Econ Theory Bull (2017) 5:127–137 DOI 10.1007/s40505-017-0118-3 RESEARCH ARTICLE

Externalities in economies with endogenous sharing rules Philippe Bich1 · Rida Laraki2,3

Received: 14 October 2016 / Accepted: 22 March 2017 / Published online: 18 April 2017 © Society for the Advancement of Economic Theory 2017

Abstract Endogenous sharing rules were introduced by Simon and Zame (Econometrica 58(4):861–872, 1990) to model payoff indeterminacy in discontinuous games. They prove the existence in every compact strategic game of a mixed Nash equilibrium and an associated sharing rule. We extend their result to economies with externalities (Arrow and Debreu in Econometrica 22(3):265–290, 1954) where, by definition, players are restricted to pure strategies. We also provide a new interpretation of payoff indeterminacy in Simon and Zame’s model in terms of preference incompleteness. Keywords Abstract economies · Generalized games · Endogenous sharing rules · Walrasian equilibrium · Incomplete and discontinuous preferences · Better reply security JEL Classification C02 · C62 · C72 · D50

Laraki’s work was supported by grants administered by the French National Research Agency as part of the Investissements d’Avenir program (Idex [Grant Agreement No. ANR-11-IDEX-0003-02/Labex ECODEC No. ANR11- LABEX-0047] and ANR-14-CE24-0007-01 CoCoRICo-CoDec).

B

Philippe Bich [email protected]

1

Paris School of Economics, Centre d’Economie de la Sorbonne UMR 8174, Université Paris I Panthéon/Sorbonne, Paris, France

2

CNRS, Université Paris-Dauphine, PSL Research University, Lamsade, 75016 Paris, France

3

Department of Economics, Ecole Polytechnique, Palaiseau, France

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1 Introduction The model of strategic games with endogenous sharing rules was introduced by Simon and Zame (1990). Formally, it is a (N + 1)-tuple G = ((X i )i∈N , U), where N is the set1 of players,  X i is the strategy set of player i ∈ N , and U is a multivalued function from X := i∈N X i to R N with nonempty values. The set U(x) ⊂ R N can be interpreted as the universe of payoff possibilities, given the strategy profile x ∈ X . When U(x) = {(u i (x))i∈N } is a singleton for every x ∈ X , G reduces to a usual strategic game, u i being the payoff function of player i. Simon and Zame (1990) provide conditions that guarantee the existence of a solution for G, i.e., existence of a measurable selection q = (qi )i∈N of U (a sharing rule of U), together with a mixed Nash equilibrium m ∗ = (m i∗ )i∈N of the game G = ((X i )i∈N , (qi )i∈N ). The concept of sharing rule gives rise to many interpretations. Imagine a designer who must determine who wins an indivisible object in some auction including tiebreaking rules. In that case, selections of U represent admissible auction rules, and a solution can be seen as a mechanism and a Nash equilibrium of the induced game. Another motivation comes from the payoff indeterminacy that many economic models exhibit: for example, several producers have to choose, each, a location in an area where a continuum of consumers are uniformly distributed. Assume each consumer goes to the closest location. Then payoffs are not well defined when some producers choose the same location: indeed, any division of consumers between the producers is plausible. Simon and Zame’s result guarantees the existence of a market sharing rule under which the discontinuous game played by the producers admits a mixed Nash equilibrium. In this note, we prove existence of a Simon and Zame “solution” in economies with externalities (also called generalized games). This is a general equilibrium model, introduced by Arrow and Debreu (1954), in which players play in pure strategies and each player’s admissible set of strategies is constrained by the strategies chosen by the opponents. For example, in exchange economies, consumers are limited by their budget constraint, which depends on the price vector, itself depending on consumers’ demands. Our second contribution is an interpretation of sharing rules indeterminacy in terms of preference incompleteness. As Aumann (1962) argues: “of all axioms of utility theory, the completeness axiom is perhaps the most questionable”. Following this seminal paper, many extensions of equilibrium models to incomplete preferences have been investigated, either for continuous preferences (Gale and Mas-Colell 1975; Shafer and Sonnenschein 1975), or discontinuous ones (Carmona 2009; Reny 2013, 2016; He and Yannelis 2016). In this note, we will assume that the ambiguity generated by the indeterminacy of payoffs creates incompleteness in the preferences. This permits to associate with every economy with externalities and endogenous sharing rules an economy with externalities and incomplete and discontinuous preferences. We prove that, in general, this economy does not possess a Nash equilibrium, but it is possible to complete the preferences in a weak sense to restore the existence of an equilibrium.

