SEE-BERUFSGENOSSENSCHAFT

Manual for Ship Safety Service Training (Lifeboat and Firefighting Service)

This Manual Comprises the Training Manual (SOLAS Regulation III/51) and the Survival Manual (IMO Resolution A.657 (16))

Ship Safety Service; .February 1996

3

Preface Nine years have passed since the revision in 1986 of the manual for lifeboat training. The basis for the revision then was amongst other things the new chapter III "Life Saving Appliances and Arrangements" of the 1974 International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). Since then significant innovations have been introduced by the coming into force of changes to chapter III and on 1 February 1992 of a totally new chapter IV "Radiocommunication". These deal principally with life saving appliances using radio technology. 1992 saw the appearance of the first edition of the firefighting training manual. Since then there have been significant changes in maritime navigation in this field also. In particular structural fire protection was improved by changes and additions to the SOLAS convention. A revised version of chapter 11-2 of the convention which is applicable to this effect came into force for all ships the keels of which was laid down on or after 1 September 1984. Ten years later the major part of the German merchant fleet already complies with the new regulations. Furthermore there has been a development, unimaginable a few years ago, of crews getting smaller with ships becoming larger. Around 1980, a general cargo ship in world wide international trade would displace about 10,000 GRT, had a propulsive power of 7000 to 8000 kW and a crew of 30 or more. Today's container ships have a gross tonnage up to 50,000 and 35,000 kW propulsive power. The installed generator output is about 10,000 kVA. According to the manning scale, ships of this size are to be operated with a standard crew totalling 22. This may be reduced to 14 in the case of multipurpose crews. However in the case of very large ships this means that the crew numbers reach that limit below which setting up the firefighting organisation on board in accordance with the principles laid down in the current manual for firefighting training and the 1988 edition of the guideline for drawing up muster lists is no longer possible without making cuts.

The "Manual for Ship Safety Service Training" introduced herewith, which replaces the two manuals respectively for lifeboat training and firefighting training, was therefore totally revised and matched to current technology as well as current legislation and standards. It is intended as the basis for the initial training and the continuation training on board and in the shoreside training establishments, and also as reference book for the practitioner. The manual is at the same time intended to stimulate repeated critical examination of the conditions on board every ship, and familiarisation with any existing deviations due e.g. to the numbers and composition of the crew, or to technical or operational peculiarities of the vessel. Publications such as this gain and retain their relevance by virtue of the continuous review based on experience gained in the course of the regular exercises on board and from emergencies. Critical comments from experiences at sea are therefore always welcome. At this point we wish to thank all those who have contributed to the manual most sincerely for their valuable contributions. Sincere thanks are also due to those who helped with the procurement of the illustrations and the technical information. Hamburg, February 1996 See-Berufsgenossenschaft

Note On every ship, the operating instructions for all appliances and installations on board are assembled in an orderly manner for the ship safety service and are available to the crew in a generally accessible place. Together with a copy of this manual they constitute the internationally required training manual in accordance with Regulation III/51 of the SOLAS Convention.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Manual for Ship Safety Service Training Preface 1.

Ship Safety Service - Fundamental Principles .....................

1.1.

Organisation of ship safety service on board .............. .

1.1.1

Definition ...................................................

1.1.2

Firemen and lifeboatmen ......................................

1.1.3

Muster list ..................................................

1.1.4

Organisation on board ........................................

1.1.5

Command unit (CU)...........................................

1.1.6

Defense unit (DU) .............................................

1.1.7

Support unit (SU) ..............................................

1.1.8

Additional units ..............................................

1.2

The formation of units with small crews ...........................

1.2.1

Fundamental principles - Regulations - Problems - Suggested solutions

1.2.2

Safety organisation and document of safe manning ..................

1.2.3

Examples of the safety service organisation with small crews .........

1.3

Fire protection and safety plan ...................................

1.4

Training manual...............................................

2.

Fire Protection - Basic Principle ......................

2.1

Oxidation - Combustion - Fire ........................

2.2

Combustion process ................................

2.2.1

Combustible substances .............................

2.2.2

Oxygen ...........................................

2.2.3

Ignition temperature ................................

2.2.4

Flammability ranges - Proportions of ingredients ........

2.2.5

Forms in which fire appears ..........................

