Green Energy for IR: Case Study Fuel Cell Train TARUN HURIA Professor, Department of Diesel Traction Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Jamalpur 811 214, India Email: [email protected] Abstract: This paper looks at the potential of a fuel cell train for Indian Railways. Global concern of climate change has led to new opportunities in emission trading. Fuel cells offer potentially attractive alternative power solutions for the passenger transportation sector. Fuel cell and hydrogen train projects are being undertaken in many developed countries like USA, Denmark and Japan. The burgeoning energy needs of a rapidly developing India are expected to further escalate, with the transportation sector as a major contributor.

The Indian Railways is the nation’s largest transporter consuming 9. 5 billion KWH electricity and 2.06 billion litres HSD annually. The fuel cell train shall be fuelled by hydrogen produced through renewable sources. The fuel cells are boosted using a supercapacitor bank and driven by AC traction motors. The braking energy is recharged to the supercapacitor bank, and the fuel cell is operated at its most efficient levels.

A three car fuel cell train would cost USD 3 million. It is an environmentally friendly and far more energy efficient option vis-à-vis conventional trains. It shall also generate revenue from emission trading making it a sustainable alternative. The project envisages minimum revenue of USD 2 million over a ten year period from emissions trading alone.

However, the only carbon credits that can be traded to meet emission reduction requirements are those credits arising from carbon sequestration between 2008 and 2012. Hence, the project needs to be implemented before 2008 to reap the maximum profit.

Keywords: train, railway, fuel cell, emissions trading

Green Energy for IR: Case Study Fuel Cell Train TARUN HURIA Professor, Department of Diesel Traction Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical & Electrical Engineering, Jamalpur 811 214, India Email: [email protected] 1.0

Introduction:

The Indian Railways predominantly operates through either diesel or electric traction. Both these options depend upon fossil fuels – diesel and coal respectively. Although rail traction is a far more energy efficient mode of transportation compared to road or air, the main limitations are imposed by the steadily rising petroleum prices and the release of CO2, which is causing global warming. Thus, it is vital to develop new technologies to simultaneously further increase the energy efficiency of the rail transportation and to reduce their impact on the environment.

Today, fuel cell vehicles are being increasingly accepted as promising solution to the future environmental and energy issues. This paper looks at the prospect of using fuel cells (FC) for Indian Railways. In order to reduce emissions, improve urban air quality and in view of the declining oil reserves, hydrogen/methanol made from renewable sources such as biomass or solar must be the future fuel. Without fuels made from renewable sources the contribution of fuel cell vehicles shall be nullified by the release of green house gases (GHGs). Fuel cells (FC) can exhibit the highest energy density of all electrochemical energy storage and conversion devices; therefore the FC is well suited to provide sufficient energy for vehicles with a high range. However FCs are limited in power density and are not capable of energy recuperation. Hence, it is logical to combine the FC with another emerging high power, intermediate storage supercapacitor (SC, electrochemical double-layer capacitors) bank or a high power battery such as the Li-Ion battery pack. The implementation of a second storage device allows reducing the size and cost of the FC and provides extra power during acceleration, improving driving comfort. With a booster device the FC can operate most of the time at moderate power, which increases its efficiency and thus results in fuel savings. Finally, depending on the actual driving mode, recuperation of braking energy or regenerative braking will also contribute to fuel savings. In fact, regenerative braking leading to potential saving of 15% to 20% energy has been demonstrated for cars 1 and is the clinching factor for using a SC bank in the present project.

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Only the future developments in the fields of short term storage devices shall reveal whether the capacitor or the battery is the economic choice for the intermediate storage device 2, 3 .

The proposed solution will eliminate diesel consumption and therefore lead to potential saving of carbon emissions and other pollutants. The Kyoto Protocol has facilitated a new market for carbon emission trading. This paper works on the benefits accruing from a fuel cell powered train set through Credit Emission Reduction (CER). A three-car fuel cell train set is proposed. Carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have helped stabilise temperatures suitable to sustain life, through the greenhouse effect. This occurs when heat energy from the sun passes unimpeded through the atmosphere and warms up the Earth. In turn, the Earth radiates this energy back towards space. The greenhouse gases – water vapour (the main greenhouse gas), methane, ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxide and CO2 – absorb some of this energy and emit it in all directions, including back towards Earth. The Earth's surface is warmer as a result. The greenhouse gases have been both generated and absorbed in the atmosphere naturally over the past billions of years. These have been regulated through a system of sources and sinks. CO2 is emitted by volcanoes and by rotting vegetation and other organic matter. CO2 is also sequestered, or absorbed, by trees, plankton, soils and water bodies. However, the rapid industrialization and increased dependence on petroleum has led to a substantial increase in the sources without any commensurate increase in the sinks. This has led to fears of global warming, melting of the glaciers, and inundation by the oceans. Greenhouse gases Carbon dioxide (CO2) Methane (CH4) Nitrous oxide (N2O) Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

Table 1 : The green house gases (Source: The Kyoto Protocol) People have become increasingly concerned about the possible effects of global warming. Although the annual rate of emissions has been decreasing, the CO2 concentration in the