1 For simplicity, we use the same letter N for the set of players or the number of players.

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2 Economies with endogenous sharing rules An Economy with externalities and endogenous sharing rules E is a pair E = (G, B = (Bi )i∈N ) where G = ((X i )i∈N , U) is a game with endogenous sharing rules, and Bi is a multivalued mapping from X −i to X i with a closed graph and nonempty convex values (i.e., a Kakutani-type mapping). Definition 1 A solution of E is a pair (x ∗ , q), where q = (qi )i∈N is a selection of U, and x ∗ ∈ X is a generalized Nash equilibrium of ((X i )i∈N , (qi )i∈N , B), i.e.: ∗ ). (i) For every i ∈ N , xi∗ ∈ Bi (x−i ∗ ∗ ) ≤ q (x ∗ ). (ii) For every xi ∈ Bi (x−i ), qi (xi , x−i i

Consider the following assumptions: A1: X is a convex and compact subset of a Hausdorff and locally convex topological vector space; A2: U is bounded; A3: The graph of E, defined by  := {(x, v) : v ∈ U(x) and xi ∈ Bi (x−i ) for every i ∈ N }, is closed; A4: U admits a selection u = (u i )i∈N , such that each u i is quasiconcave in player i’s strategy. Theorem 2 Any economy with externalities and endogenous sharing rules satisfying A1 to A4 admits a solution. This can be related to Simon and Zame (1990) existence result: they prove the existence of a solution in mixed strategies in every strategic games under A1, A2, A3 and convexity of U(x) for every x ∈ X . Theorem 2 proves the existence of a solution in pure strategies, even when the strategies of each player are constrained by the strategies of his opponent. In strategic games where Bi (x−i ) = X i for every x−i ∈ X −i and every i ∈ I , we get the existence of a solution à la Simon–Zame in pure strategies. This was an open question in Jackson et al. (2002) and was solved recently in Bich and Laraki (2017) by using as a tool Reny’s (1999) better-reply security condition. But we shall see that adding externalities makes the proof more complex. Indeed, the result relies on a recent condition for Nash equilibrium existence in discontinuous games by Barelli and Meneghel (2013).

3 Applications 3.1 Incomplete preferences Let us give an interpretation of Theorem 2 in terms of incomplete preferences. If G = ((X i )i∈N , U) is a game with endogenous sharing rules, then we can define the following preorders2 on X . 2 A preorder is a reflexive and transitive binary relation.

