PROFILE Large-Scale Shrimp Farming in Coastal Wetlands of Venezuela, South America: Causes and Consequences of Land-Use Conflicts MIRADY SEBASTIANI* SARA ELENA GONZALEZ MARIA MERCEDES CASTILLO PABLO ALVIZU MARIA ALBERTINA OLIVEIRA JORGE pI~REZ ANTONIO QUILICl MARTIN RADA MARIA CAROLINA YABER Departamento de Estudios Ambientales e Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables Universidad Sim6n Bolivar, Apartado 89000 Caracas, Venezuela

MIGUEL LENTINO Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela Apartado Postal 80450 Caracas 1080A, Venezuela

and Natural Resources (MARNR) had received 14 proposals for approval. A developer illegally started the construction of ponds at the Piritu Lagoon in the State of Anzo~tegui before the authorization process was completed. This action triggered a land-use conflict. This study identifies the causes for public protest and determines the consequences of this conflict for land-use management. The results show that public protest was based on the impacts of the partial construction of ponds. These impacts were related to direct removal of wetlands, interruption of natural patterns of surface flows, and alteration of feeding grounds of some bird species with migratory status. Consequences were identified in relation to the role that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) play in land-use conflicts and the actions that MARNR could take in the future to prevent and solve similar situations.

ABSTRACT / In Venezuela, large-scale shrimp farming began in the 1980s. By 1987, the Ministry of Environment

In Venezuela, projects for large-scale shrimp farms emerged in the early 1980s. By 1987, 14 proposals were submitted to the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (MARNR: Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables) for authorization to build such farms (MARNR 1992). MARNR followed several steps to issue authorization. T h e first step was to establish whether the project was compatible with MARNR's guidelines for the site's potential land use. Based on this preliminary screening, a certificate of land-use compliance ("conformaci6n de uso') was granted. This certificate was needed to pursue further steps in the process. Afterward, MARNR could ask for an environmental ira-

*Author to whom correspondenceshould be addressed.

pact assessment (EIA), which had to be reviewed and approved at MARNR's central office. Next, MARNR set up guidelines for resource alteration at the selected site to support the authorization. These guidelines were based on the characteristics o f the selected site and on the results of the EIA, whenever this had been required. Finally, the permission was granted and the continuity of the project depended on the observance o f the set guidelines. Among the 14 proposals for large-scale shrimp farms submitted to MARNR for authorization in 1987, three shrimp farms (A, B, G) were to be located on the western end of the Piritu Lagoon in the State o f An zo~tegui ( 10~ 10~ 57" north latitude and 65~176 west longitude) (Figures 1 and 2). This area is part of the coastal system formed by the Unare River flood plain and the two adjacent lagoons of the Unare and Piritu (Figure 1). This coastal system offers suitable conditions for the development of fry, juvenile fish, and larvae of crustaceans and

Environmental Management Vol. 18, No. 5, pp. 647-661

9 1994 Springer-Vedag New York Inc.

KEY WORDS: Coastalwetlands;Large-scaleshrimpfarming; Landuse conflicts; Nongovernmentalorganizations; Legal procedures

648

M. Sebastiani and others

Figure 1. The coastal system. mollusks that are the basis for traditional fishing activities. It is also inhabited by migratory and resident bird species. During the authorization process, shrimp farm A started the construction with the land-use compliance certificate but without the approval o f the required EIA and the p r o p e r project authorization (Figure 2). T h e alteration o f the selected pond site triggered an unusually aggressive land-use conflict that significantly involved public opinion. Local fishermen voiced their arguments against the shrimp farm on the national press. T h e y opposed shrimp farm A for several reasons (Garnica 1988a): T h e selected pond site was in an area o f the Piritu Lagoon that temporarily dries out during the dry season. In their opinion, such areas could not be privately owned by law. In addition, the construction had an impact on the main natural spill channel of the Unare River toward the Piritu Lagoon (madre vieja). This channel is considered the most important natu-

rai reservoir for organisms coming from the sea to the Piritu Lagoon on the wet season. Moreover, once in operation, the water intake channel would have blocked the natural water flow from the Unare River to the Piritu and Unare Lagoon in o r d e r to fill up the shrimp ponds. In their opinion, this action would have altered the natural balance of salt and fresh water in the lagoons. In turn, this would have reduced the potential of these waterbodies. Finally, they pointed out that there was cutting of mangrove in the construction. On the basis of these arguments, the fishermen triggered the conflict requesting the intervention of government authorities. Simultaneously, the Audubon Conservation Society of Venezuela got involved in the conflict because o f their history of research, lobbying, and conservation activities regarding wetlands. T h e society is interested in wedands because o f their importance as productive ecosystems and habitats for bird species, especially shorebirds. In their opinion, the land alter-

Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela

649

Figure 2. Shrimp farms at the Piritu Lagoon.

ation caused by shrimp f a r m A had a negative impact on the habitats of some bird species such as migratory shorebirds and flamingos (Alvizu and others 1988). After the public protest, MARNR o r d e r e d the immediate halt of shrimp farm A (Marin 1988). Nevertheless, authorities did not offer a solution to restore the alteration caused by the construction of the Unare spill channel. This situation caused an aggressive re-

sponse f r o m fishermen, who destroyed a portion of the constructed levees to restore the water flow towards the Piritu Lagoon (El Nacional 1988). T h e shrimp farm company, on the other hand, attributed the conflict to potential issues and tactical arrangements with fishermen. A c o m p a n y representative pointed out to the press that their purposes were to: industrialize shrimp harvesting, decrease the

650

M. S e b a s t i a n i a n d o t h e r s

STEP

'I

CHARACTERIZATION OF THE COASTAL SYSTEM

STEP

2

IDENTIFICATION OF THE CHARACTERISTICS

D

OF THE _

_

D

SELECTED SITE FOR SHRIMP PRODUCTION

STEP

3

STEP

4

IDENTIFICATIONOF THE CHANGES AT THE SELECTED SITE CAUSED BY THE SITING OF THE PONDS

D

IDENTIFICATION

.l>

THE

STEP

5

OF THE SPATIAL KNOWLEDGE OF

FISHERMEN

IDENTIFICATION

OF THE

SPATIAL

PREFERENCE

OF THE RESIDENT AND MIGRATORY BIRDS

~7 STEP

6

CAUSES FOR PUBLIC

PROTEST

Figure 3. Identifying the causes for public protest in the Piritu Lagoon land-use conflict.

drying of the Piritu Lagoon, and offer e m p l o y m e n t to local fishermen. In his opinion, the activity would not disturb the fishing reservoir, block the channels or destroy 1500 ha of m a n g r o v e (Garnica 1988b). In this p a p e r the following questions about the conflict are addressed: (1) What were the causes for public protest? (2) Are there lessons to be learned f r o m the conflict for land-use m a n a g e m e n t ? O u r focus here is to search for answers to these questions.

Methodology Causes of Conflict

T h e first phase o f o u r investigation was carried out in six steps (Figure 3): T h e first step was to gather information about the study area and the coastal system (Figure 1) with respect to: (1) the relationship between the water dynamics of the Unare River and the coastal lagoons and the fishing potential in these waterbodies; (2) the m a n g r o v e vegetation; and (3) the bird population. T h e second step was to find out possible criteria used by shrimp f a r m A to choose the selected site. T o do so, it was necessary to assume the position o f a shrimp f a r m e r in relation to the selection o f an appropriate site. T h e ideal conditions were identified based on Cun (1982) and Snedaker and Getter (1985). T h e s e were then contrasted with the characteristics o f

the study area to identify those that were met at the selected site. In the third step, the landscape changes caused by the siting o f the ponds on the selected site were identified. A sequential, cartographic and diachronic geographical analysis was done. T h e starting point for the retrospective analysis was the photointerpretation o f the most recent aerial views (1988), which were taken f r o m a small plane. A comparison with views f r o m 1975 (scale 1:25,000) led to the identification of the changes that had taken place. T h e photointerpretation focused on aspects of drainage, vegetation, and land use. T h e information obtained was verified by field work, which also allowed an update o f the existing cartography at a scale of 1:25,000. We will refer to the 1988 m a p as the 1988 m a p (Figure 4) and to the 1975 m a p as the baseline m a p (Figure 5). T h e fourth step was to find out why the selected site was part o f the spatial knowledge o f fishermen and fisherwomen. It was assumed that every fisherm a n and fisherwoman of the coastal system had their own knowledge about fishing and fishing sites. However, since they carried out a similar activity, there could be considerable overlapping a m o n g their individual knowledge (Gould and White 1974, Whyte 1970). This knowledge can provide a key to structures, patterns, and processes of their activity in the coastal system (Johnston 1983). T h r o u g h interviews,

Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela

651

Figure4. The 1988 map. the researcher can get this information and represent it on a m a p showing spatial knowledge, or preferences, of these land users (Whyte 1970). Following these ideas, it was decided to interview fishermen and fisherwomen o f the study area. Alvizu and others (1988), Cortez (1988), and Padr6n and Torti (1984) determined that they lived in the towns of La Cerca and E1 Hatillo and that there was a Fisherm e n Association o f the Unare Lagoon, which at the time was the largest o f the whole coastal system. On the basis of this information, the head of the association was contacted to approach its members. Thus, 20 fishermen were interviewed at the town o f La Cerca in September 1988 (Figure 1). T h e n u m b e r o f fisherm e n interviewed represented 12% o f the total number of fishermen related to the Unare Lagoon (Padr6n and Torti 1984). Fishermen were asked questions strictly relating to their fishing activities in the coastal system: (1) Which were the fishing sites? (2) Where were the rearing

areas of the study area? (3) Which were the sailing routes? (4) Which fishing strategies were used t h r o u g h o u t the year? T h e authors agreed upon these questions in advance. T h e n they questioned each fisherman individually through an informal talk instead of using a visible questionnaire. T h e information collected f r o m the interviews was t r a n s f o r m e d into a single m a p that will be referred to as the fishermen's m a p (Figure 6). T h e fifth step was to find out why the study area was important for birds. It was assumed that birds have habitat preferences to carry out their activities. Birds control, to some extent, the places where they will carry out their activities, and many do so with great specificity (O'Connor 1984). "It a p p e a r s that habitat preferences have a large inherited c o m p o n e n t u n d e r natural circumstances, but these preferences are also subjected to some modifications by learning" (Morse 1980), i.e., in many bird species, once individuals choose a wintering area, they tend to return to it

652

M. Sebastiani and others

Figure 5. The baseline map. during subsequent years (Diamond and Smith 1973, McNeil and others 1985a). T h e r e f o r e , a m a p of bird spatial preferences for the sites in which their activities take place may show the importance of the study area. T o m a p the spatial preference of birds, a field trip was carried out to gather information about bird species, their land-use modalities (feeding sites, nesting sites, and sleeping sites, which refers to places where large groups of birds rest during the m o r n i n g or the afternoon), the specific microhabitat used to carry out their activities, and their migratory or residential status (Perrins and Birkhead 1983). Information was gathered in localities reported by fishermen and the A u d u b o n Society and in areas with no previous reports on birds. In areas with no previous information, the road between the towns of Nuevo Unare and La Cerca (Figure 2) was used as a guideline for systematically establishing bird watching posts. This road passes

t h r o u g h most of the landscapes o f the U n a r e floodplain. On different hours of a day in September 1988, bird watchers counted how many bird species were p e r f o r m i n g specific activities on each side of the road at 1-kna intervals. We m a p p e d the acquired data to show the location of bird species and their land-use modalities. We will refer to this m a p as the birds' m a p (Figure 7). A table c o m p l e m e n t e d this m a p to show, for each observed species, its activities and its migratory status (Table 1). T h e last step was to identify the causes for public protest by integrating and c o m p a r i n g the information gathered in the previous steps.

Consequences of the Conflict for Land-Use Management In this second phase, we based the investigation on archival research and personal interviews to identify the consequences of the conflict in relation to: (1) a

653

Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela

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reinforcement of the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in bringing out environmental issues; (2) the impact on shrimp farm projects within the coastal system as well as nationwide; and (3) the impact on g o v e r n m e n t decisions and future procedures in relation to shrimp farms and the environmental m a n a g e m e n t of the coastal system.

Results and Discussion Characteristics of the Coastal System and Study Area Annual water dynamics between Unare River and coastal lagoons. T h e U n a r e River is the main freshwater source for the Unare and Piritu lagoons (Figure 4). T h e Unare Lagoon receives fresh water f r o m the Unare River, primarily by the main channel (canal principal), which splits into two secondary channels (north and south) before reaching the lagoon. O k u d a (1965)

pointed out that 83% of the water in the Unare Lagoon comes from the U n a r e River. According to Padr6n and Torti (1984), the water level o f the lagoon changes with the seasons. During the rainy season, from J u n e to August, freshwater f r o m the Unare River and rainwater fill u p the lagoon. At the end of the rainy season, September to October, the seaward river flow is strong enough to break the sandbar that has formed at the river m o u t h during the dry season (November to May). T h e opening of the river mouth causes the water level in the lagoon to d r o p as the water retained there flows back to the Unare River through the channels and goes into the sea. T h e water level in the Unare Lagoon drops below sea level during the dry season, and the river flow is not strong enough to prevent the sandbar f r o m building u p at the river mouth. In the Piritu Lagoon, the main annual water influx comes from the sea. T h e mouth at the eastern end of the lagoon is kept open artificially all year round by a

654

M. Sebastiani and others

9 EL HATILLO LA CERCA

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breakwater and dredging. In the study area, there are two spill channels to discharge freshwater from the Unare River to the lagoon: a natural spill channel locally called madre vieja and a man-made channel for boats, called Canoa channel (carlo Canoa) (Figure 4).

