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Non-convectional livestock animals (quails, pigeon, porcupine, crocodiles, toads, deer, etc)

CROCODILE FARMING .

Lecture 14

Requirements & Guidelines to Establish a Crocodile Farm Purpose -

Crocodylus niloticus (Nile Crocodile)

People thinking of crocodile farming have put a series of questions to us over time. This is a general response to those questions and it is not meant to be detailed or exhaustive. Please note that this document is merely intended to point prospective farmers in the right direction.

 Thinking of Crocodile Farming - Farming Issues to Consider

BUSINESS PLANNING

BUSINESS PLANNING

Question: Is farming crocodiles a business? Answer: All farming enterprises are a business. You will be a price taker, you won't determine price. The only way you can increase income in the absence of a price rise is by producing a higher proportion of high grade skins and reducing costs.

Question: What is needed to farm crocodiles? Answer: The location of the site is very important (if not the most important consideration) for prospective farmers. Crocodiles need to maintain body temperatures of approximately 30 degrees. Any area where winter temperatures drop consistently below 10 degrees is considered unsuitable for any form of outdoor breeding. Indoor breeding is expensive as housing requirements are expensive (all round insulation) and energy cost is high due to external temperature demand for these houses (which have to be supplied via boilers through out the year). A good guideline would be to establish if crocodiles were historically present in the area through out the year. In addition thereto, the site has ample supply of clean water and electricity, is close to feed suppliers, processing plants and links to markets. The site will need to be secured and meet the requirements of your local authority. You will also need substantial capital (an economic unit of 3000 skins per year will cost approximately R 5 million to establish) and patience (it will take approximately 3 years to establish and another 2 years before you will produce your firs skins).

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CROCODILES Question: Do I really want to farm crocodiles? Answer: It's your decision. Crocodiles can be fast, aggressive and therefore dangerous but fascinating to work with. They are not and never will be household pets. Question: Where do I purchase my animals? Answer: You can keep breeders and collect and hatch their eggs. Initially, you can buy your breeders from other farmers. Conversely, you could buy hatchlings from another hatchery. Question: Can I catch wild crocodiles or take eggs from wild crocodiles and farm them? Answer: No you can't. You must have a government permit. Also taking eggs and baby crocodiles is not a job for the inexperienced.

CROCODILE HUSBANDRY Question: How long does take to grow crocodiles to market size? Answer: It will take about three years from the time you place your first hatchling until they are ready for market. Question: Do all crocodiles reach a standard market size at the same time? Answer: No. Fast growing animals could reach market size in approximately two years. Slow growing animals may take three years or more. The current growth rate response has implications for both stock rotation and management. Question: How do I house animals? Answer: Housing depends on location. Crocodiles need to have their body temperature maintained at about 32-34ºC, especially the small ones. Seek informed advice on this issue from, established farmers, established consultants and animal housing specialists.

MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE Question: What am I selling? Answer: About 80 percent of your income will be derived from skins and the remaining 20 percent from meat. Question: Where do I sell my animals? Answer: The main markets for skins are in Asia (Japan and Singapore) and Europe - France, for example. Meat is sold in Asia (Japan, China), Europe and at home here in South Africa. Contact Department of Trade and Industry for export requirements. You should try and sell your production through an agent. The market is not interested in small consignments of skins and meat.

CROCODILES Question: Is there standard descriptive commercial crocodile language in use? Answer: Yes, but descriptions are still in the development stage.  Hatchlings are baby crocodiles and the term may apply up to one year of age  Clutches are groups of hatchlings from the same nest  Growers are animals of about one year old to harvest  Breeders are large adult animals. Breeders are further described as male and female. Males are sometimes called bulls.  Hatchling describes sub-adult breeders or advanced growers  The term "colony" is sometimes used to describe a group of growers or breeders. The term "clutch" does not apply because there is generally more than one clutch in pens.

CROCODILE HUSBANDRY

Question: What do I feed crocodiles? Answer: Currently crocodiles maintained in captivity are fed chickens and/or discarded meat. Sometimes beef and horse offal is used. Some farmers are developing pellet feed made from manufactured ingredients such as carcass meal, meat meal, fish meal etc. Some farmers use a combination of the above. Question: Where do I buy manufactured ingredients to make diets? Answer: Ingredients for on-farm mixing can be purchased from merchants catering for the pig, poultry and aquaculture industries.

MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE Question: Are there market opportunities? Answer: South Africa sells about 40,000 skins/year from crocodiles. By international standards South Africa is a small supplier (about 10% of the world market) and there is market opportunities for skins provided they are of high quality.

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MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE

MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE

Question: Can I process my own animals? Answer: Yes, provided you have a registered processing plant if you wish to sell meat locally or an export approved plant if you want to export internationally. Again economies of scale will dictate if it feasible to establish a processing plant. Currently there are three approved processing plants in South Africa. You will need some industry-specific skills to remove the skin. First grade skins are valuable, second grade skins are worth about 75 percent of first grade skins and third grade about fifty percent. Remember your costs of production will be the same for all three categories.

MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE

MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE

MARKETING AND PROCESSING CROCODILE

PORCUPINE FARMING .

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PORCUPINE Type: Mammal Diet: Herbivore Average lifespan in the wild: 5 to 7 years Size: Head and body 25 to 36 in (60 to 90 cm); Tail, 8 to 10 in (20-25 cm) Weight: 12 to 35 lbs (5 to 16 kg) Group name: Family Size relative to a tea cup:

PORCUPINE The porcupine is the prickliest of rodents, though its Latin name means "quill pig." There are about two dozen porcupine species, and all boast a coat of needle-like quills to give predators a sharp reminder that this animal is no easy meal. Some quills, like those of Africa's crested porcupine, are nearly a foot (30 centimeters) long. Porcupines have soft hair, but on their back, sides, and tail it is usually mixed with sharp quills. These quills typically lie flat until a porcupine is threatened, then leap to attention as a persuasive deterrent. Porcupines cannot shoot them at predators as once thought, but the quills do detach easily when touched.

PORCUPINE Many animals come away from a porcupine encounter with quills protruding from their own snouts or bodies. Quills have sharp tips and overlapping scales or barbs that make them difficult to remove once they are stuck in another animal's skin. Porcupines grow new quills to replace the ones they lose. Other porcupine species live in Africa, Europe, and Asia. These animals usually live on the ground and can inhabit deserts, grasslands, and forests. Female porcupines have between one and four young, depending on the species. Babies have soft quills at birth, which harden within a few days. Most young porcupines are ready to live on their own at about two months of age.

Di hutan Malaysia hanya terdapat tiga spesies landak dari Famili Hystricidea (Legakul & Mc Neely 1977, Medway 1978, Nowak 1999) iaitu spesies Hystrix brachyura (Landak Raya), Trichys fasciculata (Landak Padi) dan Atherurus macrourus (Landak Nibung).

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Siswazah tekad ternak landak (Laporan Utusan Malaysia) Menternak landak? Biar betul? Mungkin itu adalah respons yang akan diberikan oleh orang ramai sambil mengerut dahi jika kita memberitahu mereka yang kita telah melibatkan diri dalam ternakan landak. Ketika ramai yang memilih menternak haiwan yang menjadi makanan pilihan orang atau sajian harian seperti ayam, lembu atau kambing, menjadikan landak sebagai komoditi ternakan, sememangnya mengundang persoalan. Apatah lagi, landak merupakan haiwan eksotik dan dilindungi Jabatan Perlindungan Hidupan Liar dan Taman Negara (Perhilitan) dan adakah menternaknya juga merupakan satu kesalahan? Sebenarnya, walaupun landak bukan merupakan makanan popular tetapi harga makanan berasaskan haiwan itu seperti sup dan daging segarnya agak mahal. Dilaporkan bahawa semangkuk sup daging landak mampu mencecah RM10 dan pasaran daging segarnya mencecah RM60 sekilogram. Pernah seseorang memberitahu yang daging landak manis dan lembut, kadangkala rasanya seperti daging arnab. Namun, itu pendapat mereka yang pernah menikmati daging landak tetapi bagi yang cerewet kepada makanan, barangkali tanggapan daging landak sedap sukar dipercayai. Masalah lain ialah berkaitan satu mitos yang mengatakan bahawa duri landak akan dilepaskan ke arah mana-mana objek yang mengancamnya sedangkan tidak ada bukti ia benar-benar pernah berlaku.

