics that are associated with higher educational attainment and earnings. In either case, this is good news for teens suffering from acne, and such news may provide consolation and hope. While acne in adolescence is likely to subside, the benefits of higher educational attainment associated with having had acne may persist. Since having acne is also strongly associated with depression and suicidal ideation among teenagers (Purvis et al. 2006), knowledge of longterm benefits associated with having had acne has the potential to reduce teen suicides. (2) “Should I seek risky treatment to attempt to reduce my acne?” We find some evidence that that acne in adolescence is fairly random and not related to socioeconomic status, although whether the shock of having acne is exogenous remains uncertain. If the shock of having acne is fairly exogenous and the associations we identified are at least partially causal, then our results may have other important implications. Effective drug treatments for acne carry large risks. For example, the only effective treatment option for recalcitrant cystic acne— Acccutane—carries high risks of birth defects, miscarriages, and infertility, as well as serious central nervous system and gastrointestinal side effects (Krause 1991). Knowledge of these risks and of potential human capital and labor market returns to having had acne during adolescence may lead some adolescents and their parents to be less likely to seek risky treatment options. We further empirically explore possible mechanisms through which acne may affect education and earnings. In theory, the shock of having acne may lower self-esteem, reducing time spent socializing and increasing time spent studying, which may be conducive to educational attainment.

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We find evidence that having acne is associated with feeling less socially accepted and less attractive. While acne is associated with lower self-esteem, which may reduce earnings, it is also associated with increased educational attainment, which may increase earnings. Our finding that acne is positively associated with personal earnings for women suggests that the educational effects of acne on earnings may be stronger than the self-esteem effects. Interestingly, we also find that acne is associated with reduced participation in sports clubs and increased participation in non-sports clubs, suggesting a possible shift from physical to intellectual pursuits. Lastly, we find no association between having acne and the probability of having had sex. Our paper is closely related to the growing economics literature on the returns to physical attractiveness (Hamermesh and Biddle 1994, Hamermesh 2011, French 2002, Borland and Leigh 2014), including papers on the returns to physical attractiveness in particular occupations (Hamermesh and Parker 2005, Biddle and Hamermesh 1998) and on the returns to particular aspects of physical attractiveness, including facial attractiveness (Bóo, Rossi, and Urzúa 2013, Scholz and Sicinski 2015), height and weight (Harper 2000, Deaton and Arora 2009, Cawley 2004), hair color (Johnston 2010), and dressing up (Hamermesh, Meng, and Zhang 2002). A second related literature demonstrates the economic returns of cognitive and noncognitive skills developed during high-school (Heckman, Stixrud, and Urzua 2006, Heckman and Rubinstein 2001, Jacob 2002). Cognitive/non-cognitive skills may be a function of physical appearance. In an experimental setting, Mobius and Rosenblat (2006) identify confidence, bias, and communication skills as potential transmission mechanisms for a relationship between physical attractiveness and earnings. Persico, Postlewaite, and Silverman (2004) find a significant labor market premium to height in men, and they find that the premium is determined by height in high school rather than adult height.

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Using Add Health data, French et al. (2009) find that physical attractiveness is negatively correlated with cumulative GPA in high school after controlling for grooming and personality. Analyzing data on students at a women’s college, Deryugina and Shurchkov (2015) find that physical attractiveness is negatively correlated with scores on standardized college admissions tests. Fletcher (2009) finds that the labor market returns to physical attractiveness in high school are small compared to the economic returns to academic ability. These findings are generally consistent with ours. We find that while acne is associated with reduced measures of physical appearance, which may negatively affect labor market earnings, it is also associated with increased educational attainment, which may positively affect labor market earnings. To the best of our knowledge, our paper is the first to examine the associations between acne, a shock that reduces physical attractiveness during formative years, and educational as well as labor market outcomes. Focusing on acne has the potential to advance the literature on the human capital and labor market returns to physical attractiveness since acne is arguably a more specific and less subjective condition than physical attractiveness.

2. Data and Methods We use data from Add Health, run by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (Harris et al. 2017). Add Health began in 1994-1995 with a sample of 90,000 students in grades 7-12 and has followed up with three additional waves, each including about 15,000 of the original Wave I students. Wave II includes in-home interviews one year after Wave I in 1996, Wave III includes in-home interviews in 2001-2002, and Wave IV includes both in-home interviews and biological samples from 2007-2008.

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Importantly for our research question, Add Health contains information regarding acne. In particular, in Wave I, when respondents are in grades 7-12, they are asked “how often have you had skin problems, such as itching or pimples?” with responses ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (every day). We code respondents as having skin problems if they respond with a 2, (occasionally), 3 (often) or a 4 (every day). Add Health also asks about acne medication use in Wave III, which we use to test the robustness of our original measure. Add Health also contains measures of self-esteem and socialization in Wave I, including questions regarding whether the respondent thinks he or she has good qualities, “Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? You have a lot of good qualities,” likes themselves the way they are, “Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? You like yourself just the way you are,” and feels socially accepted, “Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? You feel socially accepted.” For each of these, Add Health asks respondents whether they strongly agree (1), agree (2), neither agree nor disagree (3), disagree (4), or strongly disagree (5). We create indicator variables which are 1 if the respondent strongly agrees or agrees with the statement and 0 otherwise. The survey further contains reports from the interviewers on respondents’ physical attractiveness, personality attractiveness, and grooming. We use these responses to create three indicator variables which are 1 if the interviewer strongly agrees (response of 5) or agrees (response of 4) that the respondent has the quality in question. Finally, we also examine indicators for whether respondents participate in athletics in Wave I and in non-athletic clubs in Wave I. In addition, Add Health contains many measures of academic performance, both concurrently with the question regarding skin problems in Wave I, and over time. In Wave I, respondents are asked to report their grades in their most recent English, mathematics, history or social studies, and science classes. We use these responses to create indicators for whether

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respondents received an “A” grade in these classes. In Wave III of the Add Health data, when respondents were between 18 and 24 years of age, Add Health requested access to respondents’ high school transcripts. About 80 percent of respondents in Wave III were successfully matched to transcripts. We use the transcripts to record the cumulative high school GPAs for all classes overall, mathematics classes, and science classes measured on the traditional four-point scale.1 In Wave IV, when respondents were between 24 and 32 years of age, Add Health asked questions regarding educational attainment, and we record whether respondents graduated from high school, completed some college (including receiving an Associate’s degree), received a Bachelor’s degree, and completed some form of graduate education. Finally, we examine measures of income and wealth in Wave IV, including personal earnings and household earnings.2 The survey also records many demographic characteristics, and we include indicators for age at the time of the Wave I survey, gender (male, female, missing), Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father in Wave I, being adopted and the number of individuals in the household in Wave I. We also include indicators for parents' education levels and for the school in which the student attended in Wave I. Our identification strategy uses a standard OLS model as follows: ‫ݕ‬௜ ൌ ߚ଴ ൅ ߚଵ ‫݊݅݇ݏ‬௜ ൅ ‫ݔ‬௜ ߚଶ ൅ ߪ௦ ൅ ݁௜

(1)

where ‫ݕ‬௜ is the outcome of interest, ‫݊݅݇ݏ‬௜ is an indicator for whether the student reported that they had skin problems, ‫ݔ‬௜ is a vector of other controls as described above, ߪ௦ are school fixed effects,

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Add Health did not calculate overall GPAs for other course categories because larger variation in course titles and contents would have made it difficult to consistently assign courses into these categories across students and across schools. 2 Household earnings are reported in ranges. We convert these ranges to a cardinal number by using the midpoint of each range. The top range is “150,000 or more,” and we use 150,000*1.5 as the value for this category.