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atmosphere is still increasing. In 1992, most developed countries in the world agreed to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which was designed to impose limits on greenhouse gas emissions and thus minimise the adverse effects of climate change. But reducing the use of fossil fuels is a slow process. Scientists have predicted the need to decrease global CO2 emissions by at least 50 per cent of current levels by 2050 to stabilise global carbon dioxide levels and prevent further climate change. 2.0 The Kyoto Protocol 4 : The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an international treaty on climate change adopted in Kyoto in 1997. The Kyoto Protocol is an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The objective is the "stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system" 5 . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted an average global rise in temperature of 1.4°C (2.5°F) to 5.8°C (10.4°F) between 1990 and 2100 6 . This Kyoto Protocol establishes legally binding greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets for developed countries to reduce their overall emissions of such gases by at least 5 per cent below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012 7 . Developed countries can meet the Kyoto Protocol targets through domestic climate change policy activity and the use of the Kyoto Mechanisms – International Emissions Trading (IET), Joint Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The three mechanisms are designed to improve the cost-effectiveness of climate change mitigation by enabling parties to cut emissions more cheaply in countries other than their home. Both JI and CDM are "project based mechanisms" and involve carrying out climate change projects overseas, and transferring the reduction of emissions, or "rights to emit", to contribute to ensuring the buyer's emissions target is met. IET involves trading in emissions reduction credits. A number of emissions trading initiatives have already emerged, some on a global and others on a regional scale. The Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX), a voluntary CO2 trading market in the US, started trading in December 2003 and its subsidiary, the European Climate Exchange Amsterdam are the major trade houses of emissions. India has nearly 32% market share in this market. Developed countries are increasingly looking at buying carbon emission reduction (CER) credits from countries like India, where the cost of carbon reduction is comparatively much less. The

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market rate of emissions trading is likely to go up as the developed countries are in a race against time to meet the Kyoto Protocol targets by 2008. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the only carbon credits that can be traded to meet emission reduction requirements are those credits arising from carbon sequestration between 2008 and 2012 (the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol), plus any subsequent agreed commitment periods. 7,000,000

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Figure 1: Trading data (in €) from European Climate Exchange (Apr ’05 – Mar ’06) 3.0 Fuel Cell A fuel cell produces electricity cleanly by combining hydrogen and oxygen electrochemically rather than through combustion. A single fuel cell consists of an anode (negative electrode) and a cathode (positive electrode) with an electrolyte in between. Hydrogen molecules enter the anode. Here they react with the catalyst and split into protons and electrons. The electrolyte allows the protons to pass through to the cathode. However, the electrons cannot pass through the electrolyte. Instead, they are directed through an external circuit, which creates electrical current. Oxygen molecules enter at the cathode. Here, the oxygen and the hydrogen protons combine with electrons (from the external circuit) producing water and heat. Individual fuel cells are placed in a series to form a fuel cell stack, which can be used in a system to power a vehicle, or provide stationary power for a home or building.

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Figure 2: Principle of operation of a typical Fuel Cell The only byproducts of the fuel cell are pure water and heat. Although individual fuel cells produce a small amount of electricity, they can be combined in series to form fuel cell stacks, which are being used to power stationary applications like buildings and homes or to power other objects like vehicles, laptops etc. Fuel cells can achieve 60-85% efficiency compared to 25-35% with conventional processes (coal based or petroleum based power plants). Fuel cells are extremely quiet in operation, have few moving parts (hence require less maintenance), are clean, efficient at part loads and are modular, making them an attractive source of electricity.

Figure 3 : Comparison of power plant efficiency (Kordesch and Simader, 1996 8 )

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Fuel cells were first invented in 1839, but the technology largely remained dormant until the late 1950s. During the 1960s, NASA used precursors to today’s fuel cell technology as power sources in spacecraft. There are many types of fuel cells, but the polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEMFC) is most suited for transport applications, and is considered for this project.

Since the late 1980s, there has been a strong push to develop fuel cells for use in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicle propulsion. A major drive for this development is the need for clean, efficient cars, trucks, and buses that can operate on conventional fuels (gasoline, diesel), as well as renewable and alternative fuels (hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, natural gas, and other hydrocarbons). With hydrogen as the on-board fuel, such vehicles would be zero emission vehicles. With on-board fuels other than hydrogen, the fuel cell systems would use an appropriate fuel processor to convert the fuel to hydrogen, yielding vehicle power trains with very low acid gas emissions and high efficiencies. Further, such vehicles offer the advantages of electric drive and low maintenance because of the few critical moving parts. This development is being sponsored by various governments in North America, Europe, and Japan, as well as by major automobile manufacturers worldwide. Several fuel cell-powered cars, vans, and buses operating on hydrogen and methanol have been demonstrated.

4.0 Supercapacitors: Supercapacitors are new components that can be used for short-duration energy storage 9 . In the field of storage of energy, there are two fundamental parameters for storage devices: the energy density and the power density. The first parameter defines the amount of energy that can be stored in a given volume or weight. The power density defines the way this energy can be stored into the device. The more this parameter is high, the more the time for loading and unloading the amount of needed energy is reduced. The ideal storage device should propose both a high energy density, together with a high power density. This is unfortunately not the case, and compromises have to be made. Considering the battery technologies, the energy density is high, but with a poor power density. The opposite is the main characteristic of capacitors: a limited energy density with a high power density. New components, such as the supercapacitors, offer today an alternative to this dilemma. They offer a compromise between batteries and conventional capacitors. Their main characteristic is both a high energy density with a high power density. This leads to new applications for energy storage, even if the energy density is still lower than that one of the batteries. Supercapacitors are electrochemical double layer capacitors, and are used for shortduration energy storage. They have a very low charging-discharge cycle time, which means that

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for both charging and retrieval of energy 10 , they are far superior compared to batteries. They are also proposed for this project.

4.1 Advantages of supercapacitors

The advantages of supercapacitors are a combination of those of batteries and conventional capacitors at the same time. They are definitely the future and shall be used in a large range of industrial applications that need highly efficient energy storage system, including the field of transportation.

