3

Implicationsof Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning John Sweller Uniuersityof New South Walcs

Abstract I{umans havc evolvt cl with l working memory that has no logical ct'ntral crecutivt- available wht'n rcquirecl to organise novt'l infirrn'ration.Consecluently,f rriling irrstruction,we must randornlyproposc organisationalcombinationsancltest thclr for eflectivencss.This procctlure is onlv pc'rssiblewitl'r a very limitetl numbcr o1' elements ancl as a conscqllencc,r,r'orking memory is severelylimitccl rvhe-nclealing u'ith novel infirrmation. ln contrast,familiar,organisedinfbrntationprcviouslystorecl in long-term mentory can act as a ccntral executive and eliminate thc nec-dfor working mr.mory limitations.Thtse-structures are ccntral to cognitive load theory. They suggestthat instruction shoulclact as substitute.firr the missingccntral cxecutive rvhen dcaling with novel information ar-rd that f'actor,in turn, cleterminesmultin-rcclia instructionalprinciplcs.

Introduction Good instructionaldesignis driven by our klowledge of human cognitive structures

and thc manncr in which those strtrcturcs are organisccl into a cognitivc architt'ct u r e . W i t h o u t k n o w l c d g co f r c l c v a n ta s p c c t s o f h u m a r . rc o g n i t i v e a r c h i t e c t u r es u c h a s thr. characteristicsof anrl intricatr. relations bctween workir"rgmcmory and long-tcrrr-r m c m o r y , t h c . e f f c c t i v e n e s so f i n s t r t r c t i o n a l clc'sigrris likely to bc' random. Cognitive load theory hasbeen onc of thc theoricsr"rsccl to integrateour knor,r,'lcclgc of human cognitive strtrcturesanclinstrtrctionalciesignprin'l'his ciples. chapter is concr:rneclwith thc c'lemc-nts of that theory and its gencralimplic a t i o n sl b r n r u l t i m e d i al c a r n i n g ,s p e c i f i c a l l y , words prcsente-din spokcr-ror writtt-n firrm along with pictures or cliagrams. I will begin r,vitl'rsome aspcctsof human cognitive architecture-relevant to instruction. Along the way I will suggestthat the processes and structrrresof human cognition are closely analogousto the processcsancl structuresassociated with evolution by natural selectionand that accordingly,cvolutionary theory, which is much older and better developedthan cognitivetheory,canbe uscd as a guide to assess which instructionalproceduresmay or may not be eflective. r9

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Therrcsult only was obtainable using board configurationstaken fiom real gamcs. I n t h c l a t e r g a o s a n d t 9 E o s ,a s i m i l a rr e mem()ryhastht'same centralrole l,ong-terr.t-t sult u.as obtained many times in a variety in hurlrrn cognitiort as ii genetic code has of {ields by sevi'ralinvcstigators[e.g., Egan i n b i o l o g y [ S w c l l e r ,: o o 3 ) . . l t r s ta s a g e n c t i c & Schr,r'artz,r979; .lc{}ries,Ttrrncr, Polson, coclcht'avily clctt'rmincsa biological lif'e,sct & A t r v o o c l ,r g t r ; S w c l l c r & C o o p c r , r g l i , J . long-term merrorv ht'avily determincs ttur Expcrts havt' a vastly superior mcmory til cognitivc lir.es.All tl'rc ir.rlirrmationin a genctic cotlc has bt-.'n cletcrmineclby ac'lapta- noviccsfirr problem statcsin thcir lielclof exp e r t i s c .F o r e r x a m p l cS, i m o n a n c lC i l m a r t i n t i o n t o a n c n v i r t t n n t c n t( c v o l u t i o r -br y n a t s sr a n dm a s ( , , ) ; l ) h a v er : s t i m a t c dt h a t c 1 . r t ' g u r a l s r - l c c t i o n )a n t l s i m i l a r l y ,e v c r y t h i n gi r r l o o , ooo boarcl t l p t ( ) ters havc mcmorisccl Iong-tt'rm nrcm()r\rh,rs lt.'crt learncd in orof infbrntation It is this stort' clt'r to cognitivelf irclaptttt nt'tt't-tt'irclnmcnt. configurations. C)n this rrnalogvbetu'ecn a gcnetic coclcar-rcl i n l o n g - t c r m m c m o r y t h a t c t l n s t i t u t e se x pcrtisc. As a conscquence,problcm-sttlving Iong-tt'rm lr('lror\J, rlnrost all htrn'rancogskill is critically dctcrrninccl by infcrrman i t i v e a c t i v i t y i s c l c t c r n t i n c tbl y i n l i l r m a t i o r l tion in long-tcrnr mcm()ry t'onccrttingprtlbmcm()ry.This infbrmation hcld in long-terr.r-r lem states antl tht' bcst movc associatccl must bt' lcarncclovcr timt' jtrst as thc infirrn r a t i o r rh c l r l i n a g c n t ' t i c c o d e i s a c q t r i r e c l lvitl.r cach state. Such knowlctlge hcltl in mem()ry allows an cxp('rt to inllong-terr-t-t ovcr tinrr'. l,carning is clefinctl as an altcrmecliatelyrrcognise ntost o{ thc sitr"ratictns r t i o r . ri n k r n g - t c r m m c m o r y . I f n o t h i n g h a s f'accd ancl thc actions rcqtrircclby that sitl l t c r c i l i n l o n g - t t ' r n rm e m ( ) r y n o t h i n g h a s 'fhat large bocly of kntt'"vletlgeperruation. b c c n l t ' r r n c d .A c c o r t l i n g l ya, p p r o p r i a t ca l t c r n r i t s t h c f l t r t ' n c vs h o w n b y c r p c r t s i n t h e i r a t i o n s t o l o t ' r g - t t ' r mm c n t o r y s h o l r l c bl c t h c ()\\ 11irrt'u. A major firnction ttf irrstrr-rctionll p r i r n r r y i r i n ' ro l i t r s t r t t tci o r t . 'l'hc thrt ittfirrn-rationitr lor-rg- , 1 , ' s i g r ri \ t ( ) i l \ \ i \ 1 l t . ' l r t t , ' r st o 1 t . r . 1 t . ' 1I r ,s' i m i sr"rggcstiorr tcrnr nr('morv is ltttltlogottsto I gt'rlctic: 1 a rf l t r en c v .F l t r c n tp r o c c d u r e si r - n p l yt h a t t h e that undcrpins skillecl neccssaryknor^',lcclgc cotle, thrt most hunrati cognitiveactivity p e r f i r r m a n c ci n a n y s t t b s t a n t i v ea r e a h a s is clrivt'n by infbrrnation hcld in lttng-term bc'enacquircd. mcnrory, ancl thrrt thc aim of instruction s h , t r r l ,llt , ' t , r r t l t , ' rl o n g - t t ' r mm e t n o r y ,i m ply that the long-tcrm mcmory stort-is vcry 'l'hc cr.'iderrccfirr a v.-ry large lot-rglargc. 'l'he The Structurc of Kr-rowledge term mcmor)' is novv overwht'lming. in Long-Term Memory origir-rof this cliscoveryis ttnusual:thc gamc of chess. E m p h a s i s i n gt h e i m p o r t a n c eo f a c c u m u l a t I)e Croot (r 9(rr ) stuclieclthc f-actorsthat ing kntx'vledgt-in long-term mt-mory as the permittccl chessgrand mastcrsto almost inprimary goalof instructionis somctimesmisvariably dcfeat lcss ablc plavcrs. The- only beinterpreted as an cmphasis t'rt-trote learnf'actor hc coulcl find that clistinguishecl ir.rg.In fact, both rote learning and learnir.rg twcr-n more able-and lcss able cht-ssplayresult in changcsin longr-rswas in mcmory fbr board conhgurations with r-rndcrstanding term memory. Rote learning crccursr,t'hcn takr.nfiom real games.If shor,vna board consomc connectionsbctu,een elcments occur {iguration taken fiom a real game fbr a few but other, essentialconnections,are omitseconclsand then asked to reproduce that ted. If a student learns to recite the letchcssgrand masterscould recc'rnfiguration, ters of the alphabet but not hor'r' they can placr-most of thc piecescorrectly.Lessable be used to produce lvritten language,or pla,vcrscoulcl correctly rcplace feiv of the l i m o n ( , q ; l ) r e p l i c a t e d learnsto recite a multiplication table but not p i c c c s .C h a s ea n c ' S that multiplication is a shorthandprocedurc this result but founcl it could not be replicatecl using randon-rboard configurations. for repeated addition, there are changes in

