The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar)
THE LANGUAGE ATTITUDES OF STUDENTS OF S1 ENGLISH LITERATURE AND D3 ENGLISH PROGRAMS AT MARANATHA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY TOWARD ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL) AND THE LANGUAGE EDUCATION POLICY IN INDONESIA Fenty Lidya Siregar D-3 English Programme Maranatha Christian University Prof. Drg. Suria Sumantri 65 Bandung 40164 Phone: (62 22) 2012186, Fax: (62 22) 2015154
[email protected] Received/Accepted: 4 July 2008/ 12 May 2009
ABSTRACT The purpose of the present study was to investigate Indonesian students’ attitudes towards the English language in Indonesia and toward language education policy in Indonesia. The participants of the study were 60 students of S1 English Literature and D3 English programs at Maranatha Christian University. The data were collected through a set of questionnaire, which was written in English and adopted from Lasagabaster’s (2004). The questionnaire was expanded with eight additional questions: three were about the participants’ fluency in Indonesian, local languages and English, another three were about the language education policy in Indonesia, and the last two questions were about the phenomenon about local languages and English. The statistical treatment was conducted using Microsoft Excel. The findings suggested that the students, in general, had a positive attitude toward English and toward language education policy in Indonesia. In addition, the students showed more positive attitudes toward English as both a language and a medium of instruction than
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KEYWORDS Attitude, English, Language education policy 1. INTRODUCTION English has been acknowledged as the medium of a great deal of the world’s knowledge (Crystal, 1999, p. 110); therefore, it is not surprising that in many non-English-speaking countries, English is given a special status as an official language or other special status; for example, in Indonesia not only is English employed as a means of international communication for Indonesian people, but it is also used as the medium of instruction in some schools and universities. The need for English for employment and education in Indonesia has made numerous people learn the language either willingly or reluctantly. In other words, a great influence of English in Indonesia has been noticed and now English has become a symbol of modern identity and the mark of an educated person in Indonesia (Renandya, 1999, p. 118). It is then not surprising that now many well-to-do parents in Indonesia, especially in West Java, which is a central province of education and employment, send their children to study in bilingual schools that employ English and Indonesian as the media of instruction. By sending their children to bilingual schools, they believe that their children will gain communicative competence in English and will be considered to be more educated in the society. Besides, currently the parents in West Java are less concerned about Sundanese (the local language used in West Java), which is not being taught in bilingual schools; its allocated time is used to teach English. In order to be able to gain information about the language attitudes toward English and language education policy in Indonesia, I conducted a survey on the language attitudes of Maranatha Christian University students. Although the purpose of this survey was to see the students’ attitudes toward English and language education policy in Indonesia, the survey included a survey of students’ attitudes toward Indonesian languages. Moreover, the survey was only conducted to the students of S1 English literature and D3 English programs, who are taught in English and 40
The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar)
Indonesian as the media of instruction. With this background in mind and some limitation of participants of the survey, I had two hypotheses to assess: 1. The students will show more positive attitudes toward English than toward Indonesian and vernacular languages. 2. The students will show more positive attitudes toward English as medium of instruction than toward Indonesian and vernacular languages. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Studies of the spread of English in the expanding circle The spread of English around the world has given a big influence in the expanding circle, a circle that according to Kachru (1985, cited in Crystal, 1997, p. 60), is made up of countries where English is studied as a foreign language, such as Indonesia, Korea, and Japan. In these countries, English has no special administrative status; however, the fastest-growing section of world speakers of English has been clearly seen there. Furthermore, it is noticeable that the people in the expanding circle are not only learning English with the purpose of communicating with native speakers of English but they also intend to use English to communicate with other non-native speakers; for example, Japanese and Korean, French and Germans, Finns and Swedes (Kramsch, 1998, p. 9). In addition, the wide usage of English in the Media has influenced the teaching of English in the expanding circle. However, Berns’s (2005, p. 89) survey on some articles of World Englishes (5(1)-21(1) and English Today (14(1)-17(3) shows that, although English in the expanding circle grows fast, little research has been conducted and only few articles have been written about English in this circle. Only English in Western and Northern European countries and Japan have had the most attention. 