QUAIL FARMING .

Common Quail Scientific classification Kingdom: Animally Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Galliformes Family: Phasianidae Genus: Coturnix Species: C. coturnix Binomial name

Coturnix coturnix

The Common Quail, Coturnix coturnix, is a small bird in the pheasant family Phasianidae. It is widespread and is found in parts of Europe, Asia and Africa with several subspecies recognized. They are also bred and kept as poultry in some parts of the world both for eggs and meat.

Common Quail – description & habits Description  It is a small (17 cm) rotund bird, essentially streaked brown with a white eyestripe, and, in the male, a black chin. As befits its migratory nature, it has long wings, unlike the typically shortwinged gamebirds.

Habits  This is a terrestrial species, feeding on seeds and insects on the ground. It is notoriously difficult to see, keeping hidden in crops, and reluctant to fly, preferring to creep away instead. Even when flushed, it keeps low and soon drops back into cover. Often the only indication of its presence is the distinctive "wet-my-lips" repetitive song of the male. The call is uttered mostly in the mornings, evenings and sometimes at night. It is a strongly migratory bird, unlike most game birds.

Breeding & Species Breeding  Upon attaining an age of 6-8 weeks, this quail breeds on open arable farmland and grassland across most of Europe and Asia, laying 6-18 eggs in a ground nest. The eggs take from 16-18 days to hatch. Species  The Eurasian species, C. c. coturnix, overwinters southwards in Africa's Sahel and India.  The African species , C. c. africana, overwinters within Africa, some moving northwards from South Africa. The Common Quails of Madagascar and the Comoros belong to the same African race.  The fairly numerous population of the Cape Verde islands, however belong to a separate species, C. c. inopinata, while those on the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores belong to race C. c. confisa.

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Common quail

Male / Female Japanese Quail

Comparison between chicken egg and quail egg Automatic water dispenser

Is quail meat preferred over chicken meat? - YES

Composition of Quail Egg

 According to gourmets, it is tastier than chicken. The breast and legs are considered delicacies.  Quail meat promotes body and brain development in children  Best balanced feed for pregnant and nursing mothers.  Less fat content (Low calorific value) but more of phospholipds. No fear of Cholesterol.

Quail egg is roughly one-fifth the size of a chicken's egg and weigh around 10gm. The eggshells are spotted, with colors ranging from white to brown. Nutritionally, the quality of these eggs is at par with that of chicken eggs; rather they contain less cholesterol. The proportion of yolk (the yellow inside part) to albumen (the white part), at 39:61, is higher compared to chicken eggs.

Poultry

Moisture

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrate

Minerals

Quail

73.93%

20.54%

3.85%

0.56%

1.12%

Chicken

73.87%

20.66%

3.61%

0.78%

1.08%

Water

Protein

Fat

Carbohydrate

Total ash

Calorific Value

74%

13%

11%

1%

1%

649 k J/100g liquid

Composition of Quail Egg (Whole, Raw)

What is the acceptance or popularity of Quail meat and egg?

Quail Eggs

Pickled Quail Eggs

 Quail meat / egg or as such the products are now widely accepted  The popularity can be judged by the factors like growing number of farms and market price  Small size of quail egg limits its popularization as alternative to chicken egg.  However, they make attractive snacks or salad ingredients. Value addition is possible with products like egg pickles, brined quail eggs etc.

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Is quail farming a suitable option in terms of meat and egg production? Quails have certain distinct characteristics that made them suitable for both egg as well as meat production. These are:  Early marketing age (Five weeks for meat purposes, which is slightly below six weeks for broiler chicken)  Early sexual maturity (They require six to seven weeks of age to produce eggs)  High rate of lay (280 eggs per year)  Occupation of a minimum floor space (Eight to ten birds can be kept in the same space housing a single chicken)  Quail possess a dressing proportion of about 70% (just like chicken), with the breast and thigh portion contributing nearly 68% of the total carcass. Egg production starts when the female quail reaches six to seven weeks of age and it touches 85% production by the end of 10 weeks.