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and ݁௜ is an error term, clustered at the school level. In our main results, we weight our regressions by Add Health sample weights. We discuss robustness tests in our Results section.

4. Results Table 1 shows summary statistics from our sample. Almost half of the students in our sample report skin problems in Wave I. Students reporting skin problems have higher grades in classes, are slightly older, slightly more likely to be female and much more likely to be white or Asian. Students with skin conditions report lower levels of self-esteem and social acceptance, are less likely to be in sports clubs but more likely to be in non-sports clubs. Students with skin problems are slightly less likely to live with their father and mother and to have been born in the United States. We begin our results by showing evidence that the skin problems question in Wave I is related to acne. In Wave III, when respondents are between the ages of 18 and 24, respondents are asked if they have taking prescription medication for acne in the previous 12 months. Table 2 shows results from models estimating the probability of reporting medication for acne in Wave III as a function of reporting skin problems in Wave I. We show results for our entire sample and broken down by men, women, whites, blacks, and white women. For most demographics, especially women and whites, reporting skin problems in Wave I is strongly associated with prescription acne medication use in Wave III. For women, reporting skin problems in Wave I increases the probability of acne medication use in Wave III by 4.7 percentage points. Next, we show the effects of skin problems on short and medium-run education outcomes, measured by self-reported academic achievement in Wave I and cumulative high school GPA reported in Wave III. Table 3 shows results from these regressions. All models include the control

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variables discussed above. Skin problems are related to statistically significant increases in grades in English, mathematics, history/social studies, and science. Skin problems are also associated with increases in cumulative overall high school GPA and cumulative science high school GPA, and we find some evidence that skin problems are related to cumulative mathematics and science high school GPAs. Here again, the results are strongest in terms of coefficient size and statistical significance in whites and women, and white women, although smaller sample sizes increase the standard errors for white women in the high school GPA regressions. We next examine long run education and labor market outcomes. Table 4 shows results from these regressions. Table 4 shows self-reported results on education attainment in Wave IV and two measures of earnings in Wave IV. Skin problems in Wave I are most strongly related to getting at least a Bachelor’s Degree by Wave IV, leading to a 3.6 percentage point increase in the probability that a respondent has obtained a Bachelor’s Degree by Wave IV. Here again, the results are more concentrated amount women and whites. Skin problems are not consistently related to earnings among the entire sample, but we do see some evidence that skin problems are positively related to personal earnings for women and white women. Knowledge of these associations between having acne and educational and labor market outcomes may provide consolation and hope to teenagers suffering from acne—whether or not the associations are causal. Nonetheless, it is important to know whether the associations are causal, which would be the case if having acne is an exogenous shock, conditional on observable characteristics. Like physical traits related to attractiveness, acne is highly heritable. Genetics (having a first-degree relative who had acne) has been identified as a major risk factor for acne, while the evidence of an association with diet or smoking is not clear (Bhate and Williams 2013). We additionally provide evidence that while certain individual characteristics are predictive of

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reporting skin problems in Wave I, these characteristics are fixed and observable and acne in adolescence is fairly random and not related to socioeconomic status. To this end, we regress having self-reported skin conditions in Wave I on the demographic variables included in our regressions. Table 5 shows results from these models. As with Table 2, we show results for our entire sample and five demographic subsamples. While reporting skin problems in Wave I is related to gender, race, and age (for whites), it is not statistically significantly related to living with one’s mother or father, with one’s mother’s education, or with one’s father’s education (except for blacks). Finally, we examine mechanisms potentially underlying our findings of a relationship between acne and education. As we hypothesize that acne is related to decreased socialization, we examine the relationship between skin problems in Wave I and the students’ self-esteem, socialization, and attractiveness in Wave I. Table 6 shows results from these models and includes nine outcomes. First, we examine three measures of self-esteem: whether the student feels he/she has good qualities, whether he/she likes themselves, and whether he/she feels socially accepted. Second, we examine whether the student participates in sports clubs and non-sports clubs. Third, we examine whether the student has had sex, and fourth, we examine three measures of the interviewer’s thoughts of the student: whether the interviewer thinks the student is physically attractive, has an attractive personality, and is well groomed. Reporting skin problems is strongly related to decreased self-esteem and social acceptance, leading to a five percentage point decrease in the probability a student reports that they have good qualities, an 11 percentage point decrease in the probability a student reports that they like themselves, and a 10 percentage point decrease in the probability a student reports feeling socially accepted. Skin problems are negatively related to participation in sports clubs but positively

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related to participation in non-sports clubs. Reporting skin problems is associated with a five percentage point reduction in the probability that the interviewer finds the student physically attractive, a five percentage point reduction in the probability that the interviewer thinks the student has an attractive personality, and a four percentage point reduction in the probability the interviewer thinks the student is well groomed. Finally, we do not find a statistically significant relationship between reported skin problems and ever having sex. In general, we find that the relationship between skin problems and self-esteem and socialization is strongest among women, whites, and especially white women. We subject our results to a number of robustness checks, shown in an appendix. First, we re-estimate our regressions with dichotomous dependent variables using probit specifications. Second, we re-estimate our regressions without the Add Health sample weights. Third, we test the robustness of our coding of the skin problems variable to splitting the variable out into three categories (1: skin problems never (omitted); 2: skin problems rarely or occasionally; and 3: skin problems often or every day). In general, we find our results to be robust to these different specifications in both magnitude and statistical significance.

5. Conclusion In this paper, we provide evidence on the relationship between physical appearance, education, and labor market outcomes. Our paper joins a growing economics literature on the returns to physical attractiveness (Hamermesh and Biddle 1994, Hamermesh 2011, French 2002, Borland and Leigh 2014). We are the first to examine the associations between acne, which reduces physical attractiveness during formative years, and educational as well as labor market outcomes. Focusing on acne has the potential to advance the literature on the human capital and

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labor market returns to physical attractiveness since acne is arguably a more specific and less subjective condition than physical attractiveness. Using data from Add Health, we find that the shock of having acne in high school is associated with decreased socialization and higher educational performance and attainment. The associations are stronger for women than for men and often stronger for whites than for blacks. We also find some evidence that acne is associated with higher personal labor market earning for women. Knowledge of these relationships may provide consolation and hope to teenagers suffering depression from acne. Whether these relationships are causal remains uncertain, although we do find some evidence that having acne in adolescence is fairly random and not related to socioeconomic status. Further investigation into the validity of an assumption of exogeneity of acne, as well as other measures of physical appearance, is called for.