2.3

Deflagration - Explosion - Detonation .................

2.4

Heat; Heat transfer - Heat build-up - Spontaneous ignition

2.5

Classes of fires .....................................

2.6

Small - Medium - Large fire ..........................

2.7

Materials .........................................

2.8

Preventive fire protection ............................

2.8.1

Structural fire protection .............................

2.8.2

Operational fire protection ...........................

2.9

Defensive fire protection .............................

2.9.1

Fire boundaries ....................................

2.9.2

Extinguishing fires ..................................

2.9.3

Extinction mechanisms ..............................

2.10

Extinguishants .....................................

2.10.1

Extinguishant water ...................................

2.10.2

Extinguishant foam ....................................

2.10.3

Extinguishant powder ..................................

2.10.4

Extinguishant carbon dioxide (CO2) ......................

2.10.5

Extinguishant sand - Sawdust soaked in soda - Dry substances

2.11

Danger to personnel - Accident prevention when fighting fires

2.12

Fires in ship operation ..................................

2.12.1

Fires in accommodation spaces ..........................

2.12.2

Fires in the cargo area ..................................

2.12.3

Fires in the cargo area of oil, gas or chemical tankers ........

2.12.4 2.12.5

Engine room fires ..................................... Fires as the consequence of explosions in the cargo area or in operational compartments ..............................

3.

Fire Defense Appliances and Systems on Board ............

3.1

Regulations - Approvals ................................

3.2

Reporting fire - Alarms .................................

3.2.1

Fire alarm systems .....................................

3.2.2

Fire alarm raised by persons .............................

3.2.3

Alarm systems ........................................

3.2.4

Alarm systems for operational compartments ...............

3.3

Fire extinguishing appliances ...........................

3.3.1

Portable fire extinguishers ..............................

3.3.2

Powder extinguishers ..................................

3.3.3

Carbon dioxide extinguishers ............................

3.3.4

Transportable fire extinguishing appliance .................

3.4

Fire extinguishing systems ..............................

3.4.1

Water fire extinguishing systems .........................

3.4.2

Sprinkler systems .....................................

3.4.3

Water-spraying systems for manual operation ..............

3.4.4

High-pressure water-spraying systems ....................

3.4.5

Foam fire extinguishing system for tankers ................

3.4.6

Combined CO2 fire extinguishing and smoke detection system

3.4.7

Powder fire extinguishing system ........................

3.5

Firemans outfit........................................

3.5.1

Firemans outfit according to SOLAS ......................

3.5.2

Fire protection clothing .................................

3.5.3

Heat protective suit ....................................

3.6

Breathing apparates....................................

3.6.1

Compressed-air breathing apparates .....................

3.6.2

Emergency escape breathing apparates. ...................

3.7 3.7.1 3.7.2

Gas measuring instruments ............................. Gas detectors ....................... Gas concentration meters - Explosimeters

3.8

Recommended additional equipment ...

3.8.1

Case for face mask ..................

3.8.2

Lifeline bag ........................

3.8.3

Tool bag ...........................

3.8.4

Metal hose bandage ..................

3.8.5

Hose clasp ..........................

3.8.6

Hydroshield .........................

3.9

Storing the fire defense gear ...........

3.10

Maintenance of fire defense gear .......

3.10.1

Hoses ..............................

3.10.2

Fire extinguishers ....................

4.

Conduct during Fire Exercises and in an Fire Emergency

4.1

Fire risk and fire prevention .........................

4.2

Fire prevention - Individual conduct ..................

4.2.1

Conduct during time off work........................

4.2.2

Conduct at work ..................................

4.3

Defensive fire protection ............................

4.3.1

Definitions .......................................

4.3.2

Basic principles ...................................

4.3.3

Leadership .......................................

4.3.4

Extinction tactics ..................................

4.3.5

Extinction technique ...............................

4.4

Structure of the defense unit in case of fire defense ......

4.5

The defense unit gear on fire defense .................

4.6

Service by the units in emergency ....................

4.6.1

Conduct in the event of a general emergency alarm .....

4.6.2

Check whether everyone is present...................

4.6.3

VHF radiotelephone for internal communication ........

4.6.4

Instructions from the Head of operations ..............

4.6.5

The defense unit as rescue unit. ......................

