Contraception 82 (2010) 113 – 118

Commentary

Guidance on medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use: identification of research gaps☆ Suzanne G. Folgera,⁎, Kathryn M. Curtisa , Naomi K. Teppera , Mary E. Gaffieldb , Polly A. Marchbanksa a Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA Department of Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva 1211, Switzerland Received 18 February 2010; accepted 18 February 2010

b

1. Introduction The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recently developed the United States Medical Eligibility Criteria (MEC) for Contraceptive Use [1], an adaptation of the World Health Organization's (WHO) evidence-based MEC guidance [2] regarding the safety of contraceptive methods for women with specific characteristics and medical conditions. For the majority of conditions covered by the MEC, at least one highly effective contraceptive method is classified as a “1” or “2,” indicating no restriction for use or that the advantages of use generally outweigh any theoretical or proven risks, demonstrating that contraception is remarkably safe for most women. Access to safe and effective contraception is critical for women with underlying medical conditions, as they may face heightened risks in pregnancy. However, despite the significance of this guidance for medical and public health knowledge and for the well-being of reproductive-age women, for some of the safety concerns, there is limited or no direct evidence in the published literature on which to base contraceptive guidance. For example, no studies were identified that examined contraceptive safety for women with a history of peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) [3]. Instead, the systematic review of PPCM considered indirect evidence, including studies on other cardiac outcomes, to inform the



The findings and conclusions in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention or the World Health Organization. ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S.G. Folger). 0010-7824/$ – see front matter. Published by Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2010.02.015

recommendations for contraceptive use among these women. For other recommendations in the MEC, even though a body of evidence exists, further research is needed to adequately address outstanding safety concerns. For example, research on the safety of intrauterine device (IUD) use and risk of expulsion among women with uterine fibroids consists only of non-comparative studies; therefore, the extent to which reported outcomes are attributable to IUD use is unknown [4]. Absence of evidence regarding contraceptive safety may be equated by women or their providers with absence of safety and lead to use of less effective methods. Alternatively, absence of evidence may be equated with absence of risk, resulting in use of methods which may potentially place these women at increased risk of adverse events or complications. In each of the expert working group meetings to update the WHO MEC (most recently held in April 2008, Geneva, Switzerland) and to adapt the guidance for the US MEC (February 2009, Atlanta, GA, USA), research gaps were identified for the contraceptive recommendations addressed; such identification of gaps is a critical component of evidence-based guideline development [5]. Our aim in this article is to stimulate research to address these gaps so that more women have access to the most appropriate contraceptive methods, based on safety and effectiveness, for their particular condition and characteristics. To illustrate, we highlight three conditions for which further research on contraception is needed: contraception for obese women, contraception for women who are breastfeeding and contraception for women with HIV infection or AIDS. For each condition, we discuss some of the methodological issues inherent in contraceptive research that can be especially challenging for studies examining the additional

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Commentary / Contraception 82 (2010) 113–118

Table 1 Research gaps identified in development of the Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use by the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Condition