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Jacob, Brian A. 2002. "Where the boys aren't: Non-cognitive skills, returns to school and the gender gap in higher education." Economics of Education Review 6 (21):589-598. Johnston, David W. 2010. "Physical appearance and wages: Do blondes have more fun?" Economics Letters 108 (1):10-12. Krause, Joan H. 1991. "Accutane: Has drug regulation in the United States reached its limits." Journal of Law and Health 6 (1):1-30. Lynn, Darren D, Tamara Umari, Cory A Dunnick, and Robert P Dellavalle. 2016. "The epidemiology of acne vulgaris in late adolescence." Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics 7:13. Mobius, Markus M, and Tanya S Rosenblat. 2006. "Why beauty matters." American Economic Review 96 (1):222-235. Persico, Nicola, Andrew Postlewaite, and Dan Silverman. 2004. "The effect of adolescent experience on labor market outcomes: The case of height." Journal of Political Economy 112 (5):1019-1053. Purvis, Diana, Elizabeth Robinson, Sally Merry, and Peter Watson. 2006. "Acne, anxiety, depression and suicide in teenagers." Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 42 (12):793796. Scholz, John Karl, and Kamil Sicinski. 2015. "Facial attractiveness and lifetime earnings: Evidence from a cohort study." Review of Economics and Statistics 97 (1):14-28. Skroza, Nevena, Ersilia Tolino, Ilaria Proietti, Nicoletta Bernardini, Giorgio La Viola, Francesca Nicolucci, Riccardo Pampena, Sara Zuber, Veronica Balduzzi, and Valentina Soccodato. 2016. "Women and acne: any difference from males? A review of the literature." Giornale Italiano Di Dermatologia E Venereologia 151 (1):87-92. Vos, Theo, Ryan M Barber, Brad Bell, Amelia Bertozzi-Villa, Stan Biryukov, Ian Bolliger, Fiona Charlson, Adrian Davis, Louisa Degenhardt, and Daniel Dicker. 2015. "Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013." Lancet 386 (9995):743.

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Table 1: Summary Statistics

All Mean Std. Dev. Skin Problems A in English (Wave I) A in Math (Wave I) A in History (Wave I) A in Science (Wave I) Age in Wave I Gender: Male Not Hispanic Has Good Qualities Likes Self Feels Socially Accepted Race: White Race: Black Race: Asian Race: Native American Race: Other Not Born in the U.S. Do Not Live with Mother Do Not Live with Father Adopted

0.455 0.329 0.31 0.363 0.347 14.824 0.487 0.776 0.844 0.687 0.692 0.699 0.171 0.05 0.052 0.067 0.056 0.067 0.208 0.03

N

43,223

0.498 0.47 0.462 0.481 0.476 1.739 0.5 0.417 0.362 0.464 0.462 0.459 0.377 0.217 0.221 0.251 0.23 0.25 0.406 0.169

No Skin Problems Mean Std. Dev.

0.309 0.296 0.343 0.332 14.754 0.504 0.752 0.872 0.745 0.738 0.666 0.196 0.044 0.051 0.072 0.061 0.073 0.217 0.029 23,304

0.462 0.456 0.475 0.471 1.786 0.5 0.432 0.335 0.436 0.44 0.472 0.397 0.206 0.219 0.259 0.24 0.26 0.412 0.167

Skin Problems Mean Std. Dev.

0.352 0.327 0.387 0.365 14.908 0.467 0.804 0.812 0.617 0.638 0.74 0.143 0.056 0.053 0.061 0.05 0.06 0.197 0.031

0.478 0.469 0.487 0.481 1.678 0.499 0.397 0.391 0.486 0.481 0.439 0.35 0.229 0.224 0.24 0.218 0.237 0.398 0.172

19,919

Notes: Data from Add Health. Summary statistics are weighted by Add Health sample weights.

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Diff in Means P-Value

0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.28 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25

Table 2: The Effects of Skin Problems on Future Acne Medication

All Skin Problems

Men

0.032*** 0.024 (0.009) (0.014)

Num. Obs. 5,236 Adjusted R-Squared 0.049 Dep. Var. Mean 0.053

2,398 0.109 0.043

Women

Whites

Blacks

White Women

0.047*** 0.028** (0.014) (0.011)

0.053* (0.025)

0.051** (0.017)

2,838 0.069 0.063

995 0.266 0.047

1,760 0.065 0.073

3,262 0.046 0.055

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator corresponding to whether the respondent reported use of prescription acnet medication in the past year. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

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Table 3: The Effects of Skin Problems on Grades and High School GPA Received an A in Most Recent Class in: History/ MatheSocial English matics Studies Science

Cumulative GPA:

Overall

Mathematics

Science

All

0.023*** (0.006)

0.017** (0.006)

0.025*** (0.006)

0.017** (0.006)

0.082** (0.026)

0.067* (0.033)

0.067* (0.033)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

43,223 0.33

43,223 0.31

43,223 0.36

43,223 0.35

5,207 2.75

5,193 2.36

5,193 2.36

Men

0.020* (0.009)

0.014 (0.009)

0.021* (0.009)

0.014 (0.009)

0.067 (0.043)

0.080 (0.051)

0.080 (0.051)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

21,051 0.27

21,051 0.31

21,051 0.35

21,051 0.33

2,386 2.63

2,381 2.25

2,381 2.25

Women

0.027*** (0.007)

0.019** (0.007)

0.028*** (0.007)

0.019* (0.008)

0.106** (0.032)

0.060 (0.037)

0.060 (0.037)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

22,172 0.39

22,172 0.31

22,172 0.38

22,172 0.36

2,821 2.87

2,812 2.46

2,812 2.46

White

0.029*** (0.007)

0.022** (0.007)

0.028** (0.008)

0.022** (0.007)

0.075* (0.031)

0.061 (0.042)

0.061 (0.042)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

29,316 0.36

29,316 0.34

29,316 0.40

29,316 0.38

3,239 2.86

3,233 2.48

3,233 2.48

Black

0.023 (0.015)

0.003 (0.012)

0.022* (0.011)

-0.013 (0.012)

0.177* (0.069)

0.139 (0.074)

0.139 (0.074)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,890 0.20

6,890 0.20

6,890 0.25

6,890 0.24

992 2.28

989 1.87

989 1.87

White Females

0.027** (0.009)

0.025* (0.010)

0.028** (0.009)

0.028** (0.011)

0.103* (0.039)

0.062 (0.048)

0.062 (0.048)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

14,903 0.43

14,903 0.34

14,903 0.41

14,903 0.39

1,748 2.99

1,743 2.59

1,743 2.59

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reported receiving an "A" in class listed in the column title or the cumulative HS GPA for the relevant subjects. All regressions are estimated using linear probability/OLS models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

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Table 4: The Effects of Skin Problems on Long Run Outcomes Reached at least This Level of Education: H.S. Graduate

Some College

Bachelor's Degree

Graduate Education

LN LN Personal Household Earnings Earnings

All

0.011 (0.008)

0.024 (0.013)

0.036** (0.014)

0.001 (0.011)

0.022 (0.034)

-0.034 (0.024)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,443 0.95

6,443 0.73

6,443 0.39

6,443 0.15

5,806 10.25

6,095 10.90

Men

-0.010 (0.014)

0.013 (0.020)

0.028 (0.022)

-0.006 (0.017)

-0.060 (0.044)

-0.045 (0.035)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,927 0.94

2,927 0.70

2,927 0.37

2,927 0.13

2,745 10.47

2,770 10.96

Women

0.032** (0.010)

0.043* (0.017)

0.055* (0.021)

0.011 (0.016)

0.120* (0.048)

-0.026 (0.037)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

3,516 0.96

3,516 0.75

3,516 0.42

3,516 0.17

3,061 10.04

3,325 10.85

White

0.017* (0.008)

0.021 (0.015)

0.046** (0.016)

-0.004 (0.014)

0.016 (0.037)

-0.024 (0.029)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

3,984 0.95

3,984 0.75

3,984 0.42

3,984 0.16

3,611 10.29

3,807 10.96

Black

0.024 (0.029)

-0.004 (0.031)

0.048 (0.034)

0.044 (0.033)

0.093 (0.093)

-0.055 (0.066)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

1,336 0.93

1,336 0.67

1,336 0.32

1,336 0.15

1,173 10.00

1,235 10.51

White Females

0.030** (0.011)

0.027 (0.019)

0.070** (0.025)

-0.002 (0.020)

0.128* (0.062)