The power density (W/kg) is similar for classical capacitor and supercondensator, but the stored energy density (Wh/kg) is much higher for supercapacitors. The currently available supercapacitors are up to 2600 Farads (Maxwell Technologies – Switzerland). Their volume is 0.42 liters and their weight is 525 grams. In comparison to standard batteries, the energy density of supercapacitors is lower by an average factor of 10. However, their energy density is compatible with a large range of power applications that need high instantaneous power during short periods of time. The above characteristics of power demand are typically found in transportation systems. Another advantage in the use of supercapacitors rather than batteries is their life time. Table 2 presents the main differences between a supercapacitor and a battery energy storage system.

Performance

Battery storage

Energy (Wh/kg) Number of cycles Specific power (W/kg)

Supercapacitor

10 – 100

1 – 10

1 000

>500 000

<1 000

< 10 000

Table 2: Difference between battery storage (electrochemical accumulators) and supercapacitors There are many other solutions for storing electrical energy — chemical, mechanical, etc. 11 , but supercapacitors are proposed to be used for the present application of a fuel cell train for Indian

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Railways, primarily since supercapacitive storage can be used for increasing the energy efficiency in a fuel cell-electric transmission for a railway train the following two ways: •

Recuperation of braking energy

•

Changes in the locomotive traction control

For both solutions, an energy storage system must be added to the locomotive. Supercapacitors have been chosen to act as energy buffer for this project. Braking energy can therefore be recuperated and the fuel cell output is decoupled from the traction motors. The control of the locomotive requires to be modified to run it either at its best efficiency or stop it altogether.

5.0 Fuel Cell and Railways

The use of hydrogen powered fuel cells as a system for energy transfer and storage is expected to grow rapidly over the coming decades. The application of hydrogen-based systems to railway technology or Hydrail 12 is gaining new attention because the physical scale of fuel cells and onboard hydrogen storage lend themselves more readily to rail equipment than to personal vehicles. Although still in the research and early demonstration phase, hydrail technology is poised to take advantage of infrastructure and technical advantages--especially on urban commuter rail lines. 5.1 Benefits of fuel cell train:

There is a lot of merit in the proposal of a hydrogen powered multiple units.

Public transportation improves air quality, yet still generates its own share of pollution. Diesel powered trains are no exception. A “greener” fuel for transit can only help enhance the argument for, and merits of, public transportation.

Trains only require occasional fueling from a single location. The trains could be relatively short – probably 3-4 double-decker cars to start – and operate at up to 105 kmph over a low gradient flat rail line.

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It all adds up to fuel cell trains being an obvious place to launch the Hydrogen Age. On top of this there is the leverage of rail being much more fuel-efficient than trucks and having much scope for expansion.

Although the hydrogen fuel cell offers the rail locomotive a substantial increase in engineering efficiency, the utmost benefit stems from what the railroad offers the fledgling fuel cell. The greatest cost of starting a new fuel economy is not the technology, but the establishment of the distribution and support infrastructure. The rail network offers three unique levers to build a hydrogen allocation system without substantial economic commitment:

(1) Trains travel several thousand kilometers between fuel stops. Tenders add additional range without degrading field performance. Fuel distribution for the rail system may be satisfied through a very simple allocation network.

(2) There are existing supplies of low-cost hydrogen that could meet the discrete and limited needs of rail transportation during its development towards autonomy. These sources include refinery venting and chemical industry byproducts.

(3) The rail industry is today a small part of India’s national transportation system, yet could assume the lion’s share of duty if necessary. A small national investment could have major benefits in terms of policy flexibility.

The burgeoning national highway network is currently serviced by thousands of established petrol pumps. These existing facilities present a substantial barrier to entry for any alternate fuel start ups, despite increases in the cost of oil. On the contrary, the few fueling facilities required by rail offers the golden key to avoid these barriers. The fundamental question the railways and its suppliers must ask is whether their simplified energy distribution network and immediate engineering benefits would provide opportunity to themselves and society in terms of: •

A complete and fully functional alternative fuel cycle.

•

An avenue to establish a fuel cell operating history for further policy development.

•

The creation of a manageable and supportable demand for a new energy industry.

•

A no-impact economic demonstration for established energy firms to evaluate an

insured ability to meet national transportation needs in the event fossil fuel supplies are lost.

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•

A more flexible and cost-effective option to run railways compared to electrification.

Rail’s greatest advantage is its small representation within the entire fossil fuel picture, while also representing a discrete, yet complete, national transportation segment. The marriage of rail and the hydrogen fuel cell offers the greatest opportunity to pierce the trenches and economic castles long dominated by the global fossil fuel market.

Fuel cell rail transportation can provide increased energy and time efficiency, enhanced energy security, and improved environmental quality for the transportation sector. Fuel costs are one of the largest costs of transportation, and Indian Railways spends more than $ 2 billion annually on diesel fuel. High-speed rail – even without the benefits of fuel cell power – is about four times the energy efficiency of air transport, and fuel cells are expected to be more efficient than any present motive power: diesel-electric or electric catenary. The rail system in India is significantly based on diesel-electric locomotives and depends on imported oil. In contrast, locomotives powered by fuel cells will use renewable fuels. Conventional locomotives significantly contribute to air and noise pollution, whereas fuel cell-based systems can be pollution-free and nearly silent.

The fuel cell rail projects are already planned in many countries like USA, Denmark, Japan, Canada etc.