Relationship betweenannual water dynamics andfishing potential of the lagoons. T h e fishing activities in the lagoons are related to the annual water dynamics in the coastal system as follows (Padr6n and Torti 1984, Cervig6n and G6mez 1986): When the Unare River mouth opens, some fish species in their larval and juvenile stages enter the lagoons to complete their development. Similarly, the white shrimp (Penaeus schmitti) postlarvae come into the lagoons and stay before reaching sexual maturity. By the end o f the dry season (May), the organisms are ready to return to the sea to complete their life cycle. An open mouth at the eastern end o f the Piritu Lagoon creates a permanent exchange of organisms with the sea.

Vegetation. Mangrove is widespread in the study area (Figure 4). T h e main species are black mangrove (Avicennia germinans) and white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa). T h e y are located a r o u n d the lagoons and on sections of the floodplain. This landscape unit can be classified as a mangrove wetland (Mitsch and Gosselink 1986). Inland areas are covered primarily with thorn bushes (L6pez and Machado I987). Bird population. According to Morrison and Ross (1989), "the lagoons of the coastal plains o f northcentral Venezuela provide some o f the most important shorebird habitats in the country," and they are part o f the so-called Central Caribbean ecounit. In this unit, 10,314 shorebirds, which comprise 43% of the total observed, were in the Piritu Lagoon, while 1987 individuals, which were 8.3% o f the total, were in the Unare Lagoon. Most shorebirds o f the Unare and Piritu lagoons are on "the muddy margins of the lagoons along the spit/sand barrier separating the la-

Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela

Table 1.

655

Bird species: Status and land use modalities in the study area a Use modality by site

Common name Charadriiformes Long-billed dowitcher Greater yellowlegs Hudsonian godwlt Least sandpiper Lesser yellowlegs Sandpipers Semipalmated sandpiper Solitary sandpiper Spotted sandpiper Stilt sandpiper Whimbrel Willet Piping plover Collard Plover Southern lapwing Common stilt Cayenne tern Common tern Gull-billed tern Large-billed tern Laughing gull Yellow-billed tern Black skimmer Pelecaniformes Brown pelican Neotropic cormorant Magnificent frigatebird Ciconiformes Great egret Reddish egret Snowy egret Striated heron Tricolored heron White-necked heron American wood-ibis Jabiru Maguari stork Scarlet ibis Anseriformes Black-bellied whistling duck Blue-winged teal White-checked pintail Falconiformes Common black hawk Osprey Crested caracara Yellow-headed caracara Passeriformes Pied water tyrant

Nesting (I)

Scientific name

Status

Limnodromus scalopaceus Tringa melanoleuca Limosa haernastica Calidris minutilla Tringa flavipes Calidris sp. Calidris pusilla Tringa solitaria Actitis macularia Micropalama himantopus N u m e n i u s phaeopus Catoptrophorus semipalmatus Charadrius melodus Charadrius coUaris Vanellu6 chilensis Himantopus himantopus Sterna eurygnatha Sterna hirnndo Gelochelidon nilotica Phaetusa simplex Larus atricilla Sterna superciliari~ Rynchops niger

M M M M M R M M

Pelecanus occidentalis Phalacrocorax olivaceus Fregata magnificens

R R R

8 - 11 8

Casmerodius albus Dichromanassa r u f escens Egretta thula Butorides striatus Hydranasis tricolor Ardea cocoi Mycteria americana J a b i r u mycteria E u x e n u r a maguari Eudocimus tuber

R R

8 - 1i 10 - 12

1- 7 1- 6 7 3 - 6 6 - 7 2 - 7 2 2 - 3

R

12

M R R - MI R R R

3 2 2 6 3 2 - 3 3 7 3 3 2 - 3 2 2 1-

8-

10

Sleeping (III)

4

6-7

R M M M M R M R M M M M M R

R

Feeding (II)