-0.010 (0.044)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,150 0.96

2,150 0.77

2,150 0.44

2,150 0.18

1,874 10.05

2,045 10.93

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reached at least that level of education as of Wave IV, and the natural log of reported earnings in the last set of results. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models, or OLS in the last set of results, and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

19

Table 5: The Relationship between Demographics and Skin Problems All

Men

Women

Whites

Blacks

Gender: Male Race: White Race: Black Race: Asian Race: Native American Race: Other Hispanic Hispanic: Don't Know Hispanic: Missing Age=11 Age=12 Age=13 Age=14 Age=15 Age=16 Age=17 Age=18 Age=19 Not Born in the U.S. Born in the U.S.: Mult. Response Do Not Live with Mother Live with Mother: Mult. Response Do Not Live with Father Live with Father: Mult. Response Num HH: 2 Num HH: 3 Num HH: 4 Num HH: 5 Num HH: 6 Num HH: 7 Num HH: Miss Adopted M. Ed: <8th grade M. Ed: < H.S. M. Ed: H.S. M. Ed: GED M. Ed: Voc. Ed M. Ed: Some Coll M. Ed: BA M. Ed: >BA M. Ed: Sch but don't know level M. Ed: Don't Know M. Ed: Mult. Response F. Ed: <8th grade F. Ed: < H.S. F. Ed: H.S. F. Ed: GED F. Ed: Voc. Ed F. Ed: Some Coll F. Ed: BA F. Ed: >BA F. Ed: Sch but don't know level F. Ed: Don't Know F. Ed: Mult. Response

-0.040*** (0.008) 0.062*** (0.013) -0.043*** (0.012) 0.089*** (0.016) 0.031 (0.016) 0.009 (0.013) -0.040*** (0.011) -0.000504 -0.055** (0.018) -0.213 (0.165) -0.211 (0.163) -0.144 (0.164) -0.122 (0.161) -0.108 (0.162) -0.128 (0.162) -0.128 (0.162) -0.150 (0.164) -0.264 (0.166) -0.048*** (0.013) -0.011 (0.018) -0.01638 -0.010 (0.039) -0.036 (0.105) -0.036 (0.040) -0.008 (0.037) -0.006 (0.037) 0.002 (0.037) -0.014 (0.036) -0.025 (0.037) 0.136 (0.074) -0.022 (0.043) 0.016 (0.017) -0.154 (0.085) -0.156 (0.084) -0.163 (0.083) -0.013694 -0.147 (0.084) -0.142 (0.084) -0.014027 -0.137 (0.084) -0.145 (0.081) -0.162 (0.095) -0.0176 -0.014 (0.108) -0.048 (0.104) -0.051 (0.105) -0.028 (0.107) 0.001 (0.106) -0.016 (0.108) -0.027 (0.107) -0.041 (0.106) -0.040 (0.104) -0.027 (0.143) -0.054 (0.109)

0.056** (0.018) -0.065** (0.020) 0.096*** (0.021) 0.045* (0.023) 0.004 (0.019) -0.027 (0.020) -0.048** (0.017) -0.000966 -0.101 (0.176) -0.083 (0.163) 0.006 (0.165) 0.035 (0.161) 0.059 (0.160) 0.036 (0.161) 0.050 (0.161) 0.019 (0.162) -0.108 (0.169) -0.053** (0.017) -0.022 (0.023) -0.015555 -0.057 (0.053) -0.050 (0.091) 0.046 (0.054) -0.007 (0.049) 0.014 (0.046) 0.025 (0.045) 0.005 (0.046) -0.011 (0.046) 0.156 (0.092) -0.002 (0.051) 0.007 (0.023) -0.142 (0.087) -0.151 (0.086) -0.150 (0.082) -0.159 (0.081) -0.148 (0.087) -0.118 (0.086) -0.152 (0.081) -0.130 (0.081) -0.122 (0.083) -0.129 (0.096) -0.149 (0.094) -0.029 (0.097) -0.074 (0.091) -0.062 (0.091) -0.048 (0.097) -0.024 (0.095) -0.042 (0.095) -0.054 (0.093) -0.059 (0.091) -0.057 (0.092) -0.094 (0.100) -0.144 (0.099)

0.071*** (0.015) -0.023 (0.017) 0.084*** (0.022) 0.025 (0.022) 0.014 (0.017) -0.049** (0.017) -0.024 (0.018) -0.061** (0.023) -0.067527 -0.06622 -0.336 (0.171) -0.317 (0.170) -0.316 (0.172) -0.333 (0.173) -0.060028 -0.064925 -0.08208 -0.000798 0.005 (0.031) -0.194 (0.135) 0.068 (0.064) -0.156 (0.191) -0.154** (0.059) -0.046 (0.061) -0.065 (0.059) -0.056 (0.059) -0.068 (0.058) -0.074 (0.059) 0.064 (0.111) -0.077 (0.064) 0.024 (0.023) -0.158 (0.138) -0.151 (0.135) -0.161 (0.134) -0.163 (0.134) -0.133 (0.135) -0.149 (0.135) -0.172 (0.135) -0.133 (0.137) -0.165 (0.136) -0.197 (0.140) -0.245 (0.139) -0.132 (0.192) -0.156 (0.193) -0.180 (0.192) -0.147 (0.194) -0.112 (0.192) -0.128 (0.194) -0.136 (0.190) -0.162 (0.191) -0.159 (0.190) -0.106 (0.205) -0.085 (0.194)

-0.034*** (0.009) -0.070*** (0.016) 0.092* (0.038) 0.024 (0.030) 0.042 (0.033) 0.124** (0.045) 0.063** (0.019) -0.026 (0.036) 0.023 (0.019) 0.035 (0.056) -0.048** (0.018) -0.069** (0.023) -0.020 (0.017) -0.102*** (0.027) -0.070*** (0.020) -0.015 (0.042) 0.235 (0.129) -0.479 (0.280) 0.240* (0.117) -0.337 (0.265) 0.309** (0.117) -0.280 (0.265) 0.335** (0.115) -0.321 (0.264) 0.359** (0.116) -0.353 (0.264) 0.330** (0.115) -0.366 (0.267) 0.339** (0.114) -0.395 (0.267) 0.325** (0.116) -0.409 (0.264) 0.228 (0.138) -0.513 (0.280) -0.065** (0.024) 0.029 (0.037) -0.010 (0.024) -0.028 (0.040) -0.167 (0.119) 0.149 (0.188) 0.042 (0.057) 0.036 (0.076) 0.094 (0.127) -0.475*** (0.133) -0.046 (0.065) -0.092 (0.075) -0.030 (0.064) 0.024 (0.076) -0.036 (0.063) 0.048 (0.079) -0.022 (0.063) 0.053 (0.080) -0.033 (0.062) 0.034 (0.077) -0.051 (0.064) 0.056 (0.077) 0.096 (0.121) 0.216 (0.123) -0.038 (0.066) -0.010 (0.095) 0.002 (0.020) -0.015 (0.045) -0.155 (0.121) 0.145 (0.185) -0.132 (0.121) 0.208 (0.189) -0.124 (0.120) 0.152 (0.184) -0.113 (0.120) 0.113 (0.188) -0.122 (0.119) 0.212 (0.189) -0.122 (0.121) 0.230 (0.183) -0.124 (0.118) 0.128 (0.187) -0.102 (0.121) 0.195 (0.182) -0.095 (0.119) 0.197 (0.185) -0.105 (0.138) 0.095 (0.196) -0.221 (0.121) 0.128 (0.194) 0.156 (0.130) -0.588*** (0.137) 0.096 (0.128) -0.561*** (0.130) 0.084 (0.127) -0.502*** (0.133) 0.120 (0.131) -0.524*** (0.126) 0.137 (0.130) -0.462** (0.139) 0.111 (0.131) -0.463** (0.146) 0.116 (0.130) -0.518*** (0.130) 0.094 (0.128) -0.482*** (0.137) 0.092 (0.125) -0.521*** (0.142) 0.119 (0.195) -0.629*** (0.141) 0.086 (0.137) -0.446** (0.153)