How to produce quail chicks?

How to identify male and female Quails?

 Sexing is not done in one-day-old quail chicks.  Only after 4 weeks of age, the female can be differentiated from the males.  Females are larger than males and they have black spots on face, neck and in the breast region.

How to produce quail chicks? Incubation requirement are as follows:

Incubators that are used for hatching chicken eggs can be used for quail eggs with little modification. A wire mesh or grid of 1.5 x 1 inch should be fitted on the setter trays, to keep very small quail eggs in the incubator. Incubation period for quail eggs is 18 days.

What are the space / housing requirements of Quail?

Quails can be reared on the floor or in the cages.

Age (in Weeks)

0-4 5-6 6 onwards

Space Requirement Feeding Sapce Watering Space (cm.sq. / bird) (cm.sq. / bird) (cm.sq. / bird) Deep litter Cage system system* 75 75 2.0 1.0 200 150 2.5 1.5 250 175 2.5-3.0 1.5 * A system of raring birds on the floor.

Male / female ratio in the parent stock should be 1:2 or less. Quails start laying eggs at the age of 6 weeks, Quails lay most of the eggs during evening hours (Between 3 to 6 PM). Fertile eggs from the female of age 10 to 20 weeks can be collected for incubation. Eggs should be collected very frequently and carefully, as shells of eggs are very thin and they break very easily. Eggs should be stored at 55 deg.F with 70% relative humidity before incubation. You need to fumigate the eggs before incubation. Duration (Days)

Temperature (deg.F)

Humidity (%)

Turning of Eggs

0-14

99.5

60

Through 45 deg. 5-6 times a day.

15 to 18

98.5

70

Not required

How to prepare feed for quails?

 Offer ground maize to quails (of 3week age) for first two days. After that, feed can be prepared by using commonly available ingredients like Maize, Rice polishing, Soybean extraction, groundnut extraction, Sunflower extraction etc.  Commercial poultry feed that are available in the market are not suitable as it contains less protein than what is required for quails. However, it can be modified by adding more of soybean extraction or any other suitable protein source that are acceptable for quails.

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What is the incidence of diseases in quails?

 Quails are comparatively sturdy birds, hence do not require any vaccination.  Common disorders, which occur in case of chicken, are seldom noted in quails. Ulcerative enteritis is common in quails.

Nutritional Requirement for Quails Nutrients

Energy (Kcal /Kg)

Broiler Quails

Layer Quail (For Egg)

Starter (0-4 wks.)

Finisher (4-6 wks.)

Starter (0-4 wks.)

Grower (4-5 wks.)

Layer (> 6 wks.)

2800

2800

2750

2750

2700

Protein %

27

24

24

20

19

Calcium %

0.8

0.6

0.8

0.6

3.0

Phosphorus %

0.3

0.3

0.3

0.3

0.45

PIGEON FARMING .

Pigeon  Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variations in size. The largest species are the crowned pigeons of New Guinea, which are nearly turkeysized, at a weight of 2-4 kilograms (4.4-8.8 lbs.)  Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short bills and legs, small heads on large compact bodies. The wings are large and have low wing loadings; pigeons have strong wing muscles (wing muscles comprise 31–44% of their body weight) and are amongst the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly maneuverable in flight.  The plumage of the family is variable.  Pigeons and doves may be sexually monochromatic or dichromatic.

Pigeon as Food  Several species of pigeon or dove are used as food, and probably any could be; the powerful breast muscles characteristic of the family make excellent meat.  In Europe the Wood Pigeon is commonly shot as a game bird, while Rock Pigeons were originally domesticated as a food species, and many breeds were developed for their meatbearing qualities.  The extinction of the Passenger Pigeon was at least partly due to shooting for use as food.  According to the Tanakh, doves are kosher, and they are the only birds that may be used for a korban. Other kosher birds may be eaten, but not brought as a korban.

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The unusual Nicobar Pigeon, Caloenas nicobarica

Emerald Dove A Fantail pigeon

The White-bellied Green-pigeon feeding on fruit

FROG FARMING .