Unanswered research questions

Age

1. What is the impact of long-term (N2 years) DMPA use on bone mineral density, and does this vary by race or ethnicity? 2. What is the impact of DMPA use among peri-menopausal women on the risk of fracture post-menopause? Breastfeeding 1. What standard definitions should be used and relevant clinical outcomes should be considered to evaluate infant health and breastfeeding? 2. What are the effects of maternal use of combined hormonal contraceptives and progestin-only contraceptives on infant health and breastfeeding performance when contraception is initiated less than 6 weeks postpartum, particularly immediately postpartum? 3. How does the infant metabolize progestins and what are the serum levels of progestin-only contraceptives and their active metabolites in breast-fed infants, particularly early in the neonatal period when metabolic capabilities are developing? 4. To what extent is the neonatal brain exposed to progestins or biologically active metabolites of progestins consumed through breast milk? 5. Are there differences in the safety of contraception among women who are fully or partially breastfeeding? Postpartum 1. Does timing of postpartum insertion of the copper or LNG-IUD affect expulsion rates? 2. Do expulsion rates differ by delivery type (C-section or vaginal delivery)? 3. Is IUD insertion within 10 min of delivery clinically feasible? 1. Does the risk of VTE associated with use of CHC increase among obese women as BMI increases? Obesity (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) 2. Are CHCs less effective among obese women than among women with lower body weight or BMI? Hypertension 1. Does use of CHCs among women with controlled hypertension increase the risk of cardiovascular events? 2. Does use of CHCs among women with pre-hypertension increase the risk of cardiovascular events? DVT/pulmonary embolism 1. Does use of progestin-only contraceptives increase the risk of VTE? 2. How many weeks before major surgery that may result in immobilization should users of CHC cease use? Depressive disorders 1. Does use of hormonal contraceptives exacerbate depressive disorders, including postpartum depression? Cervical intraepithelial 1. Does use of hormonal contraceptives affect acquisition of HPV? neoplasia (CIN) 2. Does use of hormonal contraceptives affect progression to CIN or cervical cancer among women with persistent HPV infection? Uterine fibroids 1. Does the presence of uterine fibroids increase the likelihood of IUD expulsion and, if so, does this vary by size and type of uterine fibroid, or the extent of uterine distortion? HIV/AIDS 1. Does use of hormonal contraception increase the risk of HIV acquisition, and does this vary by age? 2. Does use of hormonal contraception or IUDs among women with HIV/AIDS affect disease progression or transmission, and does this vary by stage of disease or the presence/absence of STI coinfection? Inflammatory bowel disease 1. Does use of CHC among women with IBD increase the risk of venous thromboembolism? (IBD) 2. Does use of DMPA among women with IBD increase the risk of fracture? 3. Does malabsorption due to IBD reduce the effectiveness of COCs and POPs? Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) 1. Does use of CHC among women with PPCM increase the risk of VTE or other cardiovascular events? Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) 1. Does use of DMPA among women with RA increase the risk of fracture, and does this differ between those who are and those who are not on immunosuppressive therapy? 2. Are women who have RA and are on immunosuppressive therapy at increased risk of infection associated with IUD insertion? 3. Is the increased risk of cardiovascular events among women with RA further increased with use of CHC? Solid organ transplant 1. Is the increased risk of fracture among women with liver transplant further increased with use of DMPA? Drug interactions: antiretroviral, 1. Does use of these drugs affect the effectiveness or toxicity of hormonal contraceptives? anticonvulsant, and antimicrobial 2. Does use of hormonal contraceptives affect the effectiveness or toxicity of these drugs? therapy (antimalarials, rifampicin)

risks that particular contraceptive methods may present among women with underlying medical conditions. The conditions we discuss are only three of several conditions for which research gaps were identified by experts participating in the working group meetings; other identified research gaps are listed in Table 1.

2. Contraception for obese women Obesity is epidemic worldwide, with more than one billion adults overweight [body mass index (BMI) ≥25 kg/m2] and at least 300 million clinically obese [BMI ≥30 kg/m2]

(WHO fact sheet, Obesity and Overweight, www.who.int/ dietphysicalactivity/media/en/gsfs_obesity.pdf, accessed Dec 9, 2009). In the US, recent data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey indicated that more than 34% of non-pregnant females ages 20–39 years were obese [6]; among females ages 12–19 years, the prevalence of obesity (defined as BMI for age ≥95th percentile) was almost 17% [7]. Obese women are at increased risk of pregnancy-related complications, including pre-eclampsia, gestational diabetes, spontaneous abortion, venous thromboembolic disease, pregnancy-induced hypertension and cesarean delivery [8–10]. Optimally, obese women will adapt behaviors and receive guidance from health care practitioners to reduce their