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Definition 3 We say that y ∈ X is U-preferable to x ∈ X for player i, denoted x i y, if and only if u i (x) ≤ u i (y) for every selection3 u of U. When x and y are distinct, x i y is equivalent to sup Ui (x) ≤ inf Ui (y), where Ui (x) denotes the projection of U(x) ⊂ R N on the ith component. In short, x i y if and only if y is at least as good as x, whatever the indeterminacy of payoffs modeled by U. Formally, to every economy with externalities (G, (Bi )i∈N ), one can associate an economy with externalities and incomplete preferences E = ((X i )i∈N , (i )i∈N , (Bi )i∈N ), where the preorders i are derived from U as described above. It is then standard to define a generalized Nash equilibrium of E as a profile x ∈ i∈N Bi (x−i ) such that there is no player i ∈ N and no deviation yi ∈ Bi (x−i ) with4 x i (yi , x−i ). The following example proves that, in general, E fails to have a generalized Nash equilibrium, even if the initial game G satisfies assumptions A1 to A4. Example 4 Consider a strategic game with endogenous sharing rules and two players. The strategy spaces are X 1 = X 2 = [0, 1]. The endogenous sharing rules are defined by U(x1 , x2 ) = (1 − x1 (1 − x2 ), 1 − (1 − x1 − x2 )2 ) if (x1 , x2 ) = (0, 1) and U(0, 1) = {(−1, 1), (1, 1)}. This satisfies assumption A1 to A4. In particular, any selection u of U satisfies the quasiconcavity requirement A4. As described above, this defines a game with incomplete preferences E = ((X i )i=1,2 , (i )i=1,2 ). Clearly, for player 2, the unique best-response to x1 is x2 = 1 − x1 . Thus, for every x1 > 0, (x1 , x2 ) is not a Nash equilibrium of E, since it would imply x2 = 1 − x1 < 1, but then the only bestresponse of player 1 is x1 = 0, a contradiction. Thus, the only candidate to be a Nash equilibrium is (0, 1), but it is not, since (0, 1) 1 (ε, 1) for every ε ∈]0, 1]. Indeed, 1 = sup U1 (0, 1) ≤ inf U1 (ε, 1) = 1 and 1 = sup U1 (ε, 1) > inf U1 (0, 1) = −1. Hence, E has no Nash equilibria. In particular, it is not generalized correspondence secure (see Carmona and Podczeck 2016), a condition that would imply the existence of a Nash equilibrium of E. Thus, one cannot apply recent generalized Nash existence results to E (e.g., He and Yannelis 2016 or Carmona and Podczeck 20165 ) simply because the game may fail to have a Nash equilibrium. We now study the possibility of restoring existence after some completion of the preferences. Recall that a completion of the preorder i defined on X is a complete preorder i on X such that: (i) ∀(x, y) ∈ X 2 , x i y ⇒ x i y; (ii) ∀(x, y) ∈ X 2 , x i y ⇒ x i y. When the preorders i , i ∈ N , are defined from U as above, then for every selection q q of U, one can define a q-completion of i as the complete preorder i on X such 3 Every preorder  on X admits a multi-utility representation (see Evren and Efe 2011), that is, there exists a family (v j ) j∈J of real-valued functions defined on X such that: x  y ⇔ for every j ∈ J , v j (x) ≤ v j (y). Thus, there is no loss of generality in working with a cardinal multi-representation. 4 Here,  denotes the strict preorder associated to  , that is: for every (x, y) ∈ X 2 , x  y if and only i i i if x i y and not (y i x). 5 Remark that conversely, our paper does not generalize the existence results of these two papers.

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q

that: x i y ⇔ qi (x) ≤ qi (y). This is a weak completion of i , in the sense that it satisfies property (i) but not property (ii). This is because x i y is defined by: vi (x) ≤ vi (y) for every selection v of U, and wi (x) < wi (y) for at least one selection of U, and this may not imply qi (x) < qi (y). Corollary 5 Consider an economy with externalities and endogenous sharing rule which satisfies assumptions A1 to A4, and let i be the preorders associated with U q as described above. Then there exists a q-completions i of the preorders i (i ∈ N ) q for some selection q of U, such that ((X i )i∈N , (i )i∈N , (Bi )i∈N ) has a generalized Nash equilibrium x ∗ ∈ X . Remark 6 As said above, the completion above may not preserve the strict order. More precisely, it is possible (though not automatic) that the generalized Nash equilibrium x ∗ ∈ X and the selection q in Corollary 5 satisfy u i (x) ≤ u i (y) for every selection u of U with at least one strict inequality, although qi (x) = qi (y). It is not surprising, since the endogenous sharing rule q can be seen as “summarizing actions taken by unseen agents whose behavior is not modelled explicitly” (see Simon and Zame 1990). This unmodeled behaviour implies that the new sharing rule q can really change the preferences of the players (at least at indeterminacy points), and there is no reason why the associated q-completion would preserve the strict order. A possibility to preserve the strict order is to strengthen the definition of the preorders i as follows. Say that y ∈ X is U-strongly preferable to x ∈ X for player i, denoted x i y, if and only if u i (x) < u i (y) for every selection u of U. This leads to a new notion of profitable deviation for player i (more restrictive than this defined by i ), thus to a weaker notion of Nash equilibrium. Under assumptions A1 to A4, the existence of a Nash equilibrium for such preorders i is a consequence of Shafer–Sonnenschein’s Theorem (see Shafer and Sonnenschein 1975). Indeed, if yi ∈ Pi (x) := {yi ∈ X i : (xi , x−i ) i (yi , x−i )}, then, by definition  ) for every (x  , y  ) of i , and because U has a closed graph, we get x  (yi , x−i i in some neighborhood of (x, yi ). This proves that Pi has an open graph. Moreover, / coPi (x) for every i ∈ I (from assumption A4). Consequently, we can apply xi ∈ Shafer–Sonnenschein’s theorem to get the existence of x ∗ ∈ X such that Pi (x ∗ ) = ∅ for every i ∈ N , i.e. x ∗ is a Nash equilibrium in the game defined by the preorders i . This can be extended to the case of an economy with endogenous sharing rules. 3.2 Generalized games with discontinuous payoffs For every generalized game (or so called economy with externalities, see Sect. 2) G = ((X i )i∈N , (u i )i∈N , B) where each utility function u i is assumed to be bounded and quasiconcave with respect to xi , we can restore existence of a generalized Nash equilibrium by changing the payoff functions at discontinuity points under the constraint that the graph of the new game remains in the closure of the graph of the original game. More precisely, we can construct new payoff functions q = (qi )i∈N such that: (a) the economy with externalities G  = ((X i )i∈N , (qi )i∈N ), B) admits a generalized Nash equilibrium x ∗ .