Introduction  Raising and selling frogs on a commercial basis has not proven to be successful economically.  Although farming for frog legs sounds promising, operating a profitable frog farm seems to be more of a myth than a reality. Those few individuals who claim to be successful frog farmers generally are distributors engaged in the selling of adult frogs, tadpoles, or frog eggs, frequently harvested from the wild. Many "frog farms" turn out to be natural marshy areas, swamps or shallow ponds with abundant food and habitat suitable to the needs of wild frogs.  At some frog farms, culture methods simply consist of increasing the shoreline area, erecting a fence to exclude predators and retain the frogs, and stocking wild frog eggs or tadpoles. The frogs usually are left to raise themselves.  Intensive indoor frog culture techniques have been developed for the production of laboratory frogs used in medical and biological research. At present, however, it is doubtful that these indoor culture techniques can be applied economically to the culture of large frogs for human consumption

Older tadpoles go from incubator to holding pond... During their 4 to 5 months in the holding pool, the tads change to frogs. The male bullfrog (foreground) has larger eardrun ""circle"" that his mate... A fish net comes in handy for filling big orders

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Edible Frogs

Breeding and the Life Cycle

 A number of species of frogs, including the green frog (Rana clamitans), the leopard frog (Rana pipiens), and the pickerel frog (Rana palustris), are harvested from the wild and sold as a luxury food - frog legs - in expensive restaurants.

 Bullfrogs lay their eggs in shallow standing water during the Spring (April and May) in temperate climates.  The large, floating, jelly-like egg mass produced by a single female may cover an area about 3-5 feet square and include from 10,000 - 25,000 individual eggs.  The eggs hatch in 1 - 3 weeks, depending on the water temperature, into larval frogs that commonly are called tadpoles.  Bullfrog tadpoles chiefly are vegetarians, spending most of their time grazing on microscopic plants and bottom algae.

 However, the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) has the greatest potential for culture. The common bullfrog, often referred to as the "Giant Frog" or "Jumbo Frog," is the largest native North American species, often reaching 8 inches in body length. Because of its large size, the bullfrog is the most preferred and commonly attempted species for farming.

Slow Growth

 Frogs and other amphibians are coldblooded animals that grow slowly, not a particularly desirable trait for farming.  The rate of growth of the bullfrog tadpole varies with the climate, length of the growing season, and available food supply. Even in temperate climates, it may take a year or more to transform the tadpole into a young bullfrog. Another year or more is required to produce a mature, marketable-size bullfrog.  The development from egg to a mature bullfrog of harvestable size may take over 3 years, even under ideal conditions.

Artificial Feeding

 Once the tadpole has metamorphosed into the adult frog (i.e., the legs are fully developed and the tail is absorbed), feeding becomes especially difficult. Adult frogs feed exclusively on moving animals, primarily small insects. They generally refuse to eat dead or at least non-moving food.  Japanese researchers reportedly have been able to induce frogs to eat dead silkworm pupae by using small motorized trays that mechanically roll the silkworms back and forth to simulate live animal motions.

Artificial Feeding  Feeding is the critical process in culturing frogs successfully. Poorly fed frogs are susceptible to disease and frequently resort to cannibalism (eating younger bullfrogs and tadpoles), thereby reducing the harvestable population.  Frogs and tadpoles reared outdoors will obtain some natural foods, but for intensive commercial culture of frogs in high densities, supplemental food must be supplied. Bullfrog tadpoles are mainly vegetarians and will consume most soft plant matter and some animal feed.  Acceptable tadpole foods include such items as boiled potatoes, meat scraps, or chicken viscera. Recycling butchered frog scraps is a convenient way to reduce food costs, but may transmit disease.

Artificial Feeding  Live animals, such as minnows, crayfish, and insects, also are placed in these trays to condition the frogs to feeding from these mobile platforms. Although this technique may work, most American frog farmers rely on stocking or attracting live food animals. Smaller species of frogs, tadpoles, crayfish, and minnows can be stocked as food items for bullfrogs although the expense of live feed is high.  The use of strong flood lights to illuminate the shoreline at night will attract flying insects and provide additional food for frogs. However, this technique is not sufficient to supply enough food to sustain the high frog densities needed for a commercial operation. At present, live food, adequate in quantity and quality, remains the greatest problem for would-be frog producers.