Long-Term Memory

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kncllr'lFrom a mr-rltime'cliapcrspt'ctivc' long-tcrm in erlge is hclcl irr a schcmatic lirrm t'r r t'rltltl' m e m ( ) r ) r t h t ' t h t ' r i t i t l t r tt t t r i l t l h('\\l)():lr(l \ r r ' r i t t , ' t t ,o f s P r r k tf l R t t t t g t t i s i n g vilargely is conligurrrtions or rvrittt't.t tt'xt Rt'cognissr"ralantl rcclttircs rtisttal schcmas contirring',vhcrc rvortls bcgir.rancl e nd in the re thrrt cor-rstittttcsspct'ch clttircs ,,.',r.r,.,,rtt',r.1 ability ,,.r.litnry scht'nlns ln all t'ascs, tl-rat i t l l o r n l a t i oll rt'to appropriltcl,v catcgorisc in hclcl .1uir", In.rn't"nr.l,',..,n-'l-'""o1'schcmas lot'rg-term lrt('nl()rY' firrm Wl'ti1.:',.h",-t-'raacclr"tisitiotris a nraitlr M lteo r r c ' of lcarrring it is r.rot thc onl-v pr<'b e c a n rill held in lorlg-tcrrlr nlenr()rv atrtonlaticall'v ct'ssc.1 t'itht'r cot'tsciottslv or & Sinron' r';S;; Schnt'itlcr IKotovski',Ilayt's, S l i i { l i i n & S c h r r t - i c lre' 8. Shi1lrin, I 9;-, actltrirctl' L,r-- ). ()tlt't' lr schenla has bccrl o 1 'timct an l i t l t h " , p r a c t i t c o v er l o t r g p c r i o c l s cit pt'rnt it it,r..ll-," proct'ssctl irtttor-rlirti lly lvith thc ol rs lctte ltrt cl.,rrsciotlsct,rrtrol C)r'rcetl-rc into u'orcls alphlbct rrrldth.'ir combinatiort l t r r t h c r lcrrllirlg a ' ' t . 1p l . r " r . , h , t s t ' c c r t r r c r l , ctltr.ll,rnu, onc t() rt'lcl withotrt ctlt-tsciotislv ('vc11 ()r t'tlnsiclt'rirlgirlsiticring thosc lcttcrs of .1l"i.lr.t.i rvortls al-rclsome combitrrttiotls aitttlbccomc worcls. Sttch prtlcc'sscs havt' in rnatt'cl ltttl otl-rcr lctil'itics cltl 1-tt't'ngagccl rrttoAgairr' such rs lttcr-rtling to t'ncirtlittg nlcnrmirtccl schcmas arc ht-lcl itr long-tcrm s1.ltlvcrllal' ory ancl can trc t'ithcr picttlrial or ken or I'rrrittct't.

Working Mt:morY mattWhat tltles it mcan t() sly s()nle or conscicluslv autorial cart be prclcessccl oi that some nlaterial has been n-raticall.v, or is not yet r'r'ith trnclerstandil.rg lc'arn.-c1 its inunclerstood?Workir.rgmenlor-v ancl providc i.i...tinn, rn'ith long-tt'rm merr()ry novel an erplanatitln. Whcn clealingrvith seinfbrmation, t"r'orkiugmcmory has two indicatecl ,,"." li-itntions. Miller (t c;6) to hoid ablc only is memory that rvorking lt about seven elemcnts clf information of comcan probably processin the sense than more no manipuiatc or bine, contrast' the numbers' these On elements z-1 about

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capacity t-,f working mcm()ry n'hen dealing u'ith new infirrmation is severely con'T'he cluration of working mcmorv strained. is also constrainecl. Pctersttn ancl Petersorl Ir ,) Sq) firund that vvithottt rchearsal, almtlst all thc contt:r.ttsof working memory arr- lost within about zo seconcls. instrttctior.ral clcsign arc tht' What c()nsclluenct:s ol thcst' ',vorking mL-mory limitationsT All instrtrction rt'tlttiring lcarncrs to clt-r1r,r'ith novcl ittforrnltion mttst br.' pro.csscd by rr strttctttrc tl'rrrt is nlirlutc it-t c l p a c i t y a n r . lt h r t r c t l i r t s t h t ' t t e t v i r l f i r r m a tion firr n() nror(' thrrn rt fcu' st'cttncls.Tl-rese I i m i t a t i o n s s h o t r l c lt r e l c t . t r t r a Ic o n s i c l t - r a t i o r r of instrttctional tlesign. Whilc thc aim of instructiot.t should be thc accltrisititln of atrtomatecl schemrs, thc cxc,l'tttitln tlf this a i m r c r l r - r i r c sI c o t - t s t l t n tm o n i t o r i r l g o f t h e working mcm()ry corrs('(ltlcltccsof any rccor-nmenclccl procccltt n'. I ttstrr'rctiona I clesigrrs t h a t i g n o r e r ' v o r k i n gm c m ( ) r y l i n t i t a t i o n s a r c likt'ly to bt- rat'rclomirr tht'ir cflectivcncss. M a n y i n s t m t t i o n a l c l e s i g nr t ' c o n l m c t l d a tions cloignorc rvorking mernory lirnitatiorls. As an exrmple, rnv inqttirv-basctl instrttctional dt'sigrr incvitably plact's a hclv-v loacl o n w c l r k i n g m e n r o r y . F o r t h i s r c a s o t - t ,i t i s inrportant to plact- httman rvorking mcmory limitatior-rs into a tl'rt'orctit'al frami-work to fircilitatc a Itrll trndcrstartcling of the reasons firr a limit,.'cl working mcmory. Working mcmory lirnitations when clcaling with 'l'hey novel inlirrrnation are not acciclcntal. a r c a n e s s c n t i a l c o n c o m i t a r - r to f h u m a n c o g nitivc architcctllrc. Withotrt those limitations, our cognitivc mt-chanisms coulcl not function. Thcy are thcre firr a purpose and that purposc clirectly impacts instructional desigr.rconsiderations.

Why Working

Memory Is Limited

Considera str-rdentlearninga nert' task such as how to navigate ther Web. The student is t ' a c c dl r i t h a s ( r c ( ' n p a g c ( o n t a i n i n g m a n y buttons each likely to represent a link to other pages and functions that alscrcontain many more links and functions.The amount of infbrmation is massive,consisting of a

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that a formation, we canbegin to understand o\rercome to major function of instruction is memthe inevitablc limitations clf r'vorking t h t ' s l m t'w:-ty o r y . l l r t r i n gs t u J e n t sl c l r n i n

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of General lnstructionaI hnplications Worki ng Memory Chartrctcristics tht' lnstructional impliclrtiorrs {low from stlmclcarning sttrdcnt a suggestion that thil.rgnew must use tht' samc informationtcr proccsslngsystcm as a spcciesleurning, her tlr his to l'cft aclaptto alt etlt'irtlnment own tlevices withclut assistancc,:r student the lt-arning,for cxample, holv ttl navigate try randomly to but Web, has t-ro choice eflectiveness' firr thenl proceduresand te-st fiom Wh"." knowleclgcis available'either long-term from or source, another personor it is -.-,r.y, it is likely to be trsed Where fbllowed gcneration t," -.tf.f',f", runJlt't by effectivenesstesting is thc- clnll',alternaall inquiry-basedlearning tive. ln its essence, by J"p"r'td. on a ranrJomge-nerationlbllowcd to likely is lt proee'-lure' testing effectiveness tor proceclure ineffective be a long, slow, and acquirin g knowlerclge' brr." *" understand that u'orking memory capacity is small and why it must necesin,rrlly f" small r'r''hendealing with novel

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and a tiu". F'."qr't"nt1y,there are alternatives is tt'r design malor function of instructional altcrthosc fini th.',r" altcrnatives Many of in subsequt'htchapters nativcsare cliscussccl of this hanclbook.