Commentary / Contraception 82 (2010) 113–118

weight prior to pregnancy [11]. However, given the epidemics of both obesity and unintended pregnancies, with the latter representing about 49% of all pregnancies in the United States [12], access to safe and highly effective contraception to prevent unintended pregnancy among obese women is of tremendous importance. To improve access, theoretical concerns regarding some of the more effective and longer lasting contraceptive methods for obese women need to be resolved. Perhaps the most significant research gap due to the potential sequelae and life-threatening nature of the condition concerns venous thromboembolism (VTE). Both obesity and use of combined oral contraceptive pills (COCs), including COCs with lower estrogen doses, are independent risk factors for VTE. An analysis of 20 years of data from the National Hospital Discharge Survey found obese female patients younger than 40 years of age to have a six-fold increased risk of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) relative to those who were not obese (RR 6.10, 95% CI 6.04–6.17) [13]. The increased risk of VTE associated with use of lowdose COCs has been estimated to be about two- to four-fold [14], and while research on the risk of VTE associated with use of other types of combined hormonal contraceptives (CHCs) is scant, they are generally thought to result in a similarly increased risk [15,16]. However, the absolute risk of VTE in women of reproductive age is low (about 3–10 per 10,000 women-years) [14,17], and thus, even these increased relative risks would not lead to large absolute risks in this age group. Although a meta-analysis from the UK suggested that, among COC users, the effect of obesity on VTE risk may increase with increasing BMI [18], few studies have assessed the combined effect of obesity and COC use, and whether the risk of VTE associated with COC use increases with increasing levels of obesity is unknown. Trussell et al. [19] examined data from four studies which assessed a possible difference in VTE risk due to COC use within varying categories of BMI, although the range of categories was limited to b25 , 25–29 and ≥30 kg/m2. Results from two of the four studies suggested that the effect of COC use on VTE may be greater among obese women than among women of lower BMI, although there was no statistical evidence of significant differences in risk estimates across BMI categories. The WHO MEC and the US adaptation classify use of CHCs among obese women (BMI ≥30 kg/m2) as a ‘2’, indicating that the advantage of use usually outweighs the theoretical or proven risks [1,2]. And while the United Kingdom's adaptation of the WHO MEC similarly classify use of CHCs among women with a BMI≥30-34 kg/m2 as a ‘2’, CHC use is classified as a category 3 condition for women with a BMI≥35 kg/m2, indicating that the risks associated with CHC use generally outweigh the advantages of use [20]. From the evidence, it is clear that obese COC users have an increased risk of VTE compared to obese women who do not use COCs. However, research is needed to determine whether the risk associated with use of COCs and other CHCs among

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obese women increases further at higher levels of obesity. Such research will require an adequate sample size of women with different BMI levels, extending from normal body size and weight ranges to BMI ≥40 kg/m2. Baseline estimates for VTE risk among obese women by BMI level are also needed to help elucidate the extent to which VTE risk increases with increasing obesity levels irrespective of CHC use. Because VTE can be asymptomatic or exhibit severe and lifethreatening symptoms [17], the approach and intensity for identifying and monitoring cases is important. To reduce the possible impact of referral or diagnostic bias in studies examining the association between hormonal contraceptive use and VTE risk, identification and enrollment of women with VTE should be made without knowledge of contraceptive exposure status. Other considerations include the need for an objective measure of BMI obtained just prior to initiation of hormonal contraceptive use and during use as opposed to estimates based on self-report, accurate measure of the initiation and duration of use, and exclusion of women with or an approach for identifying and adequately controlling for other VTE risk factors, such as recent surgery, recent injury or trauma, recent prolonged bed rest or prior VTE. Because the risk of VTE may vary by estrogen dose and progestin type [14], additional studies are also needed that permit accurate risk estimates by type of formulation. A second issue for which further research is needed is the question of whether obesity or high body weight impairs the effectiveness of hormonal contraceptives. Proposed mechanisms for reduced effectiveness of hormonal contraceptives in obese women include dilution of the hormonal concentration due to a higher volume of circulating blood; sequestration of the steroidal components by fat cells, thereby reducing steroidal activity; and the possibility that steroids are metabolized differently in obese women [21,22]. Results of studies investigating the extent to which obesity is associated with failure of hormonal contraceptives are inconclusive. In a recent commentary, Trussell et al. [23] reported on eight published studies examining the effect of body weight or BMI on apparent contraceptive pill failure. Two of the studies found oral contraceptive users with higher body weight or BMI to be at increased risk of pregnancy relative to women of normal body mass, while the other six studies, including two clinical trials, did not. Burkman et al. [24] recently reported on a post hoc retrospective analysis of data originally collected in a large randomized trial of two lowdose COCs. Burkman's analysis was conducted to assess the association between the efficacy of either or both formulation(s) and body weight or BMI. Although consistently elevated relative risk estimates for pregnancy suggested the possibility of a reduction in efficacy of both formulations among women of higher body weight or BMI, overall, the findings were not statistically significant. It must be noted, however, that the upper limit of BMI for study inclusion was only 32.4 kg/m2, and the median BMI among participants was 23 kg/m2 (range 15.9 – 47.6 kg/ m2). Finally, in a pooled analysis of data from three efficacy trials of the

