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Donatello's Mary Magdalen: A Model of Courage and Survival Author(s): Martha Levine Dunkelman Source: Woman's Art Journal, Vol. 26, No. 2 (Autumn, 2005 - Winter, 2006), pp. 10-13 Published by: Woman's Art, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3598092 Accessed: 13/10/2010 14:23 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=womansart. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

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MARY MAGDALE DONATELLO'S A Model of Courage and Survival By Martha LevineDunkelman T

he Mary Magdalenby Donatello (here dated late 1430s; Fig. 1) is one of the most famous expressions of female emotion in the historyof Westernart. She has become an iconicimageof a sufferingwoman,her photographofferedin books and classesas an exampleof penitenceand of Renaissancerealism. Yet when we investigatethe historicalrecord,we discoverthat it does not tell us with anycertaintyeitherto whom she was meantto expressher feelingsor why she was made to look so dramatic.Perhapsher imagehas become so familiarthatwe do not questionit. EchoingVasari,who describedher as "washedawayby her fastbeen describedasweakenedandravings,"she hasalmostuniversally her starved and exhausted by aged, yearsof penance.'She has sunken eyes, an open mouth,brokenteeth, and an unsteadypose. Her hair falls in jumbled clumps aroundher face and down her body. Her musclesare tautand strained,the veinsand sinewsformingropesin her neck. But despite her slendernessand harrowingfeatures,the widespreadcliche that she is emaciatedand weak needs to be challenged. Beyondthe horrifyingface and the elongatedtorso,signsof strengthareevident.Thisis mostobviousin her arms,whichthe artist madestrikingly muscular(Fig.2). Her hair,thoughdishevelled,is luxuriant.She is thin and unhappy,but not skeletaland psychotic,as writershave often claimed.2Her gesture and pose can actuallybe readas indicatingdeterminedactionratherthanimminentcollapse. In fact,her face and uprightfigureillustratenot only the frequently emphasizedpain and sufferingbut also a greatdeal of strengthand of continuingphysical endurance.She canbe readas a representation and emotionaltenacityin the face of adversity-her sufferinghaving increasedher power.Perhapsher earliestaudience,less burdenedby wasableto see thisdirectly. traditional descriptions, During Donatello'sday Saint MaryMagdalenwas known as a womanwho had liveda life of sin (understoodas prostitution),had a numberof interactionswith Christduringhis ministry,and had the particulardistinctionof being the firstto see him afterhis Resurrection. There were manyother activitiesassignedto her both during and afterChrist'slifetime,includinga periodof some 30 yearsat the end of her life when she was supposedto havelivedas a solitarypenitentin the wilderness.3 In early-Renaissance Florencethe saintenjoyedparticularpopularity,inspiredin greatpartby the specialinteresttakenin her by the powerfulmendicantreligiousorders,the Franciscansand Dominicans. Both groupspraisedand recommendedthe kind of penitence thatthe Magdalenwas saidto haveexperienced.The connectionbetween the mendicantordersand the manyimagesof the Magdalen in 15th-centuryFlorence that emphasizeher penitence has been well explored,particularly by SarahWilk.4The saint'ssignificanceas an exampleto women, activelyencouragedby SaintAntoninusin Florencebut also apparentearlier,is also well known,5and is confirmedby the fact that manyrepresentationshad female patrons.6 Most recent studies of the saint, however,brush past Donatello's wooden Magdalenrather quickly,even while acknowledgingthis workas originalandpowerful.It is as if her agonizedandpenitential natureis so obviousthatit needs no furtherconsideration.