Multimedia and Working Memory Limitations it Early work on working mL-morytreatccl either .s a' ,ing1" cntity. Current tht'ories' or implicitly' assLrmcthat rvork"*pli.itiy streams' ing nlerntlry consists of multiplc . h o n , . t " l . ,o r p r o c e s s o r sB' a d t l e l c y ' s[ t 9 9 : ) the working mcmory model is probably i,rflucntial.lt consistsof a coordirrating n-rc.rst a ccntral t'xccutivc and two subsystcms: rn"ith aling vistro/spatial skctchpacl 1br cle and a two- and thrcc-dimcnsional objt'cts verr'vith phonological loop for clt-aling vistro/ tht' i'.,olrn.t.liinl. Cenerally spc''rking, the s p a t i a sl k c t c h p a cdi c r l s w i t h v i s i ' r r rn ' h i l e matcphonologicalloop clealsu'ith audittlry ' h t l c t h t - r cr s . i . l , . r . h ' n ,s p c t c h 'A t p r e s t ' n tw as Jiscusscditr the tolltr\vstrong cviclc-ttcc, ing tixt, for thc two partially indepenclent' the co,.rbryrt.:-., therc is lesscviclcnccfilr orclinatingrole of thc central executivc' that Therc arc instructitlnalctlnsequences mt-mfbllow fiom this divisior-rof r'vorking proviclt'tl .r.y. l'".n"y [t qSCJ, in a revie-lr'i. thaf appropriate use of both sub"ui.l",-t..'can increaseworking mem.ory casystems pacitv. Whiie the increaseis nclt additive in being ih" ,",-tr. that all of the infbrmation can oro.essedby luditory r'vorkingmemory to .rll of the- material processed ir" ad,,1",,1 memory' there is a lesser working visual by but demonstrableincreaseand that increase supports the hypothesis of partially separate for p.l."r.o.t. The increasealsocan be used deis instructional purposes' If instruction signed to make use of multiple processors' can be facilitated [Mayea :'oor ]' learr-tir-tg

21

I l l l , l( i \ \ l l i l i ll x : 1 , l t , \ N l ) t i o o K( ) l N t t r l t, ' t \ i l I ) t , \ L t , . \ t t \ l \ ( ,

Relations Between [,ong-Term ancl Working Mcmory

I{uman cognitive' architt'tturt' has evolvecl r,vith ln ingenious sct ol rt'lations bet.uvccr-r long-tt'rrrr and rvorkirrg nrcnr()rv. Thc naturt o l ' t h o s c r c l u t i o r r sp r o v i t l t ' s t h t ' r ' e n t r c - p i c c c ot human cognitive firnctioning rncl is critical to anv thcor)r of instructional clesign. '['he intellcctrral heights thrrt hunrans hrrve rcacl"rctlrncl to r,vhich th.'y rrspirc rrre mirdc p o s s i b l cb 1 ,t h e m a t t t t er i l t r . r ' h i c hi r t l i r r n r a t i o n in long-tt'rrn mentory altcrs tht' charat'trristics of .,vorkilrg nrcnr()ry. Tl're Iir-nitltions of r.vorking,llrcmory w('r(. d i s c u s s c dp r e v i o u s l v . I t m u s t [ r t ' t ' n ' r p h u s i s c t l t h a t t h o s t ' l i n r i t a t i o n s r p p l y o n l - vt o n o v c l i n firrmation letl to ',vorkilrg rn('nr()ry tl'rrotrgh t h c s c n s o r y s y s t el n ( k n o r v n l t s s ( ' n s ( ) r ym c n t ory). Infirrnrrtion thrt l'r,rsrlreacly l-rt't'norg l n i s c t l i n t o s c h t ' n r a si n l o n g - t e r m m ( ' r - n ( ) r v c a n l l s o b c 1 r ' r li n t o r v o r k i n g n r t ' n r o r v . N c i t h t ' r t h c c l u n r t i o l rr r o r c r r p l t i t v l i m i t l t i o n s a t tacht'cl to rrovt'l infirrr-nltiorr recci.n,ccllrorn sens()rynrcm or!, a ppl it's to i lrlornt ution I ron-t 'l'l'rIt Iot-tg-tcrnrntclltory. infirrnration has no n r c ' a s u r a b l cI i r " r ' r i t l t i o n so l e i t h e r t l u r a t r o n o r capacity. It can bc indcfrnitc in sizc anclduration. In cf]cct, ir-rfirrrnation in lolrg-tr.rn-t m('m()ry vastly cxpancls r,r,orking r-ncm()ry. 'l'hat e x p a n s i o n t r i v i a l i s c s a n y b i o l o g i c a l c l i ff e r c n c e ' sb e t w r ' c n h u m a n s i n t h t c a p a t i t l ' of rvorking m('rrl()rv. llasic diflcrcnccs bt'trvcen peopli' in rvorking mcmory capacity a r e l i k c l y t o b c i r r e l e v a n t g i v e n t h c h r - r g ea l t c r a t i o n s i n t h i s p r o c e s s o rt h l t o c c u r l v h t - n i t is dealing with orgar.riscclinlirrr.nation tirkcn lrom long-tc.rm mcmory. Historically, the influence of long-tcrm m(-mory on rvorking mefirorv clatc-s back to the initial rcscarch on .,vorking memory. Milk:r's ['qS6) concept of chunking strggesteclthat pcopk coulcl learn to "chunk" togcther elements of infbrmation that could be processed in r,vorking memorv as a single clcment. Whilc the cor-rceptof chunks was not explicitly connected w'ith long-term memory bccausc' the distinction betr,veen rvorking and long-term memory r,vasarticulated later, using current knor,vledge, chunking