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Commentary / Contraception 82 (2010) 113–118

contraceptive patch, Ziemen et al. [25] found contraceptive failures to be more likely among women with a baseline body weight of 90 kg (198 lb) or greater, although women of this weight made up less than 3% of the study population. Limitations of the studies conducted to date to investigate the effect of body weight or BMI on the effectiveness of hormonal contraceptives include inadequate sample sizes of obese women; lack of recent body weight measurement prior to pregnancy onset; failure to control for duration of COC use; use of self-reported body weight, height and contraceptive use and failure; and assessment of contraceptive failure through live births only. To determine whether high body weight or obesity affects hormonal contraceptive effectiveness, studies need sufficient statistical power to assess this within different categories of obesity. As has been suggested [23,24], an adequately powered, randomized, clinical trial may be necessary to draw definitive conclusions. Additional well-designed observational studies that address the limitations noted in prior studies can also provide further insight.

3. Hormonal contraception during breastfeeding Contraception for women who are breastfeeding is a complicated but critically important consideration. During the postpartum period, effective contraception can help prevent unintended pregnancy and ensure adequate birth spacing, thereby preventing the adverse maternal and infant outcomes associated with short interpregnancy intervals, such as low birthweight, preterm birth and small for gestational age classification [26]. In addition, breastfeeding has health benefits for both the infant and the mother. Benefits for the infant may include reductions in risk for otitis media, gastroenteritis, severe lower respiratory tract infections, atopic dermatitis, asthma, diabetes, obesity and sudden infant death syndrome [27]. Benefits for the mother may include reductions in risk of type 2 diabetes, ovarian cancer and breast cancer [27]. For women who are breastfeeding, contraceptive method choice may have implications both for infant health and for breastfeeding success. Therefore, consideration of contraceptive methods must assess the impact of the method on both of these vital outcomes. Two systematic reviews in this issue of Contraception address the safety of contraceptive methods in women who are breastfeeding; one examines progestin-only methods and one examines COCs [28,29]. Both systematic reviews included primary reports of breastfeeding women using contraceptives and examined clinical outcomes such as infant health and breastfeeding performance. A systematic review of randomized clinical trials regarding hormonal contraception during breastfeeding has been previously published [30]. With respect to effects on infant health, many studies have examined the use of hormonal methods of contraception among breastfeeding women. These studies have used multiple outcome measures, including infant weight, infant length, physical findings, health problems and psychomotor

development. Studies that have examined the use of progestin-only methods of contraception, including progestin-only pills (POPs), depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA), implants or levonorgestrel-releasing (LNG) IUDs, have not found adverse effects on infant growth, health or development through 6 years of age. In addition, studies examining COC use among breastfeeding women have not found any adverse infant outcomes through 8 years of age. With respect to effects on breastfeeding, studies examining the use of progestin-only methods have generally found no effects on multiple measures of breastfeeding performance, including initiation, maintenance, duration of lactation and need for supplementation. Several studies have examined the use of COCs among breastfeeding women and reported inconsistent effects on breastfeeding performance. Some studies reported decreased duration of breastfeeding and higher rates of supplemental feedings, while others did not. While the evidence has been fairly consistent, there are several methodologic limitations that make it difficult to draw conclusions from these studies. Results from the randomized clinical trials were limited by unclear randomization procedures and high rates of loss to follow-up. Most of the studies have been observational in design, lacked clear definitions of breastfeeding patterns, and have not consistently examined clinically important developmental outcomes among infants. Very few studies have examined initiation of contraceptives within 6 weeks postpartum and particularly immediately postpartum, which is widely practiced and may represent a logistically important timeframe for initiating contraception. Studies often did not control for confounding factors, which may obscure important differences between women who choose to use hormonal contraceptive methods and those who choose different methods. In addition, studies did not include ill or premature infants, who might gain the most benefit from breastfeeding. Further studies regarding infant outcomes are needed, including outcomes among ill or premature infants, in women who breastfeed and use hormonal contraception. Studies should examine the effects on infant health and development when contraceptives are initiated within 6 weeks postpartum, particularly immediately postpartum. Very little information is available on the effect of hormones on the developing infant brain, and long-term follow-up is needed to assess the full impact of these early exposures. In addition, it is unclear which infant health and development outcomes are most appropriate to measure; work needs to be done to clarify the most relevant outcomes and how to measure them. Further studies are also needed to examine the effect of hormonal contraceptives on breastfeeding. Efforts should be made to develop standardized definitions of breastfeeding and to identify the most relevant clinical indicators and outcomes of breastfeeding performance. Future studies should examine the effect of hormonal contraceptive use