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Donatello'sstatuebelongsto a particulartype thatshowsthe saint duringthe 30-yearperiodspent fastingand repentingat the end of her life. Biographiesthatwouldhavebeen well knownin Donatello's circlesvividlydescribeher renunciationof materialpossessionsand her coveringherselfonlywithher longhair.Jacobusda Voragine's accountin the GoldenLegend,for example,describeshow she retired to a caveandlivedwithoutfood,becauseshe "knewthatJesuswished to sustainherwithnaughtbut heavenlymeats,allowingher no earthly satisfaction."7 The Magdalenas a penitentappearsin numerousexamples in FlorentineartbeforeDonatello.In some casesshe is shownin her wildernessretreatin the contextof a narrativecycle, as in the Cappelladel Podestain the Bargello,where she is coveredwith her trademark longblondtresses.8A morepreciseprototypefor Donatello'sstatuecan be foundin the panel now in the Accademia,painted master,whichisolatesthe Magdalenin a single by a late-13th-century central image. The inscriptionon her scroll tells those who have sinnednot to despairandto returnto Godby followingher example.9 Otherexamplesin Florenceof the Magdalenas a penitentcoveredby her long hairinclude 14th-centuryfrescoesfrom SantaMariaMaggioreand SantaTrinita(the latterattributedto Cennidi Francesco), andFilippoLippi'sAnnalenaaltarof 1455in the Uffizi.?' Withinthis iconic and penitentialtype, Donatello'sfigureis part of a subgroupthat is knownthroughfive survivingwooden statues from the 15th century."There were probablymore.12All of these worksare approximately life-sizeand show MaryMagdalen,clad in her long locks of hair,in an attitudeof penitence,usuallywith her handsclaspedin a gestureof prayer.The earliestof the groupseems to be a statuein Pescia,probablyfrom the earlyyearsof the 15th century(Fig. 3). The Pescia image is calm and smooth,her raised handsand long hairsufficientto standfor her penitentialstate.Donatello'sexpressivesculpturealtersthe type completely,emphasizing her physicaland mentalanguish,and alsoher strengthand determination, even combativeness.The figure'sinfluence on subsequent images of the Magdalenwas immediateand profound.Numerous later paintings and sculptures adopt Donatello's type, including Desiderio da Settignano'swooden figure in SantaTrinitaand Pollaiuolo'saltarpiecein Staggia.13 A partialexplanationof the Magdalen'sstartlingand originalappearancecan certainlybe foundin Donatello'spropensityto express outwardlythe psychologicaldramashis subjectsundergo,seen, for example,in his open mouthedZucconeor wooden Saint John the Baptist(1438;Fig. 4) in the Frariin Venice.Someimpetusmayhave come from the enthusiasmfor penitentialpiety being preachedby the mendicantorders,led by BishopAntoninus.But the mendicants' devotionto the Magdalenwas actuallynot new in Donatello'sday, andtheyhadapparentlybeen contentwithless violentimagesbefore Donatellocreatedhis alternative. It is difficultto establisha conclusiveexplanationfor Donatello's of the saintor to determineher primaryaudience,beinterpretation cause,despitethe statue'sfame,whatis knownof herhistoryis incomplete.No documentsfromthe 15thcenturyareknown,so it is notpossibleto ascertainthe precisedateof her creation,her originallocation, WOMAN'S ARTJOURNAL

ig. 2. Detail of ig. 1. Fig. 2. Detail of Fig. 1.

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spot, until she was swept away Mary Fig. 1. Donatello, g Mor Flothe great flood Donuatll b nduring dated dinin (here late wood dr ingte g ratfl Magdalen 1430s), rence in 1966.Aftershe wasF-rewithgildingand polychromy, 73" h. oeed and leane a process Museodell'Operadel Duomo,Florence.thtcovered and ed cleaned, of e ii that revealed much of her origiPhoto:Scala/ArtResource,NY. nal polycromand gilding, she nal polychromeand gilding,she

