Current Biology, Volume 18

Supplemental Data

Long-Term Global Trends in Crop Yield and Production Reveal no Current Pollination Shortage but Increasing Pollinator Dependency

Marcelo A. Aizen, Lucas A. Garibaldi, Saul A. Cunningham, and Alexandra M. Klein

S1

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Supplemental Experimental Procedures Dataset The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has assembled detailed information on crop cultivation for nearly five decades based on questionnaires sent out annually to member countries. We used the FAO extensive dataset [S1] to compile yearly data, from 1961 to 2006, on production and cultivated area of a total of 87 crops, 52 represented by single species and 35 by two or more taxonomically related species, mostly within the same genus. For instance, “coffee” is represented by three species, including Coffea arabica, C. canephora, and C. libarica. The single and multispecies crops in our dataset (Table S3), collectively accounted for 82.8% of total global food production in the year 2006. These crops were selected on the basis of existing information on their pollinator dependence status in the recent review of Klein et al. [S2]. Rather than compiling data at the country or global level, for each crop we used the values on production and area reported separately for the developed and developing world in the FAO dataset. Considering crop data independently for the developed and developing world is justified because differences in agricultural intensification and socioeconomic and environmental conditions might affect directly both yield and pollinators. On the one hand, more intensified agriculture in the developed world could offset limited fruit and seed numbers or sizes caused by pollinator scarcity, whereas higher rates of deforestation and habitat destruction in the developing world might be increasing pressure on pollinator faunas [S3-S5]. On the other hand, the impact of diseases of honey bees has so far been most apparent in the developed world, with stocks of managed honey bees collapsing in the USA and in some European countries at different times during the last decades, potentially limiting production of many pollinator

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dependent crops [S6, S7]. Although these varying factors could balance each other out in their net effect on crop pollination in the developed versus developing world, the comparison is relevant nevertheless for evaluating consistency in trends despite contrasting socioeconomic conditions. According to FAO classification, the developing world includes all the African and Latin American countries, as well as most countries from SE Asia plus China and India. The developed world includes all the European countries, USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. The USSR was considered by the FAO to be part of the developing world until its dissolution in 1991. After that year, Russia, Ukraine, and the other European ex-Soviet republics were reclassified by FAO and included as part of the developed world, whereas the Asian ex-Soviet republics remained as part of the developing world. This reclassification produced a disruption in the regional temporal trends in total crop production and cultivated area, because USSR agriculture, dominated by Russia and Ukraine, represented about 9.8% of global crop production by 1991. For the sake of consistency and because the USSR showed similar trends to the rest of Europe until 1991, we considered all the former Soviet republics as part of the developed world for the entire 1961-2006 period. Therefore, we added to the annualized data from the developed world (and subtracted from the developing world) the production and cultivated area of each crop in the USSR for the period 1961-1991, and of each crop in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan for the period 1992-2006. Pollinator Dependency Crops were categorized according to their dependence on pollinators using Klein et al. (see ref. [S2]; information provided in their electronic supplementary material 1 and 2). Crops were classed as pollinator dependent if pollinators increase the quantity or quality

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(i.e., weight) of the fruits or seeds that we consume, and nondependent if the production of the parts that we consume is independent of animal pollination. This second category includes not only wind-pollinated and autogamous crops from which we harvest and consume their fruits or seeds, but also crops that depend on pollinators for sexual reproduction but not for the vegetative parts that we eat (i.e., Klein et al.’s “increase – seed production” and “increase – breeding” categories; [S2]). Where information was available, dependent crops were further classified into two categories, low and high dependence, according to the degree of pollinator dependency. The low dependence category includes those crops in which either fruit or seed number or weight decreases <40% in the absence of pollinators, whereas the high dependence category includes those crops in which either seed or fruit number or weight decreases >40%. For many crops, such as soybean and sunflower, their pollinator dependence status should be viewed as a consensus status for the whole crop based on existing published information as pollinator dependency can be highly variable among cultivars. For crops including more than one variety or taxonomically related species, the pollinator dependence category reflects the prevailing condition in the group [S2]. Data Analysis Although we assessed temporal trends in the production and cultivated area of crops, our focal variable was yield. For a given crop, yield was calculated by dividing its total production in Metric tonnes (Mt) by its cultivated area in hectares (ha). Considering all the variables in that we could derive from the FAO dataset, yield is the one most likely to be affected by a decline in pollination because it represents a measure of production standardized by area. To compare temporal trends between pollination dependence and worlddevelopment categories, the value of each dependent variable x (i.e., yield, production,