cannot occtrr withotrt long-term mcmory. Chtrnks t'ither rcsicleir-rlong-tcrm memory or arc firrmcclusinginfirrmationhelclin longtcrm memory. A t k i r r s o na n c lS h i f l i i n ( r 9 6 f i ) p r o v i c l c da modcl that clclineatcd s c n s o r vw , o r k i n g ,a n c l Iong-tt-rr-n nlrmorv stores.'l'hatmoclc'lis central to nrost subscqr.reltt trcatntcltts rvith infirrrnation moving bt't."r'centhc storcs. In that modcl, lve bt'gin to see thc ir.rflr-re'r.rce o f l o n g - t c r m m ( ' m ( ) r yo n r v o r k i n gm c m ( ) r y althotrghtht' n-rljor inllr.re ncc, tl'rcaltcrrtion of thc charactcristicsof i,vorkingmcm<'rryby infirrmation in long-tcrn'rmcnlory, wrrs r-rot rnirclccxplicitll,. A r r o t h c r m aj o r l c l v l n c t ' c a m c f r o m I r i c s s o na n c lK i n t s c h( ' q q ; ) w i t h t h ei r c o n 'l'hcy ccpt ol' long-term r'r'orking,rnr.nrory. suggcstccl thut bt'cltrscthc cl'rarirctcristic's of r'vorkin g nrcm()rywh cn processilrg i n forr-r-r rrtion frorlr lorrg-tt'rmrrern()ry are so clramati c a l l v r l i f l c r c n t t o i t s c h u r a c t c r i s t i c sr , v h r . n proct'ssinginfirrrrtationfiont scrrsorynrcntory, it is lt1-lproirriirtc to llssunr('il s(.pllrittc pr()c('ss()r long-tcrnr rvorking rr(.nrory. I n t h t ' t ' r r r r e n tt r c a t m ( ' n t ,r a t l ' r e tr l t a r ra s sttrning a s('paratcproc('ss()rthlt proccsscs i n f o r n r a t i o l irn a t 1 t r i r l i t a t i v ccl yl i f ' f c r c nrtn a n n c r t l c p e n r l i n go n u l i t ' t h t ' r t h c i n f i r r m a t i o n ('onr(-sfronr sclrsoryor lor-rg-tt'rmntcmor)r, thc samt' lvorking memorv proccssor r'vill b e a s s t r m c cilr r e s p e c t i v co f w h c t h e r i n f i r r m c t i ( ) n c ( ) m c s f r o m s c n s o r yo r l o n g - t c r m nlcnrory, r,r,ithits charactcristicsgradually a l t e r i n ga s t l i e n o v c l t y o r f ' a m i l i a r i t yo f i n f i r r m a t i o na l t c r s[ S w c l l t ' r , : o o 3 ) .A t o r . r c n d o f a c o n t i n u u m , w h e - nd c a l i n g r v i t h u n f a miliar ir-i{irrm atiolr, worki n g m emory lin-ritat i o n s a r c c r i t i c a l .T h e y b e c o m c s u c c t - s s i v e l v lesscritical as familiarity incrc.ases, in other words, as nlore and n-iorcinfirrmation from long-term memory is used.At thc other extreme, rvhen dealing rvith inlormaticrn incorporated in w.cll-t-r-rtrencheci, automated schemas,r,vorkingmemory iimitations become irrelevant.Thus, the extcnt to rvhich -,vorkir-rg memory limitations matter depcnds on the extent to which the information being dcalt \\,ith has been organised in long-term memory. The characteristics of rvorking mcmory and the manner in ivhich

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working memory functions is critically dependent on what has becn stored in longterm memory. Relationsbetwcen working memory and long-term memory can also be used to explain understanding[Marcus, Cooper, & Swcller,r99(rJ. Understandingoccurs when al1relevant elemcnts of infbrmation can be processedsimultaneouslyin working memory. Becauseof thc limitation of working mcmory when dcaling with novel information, if f-acedwith new materialthat must be learncd,there may bc too many clcmentsttt simultaneouslyprocessin working memory. If the elements arc cssential,rrnderstanding can't occur until it bccomcs possiblctc'r the material, processthem. While str"rclying clcments are organisecland combined intcr schcmasheld in long-tcrm memory. When schema construction and automation have progrcssedto the point where all of the elements essentiaito trnrlerstandingthe-topic can be processedin working mcmory, underBaseclon thesc interstandinghas c-rccurrccl. actions,unclcrstandingcan bc clefinedas tht: ability to simultaneouslyproct'ssrequircd t-lemcnts in working mcmory. On this delinition, the relations and interplay bctween working and long-term memory are ccntral to understancling. As was the case whcn indiviclually considering long-tcrm and working memory, it is appropriate to considcr the relatior.rsbctween the processorswithin an cvolutionary framework. In the cascof both evolution and human cognition, large amounts of information can only be dealt with after thcy have been appropriately organised.Prior to being organised,the amount of infbrmation that can be dealt with is necessarilyvery small. In the case of genetic infirrmation, huge amounts of organisedinformation can be dealt with and transmitted from generation to generation but alterations to a genome are not and cannot be organised. Random alterations followed by effectiveness testing are unavoidable and so any viable alterations will be relatively minuscule. Similarly, a huge amount of schematicallyorganisedinformation heid in long-term memory can and is used repeatedly but failing di-

2S

rect guidance through instruction, changes to long-term memory cannot berorganisecl. Random proposalslbllowed by eflectiveness tcsting must be used and this proceclurc cannot result in rapid, massivc, cllective changesto long-term memory. Alterations must br- small and a small working memo r y w h c n d e a l i n gw i t h n e w i n f b r m a t i o n i s a conscqLlence.

Schcmas as a Central Executivt: for Working Memory Thc- rt-lations bctween working ancl lctngterm memory go beyoncl long-term ntcmory altcring the' characteristicsof working in long-tcrm mcmory act mcmory. Schcn-ras as a ccntral erecutivc fitr working memory. be clonc,whcn it They indicate what shor"rld bc clone.Irt shoulclbc done anclhow it shor.rlcl infirrn-rationin longothcr worcls,orgar.rised t e r m m c m ( ) r y d i r c c t st h t ' m a n n c r i n w h i c h ir-rformiitionis processt'din working mt:mory. It is idcally plac'edto c1oso prt'cisclybeThus, in this scnsealso, c:ruseit is organise'c1. infirrn-rationin long-tcrm mcmory altersthc ] ('m()rv. . h l r a . t , r i s t i (s ( ) [ w ( ) r k i n !m Not only clct schcmas act as a ccntral cxecutivc, thcy arc the only cctnccivable ccntral exccutive. If schcmasare nctt available, as occLlrswhen dcaling with ncw it'tfirrmatior-r,there is no alternativc central e x e c u t i v et o c a l l u p o n . A s p r e v i o u s l yi n d i catcd, when rclevant infilrmation in longterm memory is not available,ranclomgct.ttesting is eration followed by efTectivcncss the only remaining alternativr-.Contrary to t h c o r i e s s u c h a s t h a t o f B a d d e l e y[ ' q q . ) , there is no logicalmanner in w'hich a centlal cxecutil'e other than a learned central executive, can function fSwellea zoo3). Just as no central executive function can direct evolution by natural selection,similarly no unlearnedcentral executivecan direct information in r,r'orkingmemory. In both cases, if previously acquired information is not available,decision making can only occur by random generationfollor'vedby eff'ectivenesstestrng.

2b

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Instructional Consequences: Cognitive Load Theory