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(b) for every y ∈ X with yi ∈ Bi (y−i ) for every i ∈ N , there is a sequence n ) for every i ∈ N and q(y) = (y n )n∈N converging to y such that yin ∈ Bi (y−i n limn→+∞ u(y ). This extends the sharing rule existence result in Bich and Laraki (2017, Theorem 2). The proof is a direct consequence of Theorem 2. Indeed, for every profile y ∈ X , define U(y) to be the set of limit points of (u(y n ))n∈N for all possible sequences (y n )n∈N n ) for all i ∈ N . Clearly, U satisfies all converging to y and such that yin ∈ Bi (y−i the assumptions A1 to A4. Consequently, from Theorem 2, there is a solution (x, q), which satisfies conditions (a) and (b) above. 3.3 Exchange economies Consider n consumers and m commodities. The initial endowment ei of consumer i m is assumed to be an interior  point in R+ . Consumer i’s consumption set is equal to m X i = {xi ∈ R+ : xi ≤ j∈N e j + (1, . . . , 1)}. Following the interpretation of Sect. 3.1, consumer’s incomplete preferences are assumed to be represented by a multivalued function6 Ui from X i to R+ with a closed graph, nonempty bounded values on every compact set and admitting at least one quasi-concave selection u i . An example, for m = 2, could be: ⎧ ⎨ x1 + x2 U1 (x1 , x2 ) = x1 + x2 + 1 ⎩ [x1 + x2 , x1 + x2 + 1]

if x1 + x2 < 2, if x1 + x2 > 2, if x1 + x2 = 2.

(1)

In this economy, there is a bonus of 1 unit if the consumer has a sufficient quantity of goods, because he may have a substantial benefit if he has more than some minimal level. Moreover, consumer 1’s payoff is indetermined when x1 + x2 = 2, and there are many ways to complete the preferences . Under the above assumptions, there exists a selection (qi )i∈N of (Ui )i∈N satisfying (a), (b) and (c) below:  (a) the economy {X i , qi , ei }i∈N admits a Walrasian equilibrium (x ∗ , p ∗ ) ∈ i∈N X i × m 7 (R + ), that is : ∗ 1. i∈N x i ≤ i∈N ei , and 2. xi∗ maximizes the utility function qi of agent i on his budget set Bi ( p ∗ ) = {xi ∈ X i : p ∗ · (xi − ei ) ≤ 0}. (b) for every xi ∈ Bi ( p ∗ ), there is a sequence (xin , p n )n∈N converging to (xi , p ∗ ), with xin ∈ Bi ( p n ), and such that limn→+∞ u i (xin ) = qi (xi ). / Bi ( p ∗ ), qi (xi ) = u i (xi ). (c) for every xi ∈ X i and xi ∈ Conditions (b) and (c) guarantee that the payoff function qi is not too far from u i (modifications occur only at discontinuity points that are inside the budget set). 6 Here, to simplify the exposition, we do not allow externalities, that is U depends only of player i’s i