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or area) at year t was transformed according to Δxt = 100 ⋅ ( xt − x1961 ) x1961 , where Δxt

represents the percent change of the variable at year t with respect to its value in 1961. For each crop in each region, we estimated the slope β of the linear relationship between relative yield and year (i.e., %/yr). The slope of the linear regression fit, βΔyield, provides an unbiased estimate of the average annual growth rate in relative yield for the underlying population mean despite temporal autocorrelation [S8]. For instance, a slope of 1.6 means that yield increased, on average, by 1.6 %/yr since 1961. Treating the developed and developing world classes separately, we used ANOVA to test for statistical differences in the mean slope among the three dependency categories (i.e., high dependence, low dependence, nondependence) followed by two orthogonal contrasts (i.e., dependence vs. nondependence, and high vs. low dependence). We were concerned that interpretation of this comparison might be difficult because of the existence of many tropical, pollinator dependent crops that are exclusively cultivated in the developing world (e.g., Brazil nut, cocoa beans, oil palm, etc.). Therefore, we also compared the growth rate in relative yield for a common set of 10 important pollinator dependent crops (soybean, sunflower seed, rapeseed, cottonseed, flax, dry bean, buckwheat, apple, citrus, and tomato) and 10 important nondependent crops (wheat, corn, barley, oat, rye, potato, sugar beet, grape, sorghum, and pea). These were selected on the basis that they were the 10 top-ranked crops in each category in terms of cumulative area under cultivation, from 1961 to 2006, in the developed world. Importance was based on cultivated area rather than on production, because different plant parts are harvested from different crops and thus production among crops (in terms of weight) is not strictly comparable. These crops are mostly temperate or subtropical and are also widely cultivated in the developing world. In total, these 10 dependent and 10 nondependent crops accounted for 8.7 and 19.9%,

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respectively, of the world’s cropping land in 2006. We used ANOVA to assess the effects of pollinator dependence (dependent vs. nondependent) and region (developed vs. developing) on the annual growth rate in relative yield, βΔyield. We considered crop species as a nested factor within the dependence class and a blocking factor for the comparison between regions. Supplemental References

S1.

FAOSTAT (2007). Data available at http://faostat.fao.org/site/408/default.aspx. Last accessed in January 2008.

S2.

Klein, A.M., Vaissière, B.E., Cane, J.H., Steffan-Dewenter, I., Cunningham, S.A., Kremen, C., and Tscharntke, T. (2007). Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops. Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 274, 303-313.

S3.

Matson, P.A., Parton, W.J., Power, A.G., and Swift, M.J. (1997). Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science 277, 504-509.

S4.

Allen, J.C., and Barnes, D.F. (1985). The causes of deforestation in developing countries. Ann. Asoc. Am. Geog. 75, 163-184.

S5.

Jha, S., and Bawa, K.S. (2006). Population growth, human development, and deforestation in biodiversity hotspots. Conserv. Biol. 20, 906-912.

S6.

Kearns, C.A., Inouye, D.W., and Waser, N.M. (1998). Endangered mutualisms: The conservation of plant-pollinator interactions. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 29, 83112.

S7.

Oldroyd, B.P. (2007). What's killing American honey bees? PLos Biol. 5, e168.

S8.

Murtaugh, P.A. (2007). Simplicity and complexity in ecological data analysis. Ecology 88, 56-62.

S9.

Freedman, D., Pisani, R., and Purves, R. (1998). Statistics (3rd edn) (New York: Norton).

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Supplemental Figure Legends

Figure S1. Pollinator Dependence, Socioeconomic Development and the Annual Growth Rate in Relative Crop Yield Shown are the means (+ 1 SE) of annual growth rate in relative yield (βΔyield) of a subset of 10 pollinator dependent and 10 nondependent crops widely cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions of the developed and developing world. See Table S1 for statistical analysis.