partially indcpcndent channelsfbr auditory and vi suaI in formation. Th c-secharactt-risti cs of humar-rcognitivearchitectr-rrc have impli_ cations fbr the dcsign of instructir.n, L.spe_ It was statcclprcviotrsly that schcmas held c i a l l y m u l t i m e d i ai n s t r t r c t i o n . in long-term mcmory constittrte the. only Cognitive loacl thcory fpaas, Renkl, & conceivablt c.t-ntralt,xr.cutive,firr organis_ S w e i l e r ,: , o o l , z o o : + ,S w e l l c r ,r 9 9 9 ; 2 o o j ; r n g i n t o r m a t i o n . I n ( ) l 1 es c n s e ,t h a t i s r . r o t Sweller,Van Mcrri€nboer,& paas,'r'99EJ ancl cntircly trr-rc.Infirrmation proviclcclby oth_ the instructionalprinciplcs it has g"n"..t".1 crs can also act as a ccntral erct.utivc. If are all basr:clon thc-seassumptlonscc)ncern_ t h c r e i s n o s r . h e m aa v a i l a b l e ,r a t h c r than i n g h r - r m a nc o g n i t i v ca r c h i t c t t u r c .T h e - r c are ranclorr-rly organisingirrfirrn,rationancl then thret' categoricsof cognitive loaclcliscussecl testirrg firr cffcctiveness,schemas hclcl by by the thcory: r.xtrancous,irrtrir.rsic, anclger_ s o m e o n c e l s c c a n b e u s c c lt o o r g a n i s t thc m a n e c o g r . r i t i vlco a c l . i n f i r r n r a t i o n I. n o t h t r r v o r d s ,o t h t : r p e o p l r , , s Extraneorrscognitivc loacl is causcd try . k n o w l c c l g c ,i n r p a r t e d i n c i t h c r s p o k c n or i n a p p r o p r i a t ei n s t r u c t i o n a lc l c s i g n st h a t ig_ w r i t t c n l o r n t , c . a na c t i r sa c c n t r a ]c x c c u t i v . . n o r c w o r k i n gm e m o r y l i m i t s a n c f1a i l t o f b c t r s if onc's olvn schcnra-basccl t:cntral cx(,c-u_ working m(-mory rcsorrrccs r.rnschcma cor.r_ t i v c i s r r n l v r i l a b l c .( ) 1 ' r . o r r r soc t, h e r p e o p l e , s structiorr lncl automation. Thcre is a rvicl. k n o w l c d g cc a n o n i y a c t a s a c c n t r a l e x e c u _ rarrgeof instructionalclesigr.r principlcs that t i i , e i f i t i s a v a i l a b l t , i nr s r r i t a b l e , f i r r r n . Many are bas_ccl on cogr.ritivclc,,adthcory. Each i n s t r u c t i o n a lp r o c c c l u r c sc x p l i c i t l y r e c o m _ p r i n c i p l e -t a k e s a c o m m o n l y u s e c li n s t r u c _ m c n c l t e c . h n i r l t r ct sl i a t p l a c c a p r i m a r y r.m_ tional proccc.ltrrc, analysesit {rom the per_ p h a s i so n . . r a n c l o ngr c . n e r r r t i o fni r l l o r v e c l by spc'ctivt'of rclr-vantaspr.ctsc,{'hun.ran c.,tg_ t e s t i n g .A l l i n t l u i r y - b r t s c rt tl . c o m m t , n J l t i o n . : n i t i o n , a n c lt h er t r e c l c s i g ntsh e i n s t r t r c t i o n tr, f a l l i n t h i s c a t c g o r ya n c lr r c t r n l i k tl v t ( ) a ( . ta s r c c l u t c u , o r k i n gm ( . m o r y l o a d a n d i n c r c a s e a s u i t a b l ec t . n t r l l ( . \ e c u t r \ , ( , . s c h e r - n cao n s t r u c t i o r ra n d i i r r t o m a t i o n . 'fht The a l t c r n r r t i v ci s d i r c c t , i n s t r u c t i o n a l u ' o r k e c le x a m p k : ( c h a p t c r r i n t h i s vol_ ; g u i c l a n c tt'h l t p r o v i c l c sI s u L r s t i t u t c for the u n t c ) , s p l i t - a t t t n t i o n ( c h a p t e rf i ) , r n o c l a l i t y rnissingscht mas ancl rrllor.vs learnersto clc_ [chapter <2],rcclunclan.yi.hrpt". , o1, ,nil v e l o p t h e i r o w n s c h t - m a sr v i t h o u t c - n g a g _ expt-rtisc--reversal cfl'ccts[chaptcr : r ) arc cli_ i n g i n t h e d i l f i c u l t , t i m c _ c r . r r r s u m ipnrgo c . e s s rcctly rclcvant to mtrltim".lio l"r.ni,",g nn.l of almost limitlc.ssranclom g"n".,,ii,,n f,ri_ be'causcthcy are ciiscussedin somc ,rt 'fhere tt-," lowcd by testir-rg. is nothing in our following chapterswill only be s,,n,,n,a.is.,..l cognitivr. arclritr.cturcthat suggc,ststhat a brielly herc. (A sumnrary cf other cognitive ranciom gcneratior-tanrl tcstirrg proccclurcI t t l f l . 1 1 , 't.s m r y b e l , . , u n Ji n S w e l l e r:,o . l .) should be strperior to direct inrt..,.tionul T h c w . t r r k t ' t .' xl a m p l t , t ,llt , tt ( e . g . ,C , , . , p . , gtridar.rcc.. Furthc.rmorr,,hor,vthat clirect in_ and Swe-ller,r9,S7) is d"-unri.ri".l *h..n structionalguidanceis orgar.risecl should also lea.rners stuciyingworked t-xamplesthat pro_ depend or-rthe.strLlcturL-s anclcharacteristics vide a soluticx-r to a proble-- lenin -o." thnn of human cognitive architccture..Instruc__ learnerswho are requireclto solvethe equivtion that cltcs not have as rts pnmary aim alent problem. Searchingfbr a solution dur_ the accumulationof knowledgein long'_1"fing problem solving places heavy demands memory throtrgh schema construction and on working memory and those demancls in_ :rutomatior.r ar-rd that doe.snot considerwork_ terfere with schemaconstruction.A worked 1ng nlentorv characteristics,is likely to be example,by reducing or eliminating search, iessthan optimll. Instructorsneed to keep in reducesextraneouscognitiveload and ,o fu_ mind that befbre learnersfaced with noi,ei ciiitateslearning. material can organiseand incorporate it in The spiit-attention effect (e.g., Sweller, . -,99o1 long-ternt memorv, thcy must process it us_ Chandleq, Tierney, & Cooper, o.1 ing a limited u.orking mcmory that includes curs when attention must be split'between