strategies. 7 The set (Rm ) denotes the unit simplex of Rm . + +

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In particular, u i (xi ) = qi (xi ) if u i is continuous at xi . The proof can be found in Appendix B. Let us illustrate the result with an example. Example 7 Consider the following Walrasian economy with externalities and discontinuous payoffs: m = 2, e1 = e2 = (1, 1) and U1 = U2 defined as above in (1). The following payoff functions u 1 and u 2 are quasiconcave selections of U1 = U2 : ⎧ ⎨ x1 + x2 u 1 (x1 , x2 ) = u 2 (x1 , x2 ) = x1 + x2 + 1 ⎩ 3x1 2 + x2

if x1 + x2 < 2, if x1 + x2 > 2, if x1 + x2 = 2

However, the exchange economy defined by u 1 and u 2 has no Walrasian equilibrium. Indeed, suppose p = ( p1 , p2 ) is an equilibrium price vector. If p1 ≤ p2 , then no consumer demands x1 , if p1 > p2 no consumer demands x2 . Now, if we consider the selection:  x1 + x2 if x1 + x2 ≤ 2, q1 (x1 , x2 ) = q2 (x1 , x2 ) = x1 + x2 + 1 if x1 + x2 > 2 Then x ∗ = (1, 1), p ∗ = (1, 1) is a Walrasian equilibrium.

Appendix A: Proof of Theorem 2 The proof consists of several steps: first, we turns G into an auxiliary discontinuous strategic game G  . Second (steps 2 and 3), we prove the existence of a relaxed Nash equilibrium of G  . This is used to construct in step 4 a sharing rule solution of G  that satisfies some desirable properties. Finally, such a sharing rule solution is used to build a solution of G. This methodology follows the one developed in Bich and Laraki (2017) and Bich and Laraki (2012) to prove existence of Nash, approximate and sharing rule equilibria in discontinuous games. But it is more complicated because of the externalities. Importantly, the existence results contained in steps 3 and 4 are valid for any quasiconcave compact discontinuous strategic game ((X i )i∈N , (u i )i∈N ). By assumption, U admits a single-valued selection φ = (φi )i∈I where each φi is quasiconcave in player i’s strategy. Step 1. Associate to G a discontinuous game G  . Following an idea of Reny (1999), we associate to the economy with externalities G = ((X i )i∈N , (φi )i∈N ), B) a strategic game G  as follows. Because U is bounded, there exists  ∈ R such that φi (x) ≥  + 1 for every i ∈ N and every profile x ∈ X . The game G  has N players. For every i ∈ N , strategy set of player i is X i , and his payoff is  u i (x) =

φi (x) 

if xi ∈ Bi (x−i ), otherwise.

These new payoff functions are also quasiconcave.

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Step 2. Generalized regularization of payoff functions of G  . Throughout this proof, for every i ∈ N , x ∈ X , and U in V(x−i ) (the set of open subsets of X −i ), denote by WU (xi , x−i ) the set of Kakutani-type8 multivalued mappings di from U to X i such that xi ∈ di (x−i ) for every x−i ∈ U . Let u i : X → R be the following regularization9 of the utility function u i   ∈U,x  ∈d (x  ) u i (x ). u i (x) := supU ∈V (x−i ) supdi ∈WU (x) inf x−i i −i i

(2)

Remark that u i (x) ≤ u i (x) for every x ∈ X , since in the infimum above one can take x  = x. Step 3. Existence of a refined Reny solution of G  . Let us prove that there exists a pair (x ∗ , v ∗ ) ∈  (where  := {(x, u(x)) : x ∈ X }) such that: ∗ ) ≤ vi∗ . ∀i ∈ N , sup u i (xi , x−i xi ∈X i

(3)