-0.038 (0.037) 0.030 (0.051) 0.069* (0.032) 0.011 (0.026) -0.001664 -0.013 (0.023) -0.00207 0.444*** (0.103) 0.485*** (0.033) 0.548*** (0.031) 0.589*** (0.019) 0.586*** (0.018) 0.564*** (0.016) 0.562*** (0.014) 0.530*** (0.034) 0.554*** (0.105) -0.044 (0.037) 0.003 (0.042) 0.302 (0.228) 0.112 (0.108) 0.026 (0.309) -0.125 (0.084) -0.078 (0.110) -0.132 (0.104) -0.123 (0.105) -0.130 (0.105) -0.153 (0.105) -0.060 (0.172) -0.100 (0.118) 0.021 (0.027) 0.336 (0.227) 0.354 (0.228) 0.357 (0.230) 0.356 (0.230) 0.370 (0.229) 0.336 (0.228) 0.350 (0.229) 0.383 (0.228) 0.362 (0.236) 0.312 (0.221) 0.212 (0.236) 0.077 (0.306) 0.048 (0.312) 0.008 (0.309) 0.022 (0.302) 0.083 (0.311) 0.063 (0.307) 0.055 (0.302) 0.026 (0.307) 0.027 (0.307) 0.143 (0.316) 0.100 (0.304)

Num. Obs. Adjusted R-Squared Dep. Var. Mean

43,223 0.028 0.455

21,051 0.04 0.436

22,172 0.021 0.473

29,316 0.019 0.481

14,903 0.018 0.495

6,890 0.041 0.378

White Women

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for reporting skin conditions in Wave I. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions additionally include school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

20

Table 6: The Effects of Skin Problems on Self-Esteem, Socialization and Attractiveness

Respondent Feels He/She: Feels Has Good Socially Qualities Likes Self Accepted

Responsdent Participates In:

Sports Clubs

Non-Sports Clubs

Interviewer Thinks Respondent is: Respondent Ever Had Sex

Physically Attractive

Personality Attractive

Well Groomed

All

-0.056*** (0.005)

-0.109*** (0.005)

-0.098*** (0.006)

-0.030*** (0.006)

0.031*** (0.006)

0.001 (0.010)

-0.062*** (0.013)

-0.045** (0.014)

-0.037** (0.013)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

43,223 0.84

43,223 0.69

43,223 0.69

43,223 0.62

43,223 0.53

8,353 0.35

8,380 0.54

8,397 0.54

8,397 0.51

Men

-0.040*** (0.006)

-0.092*** (0.008)

-0.092*** (0.008)

-0.025*** (0.007)

0.036*** (0.010)

0.005 (0.016)

-0.058** (0.020)

-0.028 (0.017)

-0.008 (0.019)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

21,051 0.87

21,051 0.76

21,051 0.72

21,051 0.67

21,051 0.42

3,976 0.37

3,983 0.48

4,000 0.51

3,999 0.45

Women

-0.071*** (0.008)

-0.128*** (0.008)

-0.104*** (0.008)

-0.037*** (0.009)

0.026** (0.008)

0.001 (0.017)

-0.062** (0.020)

-0.054* (0.023)

-0.060** (0.021)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

22,172 0.82

22,172 0.62

22,172 0.67

22,172 0.57

22,172 0.63

4,377 0.32

4,397 0.59

4,397 0.58

4,398 0.56

White

-0.062*** (0.006)

-0.113*** (0.006)

-0.098*** (0.008)

-0.036*** (0.007)

0.029*** (0.008)

0.002 (0.012)

-0.060*** (0.016)

-0.046** (0.016)

-0.055*** (0.015)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

29,316 0.84

29,316 0.66

29,316 0.70

29,316 0.63

29,316 0.53

4,984 0.30

5,006 0.56

5,007 0.56

5,007 0.52

Black

-0.015 (0.011)

-0.086*** (0.015)

-0.069*** (0.013)

-0.008 (0.018)

0.042** (0.013)

0.038 (0.033)

-0.039 (0.041)

-0.014 (0.041)

0.033 (0.045)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,890 0.89

6,890 0.78

6,890 0.71

6,890 0.62

6,890 0.53

1,740 0.53

1,752 0.49

1,754 0.50

1,754 0.50

White Females

-0.084*** (0.008)

-0.129*** (0.009)

-0.099*** (0.010)

-0.053*** (0.011)

0.015 (0.010)

-0.009 (0.019)

-0.074** (0.026)

-0.070* (0.031)

-0.088*** (0.023)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

14,903 0.81

14,903 0.58

14,903 0.67

14,903 0.59

14,903 0.63

2,591 0.29

2,604 0.62

2,604 0.60

2,604 0.58

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator corresponding to the column title. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

21

Appendix Tables

22

Table A1: The Effects of Skin Problems on Grades and High School GPA (Probit Models) Received an A in Most Recent Class in: History/ MatheSocial English matics Studies Science All

0.024*** (0.006)

0.017** (0.006)

0.026*** (0.007)

0.017** (0.006)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

43,223 0.33

43,221 0.31

43,221 0.36

43,223 0.35

Men

0.021* (0.009)

0.015 (0.009)

0.021* (0.009)

0.014 (0.008)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

21,044 0.27

21,051 0.31

21,051 0.35

21,051 0.33

Women

0.028*** (0.007)

0.019** (0.007)

0.029*** (0.007)

0.019* (0.008)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

22,164 0.39

22,169 0.31

22,162 0.38

22,164 0.36

White

0.030*** (0.008)

0.021** (0.007)

0.028** (0.009)

0.022** (0.007)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

29,313 0.36

29,303 0.34

29,312 0.40

29,313 0.38

Black

0.021 (0.014)

0.005 (0.012)

0.022* (0.010)

-0.012 (0.012)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,841 0.20

6,865 0.20

6,833 0.26

6,842 0.25

White Females

0.027** (0.009)

0.024* (0.010)

0.029** (0.009)

0.028** (0.010)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

14,891 0.43

14,884 0.34

14,887 0.41

14,894 0.39

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reported receiving an "A" in class listed in the column title. All regressions are estimated using probit models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. The table shows average marginal effects and standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

23

Table A2: The Effects of Skin Problems on Long Run Outcomes (Probit Models) Reached at least This Level of Education: H.S. Some Graduate Graduate College BA Degree Education All

0.018* (0.009)

0.024 (0.013)

0.034** (0.013)

0.001 (0.011)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

5,131 0.93

6,386 0.73

6,380 0.40

6,222 0.16

Men

-0.009 (0.016)

0.017 (0.020)

0.025 (0.021)

-0.004 (0.017)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,166 0.91

2,856 0.70

2,865 0.37

2,636 0.15

Women

0.062*** (0.014)

0.042* (0.017)

0.055** (0.020)

0.012 (0.016)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,115 0.93

3,392 0.75

3,478 0.42

3,291 0.19

White

0.025** (0.009)

0.021 (0.015)

0.047** (0.015)

-0.003 (0.014)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,847 0.94

3,905 0.75

3,950 0.42

3,780 0.17

Black

0.032 (0.027)

-0.009 (0.031)

0.046 (0.031)

0.045 (0.034)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

848 0.90

1,235 0.66

1,231 0.34

1,091 0.19

White Females

0.064*** (.)