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multiple s()urccsof visual infirrmatior.rthat ctrrs be'causeinfbrmatiorr tl'rat is csscrrtialfirr :rrt' all essentiallor undc-rstancling. A geonovices becomcs rctlunclant fbr morc cxpert mertricdiagramanc'lits asst'rciltecl statcmcnts lcarners.('l-hcrc arc othcr conclitions unclc-r proviclc an t-xamplc. Thc n-rultipl('soLlrces lvhich the cxpt'rtisc rcvt'rsal cflcct occrrrs, mr.rstbc mcntally ir.rtegratt'cl befirrc thc ir.r- c l i s c u s s c ci ln c h a p t e r : r . ] s t r t r c t i o nc a nb e u n d u r s t o o caln d t h c m a t c r i a l I n t r i n s i c c o g n i t i ' u ' el o a c l i s t h e c o g r . r i t i v i . learnccl.Mcntal ir.rtcgrationir-nposes a ht'avy kracl cltrc to thc nattrral conrplcxitv of th,' e x t r a n c o u st ' o g n i t i v cl o a c lt h r r ti s r e t i t r c c db 1 , infirrr-r'ratior.r tl-rat ntust be proc essecl. It is p h y s i c a l l l ,i n t t ' g r a t i n gt h t ' r t r t r l t i p l es ( ) t l r c ( ' s c l c t c r m i n c c l b y l c v c l s o f c l c n r t ' n t i n t e r a c t i r , of infbrr-nation. it1'.['or cxlr-nplc, if somcont' is lcarning to T h c m o c l a l i t ye f f t c t ( r . . g . , ' l ' i n d a l l - l r o r c l ,tnurslatc somt' of thc lrourrs ol rr lirrcigrr lar-rClhancllcr, & Slr,t'llt.1r 99- ) rlso occtrrstrrrdcr g l l l g r ' , e r r c h t r r n s l r t i o l r r . ' a nb c l t ' l r n c d i n c o n d i t i o n sr v h c r c n r u l t i p r l ts' ( ) r l r c eos f i n l i r r d e p t ' n c l c r . r t lo yf evcry other trunslation.()nc n r a t i o n u r c t ' s s c n t i r lt o r t r n r l t ' r s t l n c l i n ag n . 1 ,.an lcrnr to trlnslatc' thc .,vortl cal r,r'ithout Icarning ancl ."vhercthc r.,istrrrl infirrrrirtion l c a r n i l r g t o t r r r . r s l a t t ' t h c l v o r c l r / r . , g I. n t h i s r c ' c l u i r c lsc a r n t ' r st o s p l i t t h e i r r t t c n t i o n . I n t ' r u n r p l c , c l c n ' r t ' n ti n t c r r t t ' t i v i t y i s l o w u n r l s o t h c c a s t 'o f t h c n r o c l a l i t yc f l i ' c t , t h t ' t ' r t r a n c l v o r k i n g n r c r n ( ) r y l o l r l i s l o . , v .I n c o n t r a s t , t h c o u s c o g n i t i v c l o a d i s r c c l t r c e cnl ,o t b y p 1 1 , 5 , t ' l e m e n t s t h r r t c o n s t i t t r t t ' o t h c r r - n t r t t ' r i l lr r t a 1 ' i c i r l l yi n t c g r a t i ng t h c s ( ) rrlc ( ' so { 'rn f i r r m a t i o n i n t c r r t c ti n t h c s c l t s t ' t h l r ro n t ' c u n n o t t n ( ' a n b u t b y p r c s t ' n t i n gv c r b r r ln r a t c r i l l i n s p o k c r . r i n g f i r l l y l c a r r r o n t ' r ' 1 t ' m c n t ' , v i t h o t r t s i n r t r l t r r r a t ] ' r c rt l ' r a nr v r i t t c n f i r r n r . ( - o g n i t i v cl o r r r li s rtcottsllt lt'arrtittg ntlrty 6ther t'lt'ntt'nts. Ii.r rt'clr,rt'erl bccrrtrst' thc rrscol t[uirl rrorlllity int'ranrple, if lcirrrring tl'rt' u1'rpropriltt. .nvorcl ( r ( ' i l \\( t ' ll i ' tt i i , ' r ro r k t t t gt ) l ( ' n rl 'r ) ( i l l ) i ti (t ) orclt'r in l-.nglish lirr thr' '"r.orclsrrftr:rrktLnting n o t t ' c l p r c v i o t r s l y ) . tt languag:, ()nc crlllt()t rttc'nrl to incliviclrral fas .nvrrrtlsto tlctt'rnrine th',tt a langtuge leaning T h c r c c l t r n r h n c yc ' f l i ' t t ( t ' g , C h a n d l t ' r & Srvellcr, r 99 r ) difli.rs l'ronr thc splitr u h c ni s i l r i t p p r o p r i l t c . C ) n e n r u s t c o n s i r l c r a l l a t t c n t i o na n t l r l o d a l i t y c l l c c t si n t h c t i t t l o c s o l t h c r ' r , ' o r t llsn d t h c r t ' l a t i o n s r n r o n g t h c n r n o t c l c r r rl v i t h m u l t i p l c s o t r r c c so f i n f i r r r n r b c t : i t r r s et h c y i n t c r a c t . I ' . l c m c n t i n t c ' r l r rt i. v i t y t i o n , a l l o f ' " r ' h iht u r e c s s t ' n t i r r[li r r t r n c l c r - i s h i g h r e s u l t i n g i n a h i g h i n t r i t . r s i cc o g n i s t a r . r c l i nagn t l l c a r n i n g .R l t h t ' q i t c k ' r r l sl v i t h tii"c loltl. Wliilt' tht'rt'rrrc other rt'rsonslvhv m u l t i p l c s o r l r c c so f i n f i r r n r a t i o ni r r r v h i c h I t ' a r n i n gc i r n b e c l i fl i c t r l t s u t h i r st h t ' n r a t e r i a l o n e s o r r r c ei s s u I f i c i c n t o u 1 1 o ur , r n c l e r s t u n t l - i n r ' l r r r l i n g i l \ , ( ' r y l l r g e n u n - r b c r o l c l e r n c n t s i n g a n c l l e a r n i n g r , r ' h i l et h e o t h t r s o t r r c c s i r r t ' s p c rt.i v e o f r , rh c t h t ' r t h c v i n t c r r c t , u n d c r m e r t - l yr c i t c r a t ct h c i n f i r r m a t i o no f t h t ' l i r s t stlncling rnrl lcanting high clt.nrcltt intt rat'source in a cliflcrt'r.rtfirrnr. T}rcv iirc rctivitv mrterill :rrc'tliffictrlt firr a sl.rccilit'irncl dunclant. A cliagrampltrs a statr.rnt'r'rt importunt rcas()lt: llct'ittrst' high clt'ntr.'nt in, thirt rcclcscribesthe cliagranrin r^,,orcls providc t r - - r a c t i v i t yr n a t c r i a l i m p o s t ' s l h i g h u ' o r k i n g l n e x a m p l c .E x t r a n c o u sc o g r r i t i v cl t u d i s r c nrenrory loacl. duced and lcarr.rilrg is f'acilitatccl, not by elin-rLastly, gcrman(' cogr.ritivc loacl Il'aas & i n a t i n gs p l i t - a t t c n t i o no r t r s i n gc l t r anl r o d a l i t y Van Mt'rririnbocr, r 99+l is "cflectivc" cogp r e s e n t a t i o nb u t i n s t e a d ,b y c l i m i n a t i n gt h c n i t i v e l o a d . I t i s t h e c o g n i t i v e l o a c lc a u s c c lb y reclunclantinfirrmation. eflirrtfirl k'arning rtsrrlting in schema conThc c'-xpertisercvt.rsal eff'ect fKalyuga, s t r u c t i o r - ra n d a u t o m a t i o n . I ) r o v i d i n g l t ' a r n Ayres, Chandlea & Slveller, :oo3) occr-rrs c r s w i t h a v a r i e t v o f c x a m p l e s d e m o n s t r a t 'nvheninstructionalproccclurcssuch asphysing a poir.rt increases cognitivc loacl bLrt thc ically intc-gratingmultiple. sourcesof infbri n c r c a s ci s g e r m a n c i n t h a t i t i s l i k e l y t o a s s i s t mation or presenting ir.rstructionin dual sche-maconstruction. rnode format first losc their advantagcn'ith Extrancotrs, intrinsic, and gcrmane cogniirrcreasinglcarner expertisc-and then bctive load arc additive. The aim of instruction come disadvantagL-ous compared to splitshould be to reduce cxtraneous cognitive source visual presentation.Thc e.ff'ectocload caused by inappropriate instructional

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procedLlrcs. Reclucing crtrancous cognitiveload frtc-s r,r,'orkingmemory capacity ancl scr may permit an incrcasc in ge.rntant.cognitivc I o l t l . N , . v r ' r t h , ' 1 , ' r irI, i r r t r i n s i r . ot g n i t i v r .I o l d is low, incrcasr-s in gcrmanc cognitive load may bc possible o,en w.ith high levt-ls of ex_ t r a n c o u s c o g n i t i v c I o a c lb c c a t r s ea l o w i n t r i n _ s i c c o g r r i t i v c l o a d r e s t r l t s i n a r c l a t i v e . l yl o w total coglritiveloatl. In othcr rvorclsh , ow onc c l c ' s i g n si n s t n r c t i o n m . l y n ( ) t b c p a r t i c r - r l a r l y i m p o r t a n t l v l . r c nr l c l l i n g i , v i t h s i n r p l c m r t c r i a l t h a t c a n b c c a s i l y t r n t l c r s t o o r l .l . , v c nw i t h 1-loori nstru ction al dcsi gns, r,r,orkin g m cm ory c a p a c i t y m a v n ( ) t b c ' e x c c e c l e c l I. n s t r u c t i o n a l clesign n'ray only bc criticirl whcn clcaling '"vith con'rplcx r-naterirl tl-rat impost s a hcavy working m('nr()ryloatl dtrc to its intrinsic niittrrc-. Aclcling a ht'avy extraneous cognitive Ioacl to a heirvy intrinsic cogr.ritivc loacl r-rray cxcr.ecl lvorking nlcnrorv caplcity r,vhercas a d c l i n g a l ' r c ' a v yc x t r a n c o u s c o g n i t i v t , l o a c l t o a l i g h t i n t r i n s i t . c o g t - r i t i v r l, o i r r l r - n a yn o t < : x cccd t'apacity. As I c()nseLluclt(.c,thc r.ogr.ritivc loacl e fli.t'ts rluc to e xtran(.ous cognitir,,c l o a c l a l r t l s r r n r m a r i s c cpl r c v i o t r s l v c a n o n l y b e c l e m o n s t r i r t t ' du s i n g n t a t r - r i a l t h r t i s h i g h i n clt'mcrrt intcrrictivity (Su,tllcr & Chandler, 'l'inclall-Fortl, r 991; t r al., r 99;). If clcrncr.rt intcractivitv is lor,r',r-natcrial cln frcclrrcntlv be unclcrstoorl ancl lcarncrl t'ven if c.xtrantjous cognitive kratl is high. l'his cflcct is thc elcmcnt ir.rteractivity efli'ct.