Figure S2. Effects of Level of Pollinator Dependence on the Annual Growth Rate in Relative Crop Yield Shown are the means (+ 1 SE) of annual growth rate in relative yield (βΔyield) for crops grouped in different categories of pollinator dependence (i.e., high dependence, low dependence, and nondependence) for the developed and developing world. The number of crops included in each category is indicated between parentheses. The gray dot in the “developed world” panel indicates the mean value observed after the exclusion of the Cucurbita spp. complex (which includes pumpkin, squash, gourd, and zucchini) from the high dependence category. This crop complex may be considered an outlier because it experienced a relative yield growth rate of ∼17 %/yr in the developed world, >5 SD away from the mean of the 70 sample values from that region (see ref. [S9]) and surpassing by >60% the yield rate of any other crop in the whole dataset. See Table S2 for statistical analyses.

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Table S1. Effects of Pollinator Dependence and Socioeconomic Development on the Annual Growth Rate in Relative Yield Source

Df

MS

F

p

1

0.292

0.07

0.79

18

4.302

Development

1

2.160

0.39

0.54

Dependence x Development

1

0.166

0.03

0.86

18

5.488

Dependence Error1

Error2

This analysis was conducted on a subset of 10 pollinator dependent and 10 nondependent crops cultivated in temperate and subtropical regions worldwide. See Supplemental Experimental Procedures for details on crop selection and statistical analysis.

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Table S2. Effect of Level of Pollinator Dependence on the Annual Growth Rate in Relative Crop Yield for the Developed and Developing World Developed world Source

Developing world

Df

MS

F

p

Df

MS

F

p

Dependence

2

0.453

0.06

0.93

2

4.257

1.81

0.17

Yes vs. No

1

0.059

0.01

0.93

1

1.156

0.49

0.49

High vs. Low†

1

0.889

0.12

0.73

1

7.788

3.31

0.07

67

7.204

79

2.354

Error

The dependence factor was decomposed in two independent (i.e., orthogonal) contrasts (i.e., dependent vs. nondependent; and within dependent crops, high vs. low dependence). †

If Cucurbita spp., a multispecies crop complex considered an outlier, is excluded from the

highly-dependent group in the developed world, the contrast changes to F1,66=1.30, p=0.26 (see Figure S2).

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Table S3. Land Area Cultivated, Production and Yield of Leading Global Crops Classified by their Pollinator Dependence Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence degree

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Production

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Yield

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Actinidia deliciosa*

Kiwifruit

Yes/ High

0.0

---

0.0

----

0.0

----

0.0

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

Amygdalus communis

Almond

Yes/High

592.7

74

128.7

466

660.4

74

97.0

534

1.11

0

0.52

0.75

12

0.68

Cashew nut, and Cashewapple

Yes/High

0.0

---

588.1

590

0.0

----

588.1

741

----

----

----

1.00

22

-0.07

Brazil nut, Para nut, Cream nut

Yes/High

0.0

---

1.8

-19

0.0

----

59.4

25

----

----

----

32.99

55

-0.14

Citrullus lanatus

Watermelon

Yes/High

835.8

-37

1120.2

191

5896.6

64

11968.6

660

7.06

158

3.00

10.68

161

3.81

Cola nitida, C. vera, † C. acuminata

Cola nut, Kola nut

Yes/High

0.0

---

155.0

151

0.0

----

191.5

15

----

----

----

1.24

-54

-2.18

Cucumis melo

Cantaloupe, Melon

Yes/High

163.9

4

464.8

141

2018.5

92

4988.1

383

12.31

84

1.93

10.73

101

1.90

Cucumis sativus

Cucumber, Gherkin

Yes/High

394.9

-3

617.6

247

3770.7

112

5777.9

521

9.55

118

2.55

9.35

79

1.98

Cucurbita maxima, C. mixta, C. moschata, C. pepo

Pumpkin, Squash, Gourd, Marrow, Zucchini

Yes/High

1096.2

-78

402.4

227

3197.5

58

3452.8

362

2.92

609

16.77

8.58

42

0.94

Anacardium occidentale

†

Bertholletia excelsa

†

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Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Production