Commentary / Contraception 82 (2010) 113–118

on breastfeeding performance when contraceptives are initiated within 6 weeks postpartum and particularly immediately postpartum. While additional studies are needed to further elucidate the effects of COCs, POPs, DMPA, etonogestrel implants and the LNG-IUD on breastfeeding, studies are also needed to examine more recently introduced methods, such as the contraceptive patch and ring. Studies that help identify the optimal timing for initiation of all of these methods would be of great value.

4. Contraception for women with HIV infection or AIDS Access to highly effective contraceptive methods is critical for women with HIV in order to prevent unintended pregnancy, which is a primary strategy for preventing maternal to child transmission of HIV [31]. However, theoretical concerns exist regarding whether certain contraceptive methods may affect HIV disease progression, increase risk of other adverse effects or increase the risk of HIV transmission to uninfected partners. There is also the potential for drug interactions between hormonal methods of contraception and antiretroviral therapy (ART). While there is a growing body of evidence on these topics, there are still many unanswered questions. Most studies suggest no increased risk of HIV disease progression with hormonal contraceptive use, when examining changes in CD4 cell count, viral load or survival [32]; however, the only randomized clinical trial (RCT) conducted on this issue suggests an increased risk of disease progression or death for hormonal contraceptive users compared with copper intrauterine device (IUD) users [33]. Studies have not shown any effect of contraceptive methods on risk of other adverse events, such as increased blood pressure, uterine bleeding and pelvic inflammatory disease [32]. While studies have not shown any direct associations between contraceptive use and HIV transmission to uninfected partners, it is unclear whether hormonal contraceptive use affects HIV DNA or RNA shedding from the genital tract [32]. Finally, evidence primarily from pharmacokinetic studies of hormonal contraceptives and antiretroviral therapies show large decreases in contraceptive steroid levels with ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors, with the potential to compromise contraceptive effectiveness; smaller decreases are seen with non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and the clinical significance of these interactions is not known; and no clinically significant interactions between hormonal contraceptive and nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors have been reported [2]. There is an urgent need to determine whether hormonal contraceptive methods affect HIV disease progression. While the results of the RCT [33] are concerning, the large and differential amount of contraceptive method discontinuation and switching that occurred during the study raises questions about the findings, as well as whether a randomized design is the best approach for these studies.

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Overall, these studies have generally had small sample sizes, have not been able to examine concomitant ART use, and have not included severely immunocompromised women. Therefore, a key question for future studies is whether it is possible to conduct an RCT of contraceptive use that will preserve the initial allocation to contraceptive groups or whether a well-conducted observational study with carefully measured confounders is a better approach. In addition, studies need to examine or control for ART use, as well as include a broader range of women with various degrees of immunosuppression. As ART is becoming increasingly accessible around the world, it is imperative to examine whether there are drug interactions between currently used ARTs and hormonal contraceptive methods. This question is particularly challenging given the rapidly changing status of individual and combination ARTs. There are few pharmacokinetic studies examining drug interactions between hormonal contraceptive methods and ARTs, and even fewer studies examining clinical outcomes, such as ovulation, breakthrough bleeding and pregnancy. Studies on current ARTs that go beyond pharmacokinetics and include some clinically relevant outcomes are needed. In addition, studies should examine the broad range of hormonal contraceptives, including use of emergency contraceptives, and focus on several potential outcomes, including both decreased effectiveness as well as increased risk of toxicity for both the contraceptive methods and the ART.