- 11

7 3

6 - 7 7

7 - 6 7 6 3

3 - 7 3 - 7

3 - 7 3 - 6 - 7

7 8 11

1- 7 3 2 2

R

10

7

Dendrocygna autumnalis Anas discors Anas bahamensis

R M R

11

3 - 7 3 - 7 7

ButeogaUus anthracinus Pandion haliaetus Polyborus plancus Milvago chimachima

R R M R

3 3 7 1 - 2 - 6 - 7

Fluvicolapica

R

2

9

aLegend: M: migrator, MI: intratropical, R: resident, 1, I1, 11I (see Figure 7). Source: Field work (1988)

4

4 4-5 4 4-5 4 4

656

M. Sebastiani and others

goons from the sea." Birds also use the lagoons intensely during migration. " T h e importance of these lagoons is underlined by the large numbers o f other aquatic birds using them, including cormorants, pelicans, ducks and flamingos."

Selection of the Site for Shrimp Farm A According to Cun (1982) and Snedaker and Getter (1985), the ideal location for a shrimp farm has the following characteristics: (1) easy access to fresh- or brackish water of good quality; (2) flat topography; (3) proximity to natural sources of seed (shrimp postlarvae) or adult shrimps; (4) areas with no vegetation cover; (5) good roads for easy distribution of the product; and (6) lands with low potential for agriculture, tourism, or biological resources. Shrimp farm A was planned to grow only white shrimp (Penaeus schmitti) in a total area of 120 ha. For this purpose, the western end o f the Piritu Lagoon had several of the characteristics required by this type of activity (Figure 2): (1) a nearby source of fresh and brackish water in the Unare River; (2) a source o f shrimp posttarvae and adult white shrimps in the sea and the l a g o o n s i t h e Unare River mouth was the natural path for the postlarvae; and (3) areas of flat topography close to the source of larvae. T h e selected site was on flat topography. It would have occupied areas of the Piritu Lagoon that normally would have dried out during the dry season and would have been u n d e r shallow water during the rainy season. It also would have occupied a portion o f the only natural spill channel of the Unare River (madre vieja) towards the Piritu Lagoon. Since the selected site was public land, the shrimp farm company asked the Town Council (Concejo Municipal) for permission to propose the new activity on its property.

Landscape Changes Brought about by Siting Ponds in the Selected Area Comparing the 1988 map (Figure 4) with the baseline map (Figure 5), we can identify the following landscape changes caused by the partial construction of shrimp farm A: (1) alteration of flat areas o f the Piritu Lagoon by construction o f the levees, mainly in shallow waters and on m u d d y shores; (2) obstruction and alteration of the main natural spill channel of the Unare River toward the P/ritu Lagoon (madre vieja); and (3) mangrove deforestation to place the structures, mainly along the madre vieja. Alterations o f natural lagoons, related areas, and natural drainage channels are prohibited in Venezu-

ela by law (Reptlblica de Venezuela 1977). An exception to this law allows alterations of natural lagoons and related areas if ownership goes back to 1848 (Reptiblica de Venezuela 1987). Natural lagoons must have at least a 50-m-wide protected zone around them. Rivers must also have a protected zone o f 50 m on each side for navigable rivers and 25 m for nonnavigable ones (Repdblica de Venezuela 1966). At the time o f the conflict, mangrove cutting was prohibited by Presidential Decree 110 (Reptiblica de Venezuela 1974). T h e decree was related to the Law o f Fishing that prohibits the destruction of aquatic vegetation and natural formations where fish can hatch. T h e connection between the decree and this law allowed legal interpretations that resulted in the exclusive protection of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) (MARNR 1979). T h e r e f o r e , protection for mangrove at the selected site was weak due to the presence of mainly black and white mangrove.

The Fishermen's Map Fishing in the study area takes place throughout the year with the fishing sites varying seasonally (Figure 6): During the dry season, fishing takes place mainly around the island "La Isleta" because the water level drops in the Unare Lagoon, causing fish to concentrate around the island. Also during this period, fishing is intensified upstream of the Unare River, up to near the town of Clarines (Figure 1). During the rainy season, fishermen help in clearing the sandbar at the river mouth to accelerate its natural opening. Once the mouth is open, a continuous flow from tile Unare Lagoon to the sea is established through the main channel (canal principal). Fishermen take advantage o f this strong flow or chorro to intercept adult fish and shrimps swimming toward the sea. T h e y place a plastic net held by logs across the main channel, at the site o f La Cerca. T h e annual cycle for fishing followed by fishermen agrees with the existing knowledge about the cycle of aquatic organisms in the lagoons. T h e main pieces o f the fishermen's map in the study area are (Figure 6): (l) the Unare river mouth (La Boca); (2) the main channel (canal principal), which is the sailing route between the Unare River mouth and the town o f La Cerca; (3) La Cerca, which is the site where a net is set for fishing; (4) the island of the Unare Lagoon (La Isleta); and (5) the madre vieja, considered a rearing area for fish, crustaceans and mollusks. In the fishermen's opinion this spill channel is essential for the maintenance of the fishing potential in both lagoons.

Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela

The Birds' Map Bird watching in the study area was carried out at 12 sites (Figure 7). In all, 44 species were identified and classified according to their migratory status (Table 1). Among the species identified, 23 were residents, 20 were migratory and one had both resident and intratropical migratory status. T h r e e types o f land-use modalities were observed: nesting, feeding, and sleeping sites (Table 1, Figure 7). Five of the localities visited (1-7) were feeding grounds for 41 species. Five localities (8-12) were nesting areas for 11 species, and two localities (4, 5) were sleeping areas for eight species. Flooded areas and shallow waters were mostly used as feeding grounds by 44 observed species. However, resident species were found in large numbers in the mangroves. Moreover, the mangroves were particularly important for nesting since 10 of the 11 species were using them for this purpose.

Causes for Public Protest

Impact of shrimp farm A on fishing activities. A comparison between the 1988 map (Figure 4) and the baseline map (Figure 5) shows that the partial construction of the shrimp farm blocked the water at the madre vieja and eliminated part of it. T h e fishermen's map (Figure 6) shows that the madre vieja is a rearing area. As the 1988 map (Figure 4) shows, the water supply channel was in front of the Unare River mouth. T h e r e f o r e , once in operation, the water p u m p e d from the river to the artificial ponds would have changed the natural flow of organisms. T h e fishermen's map (Figure 6) shows that the Unare River mouth is the entrance for organisms to both lagoons. Consequently, these organisms would have been trapped in the water supply channel. T h e alteration o f the natural route of movement of organisms would have adversely affected the catch in the lagoons. Snedaker and Getter's (1985) comments on the nature of mariculture operations are appropriate here: The current high demand for marine protein has led to the expansion of existing maricultureoperationsand the developmentof new operations in many parts of the world. As reports becomeavailable, however, it is apparent that not all marlculture operations are economicallyjustifiable, particularlyin terms of the destruction of the natural resource base. Some of tile more common problems, which are sometimes overlooked by investors, financial support institutions, and owners/operatorsfall into two distinct, but related categories: pond sitingand pond management." These authors also point out that among the major problems associated with pond siting are "the direct removal of wetlands" and interruption of "natural

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patterns of surface flow" (i.e., surface-water runoff, tidal ingress and egress). Impact of shrimpfarm A on birds. On the birds' map (Figure 7), location 6 is on the constructed area of shrimp farm A. As observed during the field survey, ten species were using the area as feeding grounds, six of which had migratory status. If the shrimp farm had operated at its full capacity (120 ha), it also would have affected location 7. This location is another feeding ground for 23 species, nine o f which are migratory and one has a resident and intratropical status. Some species reported in these locations were shorebirds. Morrison and others (1985) point out that birds of this type that migrate to the South American coast are found only in a few locations. T h e r e f o r e , the alteration of such locations definitely would have caused severe damage for the bird population. T h e results supported the arguments o f the Audubon Conservation Society of Venezuela in the sense that the coastal system is a reservoir for several bird species, many of them with migratory status. These birds are mostly nearctic limicolous, whimbrels, sandpipers, and plovers, and nest in the Canadian Arctic biome and ecotone (McNeil and others 1985a). McNeil and others (1985a) point out that for these birds, coastal lagoons and large extensions of flooded areas and shallow water represent the first place where they can arrive at the beginning of their flight over the Caribbean Sea and the West Atlantic Ocean. Many of these birds stay in northern South America during the boreal winter; others just stay during the autumn or spring and then hibernate in Tierra del Fuego. Some species stay in these coastal areas throughout the year because some individuals (immature, lacking the necessary accumulation of premigratory fat, or any hormonal imbalance) stay in the South during J u n e and July. It should be noted that limicolous birds from the Septentrional regions of North America (such as the greater yellow legs (Tringa melanoleuca) and semipalmated sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) stay in the lower latitudes for approximately 70% of the year (McNeil and others 1985a), In this coastal system there are species, like the flamingo (Phoenicopterus tuber) and the blue-winged teal (Anas discors), that are considered world patrimony. T h e r e are also large numbers of migratory and resident wild ducks. During the northern winter they concentrate in the coastal lagoons and salt marshes of Venezuela to avoid the drought in the continental lowlands (llanos) (Lentino 1988). In a census carried out by Morrison and others (1985) and McNeil and others (1985b, 1988), it was found that the n u m b e r of small sandpipers observed in the lagoons of Tacari-