(lonclusions Instructional clcsigr.r that pror.ceclswithctut rcfcrenceto hunran ct'rgr-rition is likely to bc ranclom in its el}'ectivcltess. tlntil relativcly recently,that lan-rc'ntablc state of lflirirs w.as u n a v o i d a b l ch.c c a u s eo u r k n o r v l e d g co f h u man cogrritive architecture was too sparse to eflbctively apply to instrr:ction.The immenseexpansionof that knor,r,.ledge, inclucling suggcstior.rs concerningthc evolutionary origins of human cognitive architccture,ha.s altered the instructional design lanclscape. The limitations of r,vorkingmemory when dealing tvith novcl information, the elimination of those limitations when dealing

with well-known infbrmatior.r,anclthe consequencL-s of partially separatc:ruclitoryand visual workilrg memory channels all have profour-rclimplications fbr instructional dcsigr-r in gcneraland mr.rltimediainstruction in particr-rlar.'l'hose. im plicationsh ave ch angecl a n d a r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u et o c h a n g ei n s t r u c tit'rnalprocec{urcs.

Glossary Audinrv unrkingmemory (r auditotn pro 'fhat cessor): conrpont'nt of lvorking m('m()ry that cleals with spt-cch and o t h t - r: r u r l i t o r yi n l i r r m l r t i o n . Aubmatiort (or uututmaticity) : A pro_ ccssby n,l'richschematl hclcl in krng_ term memory becomesr"rfficit ntly rvcll_ practicccl to cnablc tht'nr to bypass, or to bc processt'cllvithout conscious usc of, rvorkir-rgmemory. Atrtomatc.cl s c h r . m r t ai m p o s e I m i n i n - r l ls t r a i n o n r,r,orkingrrcm()ry. Cognitit,t:archituclure: J'he manrrcr in rvhich thc cognitivt' strLlctLlres r.rsc-cl tt-r learn, think, ancl solvc problcms arc organisecl. 'lhc Cognitiue knd: load imposcd or.r w o r k i n g m c m o r y b y i n f b r m a t i o nb e i n g prcsented. Cognitiue kx.td theory: An instructional theory baseclon our knowledge of human cognitivearchitecturethat spe.ci{i_ cally adclre-sscs the limitations of worklng memory. Direct instructionaL guidance: Instruction in which procedures are directly demonstratedto learners.Can be contrastedlvith inquiry-basedlearning. DuaL-modality instruction: Thc use of both auditory and visual information under split-attention conditions. Can be contrastedwith single modality instruction, normally presentedin visual only mocle. Ebment interactiui\t: The extent to which elements of information that must be processedinteract. If material that

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t o \ s o l f c ( x ; \ I 1 t V I t l , o , \ t ) I l I I , t o R t ' l .o l { N lt I L I I N tl , I ) t . \ L l t . \ t { \ I \ ( ;

must be lcarne'dhashigh elcmcnt inter_ ac:tivity,c-lcmcntscannot bc proccssecl inclivicluallyin workir-rgm(.mory and sc.r that material r,villbc se(.nas complex ancl clifflcult to unclcrstancl(sce lrilnn sicutgnith,eLnd). Inquity based leanting: Instruction ir.r w h i c h l e a r n c r s ,r a t h tr t h a n l . r a r , i n g a proceclurcclcnronstratecl, are rc-quirccl t o c l i s c o v c r i t t h e m s c l v e s .C r n b c c o n t r a s t t ' c lw i t h c l i r tc t i n s t r u c t i o n a l gtriclar.rcc. Integrated instructilnts: Instructior.rs ir.r w h i c h n r t r l t i p l cs ( ) r l r c c os f i n f i r r m a t i o n r r c p h y s i c a l l yi n t c g r a t c t sl o t h a t w o r k rrg mcnrory rcs()rlrce s rlo r.rot necd to bc trsetl lor mcntal intcgration. Clanbc contrastcclu,ith split-attcntior.r instructions. I n tri nsict:rtgni ti tte httul : Tl-tc cogn i ti v c Ioad t h a t i s i m ; r o s t ' cbl y n r t r l t i p l e ,i n t r . r u c t ing t'lt'nrents(set,elementinteractiuity) that, bccause tht y intcract, ntr.rstbt, proct-sscclsimultant'otrslyrirthcr than s t r c c e s s i vl yei n l v o r k i r r gm e m o r y r t s r r l t _ i n g i n l h c a v yk r a d . L e a m i n g :A n y c ' h r n g t ' i nl o r r g - t t , r mm c m ory involving an acr.umulation oi' inlirrmatiorr. Longterm metnory: The cognitive structurc that storesorlr knorvlcdgebasc.Wc art only conscit'rus of those cr-ntentsof long-term memory that are transfi:rrccl to workingmemorlr Rerlu ruLantinstruc tirtns -.I n structio n s p reser.rtingthe same information ln diflbr_ ent fbrms. Schema: A cognitivr' construct that schcmaticallyorganisesinformation fbr storage irr long-term memory. When brought into r,r.orking memory fiom lor-rg-termmemory, a schcmaallor,l,s us to treat multiplc elemcnts of infbrma_ tion as a single elemc-ntclassi{iedaccording to the way in which it i,r,.ill be used. Sensory memory'. The cognitive structure that permits us to perceive ne\{r infbrmation.

29

Sp Litott ention i nstructions : I nstruction s i n which mr-rltiple soLlrcesof information are not physically integratccl scr that working memory rcsourccsneecl to be ust-cl firr mt-ntal intcgration. Can be contrastr-clwith integrated rnstructions. Visual unr hing memo\, tr uisual pr()c(.ss()r.. 'fhat comporrc.ntof r,vorkingmcm()ry that dcals visually r,r,ithtn'o- or threr.din-rcnsional ob jects. W t r h i n gm e m t ) r yT' .h r , t o g n i t i r ' (s. t r u \t r r r ( , in which we consc.iously proccssinfirrn t a t i o n .N o t a b l ef i r r i t s s c v c r ec l p l t . i t y r n d c l u r a t i o nl i m i t s ' " v h c nt l c l l i n g l v i t h rrewinlirrmation.

Rt:fbrcnces A t k i n s o n , l t . , & S h i l i r i n , R . ( r 9 ( r , S ) .I J u n . r a r r nrenr()ry: A proposcd systt,r-nrurcl its t.or.r_ t r o l p r o t c s s c s I. n K . S p c n t . t , & . 1 . S p e r . r t . e (Etls.), 7/rrr psychtilogltl lettrnirtgattd motit,tt r i r . r (r V r rl. :, pp.fi9 r95). Ncw york:Acrdcnrit. l)rt'ss. 13aclclelcy, A. (r99:). Working m(,m()ry.Scient:e, :55,5;(r 559. Clhrncllcr,f'., & Sw,cller,.1.Ir 99r ). Cognitivc loacl thtory anclthe firrntat of instnrr.tion. Oognitiort tmtl Instntctiulr,l, :.93 33:.. C h a s c ,W . ( 1 . ,& S i m o n ,H . A . [ r 9 i 3 ] . p e r c i , p t i o n in chcss. Cognitit,ePsycfulo*,,l, 5 S Sr . C h i , M , ( l l a s c r , R . , & R c c s ,I . i . Ir9E:). l.ixpert i s c i n p r o b l c n rs o l v i n g .I n R . S t e r n b e r g( l i d . ) , Adt,urLces in the p"-vchologtoJhtrman intclligt:nr,r, ( p p , ; s ) H i l l s d a l e ,N . t : F t r l b r u m . Cooper, Cl., & Srvclle-r,.1. (r9S-.). The cllects of sche.maaccluisitionar-rdrule automatior.ron m atl'rem atical problcrn-solvi n g transf'cr..lournul of EducutionalPs,vchobgt,;c7, 3-17 36: Dc Crocrt,A. [r 965J. 'l'houghtantl choicein chess. The Hague, Netherlancls:Mouton. (Original ',vork prrblished r 9-16 ) l r r i c s s o n ,K A . , & K i n t s c h , W [r99r). Longterm working memory. psychologicaLReuiew, ro:,llt-t:15. Egan,D. E., & Schr.r,artz B. .l [r 979). Chunking in reca]] of s1'mbolic dra.r,r,'ings. Memrtry and Cog nition,7,r49-r;8.