5.2 Fuel Cell Locomotive Project in the USA An international industry-government consortium, led by Vehicle Projects LLC, is developing the world’s largest fuel cell land vehicle, a 109-tonne, 1.2-MW road-switcher locomotive for commercial and military railway applications. Vehicle Projects and its consortia have developed a fuel cell-powered underground mine locomotive, completed in 2002, and in 2005, a fuel cell battery hybrid mine loader. The seven-year locomotive development and demonstration project 13 , funded by the US Department of Defense and which commenced in May 2003, has completed a comprehensive feasibility analysis and the conceptual design of the onboard fuel storage, refueling system, fuel cell power plant, and locomotive layout, and it is presently executing the power plant engineering design. Because it will be the largest fuel cell vehicle to-date, the project will contribute to the development and demonstration of other large commercial and defense vehicles such as ships. The project is using a Nuvera Fuel Cells product. Besides serving as switchers, fuel cell

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locomotives serving as mobile backup power plants on military bases will enhance base capabilities and security. Commercial demonstration of the locomotive is planned for the city of Reno, Nevada. Potential commercialization paths and follow-on development and demonstration projects include subway utility locomotives, switchers, commuter rail, subway trains, light rail, heavy freight, and high-speed rail.

Figure 4 : Fuel Cell Locomotive 14 planned in USA (120-ton, 1 MW Army fuelcell locomotive to be derived from diesel-electric locomotive above) (photo courtesy Shane G. Deemer, Military Rails Online) Estimated total cost of the project is US$12 million. The project is funded and administered by the US Army Tank-automotive and Armaments Command (TACOM), National Automotive Center (NAC), Warren (MI), USA, via prime contractor Jacobs Engineering Group Inc, Pasadena, USA. Vehicle Projects previously developed and demonstrated a fuelcell mine locomotive and is also developing a 23 metric-ton, 100 kW fuelcell-battery hybrid mine loader, both projects supported by the US Department of Energy and Natural Resources Canada.

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Figure 5 : Conceptual design of the Vehicle Project’s fuel cell locomotive’s fuel system: Onboard metal-hydride storage (orange), off board water-tank heat sink (blue), water-toair heat exchanger (violet – to left of water tanks), ammonia storage tank (brown-orange), ammonia dissociator and trap (red), hydrogen compressor and nitrogen separator (light green), and compressed-hydrogen holding tank (dark green) (Source: http://www.fuelcellpropulsion.org/loco_design_5feb2004.htm) 5.3 Hydrogen Train Project in Denmark

In the near future, the first hydrogen-powered railway might be a reality in Denmark. Together with the board of the VLTJ railway section, H2logic, and Ringkøbing County, Danish Technological Institute and HIRC have prepared a preliminary project concerning a hydrogen railway section in Western Jutland. A feasibility study has examined the option of replacing diesel fuel with hydrogen produced by renewable energy. As part of a Regional Foresight on hydrogen and fuel cells technology made by the Danish county of Ringkjøbing during 2003, the possibility of using hydrogen as fuel for a small regional train was proposed. In this feasibility study, the technical and economical possibilities of this option have been evaluated, and different technical solutions are considered. They are currently examining the feasibility study which has gathered enough background information about sustainable hydrogen rail, so that detailed suggestions for demonstrations projects can be developed.

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Figure 6: The Danish train The regional Hydrogen Innovation and Research Centre (HIRC) has made the study, with assistance from the consultants H2Logic and The Danish Technological Institute The Danish hydrogen train considered finally in the feasibility report is a modern lightweight train with different technical solutions: •

Internal Combustion engine (modified LPG unit)

•

PEM fuel cell

•

Fuel cell – battery hybrid.

The hydrogen train project is part of the promotion of Ringkøbing County as the hydrogen county of Denmark. The suggestions shall be scrutinised and funded to result in the physical development and launching of Europe's first hydrogen powered train by year 2010. A further part of the feasibility study is to gather and construct a "The Hydrogen Train" Project Consortium that can handle the coming funding process and development of the hydrogen train.

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Figure 7: Hydrogen requirement for the VLTJ hydrogen train

With a western coastline of more than 60 miles exposed to the North Sea, the region has plenty of wind energy resources. More than 800 wind turbines with a total capacity of nearly 400 MW are situated in Ringkjøbing County, and more than 35 % of the electricity in the area is produced by wind power. During windy periodes part of the energy produced must in fact be exported to the Scandinavian electricity “spot market” for a fairly low price. Here, hydrogen production could be an economical attractive option. Each of the eight 2 MW wind turbines placed along the northern part of the railway line could in fact by electrolysis produce hydrogen for five trains operating in full timetable on the railway. 5.4 Fuel Cell Train Project in Japan Japan is developing the world's first train to be powered by environmentally friendly fuel-cell batteries 15 , as reported by the Jiji Press news agency. East Japan Railway Co, will shortly complete a prototype fuel-cell train for test runs. The test train will have only one carriage and carry two 65-kilowatt fuel cells. It can travel at 100 kilometers per hour. Fuel-cell batteries in

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cartridges can be easily replaced, in contrast to conventional batteries that take hours to recharge. The company plans to operate fuel-cell trains sometime in mid-2007 on its lines in mountainous regions west of Tokyo, the report said.