2.2. Language attitudes and language attitude studies in other countries Attitude refers to “a hypothetical construct used to explain the direction and persistence of human behaviour” (Baker, 1992, p.10). It can represent internal thoughts, feelings and tendencies in behaviour across a variety of 41
Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 contexts. An attitude is individual; however, it has origins in collective behaviour. Certain behaviours can be promoted and defined by an individual attitude. Some characteristics of attitude are: attitude is learnt, attitude is not inherited, it is also likely to be relatively stable, and it has a tendency to persist. Attitudes play an important role in language growth or decay, restoration or destruction. Thus, the status and importance of a language in society and within an individual can be adopted and learnt (Baker, 1988, p. 112- 115). According to Crystal (1992, p. 8), language attitudes are defined as the feelings people have about their own language or the languages of others. There are five implications of language attitudes: “1. Language attitudes usually entail attitudes to the speakers of the particular language or dialect. 2. There is evidence that language attitudes influence sound change, 3. Language attitudes may influence how teachers deal with pupils, 4. Attitudes about language may affect second language learning, 5. Language attitudes may affect whether or not varieties are mutually intelligible” (“language attitudes”, 2007) There are many language attitude studies that only discuss attitudes toward language itself. These studies usually analyze whether a chosen language is “rich”, “poor”, “beautiful”, “ugly”, “sweet sounding”, “harsh”, and the like (Fasold, 1984, p. 148) and thus they attempt to present the prestige of language varieties in a social community. In addition, it must be remembered that a prestige is usually the product of culture-bound stereotypes passed on from one generation to another. Also, there is no form of a language that is lower than other languages. Nor does it mean that a “beautiful language” has inherent aesthetic or linguistic advantages over non-standard varieties. Up to the present time, much research has been conducted to find out language attitudes toward English. The findings of the research show positive attitudes toward English. Some examples of the research are presented in the following: 1. Buschenhofen (1998, p. 93) conducted research on English Language Attitudes of Final-Year High School and First-Year University Students in Papua New Guinea. His study analyzed the attitudes toward English among year 12 and final-year university students in Papua New Guinea (PNG). His findings showed a generally positive attitude by both groups towards English.
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The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar)
2.
Young (1999, p. 479) conducted a survey to assess the attitudes toward English among university students in Macao A group of 144 Macao-born and 197 Mainland-born Chinese students studying in a university in Macao participated in the survey. The findings showed students’ strong motivation to learn English. Moreover, the result also revealed the students’ readiness to use English as a medium of instruction. 3. Friedrich (2003, p. 173) investigated MBA students’ attitudes toward English in Argentina. His findings showed that most of the participants were concerned with the relationship between English and employment possibilities. Besides, among varieties of English, they consider American English more useful than other varieties. 