was placed in her present location in the Museo dell'Opera del Duo-

by Raffaellino dei Carli from Santa Maria Maddalena di Cestello in Florence.19The fact that the Magdalen is not completely finished at the back suggests that she might have originally been in such a frame, as proposed by her modem restorer, Umberto Baldini.20 The idea that the Magdalen was in the Baptistrybefore 1500 is also thrown into doubt by the fact that a 1469 description of the building and its contents, by Domenico Corella, does not mention the work. Although Corella admits that his account is incomplete, a life-size statue by the most famous sculptor of the century, who had died only three years before, would very probably have been included in a list of the Baptistry'snotable items.21Its omission increases the uncertaintyabout the Baptistryas the Magdalen'searliest location. Furthermore, there were other locations in Florence with connections to Saint Mary Magdalen where her image would have been perhaps even more appropriate than the Baptistry. Of these, the type where such a multilayered representation of a woman's suffering and vindication might have had the strongest meaning were institutions that housed convertite, converted prostitutes, whose patron saint is the Magdalen. Such organizations grew significantly in number during the 14th and 15th centuries. Along with the mendicants, the Augustinians were also active in rehabilitating prostitutes.22 Bishop Antoninus's belief that the Magdalen regained mental, if not . . i . corporeal, virginity through penitence must have been particularly meaningful to penitent prostitutes.23 Many painted and sculpted images of the saint can be connected with them, in Florence and elsewhere. One later wooden figure of the Magdalen, for example, which clearly depends on Donatello's type, was very likely housed in an institution for the convertite associated with Santo Spirito, known as Sant' Elisabetta delle Convertite but dedicated to the Magdalen.24 The statue undoubtedly would have served as an inspiration for the fallen and repentant women who lived with her. Its artist clearly saw Donatello's prototype as a logical choice for the role i the figure was to play, perhaps because the earlier work had been produced for a similar location.25Further references to Donatello's Magdalen being used for a convent audience can be seen in Botticelli's Trinity (c. 1490), also

mo. The statue'slong occupancyin the Baptistry,alongwith the fact

known as the Pala delle Convertite,

that Mary Magdalen is sometimes associatedwith John the Baptist as a fellow penitent, has led to a general acceptance that she was originally intendedto be there.16

which was the high altarpiece for Sant' Elisabetta delle Convertite. It includes several images of the Magdalen, two of which are direct echoes of Donatello's type, one in the main panel, another in the predella scene where the saint is being carried to heaven, again suggesting that Donatello's figure was the one to turn to in creating imagery for repentant women.2 It makes sense that women who had turned from a life of sin to life in a religious community would respond to both the intense regret and the strong will to survive that can be seen in Donatello's

A few scholars,particularly DeborahStrom,have questionedthis assumption,althoughwithoutofferingconclusivealternatives.7And, indeed,there are seriousproblemswith the claimthatthe Magdalen was commissionedfor the Baptistry.First,the positioningof a wooden statueby itselfalongthe multicoloredwallsof the Baptistrywould havebeen unusual.Mostwoodenfiguresof the periodfor whichwe knowthe originallocationswere morecomfortablyincorporatedinto chapels or onto altarpieces.As John Paolettinotes, wooden sculptures were often meant to have a heightened sense of immediacy and "sacralpresence.""' Theywere frequentlyaccompaniedby painted wings that set them apart,as in the altarpiecewith a sculpted SaintSebastianin the centerby Lorenzodel Tassoandwingspainted FALL2005 / WINTER2006

Fig. 3. Unknownartist, Magdalen (early 1400s), wood with gilding, 70" h. Santa MariaMaddalena, Pescia.