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Pond Design  A mature bullfrog may require as much as 21 feet of shoreline as its exclusive feeding territory. Territorial behavior firmly limits the number of frogs that can coexist in a small area. Available shoreline area (the ratio of land to water edge) is a critical factor. The total size of the pond is not as important as shoreline, because frogs use shallow shorelands to rest and feed.  Ponds should be deep enough to protect the adult frogs and tadpoles from extremely hot or cold temperatures.. Most of the pond should be shallow (2 -12 inches deep), because frogs normally rest and feed in shallow waters.

Pond Design

 Predatory fish, snakes, snapping turtles, cats, foxes, and water birds that feed on adult frogs and tadpoles should be fenced out. Enclose the pond with a mesh fence about 3 feet high.  Birds are especially difficult to exclude, but, in small ponds, a wire net stretched above the shallow shoreline area may offer some protection. Some loss due to predatory animals should be expected.

Water Quality and Quantity

Harvesting

 An abundant supply of high quality water must be readily available to the frogs throughout the growing season. For good growth, water temperature should remain relatively constant at 20° to 26° C.  The pH of the water should be slightly acidic. Dissolved oxygen always should be present because tadpoles, as fish, breathe by gills and are dependent on the available oxygen.  Pesticides and other dangerous chemicals often are toxic to frogs, and even non-lethal concentrations could restrict the sale of frog legs for human consumption. Pesticides can be distributed widely by winds and water currents. However, with care and intelligent site selection, most pollution problems can be avoided.

 Techniques for collecting and harvesting pond-cultured bullfrogs are the same as those used in capturing wild frogs.  These methods include nets, hand capture, spearing, and fishing with a hook and line. Hooks baited with live insects, earthworms, or artificial lures (a piece of red cloth or yarn) are dangled in front of the frog.  Spearing and band capture techniques are done most effectively at night, using a bright spotlight to momentarily daze and immobilize the frog.  Obviously, new methods to efficiently harvest large numbers of frogs need to be developed.

Diseases

Economic Factors

 The most common disease of frogs, red-leg disease, is due to a bacterial infection (Aeromonas), often resulting from overcrowded conditions.  The best preventative methods are adequate nutrition and space. Infected individuals should be isolated immediately, and treated with antibiotics.  In severe cases, it may be necessary to drain the ponds and allow them to dry out for several weeks.

 Good management and operational skills are critical to an aquaculture enterprise. The success of aquatic farming depends largely on the cost to grow and market for the product.  Before attempting to raise frogs or any other aquatic crop, the prospective culturist should conduct a survey of the local or regional markets to determine the current supply, present and expected demand, price elasticity, extent of competition, and other socioeconomic factors.  Large numbers of wild frogs imported into the United States or captured locally and sold at low prices will reduce the potential profitability of frog farming. Market price fluctuations of frog legs are volatile.  Prospective frog farmers realistically should assess their own financial status because most aquaculture enterprises require a high initial investment, have a number of associated "hidden" costs, and produce low realized return on short term investments. Expectations of large or easy profits are extremely unrealistic.

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Future Potential  At present, there is no well-established frog farming industry.  Current practices and past efforts at commercial frog farming have been unsuccessful largely because of physical, chemical, biological, and economic constraints.  Considering the current state of the art, frog farming as a commercial venture appears to have severely limited potential.

Deer Farming .

 However, as intensive hunting and increased drainage of natural wetlands continue to reduce the wild frog populations, the demand for frogs may reach a critical point, permitting skilled culturists to profitably farm frogs.