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Yield

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Cardamom, Mace, Nutmeg

Yes/High

0.0

---

73.5

204

0.0

----

11.6

582

----

----

----

0.16

124

2.74

Buckwheat

Yes/High

2098.9

-13

2541.3

-64

959.0

47

1519.6

-37

0.46

68

1.37

0.60

75

3.50

Apple

Yes/High

1404.2

18

295.8

957

15139.1

51

1914.6

2040

10.78

28

0.10

6.47

102

1.44

Mangifera indica

Mango

Yes/High

0.3

3197

1275.5

225

0.9

5784

10903.2

180

3.41

78

0.36

8.55

-14

-0.47

Persea americana

Avocado

Yes/High

10.5

439

67.3

393

52.1

661

661.3

342

4.95

41

-0.02

9.83

-10

-0.53

Prunus armeniaca

Apricot

Yes/High

115.5

69

97.9

186

970.0

50

347.6

417

8.40

-11

-0.33

3.55

81

2.29

Prunus avium, Prunus cerasus

Sour cherry, Sweet cherry

Yes/High

72.2

231

21.1

383

1202.9

-2

95.6

623

16.66

-70

-1.61

4.52

50

1.87

Prunus domestica, P. spinosa

Plum

Yes/High

271.0

56

123.2

1304

5333.5

-36

842.5

617

19.68

-59

-1.31

6.84

-49

-1.02

Prunus persica, Persica laevis

Peach, Nectarine

Yes/High

381.6

9

166.7

519

3918.4

51

1248.9

801

10.27

39

0.63

7.49

46

0.50

Pyrus communis

Pear

Yes/High

305.7

-13

192.9

627

4200.5

11

1001.9

1385

13.74

28

0.45

5.19

104

1.86

Rubus idaeus, R. fruiticosus, R. chamaemorus, R. flagellaris, R. trivalis

Raspberry, Blackberry, Cloudberry, Northern dewberry, Southern dewberry

Yes/High

24.8

309

24.5

161

225.4

145

215.1

180

9.07

-40

-1.02

8.80

7

0.13

Elettaria cardamomum, Myristica fragrans

†

Fagopyrum ‡ esculentum Malus domestica

‡

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Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

†

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Yield

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Cocoa

Yes/High

0.0

---

4403.5

72

0.0

----

1182.0

243

----

----

----

0.27

100

2.09

Vaccinium macrocarpon, V. oxycoccus, Vaccinium corymbosum, V. angustifolium, V. ashei, V. myrtillus *

Cranberry, Blueberry

Yes/High

11.8

581

0.0

----

82.5

654

0.0

----

7.02

11

0.47

----

----

----

Vanilla planifolia, V. † pompona

Vanilla

Yes/High

0.0

---

16.5

367

0.0

----

1.4

315

----

----

----

0.08

-11

1.15

Abelmoschus esculentus *

Okra, Gumbo

Yes/Low

0.0

---

326.0

157

0.0

----

1107.4

385

----

----

----

3.40

89

2.17

Arachis hypogaea

Groundnut, Peanut

Yes/Low

666.2

-18

15975.2

36

945.5

63

13146.5

252

1.42

99

2.03

0.82

159

2.56

Brassica alba (syn. Sinapis alba, B. hirta), B. nigra, (syn. Sinapis nigra)

Mustard Seed

Yes/Low

337.2

11

126.0

142

172.8

62

73.6

189

0.51

47

1.40

0.58

19

0.41

Rapeseed, Oilseed rape, Canola

Yes/Low

1373.5

847

6444.0

172

1876.7

1365

4108.3

542

1.37

55

1.21

0.64

136

2.81

Pigeon pea, Cajan pea, Congo bean

Yes/Low

0.0

---

2727.3

72

0.0

----

2228.0

64

----

----

----

0.82

-4

0.17

Theobroma cacao

Brassica napus

Cajanus cajan

‡

†

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Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Yield

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Capsicum annuum, C. fructescens, Pimenta dioica (syn. P. officinalis, P. dioica)

Chile pepper, Red pepper, Bell pepper, Green pepper, Allspice, Pimento

Yes/Low

116.0

59

543.9

186

1508.9

190

4399.1

390

13.00

82

1.71

8.09

71

1.71

Carica papaya

Papaya

Yes/Low

0.6

56

113.3

244

12.6

48

1305.3

404

19.58

-5

0.34

11.52

46

1.33

Carthamus tinctorius

Safflower Seed

Yes/Low

228.6

16

528.6

5

189.4

15

137.6

165

0.83

-1

-1.19

0.26

152

3.03

Castanea sativa

Chestnut

Yes/Low

52.0

101

50.9

366

423.8

-65

170.6

504

8.15

-82

-1.48

3.35

30

-0.32

Citrus aurantifolia, C. aurantium,C. bergamia, C. grandis, C. limetta, C. limon, C. maxima, C. medica (var. cedrata),C. myrtifolia, C. paradisi, C. reticulata, C. sinensis, C. unshiu,