2.3. Motivation in L2 learning The concept of motivation plays a crucial role in second language learning and in the study of language attitudes. According to Ames and Ames (1989, cited in Ngeow, 1998, p. 1), motivation is defined, “as the impetus to create and sustain intentions and goal-seeking acts. There are two types of motivation: integrative and instrumental motives. Robert Gardner and Wallace Lambert (1972, cited in Lightbown & Spada, 1999, p. 56) coined the terms integrative motivation to refer to “language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment, and instrumental motivation for language learning for more immediate or practical goals.” The term integrative motivation shows that one’s willingness or desire to learn a particular language is derived from his or her admiration of the society in which the language is spoken and for the culture that is associated with it. Moreover, instrumental motivation is commonly associated with occupational and economic goals (Noss, 1996, p. 417). Many second language learners of “world” languages, for example English, are motivated to learn the language for the reason that being competent in that language will enable them to get a high-paying job or to be considered more educated. Apparently, the knowledge of a language is considered a "passport to prestige and success" by some second language learners. In Gardner and Lambert’s early research (1972, cited in Ngeow, 1998, p 1) integrative motivation was considered to be more important in a formal learning environment than instrumental motivation. However, it was found that in
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Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 general, students studying a particular language variety are more frequently motivated by instrumental reasons than by integrative reasons. Oxford and Shearin (1994, cited in Ngeow, 1998, p.1) present six factors that impact motivation in language learning: 1. attitudes (i.e., sentiments towards the learning community and the target language) 2. beliefs about self (i.e., expectancies about one's attitudes to succeed, self-efficacy, and anxiety) 3. goals (perceived clarity and relevance of learning goals as reasons for learning) 4. involvement (i.e., extent to which the learner actively and consciously participates in the language learning process) 5. environmental support (i.e., extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of cultural and outside-of-class support into learning experience) 6. personal attributes (i.e., aptitude, age, sex, and previous language learning experience). 3. LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION POLICY IN INDONESIA In Indonesia, there are three categories of languages, namely the national language which is Indonesian or also known as Bahasa Indonesia, the vernaculars or local languages (bahasa daerah), and foreign languages. Different languages are definitely being allocated different roles in Indonesia. Bahasa Indonesia is employed as the official language of government, education and the media (Renandya, 2004, p.116). It has also been used as the only official language and medium of instruction since it was declared the national language of Indonesia by the youth congress in 1928. Unlike Bahasa Indonesia which has “high” speech function in the society, the local languages are employed as a “low” speech function. They are used only in non-formal situations among friends or in the family. Noticeably, the local languages are spoken by a larger number of speakers in the economically more developed islands such as Java, Sumatera, and Bali (Renandya, 2004, p.116). Javanese is spoken by 70 million people in East and Central Java, Sundanese is spoken by 27 million people in West Java, Batak is spoken by two million in North Central Sumatera, Balinese is spoken by three million people in Bali (“Languages”, 2006). There are also 44
The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar)
several foreign languages used in Indonesia, for instance Arabic, Dutch, German, French, Japanese, and English. Among those languages Arabic and English are used more in the society; however, their functions are completely different. Arabic is employed for religious purposes while English is used as a medium of instruction and it is the only compulsory foreign language in the public school (“Languages”, 2006). There has been no significant change of language education policy in Indonesia regarding Bahasa Indonesia, local languages, and foreign languages in the past 15 years. This can be seen clearly in the table below: Table 1 Indonesian language education policy Act number 2 , year 1989, chapter XI Article Statement 41 The medium of instruction for national education is Indonesian. 42a Local languages can be employed as the media of instruction at the early stages of education, and if it is necessary for delivering knowledge and certain skills. 42b. Foreign languages can be employed as the media of instruction, if it is necessary for delivering knowledge and certain skills
Act number 20, year 2003, chapter VII Article Statement 33a The medium of instruction for national education is Indonesian. 33a. Local languages can be employed as the media of instruction at the early stages of education, and if it is necessary for delivering knowledge and certain skills. 33c. Foreign languages can be employed as the media of instruction, if it is necessary to support/enhance learners’ competence
Furthermore, since 1994, English has become a compulsory subject in the elementary school (“Pendidikan in Indonesia”, 2007).