0.024 (0.019)

0.073** (0.023)

0.001 (0.019)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

1,001 0.92

1,926 0.76

2,107 0.45

1,938 0.20

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reached at least that level of education as of Wave IV. All regressions are estimated using probit models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. The table shows average marginal effects and standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

24

Table A3: The Effects of Skin Problems on Self-Esteem, Socialization and Attractiveness (Probit Models)

Responsdent Feels He/She: Feels Has Good Socially Qualities Likes Self Accepted

Responsdent Participates In:

Sports Clubs

Non-Sports Clubs

Interviewer Thinks Respondent is: Respondent Ever Had Sex

Physically Attractive

Personality Attractive

Well Groomed

All

-0.054*** (0.005)

-0.107*** (0.005)

-0.096*** (0.006)

-0.030*** (0.006)

0.032*** (0.006)

-0.003 (0.011)

-0.063*** (0.012)

-0.046** (0.014)

-0.038** (0.013)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

43,221 0.84

43,221 0.69

43,223 0.69

43,204 0.62

43,223 0.53

8,287 0.37

8,378 0.54

8,395 0.55

8,395 0.51

Men

-0.039*** (0.005)

-0.089*** (0.007)

-0.091*** (0.008)

-0.024*** (0.007)

0.036*** (0.010)

-0.003 (0.015)

-0.058** (0.020)

-0.029 (0.017)

-0.007 (0.019)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

21,034 0.87

21,051 0.76

21,051 0.72

21,023 0.67

21,051 0.42

3,880 0.40

3,982 0.48

3,995 0.51

3,986 0.46

Women

-0.070*** (0.007)

-0.127*** (0.008)

-0.103*** (0.008)

-0.038*** (0.009)

0.026** (0.008)

0.001 (0.017)

-0.064*** (0.019)

-0.056* (0.023)

-0.064** (0.021)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

22,139 0.82

22,169 0.62

22,171 0.67

22,152 0.57

22,171 0.63

4,308 0.35

4,390 0.59

4,390 0.58

4,391 0.56

White

-0.061*** (0.005)

-0.112*** (0.006)

-0.097*** (0.007)

-0.036*** (0.007)

0.029*** (0.008)

-0.001 (0.012)

-0.060*** (0.016)

-0.047** (0.016)

-0.055*** (0.015)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

29,278 0.84

29,309 0.66

29,315 0.70

29,288 0.63

29,313 0.54

4,884 0.32

5,004 0.56

4,998 0.56

4,994 0.52

Black

-0.014 (0.010)

-0.083*** (0.014)

-0.069*** (0.013)

-0.008 (0.018)

0.042** (0.013)

0.034 (0.031)

-0.041 (0.040)

-0.017 (0.039)

0.031 (0.042)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,831 0.89

6,853 0.78

6,863 0.71

6,820 0.62

6,868 0.53

1,694 0.53

1,700 0.50

1,701 0.51

1,713 0.51

White Females

-0.084*** (0.008)

-0.128*** (0.009)

-0.100*** (0.010)

-0.055*** (0.011)

0.015 (0.010)

-0.012 (0.021)

-0.074** (0.024)

-0.070* (0.029)

-0.092*** (0.023)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

14,841 0.81

14,896 0.58

14,896 0.67

14,879 0.58

14,888 0.63

2,447 0.32

2,588 0.63

2,591 0.60

2,592 0.58

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator corresponding to the column title. All regressions are estimated using probit models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. The table shows average marginal effects and standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

25

Table A4: The Effects of Skin Problems on Grades and High School GPA (No Sample Weights) Received an A in Most Recent Class in: History/ MatheSocial English matics Studies Science

Cumulative GPA:

Overall

Mathematics

Science

All

0.016*** (0.004)

0.0080 (0.004)

0.017*** (0.004)

0.013** (0.004)

0.097*** (0.019)

0.095*** (0.024)

0.095*** (0.024)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

43,223 0.33

43,223 0.31

43,223 0.37

43,223 0.34

5,306 2.75

5,292 2.35

5,292 2.35

Men

0.006 (0.007)

0.001 (0.006)

0.010 (0.006)

0.008 (0.006)

0.136*** (0.029)

0.144*** (0.035)

0.144*** (0.035)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

21,051 0.27

21,051 0.31

21,051 0.35

21,051 0.32

2,425 2.61

2,420 2.24

2,420 2.24

Women

0.025*** (0.006)

0.013* (0.006)

0.023** (0.007)

0.015** (0.006)

0.069** (0.023)

0.063* (0.031)

0.063* (0.031)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

22,172 0.39

22,172 0.31

22,172 0.38

22,172 0.36

2,881 2.87

2,872 2.45

2,872 2.45

White

0.022*** (0.006)

0.010 (0.005)

0.018** (0.006)

0.015** (0.005)

0.079** (0.025)

0.082* (0.032)

0.082* (0.032)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

29,316 0.37

29,316 0.33

29,316 0.40

29,316 0.37

3,294 2.86

3,288 2.47

3,288 2.47

Black

0.015 (0.012)

0.002 (0.011)

0.028** (0.010)

-0.003 (0.011)

0.089 (0.048)

0.064 (0.055)

0.064 (0.055)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,890 0.21

6,890 0.19

6,890 0.24

6,890 0.24

1,018 2.41

1,015 1.97

1,015 1.97

White Females

0.026** (0.008)

0.017* (0.007)

0.017* (0.008)

0.020* (0.008)

0.082* (0.032)

0.085* (0.043)

0.085* (0.043)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

14,903 0.43

14,903 0.34

14,903 0.42

14,903 0.39

1,783 3.00

1,778 2.59

1,778 2.59

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reported receiving an "A" in class listed in the column title or the cumulative HS GPA for the relevant subjects. All regressions are estimated using linear probability/OLS models. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

26

Table A5: The Effects of Skin Problems on Long Run Outcomes (No Sample Weights) Reached at least This Level of Education: H.S. Graduate

Some College

Bachelor's Degree

Graduate Education

LN LN Personal Household Earnings Earnings

All

0.013* (0.005)

0.030** (0.011)

0.040*** (0.010)

0.027*** (0.008)

0.008 (0.026)

-0.007 (0.018)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,562 0.95

6,562 0.74

6,562 0.41

6,562 0.17

5,911 10.25

6,211 10.91

Men

0.007 (0.009)

0.028* (0.014)

0.035* (0.016)

0.024* (0.012)

-0.058 (0.033)

0.000 (0.026)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,977 0.94

2,977 0.71

2,977 0.37

2,977 0.13

2,793 10.45

2,819 10.97

Women

0.018** (0.006)

0.035* (0.014)

0.048** (0.016)

0.028* (0.012)

0.064 (0.037)

-0.010 (0.028)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

3,585 0.96

3,585 0.76

3,585 0.44

3,585 0.19

3,118 10.08

3,392 10.85

White

0.011 (0.006)

0.026* (0.012)

0.052*** (0.012)

0.017 (0.010)

-0.005 (0.031)

-0.009 (0.025)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

4,050 0.96

4,050 0.75

4,050 0.43

4,050 0.17

3,670 10.29

3,873 10.97

Black

0.029 (0.016)

0.037 (0.024)

0.051 (0.028)

0.067*** (0.020)

0.065 (0.078)