Figure 8: The prototype hybrid diesel-electric rail car by EJRC (Source: http://www.japanfs.org/db/image/NEtrain01.JPG)

East Japan Railway Company in 2003 also developed the world's first prototype of a hybrid diesel-electric rail car, called "NE Train (New Energy Train)," which is undergoing test runs. The company has been working to develop rail cars that have lower environmental impacts through innovation of the propulsion system, by incorporating hybrid technology and fuel cell technology. The test runs are evaluating feasibility and energy efficiency of the new system. The prototype is a single rail car with an onboard engine and employs a series-hybrid system with the future potential of being adapted to fuel-cell-driven rail cars. The engine serves as the mechanical power source and is arranged in a series configuration with the electrical power source. The diesel engine drives the generator, and the generator supplies electricity to the electric motors that drive the wheels. In the future, this system can be adapted to a fuel cell system by simply replacing the engine and the generator with fuel cell stacks.

The motor is powered solely by electricity when starting, and the diesel engine starts during acceleration, generating additional electricity. This electricity plus the electricity stored in the

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battery drive the motors. A regenerative braking system also charges the battery when braking, thus enabling the engine to be stopped while the train is arriving at and departing from the station.

Figure 9: Logo of the fuel cell train by East Japan Railway Company

By optimizing the regenerative braking system, the company has increased energy efficiency by approximately 20 percent compared to the conventional rail car "Series Ki-Ha 110." The project has also halved the emissions of nitrogen oxide and particulate matter by using a cutting-edge low-emission diesel engine for generation, and by using the hybrid system. The Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI) Japan 16 is also working on a project to develop fuel cell vehicles 17 in the application of linear motor technologies to the conventional railway system RTRI also plans to convert the energy source for railway vehicles into non-emission fuels to preserve the environment on a global scale. The fuel cell vehicle is the ideal candidate to substitute diesel vehicles that are directly dependent on petroleum. Fuel cell vehicles may create a new low-cost railway system which doesn't need electrification unlike the present electric vehicles. Although the concrete development of fuel cell vehicles has not yet taken place, RTRI plans to use fuel cells on railway vehicles. The traction system for electric railway vehicles is different from that of automobiles in terms of output power, expected equipment life and other factors. Therefore, on-board fuel cells must be developed for railways. Issues on development of fuel cell railway vehicles by RTRI are shown below.

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Figure 10: Fuel cell systems for railway vehicle

The following are the major concerns for RTRI for going ahead with the development of the fuel cell powered rail: •

Fuel for fuel cells. There are three candidates, pure hydrogen, liquid natural gas and methanol. Special reformers are additionally needed to chemically generate hydrogen for fuels other than pure hydrogen.

•

Power control system: Since railway vehicles need a large amount of power, fuel cell units are required in quantities for propulsion when compared with automobiles. An appropriate control system is inevitable to generate high current and voltage and drive induction motors.

•

Durability: As railway vehicles are generally used for 20 years or over, fuel cell systems are expected to operate approximately for the same time lengths. The durability of fuel cells in cyclic uses has to be confirmed for such a long period of time.

•

Safety: To realize fuel cell vehicles, safety of the systems shall be ensured and manufacturing costs of fuel cells shall be reduced considerably.

The first car of the proposed RTRI train is planned with four induction motors and a module of current/voltage control equipment. The second car is planned with fuel cell stacks, reformers and fuel tanks. The total power generated by fuel cells may be 600kW. The train can run about 400km a day at speeds up to 120km/h. The estimated fuel consumption per day is about 100kg when converted into the equivalent mass of pure hydrogen.

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Figure 11: Proposed fuel cell trainset by RTRI Japan (Source: http://www.rtri.or.jp/infoce/qr/2001/v42_3/news1_f2.gif)

For the purpose of development, RTRI will perform indoor tests to collect the fundamental data to drive traction motors by the power generated by fuel cells for about six years from 2001-07. These trial examinations shall help them frame the specification of fuel cells for the requirements of traction system and power control technology under various running conditions. At the RTRI, the project of "Basic study on application of fuel cells to the traction system of railway vehicles" was launched in 2001 as an intensive subject with a subsidy from the National Land and Transport Ministry as part of the funds for the subject.

5.5 Fuel Cell Train Project in Canada In Canada, Alistair I. Miller 18 , Senior Scientific Associate, Office of the Principal Scientist, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited is a leading advocate of introducing fuel cell trains instead of railway electrification. He has proposed that although the obvious low-CO2 emissions power source for rail is electricity from non-GHG sources. While electricity can be delivered directly through overhead catenary, he has demonstrated that the far cheaper route should be to use a fuel cell and hydrogen produced by electrolysis.

Although, there is nothing new in the proposal of hydrogen fuelling the motive power and the vast earlier expectations of it taking a dominant role in the field of transportation have not materialized, yet, if the reduction of GHG emissions becomes a component of the economics, hydrogen created from non-fossil sources is likely the leading contender as a fuel with low GHG impact. Rail, with its small number of controlling participants and existing intrinsic energy efficiency, is a natural place for hydrogen to achieve significant early penetration of the transportation sector.

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Using the case study of a proposed high-speed rail corridor from Windsor to Quebec City for advanced passenger transportation, he has successfully argued for a fuel cell train vis a vis electrification, on purely economic considerations. Although the high density of traffic on the proposed dedicated corridor would have suggested a strong bias for electrification to many, the economic analysis was much different. Electrification was extremely uncompetitive with LH2fueling. The flexibility of unconstrained movement that fuel-cell powered trains provide compared to the inflexible electrified sections was a bonus.

5.6 Fuel Cell Train Project in Germany

The Deutsche Bahn of Germany has prepared a feasibility study of fuel cells in the Deutsche Bahn and railways in general. The possible areas of application of fuel cells in railways were identified and their technological, economic and environmental feasibility were evaluated. The study focused on the application of PEM fuel cells for traction and for supplying auxiliaries and comfort functions. A layout study for a fuel cell driven MU (based on the DMU type VT 610) was carried out based on differrent fuel cell systems by XCellsis, a fuel cell engine manufacturer, now acquired by Ballard 19 .