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4. METHODOLOGY 4.1. Method and Instrument In this survey, I employed a set of questionnaire that was adopted from David Lasagabaster’s research entitled Attitude towards English in the Basque Autonomous Community in 2004. Originally, the questionnaire was made by Baker and it consisted of 20 questions but then it was reduced to 10 questions by Lasagabaster. Since all participants were majoring in English, the questionnaire was not translated into Indonesian. The questionnaire consisted of 10 statements about Indonesian language, English, and local languages and there were also eight additional questions: three were about the participants’ fluency in Indonesian, local languages and English, another three were about the language education policy in Indonesia, and the last two questions were about the phenomenon about local languages and English. Those additional questions were purposively included in the questionnaire to give an opportunity to compare the language attitudes towards English with Indonesian languages and also to gain more information about the language attitudes towards language education policy in Indonesia. The questions about fluency were aimed at knowing the students’ self-perceived fluency in Indonesian, local languages and English. LeBlanc and Painchaud (1985) state that adult second-language learners have already mastered at least one language; therefore, they know what it means to be able to use a language and are well-positioned to evaluate the fluency of their language abilities. Besides, some questions about personal information (age, first language, local languages, second languages, gender, etc) were also inserted in the questionnaire. The scores were ranged from 1 to 5; the “strongly agree” statement would be recorded 5; “agree” statement would be recorded 4; “neither agree nor disagree” statement would be recorded 3; “disagree statement” would be recorded 2; and “strongly disagree” statement would be recorded 1; except for questions number 4 and 5 of each language (Indonesian, local language, and English) the answers were recorded reversely: 1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, and 5=1. Those questions were recorded differently since the expected positive attitudes were just the opposite of the answers to the rest of the statements. In addition, to know the students’ fluency of Indonesian, English, and local 46
The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar)
languages, the scores were ranged 1 to 10 (1 is the lowest score and 10 is the highest score). 4.2. The Sample Profiles Maranatha Christian University is a private university in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. This university has approximately 7.300 students, 500 of whom are students of S1 English Literature and D3 English programs. A total of 60 undergraduate and D3 (a three-year diploma of English program) students in the age range of 18 to 25 years old participated in the survey. There were 24 males and 36 females. All of them can speak at least 3 languages; namely, Indonesian languages as the first (L1) or second language (L2), a local language as the L1 or L2, and English as a foreign language. 4.3. Procedures The questionnaires were distributed on March 10, 2007 to four different classes; namely Grammar 4, Grammar 2, Conversation 2, and Novel 2. It took about 25 minutes for each participant to answer the questionnaire items. The statistical analysis was conducted by using Microsoft Excel. 5. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 5.1. Students’ attitudes towards English and Indonesian languages Figure 1 presents male and female respondents’ statements about their fluency levels in Indonesian language, local languages, and English. The figure shows the male respondents’ answers, which indicate that they were more fluent in Indonesian and English than female respondents (8.5 versus 8.1 and 6.3 versus 6.1). All respondents were majoring in the English language but naturally they were more fluent in Indonesian, their first language or the language used in their everyday activities. It can also be seen that the local language fluency of the male and female respondents was lower than their Indonesian language and English fluency. However, the finding also shows that female respondents stated that they were more 47
Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 fluent in local languages than in Indonesian and English (7.2 versus 6.9). In addition, there were nine different kinds of local languages spoken among the 60 students, only 4 of which are taught at schools: Sundanese, Javanese, Batak, and Dayak. Each of the four local languages are taught as a subject only in their related provinces. Besides, the majority of the respondents speak Sundanese or Javanese. Almost 60 % of the respondents speak Sundanese and slightly over 13 % of the respondents speak Javanese. A bit over 28% speak Batak, Dayak, Palembang, Betawi, Bangka, Cirebon, or Jambi. 9
8.1
8.5
8 7
6.3
6.9
7.2
6.1
6 5
female
4
male
3 2 1 0 Indonesian
Local languages
English
Figure1 Fluency of each language (N= 60)
Figure 2 shows the mean scores of students’ language attitudes toward English. Generally, they suggest favorable attitudes towards English. The highest scores-with a mean above 4 are related to the items; “I like hearing English spoken” (4.56), “English should be taught to all pupils in Indonesia” (4.48), I would like them to be English speakers regardless of other languages they may know” (4.30), “I like speaking English ” (4.27), “English is a language worth learning” (4.15), “Learning English enriches my cultural knowledge” (4.05).
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The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar) 5.00
4.50
4.53
4.48 4.30
4.27 4.00
3.93
4.15
4.05 3.75
3.50
3.00 2.78
2.87
2.50
mean
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
hear
pupils
speak
difficult
useful
taught
enrich
marry
worth
children
Figure 2. Students’ attitudes toward English (N= 60)
In contrast, the lowest scores are shown in the items, “English is difficult to learn” (3.22) and “There are more useful languages to learn than English” (3.20). In the following figure about Indonesian language, it can be seen that the most favourable attitudes were obtained by items, “Indonesian language should be taught to all pupils in Indonesia”, “I like hearing Indonesian spoken” (3.97), and “I like speaking Indonesian” (3.82). ”The least favourable attitudes are presented in 2 items, “There are more useful languages to learn than Indonesian” (2.53) and “If I have children, I would like them to be Indonesian speakers regardless of other languages they may know (2.82). The rest of the variables show a slight generally positive attitude, since their mean scores are around 3.22 and 3.53.