Such pair (x ∗ , v ∗ ) refines the Reny solution concept introduced in Bich and Laraki (2017). When u i is continuous for every i ∈ N , x ∗ is a Nash equilibrium and v ∗ = u(x ∗ ) is the associated payoff vector. By contradiction, assume that there is no such pair, and let us prove that G  is generalized better-reply secure. Recall that G  is generalized better-reply secure (Barelli and Meneghel 2013) if whenever (x, v) ∈  and x is not a Nash equilibrium, there exists a player i and a triple (di , Vx−i , αi ), where Vx−i is an open neighborhood of x−i , di is a Kakutani-type multivalued function from Vx−i to X i and αi > vi is a real  in V     number such that for every x−i x−i and x i ∈ di (x −i ), one has u i (x i , x −i ) ≥ αi . For, consider (x, v) ∈  such that x is not a Nash equilibrium. By assumption, (x, v) does not satisfy inequality (3), thus there exists some player i ∈ N such that sup yi ∈X i u i (yi , x−i ) > vi . From the definition of u i , there is ε > 0, U ∈ V(x−i ),  ∈ U and every x  ∈ d (x  ), u (x  , x  ) ≥ di ∈ WU (x) such that for every x−i i −i i i −i i vi + ε : this implies generalized better-reply security. Consequently, from Barelli and Meneghel (2013), since G  is generalized better-reply secure, it admits a Nash equilibrium. But this is a contradiction, since if x ∈ X is a Nash equilibrium, (x, u(x)) satisfies inequality (3) (because u i (x) ≤ u i (x) for every x ∈ X ). By contradiction, this proves the existence of (x ∗ , v ∗ ) ∈  satisfying inequality (3). Step 4. Existence of a sharing rule solution of G  . We now prove that there exists some new payoff functions (qi )i∈I and a pure Nash equilibrium x ∗ ∈ X of G  = ((X i )i∈N , (qi )i∈N ), with the additional properties: (i) for every i and di ∈ X i , qi (di , x ∗ −i ) ≥ u i (di , x ∗ −i ). 8 A Kakutani-type multivalued mapping is a multivalued mapping with nonempty convex values and a closed graph. 9 This function was introduced by Carmona (see Carmona 2011).

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(ii) For every y ∈ X , there exists some sequence (y n ) converging to y such that u(y n ) converges to q(y). For every i ∈ N , denote by Si (y) the space of sequences (y n )n∈N of X converging to y such that limn→+∞ u i (y n ) = u i (y). Then, define q : X → R N by

q(y) =

⎧ ∗ v ⎪ ⎪ ⎨ any limit point of u(x n ) ⎪ ⎪ ⎩

n∈N

q(y) = u(y)

if y = x ∗ , ∗ ) for some i ∈ N , if y = (di , x−i ∗ ∗ ), di = xi , (x n )n∈N ∈ Si (di , x−i otherwise.

Since (x ∗ , v ∗ ) ∈ , and by definition of q, condition (ii) above is satisfied at x ∗ . Clearly, by definition, it is also satisfied at every y different from x ∗ for at least two ∗ ) with d  = x ∗ (for some i ∈ N ), from components, and finally also at every (di , x−i i i ∗ the definition of q(di , x−i ) in this case. Condition (i) is true at every y different from ∗ ) with d  = x ∗ x ∗ for at least two components (from u i ≤ u i ), is true at every (di , x−i i i by definition, and is finally true at x ∗ from inequality (3). This ends the proof of Step 4. Step 5. Existence of a solution of G. ∗ )  = ∅. For every Now, we finish the proof of Theorem 2. Take di ∈ Bi (x−i  ∗   x−i in some neighborhood of x−i and every xi ∈ Bi (x−i ), we have, by definition,  ) = φ (x  , x  ) ≥ +1. Since B is a Kakutani-type mapping, this implies, u i (xi , x−i i i −i i ∗ ) ≥  + 1 (where u is the regularization of u , defined in the by definition, u i (di , x−i i i beginning of this proof). Thus, from condition (i) in step 4 above, we get ∗ ∗ ∗ ), qi (di , x−i ) ≥ u i (di , x−i ) ≥  + 1. ∀di ∈ Bi (x−i

(4)

Since x ∗ is a Nash equilibrium of G  , we have: ∗ ∀i ∈ N , qi (x ∗ ) ≥ sup qi (di , x−i ) ≥  + 1. di ∈X i