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work.His figure,batteredbut not bowed,seems so 11o'swork, although it was supposed to for the circumstances of the in the Baptistryby 1500.30 en appropriate particular convertitethat it is worth suggestingthat such a bits and pieces make it attractiveto poshat Donatello's Magdalenwas made for group formed his originalaudience and that he conceivedthe figurewith their situationin mind. when it housed repentantprostitutes.A If this hypothesisis correct,then, as so often in his te for the figure can also be suggested. 'holarsdate the work to the 1450s, at the career,Donatello reconfigureda familiarsubject in responseto specificcircumstancesand came up the artist'slife, findingher extremeemom an example of his late style, as seen in with an entirelynew interpretation.His Magdalen would have communicated with women who nze St. John the Baptist in the cathedral looked at it, offering them a visual image of i, which is securelydocumentedas 1457.31 imed derivativeof the Magdalenat Emstrengthundestroyedby suffering. ; been dated 1455 and used to establisha Amongthe institutionsthathousedconvertite in Donatello'sFlorence, there is one that offers y which she must have been executed.32 some connectionsto the sculptor.The conventof ating, however, rests on very tenuous SantaMariaMaddalenadi Cestello,whichsurvives As she notes, a s, as discussedby Strom.33 today in completely remodeled form as Santa challengeto the late style theorywas preMariaMaddalenade'Pazzi,providedrefugeto reby the moder revelationof the date of n the base of the wooden St. John the pentantprostitutesandotherfallenwomenuntilat least 1442. The church and convent at Cestello in the Frariin Venice. Until its cleaning were foundedin the middleof the 13thcenturyas 1970s,the Frari statue was viewed as ana home for penitent women. In 1321 the instituxampleof Donatello'slate style. Its earlier tion came underthe supervisionof Cisterciannuns owever, opens the possibility that the and apparentlyremaineda refugefor womenwith en was also done considerablyearlier in than is generally assumed. And, indeed, questionablepasts.In 1442 the nuns, and perhaps the women in their care,were replacedby Cisterhanthe bronze Baptist of the 1450s, the cian monks from a nearby abbey who needed a en closely resemblesthe woodenfigureof base in Florence. In 1481 Cestello underwenta her proportions,facialfeatures,and periost tellingly, in the texture of her long majorrenovation,makingit very hard to reconstructwhatit mayhavelookedlikein the middleof hichrepeats the regularwaves seen in the It seems likelythat such an instituthe century.27 gureratherthan the wild and ruffledsurtion would have possessed a statue of the Magthe Siena work. If the Magdalenwas in4. St. the John A as Sant'Elisabetta delle Convertite. Donatello, nade for the convent at Cestello, she did Fig. dalen, few pieces of circumstantial evidenceallowfor the nost likely have been completed before Baptist(1438), wood with gilding and polychromy,56" h. Santa Maria hen the nuns were replacedand the conhypothesisthat Donatello'sfigure may have been dei Frari,Venice. the one thatservedthem. nay have moved out as well. That would Photo:Scala/Art Resource,NY. execution at about the same time as the First, other worksattributedto Donatello are mentioned as being in the church at wooden Baptist. the time of the remodeling,including Womenfelt a specialconnectionto a marble sacramenttabernaclewith MaryMagdalen,and her imagewas bronze doors by the sculptor.28 This placed in many institutions for If it is acceptedthatthe conthat he had a women. suggests relationship with the institution. The Cavalcanti vent at Cestello is a more likely family was among those involved in provenance for Donatello's image the patronageof the church,and Dothan the Baptistry,perhapswe can natello worked for them on at least imaginethat the patronsat Cestello, one other project, the Annunciation charged with the care of fallen in Santa Croce, so they may even women, turnedto Donatelloto make them a role model more vivid and have been the family who brought him in to work at Cestello. Furthercompassionatethananythathadever before been providedto an audience more, the Virginand Child in Glory with Saints Mary Magdalen and of compromised women. In Mary Bernard, by Botticini, now in the Magdalen,with her intensityof feelLouvre, became the high altar for ing and with a body that combines Cestello in about 1485 (Fig. 5).29It terrible stress and enduringpower, includes an image of the Magdalen he gavethem an imagethatincluded not only the most painfulformof rethat is clearlyderived from Donatello's and could even reflect the presmorse,as has alwaysbeen recognized in this work,but also, as I suggest,a ence of the statue in the convent.Fi'^L'*. F nally,a tantalizingdocumentof 1503 . figurewho communicatesa powerful refers to an unidentified painted Fig.5. Botticini,Virginand Child in Glory with Saints Mary message of perseverance and surand Bernard 74" x 70". The Louvre. vival. behind the which it (c. 1485), Magdalen panel, altar, Mary Magdalen is not just a Magdalen Photo:EricLessing/ArtResource,NY. worn and emaciatedfigure but one would be tempting to associatewith

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WOMAN'S ARTJOURNAL

who retains the force to cry out and the strength to carryon. As such, she would have given a message of courage and hope to an audience of women trying to rebuild their lives. ? NOTES