Figure 12: DMU type VT 610 of the Deutsche Bahn of Germany (Source: http://www.trainnet.org/Libraries/Lib006/VT_610.JPG)

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6.0 Fuel Cell train-set for Indian Railways – proposed design

Indian Railways is Asia’s largest and the world’s second largest railway system under a stateowned unitary management 20 . It runs around 11000 trains everyday, out of which 7000 are passenger trains.

The mode of traction is primarily diesel and electric, steam being used only for heritage and tourism purposes. The diesel locomotive and the electric locomotive (power from mostly coal based plants), cause production of GHGs, besides using fossil fuels. The well to wheel efficiency of both the diesel and electric locomotives is less than 30%. It shall be more than 60% for a hydrogen based fuel cell powered train-set.

Using hydrogen to fuel trains shall not only launch India into the select group of a few nations, but shall also provide a more environmental friendly and energy efficient solution. It is also a more cost-effective solution as compared to electrification, as has been the experience of the western countries. The higher cost of the fuel cell train can be also reduced by trading the carbon emission reduction (CER), as calculated in section 8.0.

Only the Indian Railways can spearhead the launch of the hydrogen economy, by setting up a single base hydrogen station (say at New Delhi) and fuelling many trains. This shall avoid the problem of transportation and handling of the hydrogen fuel to a large extent.

It is suggested that the responsibility of production of hydrogen cleanly and its supply be given to a separate Central Govt. Ministry or the State Govt. A number of methods of production of hydrogen are discussed in section 7.0.

The decision regarding the method of hydrogen production shall finally depend upon sound economics of the agency. However, the option of reforming biomass and other wastes in large urban conglomerates like New Delhi holds a lot of promise and could offer a very cost-effective and efficient solution.

To reduce carbon emissions to zero, the train needs to be fueled with hydrogen. There are three options for the power pack of a hydrogen fueled train:

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(a) Hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine with a battery bank (hybrid locomotive); (b) Both hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine and fuel cell in a specified ratio, say 50:50 or 67:33 or 75:25 with a battery bank (to demonstrate a fuel cell in a locomotive); (c) Completely powered by hydrogen fueled fuel cells, supported by batteries (fuel cell locomotive)

The cost of these train sets is in the same order – least cost for the completely internal combustion engine based, and the maximum cost for the completely fuel cell based train set. The energy efficiency is also in the same order.

Denmark is working on the option (a), while the East Japan Railway Co. is working on option (b). The fuel cell locomotive of USA is based on option (c).

As a road map, the Indian Railways could first work on developing option (a), then move on to option (b) and finally option (c). The main issue for option (a) is for hydrogen production, transportation and storage, while the main issue for option (c) is cost and technology of the fuel cells.

However, with rapid advances in the technology of hydrogen handling, the know-how for transportation and storage is available and developed. Today, many ways for the production of hydrogen have been successfully developed, and can be implemented in India. Hence, if the responsibility for making available sufficient hydrogen for the train set is entrusted to a separate Central Govt. Ministry or State Govt, as mentioned earlier, the Indian Railways can straightaway work on option (c) to reap the maximum benefits in terms of energy efficiency and other associated environmental benefits.

This report looks at a design, for adoption by Indian Railways, and the benefits accruing from it. Primarily, the design of the fuel cell train-set should address the following parameters: •

Sufficient power for the trainset

•

The traction control system

•

Size, weight and other design considerations of the fuel cell unit and the fuel

•

Provision of regenerative braking

•

Acceleration potential and top speed

•

Safety

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These issues need to be considered while designing the fuel cell train set.

The fuel cell train-set is planned to achieve a top speed of 105 kmph (29.17 m/s). Its acceleration should be 0.34 m/s2. It shall have a light-weight body and the unit should weigh around 90 tonnes. In view of the above, the proposed fuel cell train set shall require powering by two fuel cells of 160 kW each, which shall be boosted using a supercapacitor bank and driving by AC traction motors. The braking energy shall be recharged to the supercapacitor bank, and the fuel cell shall only be operated at its most efficient levels or not operated at all, as given in the Fig 25 below.

Figure 13: Fuel cell – supercapacitor hybrid transmission for the fuel cell trainset

The layout of the proposed 3 car double-decker fuel cell trainset shall be based on the following layout: •

Car A: Driving Car: Driver cabin, Both 160kw fuel cells, reformer, 750 litre LH2 fuel tank, supercapacitor bank and its controls, inverter and the passenger space (single-level) with vestibules.

•

Car B: Trailor Car: Double-decker passenger car with vestibules

•

Car C: Driving Car: Driver cabin, Four AC induction traction motors of 275kw each, traction control equipment, batteries, and the passenger space (single-level) with vestibules

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Figure 14: Fuel cell train set traction control system

The detailed calculation and design of the supercapacitor bank, induction traction motors and control systems is not being carried out for this feasibility report.

6.1 Details of the fuel cell proposed The final decision regarding the fuel cell to be used in the project can be made only during the project implementation stage. A number of options have been short-listed, and since new developments are taking place in the field of fuel cells, it is premature to firm up on the model. In spite of a number of queries to the prospective firms manufacturing fuel cells, especially Ballard, the price of the models manufactured by them was not disclosed, as they only wanted to deal with OEMs. However, an indicative price was obtained.