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Icffrics, R., Turner, A., Rrlson, P., & Atu'ootl, I\4. (r 9Sr ). Processcsrnvoh,,eclir-r clesigning s o f i r ' v a r c .I n . l . l t . A n t l t ' r s o n ( E d . ) , Q r g r r i t i u c s h i l l sd n d t h ( i r u c 4 t t i s l t i o r( tp p . r ; r \ j ) I I i l l s d a l cN , . l .[ . ] r l b r t r n r K a l y t r g eS , , A y r c s ,I ' . , ( - h a n c l l c rl,' . , & S n ' c l l c r ,. 1 . (:,,o3 ). I'.r1rt'rtist'rt'r'crsrrlt'llt't'1.I.tIur:tttionril / " t , / r , , 1 , , g i;i /\., . ' l l ; . Kotrx'skK y ,. , l l l v t ' s , . R 1 . ,& S i n r o nl ,l . A . ( r 9 5 5 ) . W h v a r c s o r r , ' p r t , b l , ' n r sl r l r t l l I ' l ' , , i r l t ' n tl ,r 'o r l 'lirr'r'erol Henoi. Cogritit,t l'.*,chrilo{y, r -,:1S r9+ l . : r r k i n , . 1N. ,. 4 c l ) c r n r o t1t ., ,S i n r o n ,l ) . , & S i r r r o n , I l . ( r 9 S , r ) . N { o r k ' l so l t o r r r p t ' t t ' n r ' ti n ' solving p r o b l e r r s . C ) t E t i t i t , e S c i c r r r t 1, , l r l lrhysits

t+\ N . 4 a r t t t sN, . , ( - o o p t ' r , l \ 4 . ,& S r , r ' c l l t ' r , .(1r ., , 1 r ; ( r )I .I n t l e r s t r r n r l i n g ,i n s t r t r t t i o n s . h t t t n t t t l o l I ) l u t : t t t i t t n t i l I ' s v t . h o k t g , ,S l , 4 r , 1 ( r 3 . N l . r y t . 1f l . I i . ( : o l r ) . M u l t i n r c t l i t t l . c r r n r i r r gN t ' u York. (lanrbriclgc I lnivt'rsitv I]rcss. 'l'lre N 4 i l l c r ,( 1 . A . ( r r , 1 5 ( r ) . n r r r g i tl l n u r ) r l ) ( ' rs ( ' \ ' ( . n , plrrs or nrintrs trvo: Sonrt' linrits ()n ()rrr ( ill r e c i t y l i r r p r ( ) ( r ' s s i n g ,i n l i r r n r l r t i o n . I ' s y c h r t h t g i a i l I l e t , i c u t(,r 3 , S r r ; ; . l'rirs, lr., llt'nkl, A., & Sw'cllcr, l. (:.o3 ). (iognit i v c l o a r l t h c o r y r r n t l i n s t r u r ' t i o n u l r l t ' s i g n .1 : r / r r t : t r t i o n t r ll ' w r y ' r o 1 o g i . sIt ,\ , | . + . [ ) r t r t sI,; . , R c n k l , A . , & S w t ' l l c r , . l . ( : o o - 1) . O o g n i tivc loirtl tlreorl': lnstrtrt'tionulirnplitutions o1 t h c i n t c r e r t i o n l r t . t r , r , t 'ne i n f i r r n t l t i o n s t n l ( t r l r c s i r r t r lc o g n i t i v c e r t h i t e t ' t r r r c . I n s t r u c ti tt r u I S t ' i e t tct ,

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Pt'tt'rsort,[.., & l't'tcrson,M. (r 9;r,1).Short-tcrnr rctention of incliviclualverbrl itcms. .lounttl oJ I:xpt:dmerttalL'sycholog,,, ;S, r 9i r 9S. S c l - r n c i c l cW r , , & S h i fl i i n , I i . I r 9 r - ) . ( - o n t r o l l c c l lncl lutorlatic hunran infirrnratiolrproc'essing: [. l)ctcction, st'rrt'huntl Jttclttion. I'n,cfutlogittrl Ilettieut, S1, r (r(r. S h i f l r i n ,R , & S t h n c i r l t ' rW , . (rt;-r). (lontrollt'tl ltntl alrtonratich trrrrlrn i n lirrr-n ltiorr proccssin g: l l . l \ ' r t c p t t r l l l c a r n i n g ,i l u t ( ) n r r t i ( r l t t c n ( l i l t g , rnrl rt gt'nt'ralthcorv. I-sychohtgicril llpltiant,\q, I l-

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t , f u i l o g r , , 5 ,: t ' 1 1 ( r . S n ' c f l c r , l . ( r , ; 9 9 ) . l n s t n t L ' t i o t t t i l r l e s i g r ti t t t c t : h n i u r l r u - r , r l . sN., ' l t ' l b o t r r n c ,A u s t r r r l i r r . A ( l l l R l ) r c s s . S r r , r ' l l c r ., 1 .( : o o 3 ) . l . r ' o l u t i o n o l h u n r e n t ' o g n i t i v t ' '/7rc r r r (I r i t c c t u r ( ' . I n l l . I i o s s ( l r t l . ) , I'syt:htiltg1t o l L a r t n t i r t l lt n t t l M r i i u t t t i o n ( V o l . + 1 , p p . : r 5 :(r(r). Sln l)it'go, (.A: Atrrlcntit I'rt'ss. S r , r ' t ' l l i ' .r1, . & , ( l h a n c l l c r , I ' . ( r , ; 9 . 1 ) .W l r v s o r n t ' n r r r tcri.rl is .lilfictrlt to lcern. (\tgrtItilnt turtl Ittstruc f r o n ,] 2 , i \ ;

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'fit,rnc1,,, S w t ' l l c r , . 1 . ,C . h r r n r l l c r , l ' . , I'., & (ioopt'r, N4. (r9i.;r,). (.ognitivt' lt,a,1anrl sclt.itivt' rrtr r r l r r r r t c r i e l . . h t u n r t i l o l I : x p a r i m e t t t t r lI ' . r v r : / r o 1 o w : C ] , ' t t r ' r rIr tl ., / , l - ( ) - t , ) : . 'l'ht'rrsc Srvcllcr, l., & (.oopcr, (;. A. (',)S;) ol u'orkt'rl ,'runrplcs rrs rr substitrrte for probI t ' n r s o fv i n g i n l t ' a r n i n g a l g c b r r . ( ' . o g r t i t i r t r tt t t t t l I n s t r u t ' t i o t t:,, 5 9 S t 1 .

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'['inclall-liortl, S . , C - l r a n c l l c rI,' . , & S r v c l l e r , . 1 . (,qV-). Wht'n tn,o s('r)s()rvntotles urc bt'ttt'r than rrrrc..hnrnrtl ol I:rperirnenttrlltst,cholo{,: Applicl,3,:5- :S-.

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