Deer Farming  Deer farming has been well established for a century or more in the Far East. However, it is a new enterprise elsewhere which during recent years has been increasingly accepted as an economically promising industry.  New species have been successfully tried and farming techniques are becoming more sophisticated. Many deer farms are, however, improperly run because either the owners or managers are not upto-date with deer husbandry methods, or they lack relevant knowledge of the biology of the species concerned.  By “deer farming” is meant the husbandring of deer populations for the production of  deer meat and  by-products - including hides, velvet, antlers and musk

Species

Male

Female

Young

Red Deer

stag

hind

calf

Wapiti

bull

cow

calf

Fallow Deer

buck

doe

fawn

Reindeer

bull

cow

calf

on a commercial basis.

White tail deer

Elk Reeves's Muntjac deer

Spotted deer

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Fawn

Pudu

Sambar deer

Deer - biology  Extant deer range in size from the 10 kg (22 lb) Northern Pudu to the 450 kg (990 lb) Moose.  They generally have lithe, compact bodies and long, powerful legs suited for rugged woodland terrain.  Deer are also excellent jumpers and swimmers.

The North Sulawesi Babirusa, Babyrousa celebensis, is a pig-like animal native to northern Sulawesi and the nearby Lembeh Islands in Indonesia. It has two pairs of large tusks composed of enlarged canine teeth. The canines in the maxilla penetrate the top of the snout, curving back toward the forehead. The North Sulawesi Babirusa is a threatened species. The common and scientific names are various transcriptions of its local name, which quite literally means "pig-deer" (from Malay babi "pig" + rusa "deer" - see also Rusa Deer) in reference to the huge tusks of the male suggestive of a deer's antlers - and in fact used for a similar purpose.

 Deer are ruminants, or cud-chewers, and have a four-chambered stomach. The teeth of deer are adapted to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper incisors, instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw. The Chinese water deer, Tufted deer and muntjac have enlarged upper canine teeth forming sharp tusks, while other species often lack upper canines altogether. The cheek teeth of deer have crescent ridges of enamel, which enable them to grind a wide variety of vegetation.  Nearly all deer have a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scented pheromone, used to mark its home range. Bucks of a wide range of species open these glands wide when angry or excited.  All deer have a liver without a gallbladder. Deer also have a Tapetum lucidum which gives them sufficiently good night vision.

Deer - biology

Antlers

 A doe generally has one or two fawns at a time

 With the exception of the Chinese Water Deer who have tusks, all male deer have antlers that are shed and regrown every year from a structure called a pedicle.

 The gestation period is anywhere up to ten months  Most fawns are born with their fur covered with white spots, though in many species they lose their spots once they get older.  Deer are selective feeders. They are usually browsers, and primarily feed on leaves. They have small, unspecialized stomachs by ruminant standards, and high nutrition requirements. Rather than attempt to digest vast quantities of low-grade, fibrous food as, for example, sheep and cattle do, deer select easily digestible shoots, young leaves, fresh grasses, soft twigs, fruit, fungi, and lichens

 Sometimes a female will have a small stub. The only female deer with antlers are Reindeer (Caribou). Antlers grow as highly vascular spongy tissue covered in a skin called velvet.  Before the beginning of a species' mating season, the antlers calcify under the velvet and become hard bone. The velvet is then rubbed off leaving dead bone which forms the hard antlers. After the mating season, the pedicle and the antler base are separated by a layer of softer tissue, and the antler falls off.

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Antlers  One way that many hunters are able to track main paths that the deer travel on is because of their "rubs". A rub is used to deposit scent from glands near the eye and forehead and physically mark territory.  During the mating season, bucks use their antlers to fight one another for the opportunity to attract mates in a given herd. The two bucks circle each other, bend back their legs, lower their heads, and charge.

Antlers

Young males of many deer, and the adults of some species, such as brocket deer and pudus, have antlers which are single spikes.

Antlers  Each species has its own characteristic antler structure – for example white-tailed deer antlers include a series of tines sprouting upward from a forward-curving main beam, while Fallow Deer and Moose antlers are palmate, with a broad central portion. Mule deer (and Black-tailed Deer), species within the same genus as the white-tailed deer, instead have bifurcated (or branched) antlers—that is, the main beam splits into two, each of which may split into two more.

Economic significance Deer have long had economic significance to humans. Deer meat, for which they are hunted and farmed, is called venison. Deer organ meat is called humble.  Usage for food, clothing, and transport.

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