Ballard has two prominent models of fuel cells — Mark 902 and Nexa, that can be combined in series to form bigger fuel cell power packs. UTC is the other big player in the market. Nuvera has already established itself as a leading supplier of large fuel cells for transportation needs.

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Figure 15: Specification sheet of the Ballard Nexa fuel cell module

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Figure 16: Specification sheet of the Ballard Mark 902 fuel cell module

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7.0

Hydrogen fuel production

There are many ways to commercially produce hydrogen, the world’s most abundant element. Any of these can be used to produce hydrogen. Almost all of the hydrogen produced in the world today is by steam reforming of natural gas and for the near term, this method of production will continue to dominate. Researchers worldwide are developing a wide range of advanced processes for producing hydrogen economically from sustainable resources. The technique finally selected shall depend upon the economics and other technical considerations. These are discussed below.

7.1 Electrolysers

Electrolysers are a well developed technology for generation of hydrogen using water and electricity. The 240 kg H2 requirement for this application can be obtained using one electrolyser unit. The electrolyser evaluated in this study is part of an all inclusive station that also includes compressed gas storage, a purifier to achieve a 99.999% purity level, a compressor, all control, monitoring, and sensors required for the generating process, and an enclosure for all equipment. The two main inputs for electrolysis are water and electricity. Water is a common service at mine sites and should be readily available both above and underground. Purification of the water may be required depending on the purity level available at each specific mine site. The power requirement for a high capacity electrolyser such as the units required for this application are quite high (600 kW), resulting in significant power consumption costs. Overall capital cost to purchase this type of hydrogen generating station (including storage) is high compared to other generating technologies.

Figure 17: Electrolyser (Image courtesy of Stuart Energy)

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7.2 Hydrogen from nuclear power

Although hydrogen can be produced in many ways from nuclear electricity such as electrolysis or hybrid thermochemical cycles or using high temperature heat, the Savannah River National Laboratory, USA has proposed an innovative method to directly produce hydrogen from a nuclear plant.

Figure 18: Nuclear hydrogen proposed by the Savannah River National Laboratory

7.3 Hydrogen Fuel from coal cleanly – FutureGen Fuelcelltoday.com has reported 21 that a new technique is being commercially exploited by the US government’s FutureGen project to cleanly produce hydrogen from coal. India and the US Monday signed an agreement for New Delhi's participation in the 1-billion-dollar FutureGen project, which seeks to produce electricity from coal using an emission-free procedure. Through the signing of the agreement, India became the first country to participate on the US government's steering committee on the FutureGen project, the US Embassy in New Delhi.

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"It makes us proud to say that India is the first government member in the prestigious project. The government will contribute 10 million dollars in this," India's Power Minister Sushil Kumar Shinde was quoted by the PTI news agency as saying. The project is a public-private initiative to design, build and operate a nearly emission-free coalfired electric and hydrogen production plant. "The 275-megawatt prototype plant will serve as a large scale engineering laboratory for testing new clean power, carbon capture, and coal-to-hydrogen technologies. It will be the cleanest fossil fuel-fired power plant in the world," the US Department of Energy said in a statement. FutureGen, expected to be commissioned by 2012, could also see participation by Indian companies. 7.4 Biological Water Splitting Certain photosynthetic microbes produce hydrogen from water in their metabolic activities using light energy 22 . Photobiological technology holds great promise, but because oxygen is produced along with the hydrogen, the technology must overcome the limitation of oxygen sensitivity of the hydrogen-evolving enzyme systems. Researchers are addressing this issue by screening for naturally occurring organisms that are more tolerant of oxygen, and by creating new genetic forms of the organisms that can sustain hydrogen production in the presence of oxygen. A new system is also being developed that uses a metabolic switch (sulfur deprivation) to cycle algal cells between a photosynthetic growth phase and a hydrogen production phase. 7.5 Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting The cleanest way to produce hydrogen is by using sunlight to directly split water into hydrogen and oxygen 23 . Multi-junction cell technology developed by the Photovoltaic industry is being used for photoelectrochemical (PEC) light harvesting systems that generate sufficient voltage to split water and are stable in a water/electrolyte environment. The PEC system produces electricity from sunlight without the expense and complication of electrolyzers, at a solar-to-hydrogen conversion efficiency of 12.4% lower heating value (LHV) using captured light. Research is underway to identify more efficient, lower cost materials and systems that are durable and stable against corrosion in an aqueous environment.

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7.6 Reforming of Biomass and Wastes Hydrogen can be produced via pyrolysis or gasification of biomass resources 24 such as agricultural residues like peanut shells; consumer wastes including plastics and waste grease; or biomass specifically grown for energy uses. Biomass pyrolysis produces a liquid product (bio-oil) that contains a wide spectrum of components that can be separated into valuable chemicals and fuels, including hydrogen. Researchers are currently focusing on hydrogen production by catalytic reforming of biomass pyrolysis products. Specific research areas include reforming of pyrolysis streams and development and testing of fluidizable catalysts. 7.7 Solar Thermal Water Splitting Researchers have demonstrated that highly concentrated sunlight can be used to generate the high temperatures needed to split methane into hydrogen and carbon 25 . Concentrated solar energy can also be used to generate temperatures of several hundred to over 2,000 degrees at which thermochemical reaction cycles can be used to produce hydrogen. Such high-temperature, highflux solar driven thermochemical processes offer a novel approach for the environmentally benign production of hydrogen. Very high reaction rates at these elevated temperatures give rise to very fast reaction rates that enhance the production rates significantly and more than compensate for the intermittent 7.8 Renewable Electrolysis Renewable energy sources such as photovoltaics (PV), wind, biomass, hydro and geothermal can provide clean and sustainable electricity. However, some types OF renewable energy are limited by the fact that they have intermittent and seasonal energy production. One solution to this problem is to produce hydrogen through the electrolysis of water and use that hydrogen in a fuel cell to produce electricity during times of low power production or during peak demand or to use the hydrogen in fuel cell vehicles.