Bergamot, Chinotto, Citron, Clementine, Grapefruit, Kumquat, Lemon, Lime, Mandarine, Orange, Pomelo, Tangerine

Yes/Low

701.5

55

1542.9

335

12387.9

100

12635.4

613

17.66

29

0.97

8.19

64

0.93

Coconut

Yes/Low

0.0

---

5235.2

103

0.0

----

23844.9

132

----

----

----

4.55

14

0.34

‡

Fortunella japonica

Cocos nucifera

†

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Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Yield

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Coffea arabica, C. canephora, C. liberica

Coffee, green

Yes/Low

2.0

24

9767.7

4

3.1

-7

4530.4

73

1.55

-24

-0.60

0.46

66

1.38

Diospyros kaki; D. virginiana

Persimmon

Yes/Low

41.3

-16

81.1

757

464.2

-5

525.8

381

11.24

14

0.21

6.49

-44

-0.27

Oil palm fruit

Yes/Low

0.0

---

3624.7

266

0.0

----

13669.8

1185

----

----

----

3.77

251

6.22

Ficus carica

Fig

Yes/Low

479.3

-71

101.9

184

1067.9

-82

504.4

81

2.23

-37

-1.00

4.95

-36

-1.22

Fragaria sp.

Strawberry

Yes/Low

86.9

148

7.3

563

717.6

326

36.9

2676

8.26

72

1.36

5.07

319

4.71

Glycine max, G.

Soybean

Yes/Low

12034.1

172

11784.8

411

19401.1

390

7481.7

1589

1.61

80

1.71

0.63

230

5.10

Cotton seed

Yes/Low

9327.9

-8

22552.4

16

13725.5

51

13634.0

276

1.47

65

0.91

0.60

224

4.20

Sunflower seed

Yes/Low

5163.2

201

1503.9

443

5825.9

266

991.1

912

1.13

22

0.03

0.66

86

2.14

Linseed, Flax

Yes/Low

6118.8

-71

3427.4

-50

2232.1

-18

1478.9

16

0.36

180

4.02

0.43

134

2.78

Tomato

Yes/Low

834.5

18

846.0

327

16551.3

129

11066.3

692

19.83

94

2.08

13.08

85

2.26

Elaeis guineensis

soja

†

‡

Gossypium hirsutum, G. barbadense, G. arboreum, G. ‡ herbaceum Helianthus annuus

‡

Linum usitatissimum Lycopersicon ‡

esculentum

‡

Current Biology, Volume 18

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Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Yield

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Phaseolus sp., P. vulgaris, P. lunatus, P. angularis, P. aureus, P. mungo, P. coccineus, P. calcaratus, P. aconitifolius, P. ‡ acutifolius

Bean dry like Kidney bean, Haricot bean, Lima bean, Azuki bean, Mungo bean, String bean

Yes/Low

5050.6

-73

17890.4

42

3229.1

7

8932.8

110

0.64

293

7.72

0.50

47

0.91

Ribes nigrum, R. rubrum *

Black currant, Red currant

Yes/Low

7.7

1744

0.0

----

302.1

151

0.0

----

39.33

-86

-2.32

----

----

----

Sesamum indicum

Sesame seed

Yes/Low

40.8

-21

4932.9

52

15.0

42

1410.7

135

0.37

79

2.33

0.29

54

1.29

Solanum melongena

Eggplant, Aubergine

Yes/Low

49.4

28

743.1

141

878.2

62

6148.6

396

17.77

27

0.52

8.27

105

2.73

Vicia faba

Broad Bean, dry (Broad bean, Faba bean, Field bean, Horse bean)

Yes/Low

909.0

-48

4493.8

-52

768.8

11

4073.8

-9

0.85

114

3.28

0.91

92

1.71

Vigna subterranea (syn. Voandzeia † subterranea)

Bambara bean, Bambara groundnut, Earth pea

Yes/Low

0.0

---

40.5

110

0.0

----

29.6

154

----

----

----

0.73

21

0.48

Current Biology, Volume 18

S16

Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Yield

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Vigna unguiculata

Cowpea, Blackeye pea, Blackeye bean

Yes/Low

79.2

-78

2328.4

336

88.3

-52

781.8

533

1.12

124

2.01

0.34

45

1.24

Vigna sp., V. unguiculata, V. subterranean (syn. Voandzeia subterranea), Phaseolus sp.