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gua (east o f the Unare lagoon), Unare, and Pfritu represent 40% of the birds that arrive at the Venezuelan coasts (Lentino 1988).

because o f the active role o f the fishermen's associations of the coastal system and o f the Audubon Conservation Society o f Venezuela. These NGOs, supported by the Environmental Act (Rept~blica de Venezuela 1976), submitted complaints to MARNR's regional and central offices, demanding legal actions against shrimp farm A. T h e national press played an important role in presenting to the public the issues discussed in the conflict. Garcia (1992) points out that the printed media is the most important tool for "critical consciousnessraising" and "social pressure" in the Venezuelan ecological movement. T h e aggressive response from fishermen showed how illegal actions can trigger unwanted responses from local communities. This type o f response highlighted the value o f an environmental impact assessment (EIA) and the need for public consultation during the process o f approval of a project. Since 1992, the role o f NGOs as environmental watchers has been further stimulated, but not fully supported, by the recent Presidential Decree on Regulations of the Environmental Act on Environmental Impact Studies (Rep6blica de Venezuela 1992a). This decree states that environmental impact studies are public documents, but their public review is at the MARNR's discretion.

tion o f effects and related measurements (MARNR 1992). Shrimp farms B and C were also affected by the conflict. MARNR temporarily suspended these two projects to revise their land rights. T h e projects were halted, although their EIAs had been approved and their authorizations had been granted. In 1989, the National Procuratorship decided that part o f the area to be occupied by shrimp farm B had a similar situation to that of shrimp farm A and, therefore, its activities should concentrate only in their own inland terrain (MARNR 1992, Novo 1990). In relation to shrimp farm C, the National Procuratorship found out that its suspension was not appropriate because the land was privately owned and not associated with the Pfritu Lagoon. At present, shrimp farm C is the only one in operation. T h e impact of the conflict is also reflected in the land-use plan proposed by MARNR for the coastal fringe of the Anzo~tegui State (Convenio M A R N R PEQUIVEN 1992). This plan is u n d e r discussion for approval. In it, the original areas to be occupied by shrimp farms A and B are proposed as areas for special regulations u n d e r two categories: area for protection and environmental recovery (Areas de Protecci6n y Recuperaci6n Ambiental) and recreational park. T h e first category includes areas for which a mitigation or a restoration plan should be established to minimize environmental problems caused by natural or anthropic factors (Rep6blica de Venezuela 1983). T h e second category is to allow expropriation o f land for recreational purposes (Convenio MARNR-PEQ U I V E N 1992). In the plan, the original areas of shrimp farms A and B are the only locations where two land-use restrictions overlap. In it, there is no proposition for new areas for large shrimp farms.

Impact of the conflict on shrimp farm projects of the coastal system. In 1989, the National Procuratorship

Impact of the conflict on shrimp farm projects nationwide. T h e case u n d e r study changed adversely the

r a t i f e d that shrimp farm A did not own the land o f the selected site (MARNR 1992). T h e selected site was in an area o f the Piritu Lagoon that temporarily dries out during the dry season. In Venezuela, natural waterbodies and related areas during the rainy season can only be privately owned if there is a document dating from 1848 stating rights to this land (Rept~blica de Venezuela 1987). Shrimp farm A did not have such a document. T h e r e f o r e , the National Procuratorship ruled that the selected site was illegally occupied. T h e conflict was solved on legal grounds. Parallel to this decision, MARNR did not approve the environmental impact assessment presented by shrimp farm A, because o f unsatisfactory identifica-

perspective of public opinion on large-scale shrimp farming. This public attitude disturbed businessmen from other regions with an interest in shrimp farming. Since 1987, 12 shrimp farm projects have been approved by MARNR after going through the required authorization process (MARNR 1992).