1. Adjectivesthatemphasizehow thinshe is can be foundin virtually everydescriptionbeginningwithGiorgioVasari,Livesof theArtists,I, George Bull,trans.(London: Penguin,1965), 176. JoachimPoeschke,Donatelloand HisWorld(New York:Abrams,1993), 403, sees heras meekand exhausted, and ArthurRosenauer,Donatello(Milan:Electa,1993), 246-49, callsher a "mummia vivente." 2. BonnieA. Bennettand DavidG. Wilkins,Donatello(Mt.Kisco,N.Y.: MoyerBell,1984), 215-17, are amongthefew who sense in theMagdalen the messageof hope and beautymixedin withthe penitential mood,even arms. notinghermuscular 3. Jacobusde Voragine, GoldenLegend, GrangerRyanandHelmut Ripperger, trans.(London: 360-61; Green, 1941), Longmans, KellyBarnes-Oliver, WoodenMagdalen,"Athanor(1999), 25-33. Penance,Donatello's "Legendary 4. SarahWilk,"TheCultof MaryMagdalenin Fifteenth CenturyFlorence and itsIconography," StudiMedievali(1985), 685-98. See also NurithKenaan-Kedar, "Emotion, Beautyand Franciscan Piety,A New Readingof the in the Church of StudiMedievali(1985), Lower Assisi," MagdaleneChapel 699-710. Neal RaymondClemens,Jr.,in TheEstablishment of the Cultof doctoraldissertation, MaryMagdalenin Provence,1279-1543 (unpublished ColumbiaUniversity, to the Dominicans. 1997) emphasizesherimportance Katharine of the Princeton Jansen,Making Ludwig Magdalen(Princeton: the discusses use of the 135, 177, 194, 199-246, 2000), University, Magdalento controlwomen'sbehavior. 5. DanielRusso,"Entre Christet Marie,la Madeleinedans I'ArtItaliendes Xllle-XVe Siecles,"in EveDuperray, ed., MarieMadeleinedans la Mystique, lesArtset les Lettres (Paris:Beauchesne,1989), 182. 6. ArnoldVictorCoonin,"NewDocuments ConcerningDesiderioda Settignanoand AnnalenaMalatesta," Burlington Magazine(December1995), 792-99. MarilenaMosco,LaMaddalenatraSacroe Profano(Florence: Monthe inscription on thewoodenMagdalenin Emdadori,1986), 49, transcribes poli,whichrefersto "Monna"(lady)"NanaFigliuoladi S(er)Michele." 7. Voragine,GoldenLegend,360-61. 8. See JanisElliott,"TheJudgmentof theCommune,the Frescoesof the Zeitschrift furKunstgeschichte MagdalenChapelin Florence," (1998), 50919. Forearlierimagesof the penitentMagdalen,beginningwitha frescoof 1225 in San Prosperoin Perugia,signedby Bonamicus, see Mosco,LaMaddalena,31-37. 9. JoannaCannon,"Beyondthe Limitations of VisualTypology: the Function and Audienceof ThreeVitaPanelsof Women Reconsidering Saintsc. 1300," in VictorM. Schmidt,ed., ItalianPanelPaintingof the Duecentoand Trecento(New Haven,YaleUniversity, 2002), 302; Mosco, LaMaddalena,43-45. 10. See Jansen,Makingof theMagdalen,figs.42 and 43, and Coonin, "New Documents," 793. 11. Themostthoroughreviewsof theseworksare in Mosco,LaMaddalena, Wooden 48-52, and DeborahStrom,"ANew ChronologyforDonatello's Pantheon(July-September Strom includes a 239-48; Sculpture," 1980), statuettein theVictoriaand AlbertMuseumin thegroup. 12. Sourcesdescribeone, forexample,thatwas executedby Donatello's and friendBrunelleschi in about 1420 forthechurchof Santo contemporary but was in a fire 1471. Corneliusvon Fabriczy,IILibro Spirito, destroyedby di AntonioBilli(Florence: Gregg, 1891), 316, and IICodicedell'anonimo Gaddiano(Florence: Gregg, 1893), 60. 13. AlisonWright,"Pollaiuolo's 'Elevation of theMagdalen'and an earlyPatron," Burlington Magazine(July1997), 444-51. Otherpainted examplesincludean altarby FilippinoLippiin theAccademia,Florence.See LucianoBerti,FilippinoLippi(Florence: Edizionid'arteIIFiorino,1991), 268. in HorstW. Janson,TheSculpture 14. Theearlysourcesare transcribed of FALL2005 / WINTER2006