7.9 Hybrid thermochemical cycles Electricity and heat is combined to produce High temperature electrolysis (HTE) or Hybrid thermochemical cycles. This process requires both both electricity generation and high temperature process heat. The process provides efficiencies up to 50%.

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7.10

Thermochemical water-splitting

High temperature heat can directly be used to produce thermochemical water-splitting, through a set of chemical reactions that use heat to decompose water. The net plant efficiencies are up to 55%. This process avoids the cost of electricity generation. This is a developing technology and further research on the process is going on.

7.11

Reformers

The hydrogen reformers are able to produce the H2 gas. Reforming technology uses natural gas to both power the reformer and produce hydrogen gas. In comparing costs, the reformer units offer a significant cost savings over electrolyser units. One obstacle involved in reforming is the purity level of the hydrogen produced along with some of the by-products. A purity level of 99.995% is achievable in reformers, therefore a separate purifier will be required to get to 99.999% purity level of hydrogen.

Figure 19: Liquid H2 Delivery (Image courtesy of Air Liquide)

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8.0 Calculation of Savings of tCO2e Let us assume the fuel cell train replaces a conventional six car passenger train with a capacity of 540 passengers. We shall design a three car double-decker fuel cell trainset, with a maximum speed of 105 kmph.

Fro the purpose of this paper, let us calculate the savings in tonne CO2 equivalent (tCO2e) that replacement of an electric locomotive hauled passenger train between New Delhi and Kalka can achieve.

The distance traveled is 303 km. Let the train run three round trips everyday, 300 days/ annum. Then, the electricity consumed in one year (Eannum ) would be:

Eannum = EKMdaily x SEC x Daysannum,

[8.1]

Where, EKMdaily is the engine kilometers run daily SEC is the specific energy consumption of the locomotive in kwh / engine km, Daysannum is the days of operation per annum The SEC for an electric locomotive in passenger operation is 22.3 kwh / EKM for Northern Railway 26 . Engine KM daily is 303 x 6 KM = 1818 KM.

Thus, Eannum = 1818 KM x 22.3 kwh/ EKM x 300 days = 12162420 kwh For coal based power generation, the emission is 0.912 kg CO2 / kwh 27 . Thus, the saving in tCO2e for the train in a year would be Savings in tCO2e = 12162420 kwh x 0.912 kgCO2 / kwh . 0.001 = 11092.13 tCO2e The market rate of tCO2e is expected to hover between € 15 to € 26 / tCO2e 28 . Taking, a conservative € 15 / tCO2e, this translates into an opportunity of Market value of the saving = 11092.13 tCO2e . € 15 / tCO2e = € 166381.95 per annum

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Or,

= € 1663819.5 in ten years

Or,

= Rs. 9.98 crores (considering 1€ = Rs.60)

Or,

= USD 2,093,085 (considering 1€ = USD 1.258)

This is the saving for every fuel cell train set that replaces an electric locomotive hauled passenger train over a ten year period.

The cost of the fuel cell trainset of three double-decker cars is approximately Rs. 12.92 crores (USD 3 million):

Cost of fuel cell power pack Cost of hydrogen pressure tank & accesories Cost of supercapacitor bank Cost of power controls for SC Total

Cost (US $ '000s) 1800 480 500 225 3005

Table 3: Cost of fuel cell trainset (FCTS) Note: Each FC train-set is proposed to be a three car formation

Cost (US $ '000s) Cost of running and maintenance of fuel cell powered multiple units

20 per annum

Table 4: Annual Cost of running and maintenance of FCTS It is pertinent to point out that the market rate of the certified emission reduction (CER) is likely to increase as the target date of 2008 under the Kyoto Protocol approach.

9.0 Conclusion:

The additional capital cost of using a fuel cell to power the train, instead of using conventional sources, can be recovered in ten years. Using a fuel cell to power the train offers immense ecological benefits, and is the harbinger of a Green Era. A fuel cell powered rail train overcomes the disadvantages of diesel powered and electric powered trains, while retaining all the advantages. It is non-polluting and silent in operation, unlike diesel powered trains and is a much cheaper and flexible option compared to electricity run trains.

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The implementation of hydrogen fueled vehicles in the transport sector in India is easiest for the railways, since a few fueling points can serve a number of trains. The Indian Railways can set up a single base hydrogen station (say at New Delhi) and fuel many trains. This shall avoid the problem of transportation and handling of the hydrogen fuel to a large extent.

The project to run a fuel cell powered train requires a coordinated effort on three fronts: clean production of hydrogen, designing and manufacture of the trainset, and funding for both. It is suggested that the responsibility of production of hydrogen cleanly and its supply be given to a separate Central Govt. Ministry or the State Govt. A number of methods of production of hydrogen are discussed in section 7.0. The decision regarding the method of hydrogen production shall finally depend upon sound economics. However, the option of reforming biomass and other wastes in large urban conglomerates like New Delhi holds a lot of promise and could offer a very cost-effective and efficient solution. The design and manufacture of the fuel cell trainset can be undertaken by the Railways at one of their Production Units easily.

Finally, the project needs the support of the Government of India, and it needs to be borne in mind that the project needs to be implemented before 2008 to reap the maximum profit.

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10.0

1

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5

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20

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24

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28

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