Bean, green

Yes/ ----

198.9

26

219.3

240

1085.2

7

921.8

471

5.46

-15

0.80

4.20

68

1.56

Allium cepa, A. ascalonicum, A. fistulosum

Onion, Shallot, Welsh onion (green)

None

§

406.2

61

890.2

225

5966.0

168

9169.6

437

14.69

66

1.47

10.30

65

1.60

Allium sativum (syn. Alliaria sativum)

Garlic

None

¶

72.0

88

699.2

47

352.8

234

3947.9

255

4.90

78

1.50

5.65

141

2.60

Ananas comosus

Pineapple

None

¶

36.3

-75

333.0

169

888.9

-65

2942.5

510

24.47

40

1.17

8.84

127

3.13

Asparagus officinalis

Asparagus

None

§

109.2

-19

530.8

135

336.7

20

1359.0

374

3.08

47

0.91

2.56

102

1.51

Avena sp., mainly

Oat

None

35449.1

-72

2811.7

-58

46809.7

-57

2779.1

5

1.32

51

0.92

0.99

149

2.38

Sugar beet

None

6501.9

-29

424.2

96

155084.7

40

5417.3

623

23.85

97

1.72

12.77

269

3.79

Cabbage, Cauliflower

None

992.2

-10

596.6

437

18857.8

12

7929.3

732

19.01

25

0.20

13.29

55

1.27

‡

Avena sativa

Beta vulgaris

‡

Brassica chinensis, B. oleracea

§

Current Biology, Volume 18

S17

Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Yield

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

Chenopodium † quinoa

Quinoa

None

0.0

---

52.6

33

0.0

----

32.4

81

----

----

----

0.62

36

0.45

Cicer arietinum

Chick pea, Bengal gram, Garbanzo bean

None

436.3

-25

11400.4

-9

216.3

79

7465.5

5

0.50

139

2.57

0.65

16

0.67

Cichorium intybus, C. endivia

Chicory root

None

§

11.9

36

5.0

-4

296.3

51

12.7

99

24.80

11

1.45

2.55

107

2.88

Colocasia esculenta

Taro (Coco Yam)

None

§

39.8

-62

718.4

150

488.4

-62

3998.7

192

12.27

0

-0.21

5.57

17

0.54

Daucus carota

Carrot

None

§

249.2

83

113.3

563

4529.7

195

1311.2

926

18.18

62

1.18

11.57

55

1.58

Dioscorea sp.

Yam

None

¶

3.4

161

1146.0

300

55.5

272

8268.9

519

16.37

42

0.70

7.22

55

0.83

Echinocloa frumentacea, Eleusine coracana, Eragrostis abyssinica, Panicum miliaceum, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Pennisetum glaucum, Setaria italica

Millet

None

4030.6

-74

39405.2

-19

2940.6

-61

22814.5

34

0.73

51

1.16

0.58

66

1.03

Hordeum disticum, H. hexasticum, H.

Barley

None

34795.2

14

19850.0

-21

54739.0

101

17813.2

61

1.57

76

1.65

0.90

103

1.79

vulgare

‡

Current Biology, Volume 18

S18

Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level ¶

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Production

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Yield

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

428.5

-80

12931.2

-31

7342.9

-75

90849.8

34

17.14

27

0.65

7.03

94

2.05

None

201.9

56

232.8

220

3864.3

133

2752.0

413

19.14

50

1.31

11.82

60

1.56

Lentil

None

163.9

465

1455.8

101

101.9

900

752.9

223

0.62

77

1.83

0.52

61

1.33

Manihot esculenta, (syn. M. utilissima, M. palmata) *

Cassava

None

¶

0.0

---

9623.9

93

0.0

----

71262.0

218

----

----

----

7.40

64

1.09

Musa sapientum, M. cavendishii, M. nana, M. paradisiaca

Banana, Plantain

None

¶

22.4

-1

4438.4

116

480.0

39

33736.4

208

21.46

40

1.33

7.60

43

0.85

Olea europea

Olive

None

1304.7

269

1304.1

213

6572.0

76

1633.6

228

5.04

-52

-1.29

1.25

5

0.47

Oryza sp. (mainly O. sativa)