5. Conclusion The examples discussed above involve only three of several conditions for which research gaps were identified by experts participating in the WHO and US expert working group meetings on Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. We selected these three for discussion because they are each significant globally and they illustrate the importance and methodological complexities of contraceptive research. Contraception for obese women is of tremendous importance in the US, is becoming more significant globally, and related research gaps demonstrate how a lack of evidence can result in inconsistent guidance for contraceptive use. Research gaps on hormonal contraception for breastfeeding women are significant for health of the mother-infant dyad and demonstrate the need for basic standardized measures of exposure and outcome. Research gaps on contraception for women with HIV/AIDs provide an example of the complexities of study design issues for contraceptive safety, and call for discussion of the appropriate role of RCTs. The benefits of safe and highly effective methods for contraception are needed by all women who want to prevent unintended pregnancy, especially women with underlying health conditions or characteristics for whom pregnancy may present particularly elevated risks. The research gaps

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Commentary / Contraception 82 (2010) 113–118

identified highlight specific needs for additional investigations on contraceptive safety and effectiveness among these women. We hope this paper will facilitate research to address these gaps, thereby enhancing future versions of the MEC and helping family planning providers and health practitioners better serve their patients and clients.

References [1] United States Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. Adapted from the World Health Organization Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. 4th ed. MMWR; 2010. [2] World Health Organization. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use. 4th ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2009. [3] Tepper NK, Paulen ME, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Safety of contraceptive use among women with peripartum cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. Contraception 2010 [in this issue]. [4] Zapata LB, Whiteman M, Tepper NK, Jamieson DJ, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Intrauterine device use among women with uterine fibroids: a systematic review. Contraception 2010 [in this issue]. [5] Woolf SH, Grol R, Hutchinson A, Eccles M, Grimshaw J. Potential benefits, limitations, and harms of clinical guidelines. BMJ 1999;318: 527–30. [6] Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Curtin LR. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. JAMA 2010;303:235–41. [7] Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Curtin LR, Lamb MM, Flegal KM. Prevalence of high body mass index in US children and adolescents, 2007-2008. JAMA 2010;303:242–9. [8] Catalano PM. Management of obesity in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:419–33. [9] Robinson HE, O'Connell CM, Joseph KS, McLeod NL. Maternal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by obesity. Obstet Gynecol 2005;106:1357–64. [10] Grimes DA, Shields WC. Family planning for obese women: challenges and opportunities. Contraception 2005;72:1–4. [11] American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obesity in pregnancy. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 315. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106:671–5. [12] Finer LB, Henshaw SK. Disparities in rates of unintended pregnancy in the United States, 1994 and 2001. Perspec Sex Reprod Health 2006;38: 90–6. [13] Stein PD, Beemath A, Olson RE. Obesity as a risk factor in venous thromboembolism. Am J Med 2005;118:978–80. [14] Lidegaard O, Lokkegaard E, Svendson AL, Agger C. Hormonal contraception and risk of venous thromboembolism: national followup study. BMJ 2009;b2890:339 [doi:10.1136/bmj.b2890]. [15] Martinez F, Avecilla A. Combined hormonal contraception and venous thromboembolism. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2007;12:97–106. [16] Jick SS, Hagberg KW, Hernandez RK, Kaye JA. Postmarketing study of ORTHO EVRA and levonorgestrel oral contraceptives containing hormonal contraceptives with 30 mcg of ethinyl estradiol in relation to nonfatal thromboembolism. Contraception 2010;81:16–21.