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Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 4.50
4.00
3.97
4.00 3.82 3.53
3.50
3.50
3.32
3.22 3.02
3.00
2.82 2.53
2.50
mean 2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
hear
pupils
speak
difficult
useful
taught
enrich
marry
worth
children
Figure 3 Students’ attitudes toward Indonesian language (Bahasa Indonesia)
Figure 4 reveals students’ language attitudes toward local languages. The mean scores show that there are no items that scored 4. The highest mean score is shown by the item, “Learning local languages enriches my cultural knowledge” (3.62). In the following, the items that obtain mean scores more than 3 are presented respectively: “I like hearing local languages spoken” (3.58), “I like speaking a local language” (3.35) “A local language should be taught to all pupils in Indonesia” (3.20), “A local language is a language worth learning” (3.20), “I would not mind marrying a local language speaker (3.20) respectively. There are 4 items or more that obtain mean scores under 3 compared to Indonesian language and English that only have 2 mean scores under 3. The items are: “There are more useful languages to learn than a local language” (2.65), “If I have children, I would like them to be local language speakers regardless of other languages they may know” (2.63), “I prefer to be taught in a local language’ (2.53), “A local language is difficult to learn” (2.45).
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The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar) 4.00
3.50
3.62
3.58 3.35 3.20
3.20
3.17
3.00 2.65 2.50
2.63 2.52
2.48
2.00
mean
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
hear
pupils
speak
difficult
useful
taught
enrich
marry
worth
children
Figure 4. Students’ attitudes toward local languages (N= 60) 50.00
45.00
43.33
40.00
35.00
33.72 30.40
30.00
Indonesian local language English
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
Indonesian
local language
English
Figure 5. The sum of mean scores of each language (N= 60)
The sum of the mean scores above in figure 5 shows clearly that English gains a higher mean score. This finding validates the first hypothesis that the students will show more positive attitudes towards English than Indonesian and local languages.
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Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 5.2. Students’ attitudes towards English and Indonesian languages as media of instruction As can be seen in Figure 6, the students support the language education policy in Indonesia, which contains: (1) the use of Indonesian as a national medium of instruction, (2) the use of local languages as media of instruction at early ages, and (3) the use of a foreign language as medium of instruction to support students’ competences. The figure also illustrates that the students show more positive attitudes toward the foreign language as medium of instruction. Figure 7 indicates that the students like to be taught in English more than in Indonesian or local languages. Thus, the finding confirms the second hypothesis, which is “the student will show more positive attitudes toward English as the medium of instruction than toward Indonesian and local languages”. The confirmation is supported by the quite high mean score (3.78) obtained by the second question 4.0 0 3.9 0
3.8 7
3.8 0
3.7 3
3.7 0 3.6 0 3.5 0
mea n
3.4 0
3.3 5
3.3 0 3.2 0 3.1 0 3.0 0
Indonesi an
Local language
Englis h
Figure 6. Students’ attitudes towards language education policy in Indonesia (N= 60)
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The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar) 4.5
3.93
4
3.5 3.02 3 2.52 2.5
mean 2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Indonesian
local language
English
Figure 7. Students’ attitudes toward medium of instruction (N= 60)
in part 4 of the questionnaire about “The time allocated for learning a local language should be used to learn English language since being able to speak English language is more beneficial than being able to speak a local language.” The mean score suggests that the students have more motivation in learning English than a local language. Their motivation apparently is integrative and instrumental as it is reported that they are motivated to learn English for practical goals (for example, future career) and also for knowing the English culture and people. This fact supports Douglas’ (1994) statement that it is possible for L2 learners to have both types of motivation. Figure 8 reveals that English is perceived as a language worth learning and learning English can enrich student’s cultural knowledge. For the statement “there are more useful languages to learn than English (Indonesian language or local language)”, the finding shows the students’ weak agreement. However, it can be noted that the mean score of English is still higher than the mean scores for Indonesian language and local languages.