Rice, Paddy

None

4422.8

-17

110942.3

36

20581.4

16

195065.2

213

4.65

40

0.79

1.76

131

3.07

Phoenix dactylifera

Date palm

None

2.1

45

248.3

375

31.4

-13

1859.3

259

14.92

-40

-1.15

7.49

-24

-0.48

Piper nigrum, P. longum *

Pepper

None

0.0

---

153.2

226

0.0

----

71.3

420

----

----

----

0.47

59

1.17

Pisum sativum, P. ‡ arvense

Pea, dry and green like Garden pea, Field pea

None

3110.8

37

5091.7

-30

5750.8

74

5383.5

53

1.85

27

1.46

1.06

119

2.62

Saccharum officinarum

Sugar cane

None

362.7

121

8549.7

129

29307.7

126

418674.8

217

80.81

2

-0.07

48.97

38

0.84

Rye

None

27572.5

-60

4706.0

-87

34242.8

104

9703.2

-74

1.24

417

10.62

2.06

108

1.30

Ipomoea batatas

Sweet potato

None

Lactuca sativa

Lettuce

Lens esculenta

Secale cereale

‡

Current Biology, Volume 18

S19

Table S3. Continued Species

Crop

Pollinator dependence /Dependence level ¶

Land area cultivated Developed world 1961 3 (10 .ha)

Production

Developing world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .ha)

Developed world

Δ2006 (%)

1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Yield

Developing world 1961 3 (10 .Mt)

Δ2006 (%)

Developed world 1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

Developing world

βΔyield (%/ yr)

1961 (Mt/ ha)

Δ2006 (%)

βΔyield (%/ yr)

18751.2

-54

3400.3

201

241697.4

-33

28875.2

428

12.89

47

0.79

8.49

75

2.04

None

5211.0

-47

43603.9

-9

24332.7

-39

55225.8

17

4.67

15

0.36

1.27

28

-0.51

Spinach

None

77.2

5

256.3

210

821.4

57

2140.3

483

10.64

51

0.68

8.35

88

1.11

Triticale sp.*

Triticale

None

0.0

---

0.0

----

0.0

----

0.0

----

----

----

----

----

----

----

Triticum sp. (mainly T. aestivum, T.

Wheat

None

128293.6

-11

75942.0

34

163695.6

91

58692.3

399

1.28

114

2.79

0.77

273

6.48

Table Grape, Vine Grape

None

7209.8

-33

2126.7

20

31470.9

31

11535.7

141

4.37

95

1.32

5.42

100

2.47

Maize, Green corn, Sweet corn

None

69933.8

-22

64013.7

60

561826.5

25

82013.7

353

8.03

59

1.50

1.28

183

4.12

Mixed Grain

None

2719.4

-32

340.0

-99

5673.6

-24

310.0

-98

2.09

11

0.38

0.91

65

0.77

Solanum tuberosum

‡

Potato

None

Sorghum

Spinacia olearacea

Sorghum guineense, S. vulgare, S. dura

durum, T. spelta) Vitis vinifera

Zea mais

(1)

‡

‡

‡

‡

Current Biology, Volume 18

S20

Table S3. Continued Complete 45-yr series (1961-2006) for each crop is available at ref. [S1]. For all the three variables we present the values of the year 1961 and their percent change at year 2006 (Δ2006) and for yield the average annual growth rate in relative yield (βΔyield, see Supplemental Experimental Procedures). Table is sorted according to the pollinator-dependence level (high dependence, low dependence, and nondependence) and inside these groups in an alphabetical order. (1) A crop category including a mix of cereal species that are sown and harvested together. * Estimation of relative area, production, yield and βΔyield (%/yr) for either the developed or developing world was not possible because data started being recorded after 1961. †

The crop is not cultivated in the developed world.

‡

Subset of 10 important pollinator dependent and nondependent crops cultivated in both the developed and developing world.

§

Pollinators increase seed production to produce the vegetative parts that we consume.

¶

Pollinators increase seed production in plant breeding, but the plants reproduce vegetatively and we consume the vegetative parts.