[17] Heinemann LAJ, Dinger JC. Range of published estimates of venous thromboembolism incidence in young women. Contraception 2007;75: 328–36. [18] Nightingale AL, Lawrenson RA, Simpson EL, Williams TJ, MacRae KD, Farmer RDT. The effects of age, body mass index, smoking and general health on the risk of venous thromboembolism in users of combined oral contraceptives. Eur J Contracep Reprod Health Care 2000;5:265–74. [19] Trussell J, Guthrie KA, Schwarz EB. Much ado about little: obesity, combined hormonal contraceptive use and venous thrombosis. Contraception 2008;77:143–6. [20] Faculty of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care Royal College of Obstetrics and Gynecology. UK Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use (UKMEC) - 2009 edition. Available from: URL: http://www.fsrh.org/admin/uploads/UKMEC.html. [21] Speerhas R. Drug metabolism in malnutrition and obesity: clinical concerns. Cleve Clin J Med 1995;62:73–5. [22] Edelman AB, Carlson NE, Cherala G, et al. Impact of obesity on oral contraceptive pharmacokinetics and hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian activity. Contraception 2009;80:119–27. [23] Trussell J, Schwarz EB, Guthrie K. Obesity and oral contraceptive pill failure. Contraception 2009;79:334–8. [24] Burkman RT, Fisher AC, Wan GJ, Barnowski CE, LaGuardia KD. Association between efficacy and body weight or body mass index for two low-dose oral contraceptives. Contraception 2009;79:424–7. [25] Zieman M, Guillebaud J, Weisberg E, Shangold GA, Fisher AC, Creasy GW. Contraceptive efficacy and cycle control with the Ortho Evra™/Evra™ transdermal system: the analysis of pooled data. Fertil Steril 2002;77:S13–8. [26] Zhu BP, Rolfs RT, Nangle BE, Horan JM. Effect of the interval between pregnancies on perinatal outcomes. N Engl J Med 1999;340: 589–94. [27] Ip S, Chung M, Raman G, Trikalinos TA, Lau J. A summary of the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality's evidence report on breastfeeding in developed countries. Breastfeed Med 2009;4(Suppl 1): S17–S30. [28] Kapp N, Curtis K, Nanda K. Progestogen-only contraceptive use among breastfeeding women: a systematic review. Contraception 2010 [in this issue]. [29] Kapp N, Curtis K. Combined oral contraceptive use among breastfeeding women: a systematic review. Contraception 2010 [in this issue]. [30] Truitt ST, Fraser AB, Grimes DA, Gallo MF, Schulz KF. Hormonal contraception during lactation. Systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Contraception 2003;68:233–8. [31] Glion consultation on strengthening linkages between reproductive health and HIV/AIDS. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2006/WHO_ HIV_2006.02_eng.pdf 2006. [32] Curtis KM, Nanda K, Kapp N. Safety of hormonal and intrauterine methods of contraception for women with HIV/AIDS: a systematic review. AIDS 2009;23:S55–S67. [33] Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, et al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:144–8.

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Mar 29, 2017 - SME. Chemical. Oncology. Treatment of locally advanced or ... the scope of the scheme or with a format and content inadequate to support.

Recommendations on eligibility to PRIME scheme - European ...
Jul 26, 2017 - 30 Churchill Place ○ Canary Wharf ○ London E14 5EU ○ United ... Name of the active substance, INN, common name, chemical name or company code. ... of the scheme or with a format and content inadequate to support.

Recommendations on eligibility to PRIME scheme - European ...
Apr 26, 2017 - supporting request. Type of applicant ... Name of the active substance, INN, common name, chemical name or company code. SME applicants ...

Recommendations on eligibility to PRIME scheme - European ...
3 days ago - Name*. Substance type. Therapeutic area. Therapeutic indication. Type of data supporting request. Type of applicant. Adeno-associated viral.

Recommendations on eligibility to PRIME scheme - European ...
May 24, 2017 - Send a question via our website www.ema.europa.eu/contact. © European ... Name*. Substance type. Therapeutic area. Therapeutic indication.

Recommendations on eligibility to PRIME scheme - European ...
Jul 4, 2018 - *This indicates eligibility requests received but not started by EMA as they were deemed outside the scope of the scheme or with a format and ...

Recommendations on eligibility to PRIME scheme - European ...
Mar 1, 2017 - 30 Churchill Place ○ Canary Wharf ○ London E14 5EU ○ United Kingdom ... active substance, INN, common name, chemical name or company code. ... of the scheme or with a format and content inadequate to support their.