0.023 (0.056)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

1,367 0.94

1,367 0.72

1,367 0.37

1,367 0.17

1,200 10.05

1,266 10.60

White Females

0.018* (0.007)

0.020 (0.015)

0.065*** (0.018)

0.015 (0.017)

0.090 (0.048)

0.001 (0.034)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

2,188 0.97

2,188 0.78

2,188 0.46

2,188 0.19

1,905 10.09

2,083 10.94

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reached at least that level of education as of Wave IV, and the natural log of reported earnings in the last set of results. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models, or OLS in the last set of results. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

27

Table A6: The Effects of Skin Problems on Self-Esteem, Socialization and Attractiveness (No Sample Weights)

Respondent Feels He/She: Feels Has Good Socially Qualities Likes Self Accepted

Responsdent Participates In:

Sports Clubs

Non-Sports Clubs

Interviewer Thinks Respondent is: Respondent Ever Had Sex

Physically Attractive

Personality Attractive

Well Groomed

All

-0.051*** (0.004)

-0.114*** (0.004)

-0.106*** (0.005)

-0.030*** (0.006)

0.030*** (0.005)

-0.014 (0.010)

-0.055*** (0.010)

-0.041*** (0.010)

-0.039** (0.011)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

43,223 0.84

43,223 0.68

43,223 0.69

43,223 0.59

43,223 0.51

8,353 0.36

8,380 0.53

8,397 0.54

8,397 0.51

Men

-0.038*** (0.005)

-0.097*** (0.007)

-0.099*** (0.007)

-0.028*** (0.007)

0.032*** (0.008)

-0.015 (0.015)

-0.047** (0.016)

-0.037** (0.013)

-0.031 (0.016)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

21,051 0.87

21,051 0.75

21,051 0.72

21,051 0.65

21,051 0.41

3,976 0.39

3,983 0.46

4,000 0.49

3,999 0.45

Women

-0.063*** (0.006)

-0.130*** (0.006)

-0.112*** (0.007)

-0.034*** (0.008)

0.026*** (0.007)

-0.011 (0.014)

-0.054*** (0.015)

-0.041* (0.017)

-0.047** (0.016)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

22,172 0.82

22,172 0.61

22,172 0.66

22,172 0.54

22,172 0.60

4,377 0.35

4,397 0.59

4,397 0.59

4,398 0.55

White

-0.057*** (0.004)

-0.115*** (0.005)

-0.108*** (0.006)

-0.034*** (0.006)

0.031*** (0.006)

-0.009 (0.014)

-0.054*** (0.014)

-0.050*** (0.012)

-0.053*** (0.013)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

29,316 0.84

29,316 0.66

29,316 0.69

29,316 0.60

29,316 0.52

4,984 0.32

5,006 0.54

5,007 0.56

5,007 0.52

Black

-0.012 (0.008)

-0.100*** (0.010)

-0.082*** (0.011)

-0.015 (0.015)

0.038*** (0.011)

0 (0.025)

-0.059* (0.029)

-0.004 (0.025)

0.012 (0.031)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

6,890 0.90

6,890 0.77

6,890 0.71

6,890 0.61

6,890 0.50

1,740 0.53

1,752 0.49

1,754 0.51

1,754 0.50

White Females

-0.074*** (0.006)

-0.126*** (0.008)

-0.112*** (0.008)

-0.047*** (0.008)

0.020** (0.007)

-0.007 (0.019)

-0.068** (0.021)

-0.065** (0.022)

-0.068*** (0.019)

Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

14,903 0.81

14,903 0.57

14,903 0.66

14,903 0.55

14,903 0.62

2,591 0.31

2,604 0.62

2,604 0.61

2,604 0.58

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator corresponding to the column title. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

28

Table A7: The Effects of Skin Problems on Grades and High School GPA (Skin Condition Dummies) Received an A in Most Recent Class in: History/ MatheSocial English matics Studies Science All Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Men Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Women Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean White Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Black Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean White Females Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

Cumulative GPA:

Overall

Mathematics

Science

0.026*** (0.007) 0.029*** (0.008)

0.013 (0.007) 0.020* (0.008)

0.025** (0.008) 0.029*** (0.008)

0.011 (0.007) 0.022** (0.008)

0.080* (0.035) 0.080 (0.043)

0.073 (0.039) 0.063 (0.047)

0.073 (0.039) 0.063 (0.047)

43,223 0.33

43,223 0.31

43,223 0.36

43,223 0.35

5,207 2.75

5,193 2.36

5,193 2.36

0.008 (0.010) 0.022* (0.011)

0.008 (0.009) 0.012 (0.011)

0.017* (0.008) 0.024* (0.010)

-0.004 (0.011) 0.006 (0.011)

0.063 (0.049) 0.101 (0.065)

0.079 (0.052) 0.094 (0.068)

0.079 (0.052) 0.094 (0.068)

21,051 0.27

21,051 0.31

21,051 0.35

21,051 0.33

2,386 2.63

2,381 2.25

2,381 2.25

0.046*** (0.012) 0.044*** (0.011)

0.017 (0.011) 0.027* (0.011)

0.033** (0.012) 0.035*** (0.010)

0.024* (0.011) 0.036** (0.014)

0.119** (0.045) 0.088 (0.053)

0.097* (0.048) 0.059 (0.065)

0.097* (0.048) 0.059 (0.065)

22,172 0.39

22,172 0.31

22,172 0.38

22,172 0.36

2,821 2.87

2,812 2.46

2,812 2.46

0.027** (0.009) 0.036*** (0.010)

0.016 (0.010) 0.025* (0.010)

0.028** (0.009) 0.044*** (0.010)

0.015 (0.008) 0.033** (0.011)

0.076 (0.041) 0.041 (0.045)

0.084 (0.049) 0.048 (0.056)

0.084 (0.049) 0.048 (0.056)

29,316 0.36

29,316 0.34

29,316 0.40

29,316 0.38

3,239 2.86

3,233 2.48

3,233 2.48

0.021 (0.014) 0.03 (0.020)

0.002 (0.017) -0.003 (0.019)

0.023 (0.019) -0.018 (0.016)

-0.003 (0.016) -0.032* (0.014)

0.231*** (0.066) 0.328** (0.116)

0.143* (0.071) 0.243 (0.140)

0.143* (0.071) 0.243 (0.140)

6,890 0.20

6,890 0.20

6,890 0.25

6,890 0.24

992 2.28

989 1.87

989 1.87

0.043** (0.016) 0.042** (0.015)

0.022 (0.013) 0.038** (0.014)

0.035* (0.015) 0.047*** (0.014)

0.036* (0.016) 0.058** (0.019)

0.111* (0.051) 0.033 (0.053)

0.136* (0.062) 0.064 (0.077)

0.136* (0.062) 0.064 (0.077)

14,903 0.43

14,903 0.34

14,903 0.41

14,903 0.39

1,748 2.99

1,743 2.59

1,743 2.59

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reported receiving an "A" in class listed in the column title or the cumulative HS GPA for the relevant subjects. All regressions are estimated using linear probability/OLS models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

29

Table A8: The Effects of Skin Problems on Long Run Outcomes (Skin Condition Dummies) Reached at least This Level of Education: H.S. Graduate All Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Men Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Women Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean White Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Black Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean White Females Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

Some College

Bachelor's Degree

Graduate Education

LN LN Personal Household Earnings Earnings

0.007 (0.012) 0.002 (0.013)

0.038* (0.019) 0.023 (0.024)

0.054** (0.017) 0.032 (0.020)

0.031* (0.014) 0.004 (0.016)

0.042 (0.044) 0.005 (0.057)

0.010 (0.032) -0.046 (0.039)