Donatello(Princeton: Princeton 1963), 190. University, 15. MaudCruttwell, Donatello(London: Methuen,1911), 53. 16. JohnPope-Hennessy, Donatello(New York:Abbeville,1993), 276-77, 347, amongmanyothers. 17. Strom,"NewChronology," 243; EnzoSettesoldi,Donatelloe I'Opera del Duomodi Firenze(Florence: Scala, 1986), 60-62; and CharlesAvery, Cantini,1991), 130, Donatello,CatalogoCompletodelleopere (Florence: are amongthefew who makesomealternative suggestions. in Italyas SacralPresence,"Art18. JohnT.Paoletti,"WoodenSculpture ibuset Historiae,26 (1992), 85-100. 19. AlisonLuchs,Cestello,A CistercianChurchof theFlorentine Renaissance (New York:Garland,1977), 97. EricApfelstadt,"AntonioRossellino's and LateQuattrocento EmpoliSt. Sebastian,"and StevenBule,Verrocchio LeLettere,1992), 201-02, amongothers,discuss ItalianSculpture (Florence: sculptedfiguresusedas centralfiguresin altarpieces. 20. UmbertoBaldini,FirenzeRestaura(Florence: Sansoni,1972), 62. 21. CreightonGilbert,ItalianArt 1400-1500 (EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.: PrenticeHall,1980), 150. 22. See Jansen,Makingof theMagdalen,107, withearlierbibliography, of penitentwomenunderthe regardingthegrowthof communities the in of patronage Magdalen Italybeginningin theearly-13thcentury. 23. Wilk,"Cultof MaryMagdalen,"691-96, and Pope-Hennessy, Donatello,277, haveanalyzedtheMagdalen'sspecialmeaningto Bishop Antoninus. da 24. See, amongothers,AlanPhippsDarrand RonaRoisman,"Francesco a Rediscovered and Two Wills from Sangallo, EarlyDonatellesque 'Magdalen' 1574 and 1576," Burlington Magazine(December1987), 784-93, and Sherrill of Women'sAsylumsSince 1500 (NewYork: Cohen,TheEvolution OxfordUniversity, 1992), 36, 191. 25. AtleasttwootherwoodenMagdalensfromtheperiod,thatby Desiderio in Florence,and one in Empoli,werepaidforby women, now inSantaTrinita thatthethemewas one thatappealedtowomen.See LouisAlexander indicating Waldman,"TheMaryMagdalenin SantaTrinita by Desiderioda Settignano and Giovannid'Andrea," Pantheon(2000), 13-18. 26. See RonaldLightbown, SandroBotticelli, Lifeand Work(New York: Abbeville,1989), 202-07, PI.79. 27. Luchs,Cestello:A CistercianChurch; Jansen,Makingof theMagdalen, of Women'sAsylums,16. OtherworksforCestello 180; Cohen,Evolution also celebratedthesaint,suchas CosimoRosselli's Coronation,discussedin DarioA. Covi,"ADocumented Art by CosimoRosselli," Altar-piece Bulletin(June1971), 236-38. 28. Luchs,Cestello:A CistercianChurch,107, 251; Corneliusde Fabriczy, sullachiesadi S. MariaMaddalenade'Pazzia Firenzee sulla "Memorie Badiadi S. Salvatorea Settimo,"L'Arte (1906), 256, 262, n. 27, wherea relieffromthe highaltaris mentioned. terracotta 29. RichardCocke,"Raphael's ArtBulletin(June1984), 329; Curtain," LisaVenturini, FrancescoBotticini EDIFIR, (Florence: 1994), 79. 30. Luchs,Cestello:A CistercianChurch,79, 308. Thedocumentrecords a paymentfor "ladipintura d'unasantamariaMaddalenadipintadietro all'altaregrandedi cestello."LuchsassociatesitwithBotticini's paintingforthe highaltar. 31. Forexample,Janson,Sculpture of Donatello,190-91; Pope-Hennessy, Donatello,276-77. 32. HorstW. Janson,"Giovanni Cellini'sLibro and Donatello,"16 Studies(NewYork: Abrams,1973), 111, n. 5, questionstheidea of a direct and suggestsa common dependenceof theEmpolifigureon Donatello's for both. prototype 33. Strom,"NewChronology," 241-44. Martha Dunkelman, Chair of the Department of Fine Arts at Canisius College, Buffalo, New York,has published a variety of articles and reviews on Italian Renaissance painting and sculpture, particularlyon Donatello and Michelangelo.

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AURORA REYES

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Ataque a la Maestra Rural (Attackon the RuralTeacher) (1936), fresco on metallic frame, Centro Escolar Revoluci6n, Arcos de Bel Photo: Augustin PimentelMayen.