From condition (ii) in step 4 above, there is a sequence (x n ) converging to x ∗ such that u(x n ) converges to q(x ∗ ). Since qi (x ∗ ) ≥  + 1 for every i ∈ N , we cannot have u i (x n ) =  for n large enough. Consequently, from the definition of u i , we n ) for n large enough. Passing to the limit, get u i (x n ) = φi (x n ) and xin ∈ Bi (x−i ∗ ∗ we get xi ∈ Bi (x−i ) for every i ∈ I (because Bi has a closed graph). A similar ∗ ) ∈ X for which y ∈ B (x ∗ ): there is a argument can be applied to any (yi , x−i i i −i ∗ ∗ ). Since n sequence (x ) converging to (yi , x−i ) such that u(x n ) converges to q(yi , x−i ∗ n qi (yi , x−i ) ≥  + 1 (from inequality (4)), we cannot have u i (x ) =  for n large n ) for n large enough. In enough. Consequently, u i (x n ) = φi (x n ) and xin ∈ Bi (x−i particular, since φ is a selection of U and since U has a closed graph, we get ∗ ∗ ∗ ∀yi ∈ Bi (x−i ), q(yi , x−i ) ∈ U (yi , x−i ).

(5)

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∗ ) = q(y , x ∗ ) whenever y ∈ B (x ∗ ) for some i ∈ N , and Now, define q(y ˜ i , x−i i −i i i −i q(y) ˜ = φ(y) elsewhere. The proof that x ∗ is a equilibrium of ((X i )i∈N , (q˜i )i∈N , B) is a straightforward consequence of x ∗ being a Nash equilibrium of ((X i )i∈N , (qi )i∈N ). ∗ ) Last, we have to prove that q(y) ˜ ∈ U (y) for every y ∈ X . This is clear at y = (yi , x−i ∗ ˜ = φ(y) ∈ U (y) by for yi ∈ Bi (x−i ), from (5) above. For others y, we have q(y) definition. This ends the proof of Theorem 2.

Appendix B: Proof of the statements in Sect. 3.3 From the exchange economy, define an economy with externalities and discontinuous payoffs (G, B) as follows: 1. There are (N + 1) players. m : 2. For i = 1, . . . , N , player i’s convex compact strategy space is X i = {xi ∈ R+ N xi ≤ i=1 ei + (1, . . . , 1)} and his payoff function is u i . m ), 3. The strategy space of player (N + 1) (called the auctioneer) is X N +1 = (R+ and his payoff function is v N +1 (x, p) = p · i∈N (xi − ei ). 4. Last, define the strategy correspondences as follows: for every i ∈ N , Bi (x, p) = Bi ( p) = {xi ∈ X i : p · xi ≤ p · ei }, and finally define B N +1 (x, p) = X N +1 . Following Sect. 3.2, this economy has a solution (x ∗ , p ∗ , q). ˜ This means that:  m ) such that x ∈ B ( p) for every i ∈ N , there 1. For every (x, p) ∈ i X i × (R+ i i n n is a sequence (x , p )n∈N converging to (x, p) such that xin ∈ Bi ( p n ) for every n i ∈ N and q˜i (x, p) = limn→+∞ u i (x i ). In particular, from the continuity of v N +1 , q˜ N +1 (x, p) = v N +1 (x, p) = p · i∈N (xi − ei ). 2. (i) For every i ∈ N , xi∗ ∈ Bi ( p ∗ ). ∗ , p ∗ ) ≤ q˜ (x ∗ , p ∗ ). (ii) For every i ∈ N , for every xi ∈ Bi ( p ∗ ), q˜i (xi , x−i i  m ∗ ∗ (iii) For every p ∈ (R+ ), p. i∈N (xi − ei ) ≤ p · i∈N (xi∗ − ei ). ∗ , p ∗ ) for every x ∈ B ( p ∗ ), and q (x ) = Let us now define qi (xi ) := q˜i (xi , x−i i i i i u i (xi ) otherwise. From 1 and 2 above, there is a sequence (x n , p n )n∈N converging to ∗ , p ∗ ) such that x n ∈ B ( p n ) for every i ∈ N and (xi , x−i i i ∗ , p ∗ ) = lim u i (xin ) = qi (xi ). q˜i (xi , x−i n→+∞