Consequences of the Conflict for Land-Use Management

Reinforcement of the role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in bringing out issues in land-use conflicts. T h e land-use conflict u n d e r study emerged

Impact of the conflict on governmental actions and procedures. In the authors' opinion, the relevant consequences o f the conflict in relation to governmental actions and procedures were the following: 1. Establishment o f an auditing program for shrimp farm activities in the coastal system. For MARNR the case was challenging. It had to stop shrimp farm A but it had to support other shrimp

Shrimp Farms and Land-Use Conflicts in Venezuela

farms like shrimp farm C. T o do so, MARNR established an annual auditing program for shrimp farm C, starting with the construction phase. T h e program is designed to corroborate the short- and long-term effects identified in the EIA. It allows a regular acquisition of the real data needed to monitor the compatibility o f the activity with the environment. In Venezuela, this was the first experience of an auditing program (Rojas 1992). We must mention that the new Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment Procedures (Repdblica de Venezuela 1992a) states that MARNR can designate an inspector to control a project during all the required phases, including the monitoring program after construction. 2. Reinforcement of nationwide regulations for large-scale shrimp farming. On the basis o f the experience gained from the conflict, MARNR reinforced the regulations to authorize shrimp farms. From 1988 to August 1991, MARNR automatically required an EIA study after a shrimp project had received the land-use compliance certificate. MARNR also established guidelines to advise the p r o p o n e n t on the issues to consider in such a report. In 1992, the Decree on EIA was approved (Repdblica de Venezuela 1992a). It specifies that shrimp farms must have an EIA, which should be prepared after the land-use compliance certificate has been issued, but before the authorization for alteration of land resources (Repfiblica de Venezuela 1992a), T h e decree is reinforced by the new Penal Law of the Environment (Reptiblica de Venezuela 1992b). This law specifies that the public officer that authorizes a project without requesting the EIA for those projects mentioned in the decree, will go to prison and pay a fine. T h e Penal Law of the Environment reinforces overall MARNR regulations. Consequently, if the conflict here reviewed were to take place today, the following actions would be crimes: (a) changes in natural drainage patterns or riverbeds made without considering technical standards or the required authorization (an authorization for changes that are not supported by technical standards or the guidelines established in the existing land-use plans, is also considered a crime); (b) illegal occupation o f protected areas or natural ecosystems for commercial, industrial or agricutural purposes; and (c) alteration or destruction of flora and fauna, violating the standards set on these matters. T h e Penal Law also establishes that the j u d g e can act to prevent damage to the environment, to people, and other negative consequences, based on the given complaint. T h e s e actions could be: (a) the total, or partial occupation of the site by MARNR, or of the

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pollutant sources until the situation is corrected, or the necessary authorization has been obtained; (b) interruption or prohibition of the activity that has damaged or degraded the environment; (c) confiscation or elimination of obstacles, objects, or any elements that obstruct the reasonable use of the aquatic resources, like in marine or coastal areas under special regulations; or (d) any other measure to avoid further damage. 3. T h e inconvenience of granting a land-use compliance certificate for a project before considering the results o f its EIA was made evident. According to the Administrative Procedures Act (Repflblica de Venezuela 1981), once the land-use compliance certificate has been granted, the proponent acquires the right to develop the activity u n d e r certain conditions. This law also states that a decision taken by a governmental office may be modified only if the new interpretation favors the developer. This means, that if shrimp farm A had acted legally, then MARNR would have faced a negotiation process to adjust the project to the unsuitable selected site. Thus, the EIA would have been more a tool to establish restrictions to the project, rather than to prevent the negative impacts caused by the selection of the site. This type of risk in land management can still take place today. Land-use compliance certificates are mostly based on maps for potential land-use scales of 1:250,000, too small to base decisions at the local level. However, once the proposed land use is confirmed by MARNR, the p r o p o n e n t acquires rights to the assigned land use. This fact is further enhanced by the new Decree on EIA, which states that the EIA should be prepared after the land-use compliance certificate has been granted, but before the authorization for alteration of land resources. This issue leads to the final conclusion of this paper: MARNR must revise the process of land-use compliance certification to avoid securing a land-use agreement too early in the process of authorization. This would avoid a decision that later might be unsustained by the results of the EIA.

Acknowledgments T h e authors are grateful to the Audubon Conservation Society of Venezuela and to the Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables of the Universidad Sim6n Bolivar for partially funding the final report from the course "Environmental Impact Assessment" given at the Department of Environmental Studies in 1988. This report was the basis for this paper. T h e authors are also grateful to the referees, J. Gosselink, L. Bardwell, and P. Risser, as well as to V. V&squez, V.

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H a a r m a n n , E. H e r r e r a , L. E. Garcia, a n d M. McPherson for t h e i r t h o u g h t f u l c o m m e n t s o n a n earlier d r a f t o f this m a n u s c r i p t ; to S. Garcia a n d L. Malave for the i n f o r m a t i o n o n the conflict; a n d to N. C e r o n e a n d M.V. Yfiber for the drawings.

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