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Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 4.5 4.15
4.05 4 3.53
3.62
3.5 3.22
3.2
3
2.87 2.53
2.65
2.5
Indonesian Local language English
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
enrich
worth
useful
Figure 8. Students’ attitudes and motivation (N= 60)
6. CONCLUSION From the findings of the study, it can be concluded that the hypotheses of this study are validated. Maranatha Christian University students show more positive attitudes towards both English as a language and English as medium of instruction than toward Indonesian and local languages as languages and as media of instruction. In Heaney’s study (2005, p.30) about English in Malang, a city in East Java, Indonesia, it is found that students in Malang have positive attitudes towards English and English has a prestigious status among the youth. English is employed as the medium of communication among the students in informal situations and sometimes it is combined with Indonesian. Thus, although Indonesian fulfils “the four functions: cognitive, instrumental, integrative and cultural” (Nababan, 1991, p. 1), the study reveals that the students’ attitudes toward Indonesian language are less positive than toward English. It is not surprising since, according to Crystal (2002, p. 102), “negative attitudes towards one’s own language are surprisingly common.” The attitudes might have been caused by the numerous companies in Indonesia that have high demand of
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The Language Attitudes of Students of S1 English Literature and D3 English Programs at Maranatha Christian University Toward English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and the Language Education Policy of Indonesia (Fenty L. Siregar)
prospective employees with English competence and by the fact that mastering English is beneficial for studying and working abroad. According to Khubchandani (1983, p. 65), “language plays an important role in the social, economic, and educational development.” For many developing countries, it has become a major concern to frame an appropriate language education policy in order to maintain a balance of internal needs and external needs at the international level. The external needs of being able to speak English have made many countries give English a special status in their language education policies although such an act can put local languages in danger. Indonesia is one of the developing countries that gives English a special status. English is the only foreign language that has compulsorily been taught since in the elementary school, while even local languages are not given a special status. In the Indonesian national curriculum, local languages are not compulsory subjects; however, there is “muatan lokal” or local component subjects that are compulsory in the national curriculum. The time to teach the local component subjects is usually used by big provinces to teach their local languages. Of 33 provinces in Indonesia, only 15 use the time for local component subjects to teach local languages and only some provinces have regional laws to support the use of their local languages. An example of the regional laws is the regional law of West-Java province number 5, year 2003, which mentions that the local languages, namely Sunda, Cirebon, and MelayuBekasi, are the second language of the province. Unfortunately, despite the local government’s attempts to acknowledge the local languages, the existing law does not include any punishment for schools that provide no local language classes. These schools seem to like teaching English better than teaching a local language. The schools’ language policy may result in the increasing positive attitudes toward English. In this study, the high positive attitudes toward English can be seen clearly as the study was conducted in Bandung, an urban city. However, if the survey were conducted in a small city or less developing provinces in Indonesia, the result might be different. A contradictive result might even be gained as the students in small towns are more exposed to local languages and speak in local languages more often than the students in urban areas. Therefore, it is recommended that more research on a similar 55
Volume 9 No. 1, Agustus 2009 : 39-59 topic is conducted in Indonesian suburban areas to gain more information about Indonesian people’s attitudes toward English. REFERENCES Books: Ames, C., & Ames, R. (1989). Research in motivation in education. San Diego: Academic Press. Baker, C. (1988). Key issues in bilingualism and bilingual education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Baker, C. (1992). Attitudes and Language. Avon: Clevendon. Berns, M. (2005). Expanding on the expanding circle: where do we go from here? World Englishes, 24, 85- 93. Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. W. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41, 469-512. Crystal, D. (1992). An encyclopedic dictionary of language and languages. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (2000). Language death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Fasold, R. (1984). The sociolinguistics of society. Oxford: Blackwell. Friedrich, P. (2003). English in Argentina: attitude of MBA students. World Englishes, 22(2), 173-184. Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Publishers. 56
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