(6)

Thus condition (b) and (c) in Sect. 3.3 hold. Let us prove that condition (a) also holds, that is, (x ∗ , p ∗ ) is a Walrasian equilibrium of the economy with payoff functions (qi )i∈N .  let us define p = First, assume that we do not have i∈N (xi∗ − ei ) ≤ 0. Then, m ) with p(k) = 0 when  (xi∗ − ei )(k) ≤ 0 ( p(1), .  . . , p(k), . . . , p(m)) ∈ (R+ i∈N  ∗ ∗ (where i∈N (x i − ei )(k) denotes k-component of i∈N (x i − ei )), and p(k) =  a normalization coefficient that λ. i∈N (xi∗ − ei )(k) otherwise (where λ > 0 is m )). By definition, we get p.  ∗ insures that p ∈ (R+ i∈N (x i − ei ) > 0, thus from (iii) above, p ∗ . i∈N (xi∗ − ei ) > 0. But from condition (i) above, the budget constraint

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137

∗ ∗ yields  p (xi ∗ − ei ) ≤ 0 for every i ∈ N , and summing  these inequalities, we get ∗ p . i∈N (xi − ei ) ≤ 0, a contradiction. This proves i∈N (xi∗ − ei ) ≤ 0. ∗ , p∗ ) ≤ From (ii) above, for every xi ∈ Bi ( p ∗ ), we have qi (xi ) = q˜i (xi , x−i ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ q˜i (x , p ) = qi (xi ). Thus, for every i ∈ N , xi maximizes qi in Bi ( p ), which ends the proof.

References Arrow, K.J., Debreu, G.: Existence of an equilibrium for a competitive economy. Econometrica 22(3), 265–290 (1954) Aumann, R.J.: Utility theory without the completeness axiom. Econometrica 30(3), 445–462 (1962) Barelli, P., Meneghel, I.: A note on the equilibrium existence problem in discontinuous games. Econometrica 81(2), 813–824 (2013) Bich, P., Laraki, R.: A unified approach to equilibrium existence in discontinuous strategic games. Preprint: halshs-00717135 (2012) Bich, P., Laraki, R.: On the existence of approximate equilibria and sharing rule solutions in discontinuous games. Theor. Econ. 12(1), 79–108 (2017) Carmona, G.: An existence result for discontinuous games. J. Econ. Theory 144(3), 1333–1340 (2009) Carmona, G.: Understanding some recent existence results for discontinuous games. Econ. Theory 48(1), 31–45 (2011) Carmona, G., Podczeck, K.: Existence of Nash equilibrium in ordinal games with discontinuous preferences. Econ. Theory 61(3), 457–478 (2016) Evren, Ö., Ok, E.A.: On the multi-utility representation of preference relations. J. Math. Econ. 47(4–5), 554–563 (2011) Gale, D., Mas-Colell, A.: An equilibrium existence theorem for a general model without ordered preferences. J. Math. Econ. 2(1), 9–15 (1975) He, W., Yannelis, N.C.: Existence of Walrasian equilibria with discontinuous, non-ordered, interdependent and price-dependent preferences. Econ. Theory 61(3), 497–513 (2016) Jackson, M.O., Simon, L.K., Swinkels, J.M., Zame, W.R.: Communication and equilibrium in discontinuous games of incomplete information. Econometrica 70(5), 1711–1740 (2002) Reny, P.J.: On the existence of pure and mixed strategy Nash equilibria in discontinuous games. Econometrica 67(5), 1029–1056 (1999) Reny, P.J.: Nash equilibrium in discontinuous games. Working paper, University of Chicago (2013) Reny, P.: Nash equilibrium in discontinuous games. Econ. Theory 61(3), 553–569 (2016) Shafer, W., Sonnenschein, H.: Equilibrium in abstract economies without ordered preferences. J. Math. Econ. 2(3), 345–348 (1975) Simon, L.K., Zame, W.R.: Discontinuous games and endogenous sharing rules. Econometrica 58(4), 861– 872 (1990)

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