6,443 0.95

6,443 0.73

6,443 0.39

6,443 0.15

5,806 10.25

6,095 10.90

0.004 (0.017) -0.01 (0.019)

0.017 (0.032) 0.007 (0.035)

0.065* (0.027) 0.002 (0.030)

0.050* (0.020) 0.003 (0.022)

-0.027 (0.052) -0.07 (0.068)

0.007 (0.047) -0.029 (0.060)

2,927 0.94

2,927 0.70

2,927 0.37

2,927 0.13

2,745 10.47

2,770 10.96

0.004 (0.016) 0.009 (0.018)

0.054* (0.026) 0.042 (0.030)

0.051 (0.028) 0.062 (0.033)

0.016 (0.020) 0.004 (0.026)

0.139* (0.070) 0.098 (0.077)

-0.011 (0.046) -0.066 (0.053)

3,516 0.96

3,516 0.75

3,516 0.42

3,516 0.17

3,061 10.04

3,325 10.85

0.024* (0.012) 0.01 (0.014)

0.055* (0.022) 0.013 (0.026)

0.056* (0.022) 0.014 (0.023)

0.027 (0.018) -0.004 (0.021)

0.043 (0.048) -0.014 (0.064)

0.005 (0.038) -0.044 (0.047)

3,984 0.95

3,984 0.75

3,984 0.42

3,984 0.16

3,611 10.29

3,807 10.96

-0.026 (0.029) 0.014 (0.031)

-0.01 (0.042) 0.037 (0.051)

0.087* (0.035) 0.122** (0.042)

0.057 (0.030) 0.086* (0.033)

0.16 (0.123) 0.096 (0.151)

0.052 (0.086) -0.103 (0.112)

1,336 0.93

1,336 0.67

1,336 0.32

1,336 0.15

1,173 10.00

1,235 10.51

0.013 (0.017) 0.011 (0.019)

0.055 (0.029) 0.029 (0.031)

0.039 (0.035) 0.037 (0.040)

-0.004 (0.025) -0.023 (0.031)

0.122 (0.090) 0.059 (0.099)

-0.046 (0.062) -0.093 (0.068)

2,150 0.96

2,150 0.77

2,150 0.44

2,150 0.18

1,874 10.05

2,045 10.93

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator for whether the respondent reached at least that level of education as of Wave IV, and the natural log of reported earnings in the last set of results. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models, or OLS in the last set of results, and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

30

Table A9: The Effects of Skin Problems on Self-Esteem, Socialization and Attractiveness (Skin Condition Dummies)

Responsdent Feels He/She: Feels Has Good Socially Qualities Likes Self Accepted All Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Men Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Women Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean White Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean Black Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean White Females Skin Problems: Occasionally/Sometimes Skin Problems: Often/Always Num. Obs. Dep. Var. Mean

Responsdent Participates In:

Sports Clubs

Non-Sports Clubs

Interviewer Thinks Respondent is: Respondent Ever Had Sex

Physically Attractive

Personality Attractive

Well Groomed

-0.027*** (0.006) -0.085*** (0.009)

-0.083*** (0.007) -0.185*** (0.010)

-0.050*** (0.007) -0.169*** (0.008)

-0.013 (0.008) -0.041*** (0.008)

0.041*** (0.008) 0.052*** (0.009)

-0.008 (0.014) 0.004 (0.016)

-0.041* (0.017) -0.087*** (0.019)

0.006 (0.020) -0.053* (0.022)

-0.028 (0.018) -0.049* (0.019)

43,223 0.84

43,223 0.69

43,223 0.69

43,223 0.62

43,223 0.53

8,353 0.35

8,380 0.54

8,397 0.54

8,397 0.51

-0.015* (0.006) -0.060*** (0.008)

-0.067*** (0.009) -0.164*** (0.011)

-0.040*** (0.009) -0.152*** (0.011)

-0.019* (0.009) -0.033** (0.010)

0.027** (0.010) 0.048*** (0.013)

-0.003 (0.020) 0.038 (0.025)

-0.049* (0.023) -0.077** (0.028)

0.004 (0.028) -0.027 (0.032)

-0.027 (0.025) -0.039 (0.029)

21,051 0.87

21,051 0.76

21,051 0.72

21,051 0.67

21,051 0.42

3,976 0.37

3,983 0.48

4,000 0.51

3,999 0.45

-0.043*** (0.009) -0.116*** (0.013)

-0.103*** (0.011) -0.215*** (0.014)

-0.062*** (0.009) -0.191*** (0.012)

-0.012 (0.012) -0.054*** (0.014)

0.055*** (0.011) 0.057*** (0.012)

-0.005 (0.020) -0.019 (0.021)

-0.043 (0.027) -0.094** (0.031)

0.007 (0.032) -0.074* (0.034)

-0.026 (0.029) -0.052 (0.030)

22,172 0.82

22,172 0.62

22,172 0.67

22,172 0.57

22,172 0.63

4,377 0.32

4,397 0.59

4,397 0.58

4,398 0.56

-0.033*** (0.007) -0.101*** (0.010)

-0.091*** (0.010) -0.203*** (0.010)

-0.047*** (0.008) -0.177*** (0.010)

-0.004 (0.009) -0.044*** (0.010)

0.039*** (0.010) 0.052*** (0.010)

-0.008 (0.020) 0.013 (0.019)

-0.035 (0.022) -0.087*** (0.024)

0.007 (0.024) -0.055* (0.024)

-0.059* (0.026) -0.083** (0.025)

29,316 0.84

29,316 0.66

29,316 0.70

29,316 0.63

29,316 0.53

4,984 0.30

5,006 0.56

5,007 0.56

5,007 0.52

-0.001 (0.010) -0.026* (0.013)

-0.058*** (0.016) -0.117*** (0.019)

-0.039** (0.013) -0.108*** (0.020)

-0.014 (0.018) -0.011 (0.028)

0.045* (0.019) 0.063** (0.023)

0.031 (0.023) 0.005 (0.039)

-0.036 (0.042) -0.118* (0.048)

0.052 (0.044) -0.085 (0.063)

0.025 (0.028) 0.013 (0.050)

6,890 0.89

6,890 0.78

6,890 0.71

6,890 0.62

6,890 0.53

1,740 0.53

1,752 0.49

1,754 0.50

1,754 0.50

-0.057*** (0.011) -0.146*** (0.015)

-0.114*** (0.014) -0.236*** (0.016)

-0.055*** (0.012) -0.190*** (0.016)

-0.015 (0.016) -0.078*** (0.019)

0.050*** (0.014) 0.042** (0.014)

-0.016 (0.027) -0.027 (0.026)

-0.058 (0.030) -0.116** (0.038)

-0.017 (0.038) -0.107* (0.043)

-0.081* (0.032) -0.126*** (0.032)

14,903 0.81

14,903 0.58

14,903 0.67

14,903 0.59

14,903 0.63

2,591 0.29

2,604 0.62

2,604 0.60

2,604 0.58

Notes: The dependent variable in each column is an indicator corresponding to the column title. All regressions are estimated using linear probability models and are weighted by Add Health sample weights. Standard errors, shown in parentheses, are clustered at the school level. All regressions include indicators for age, gender (male, female, missing), unless estimated over males or females, Hispanic status, race (white, black, Asian, Native American, and other), unless estimated for blacks and whites, being born in the United States, living with a mother and/or father, parents' education levels, being adopted, and the number of individuals in the household, and school fixed effects. Stars denote statistical significance: * Significant at 10% level, ** Significant at 5% level, and *** Significant at 1% level.

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