4.6.6

The defense unit on defensive fire protection ...........

4.7

Establishing the. closed-down state ...................

4.8

Fire defense training on board .......................

4.8.1

Basic principles ...................................

4.8.2

Psychological problems .............................

4.8.3

Exercise objectives ................................

4.8.4

Training the individual ............................. Service distance ...................................

4.8.5

Target region...................................... Training the unit ............................

4.8.6

Leadership training ..........................

4.8.7

Fire defense training and exercises - Organisation

4.8.8

Types of exercise ............................

4.8.9

Example of a fire defense exercise ..............

5.

Life-Saving Appliances Description of Appliances Installations and Gear

5.1

Personal life-saving appliances...................

5.1.1

Survival suit ..................................

5.1.2

Rigid life jacket ...............................

5.1.3

Inflatable life jacket............................

5.1.4

Work vest ....................................

5.1.5

Thermal protective aids ........................

5.2

Lifeboats and rescue boats ......................

5.2.1

Lifeboats .....................................

5.2.2

Rescue boats .................................

5.3

Liferafts......................................

5.3.1

Inflatable liferaft ..............................

5.4

Liferaft release device ..........................

5.5

Inflatable boats................................

5.6

Lifeboats and liferafts ..........................

5.6.1

Equipment and fittings .........................

5.6.2

List of equipment and fittings ....................

5.6.3

Illustrations ...................................

5.7

Propulsion systems ............................

5.7.1

Diesel engine .................................

5.7.2

Outboard engines .............................

5.8

Launching appliances ..........................

5.8.1

Davits and accessories ......................... Gravity-type davit ............................. Single pivot davit.............................. Roller track davit .............................. Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles ............ Boat lashings .................................

5.8.2

Liferaft launching crane ........................

5.8.3

Free-fall launching appliance ....................

5.9

Lifebuoys ....................................

5.10

Radio life-saving appliances .....................

5.10.1

Emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRB)

5.10.2

Radar transponder for search and rescue ..........

5.10.3 5.11

Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus . . . Pyrotechnic distress signals ....................

5.12

Line-throwing apparatus ......................

5.13

Helicopter rescue sling - Buoyant stretcher .......

5.14

Organisation of search and rescue operations at sea

6.

Handling/Operation of Life-Saving Appliances and Installations

6.1

Personal life-saving appliances.............................

6.1.1

Survival suit ............................................

6.1.2

Life jacket ..............................................

6.1.3

Thermal protective aids ..................................

6.2

Survival craft ............................................

6.2.1

Preparing and launching lifeboats ...........................

6.2.2

Preparing and launching liferafts ............................

6.3

Survival craft propulsion systems .............................

6.3.1

Diesel engines ...........................................

6.3.2

Petrol outboard engines ...................................

6.3.3

Maintenance and checking of propulsion systems ..............

6.4

Sea anchors .............................................

6.5

Pyrotechnic distress signals ................................

6.6

Lifebuoy ................................................

6.7

Line throwing apparatus ...................................

6.8

Radio life-saving appliances ................................

6.8.1

Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)............

6.8.2

Radar transponder for search and rescue .....................

6.8.3

Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus. ..............

6.9

Distress signals .........................................

7.

Conduct during Lifeboat Exercises and in Emergency

7.1

Handling lifeboats and liferafts ...................

7.1.1

On board .....................................

7.1.2

Embarking ....................................

7.1.3

Launching and casting off .......................

7.1.4

Launching and recovery with the ship under way ....

7.1.5

Running lifeboats ...............................

7.2

Survival in distress ..............................

Preliminary remarks ............................

7.2.1

Conduct at the scene of the accident ...............

7.2.2

Conduct in the survival craft .....................

7.2.3

Rescue by helicopter ............................

7.3

Rescue of castaways ............................

7.3.1

Man overboard ................................

7.3.2 7.3.3

Picking up castaways ........................... Treatment of castaways .............................................

7.4

Hypothermia and its treatment ......................................

7.4.1

Hypothermia .....................................................

7.4.2

Treatment of hypothermia ..........................................

7.5

Abandon ship in case of emergency...................................

7.6

Sea distress alarm - Pyrotechnic distress signals ........................

7.7

Sea distress alarm and bringing up rescue craft by means of radio equipment

7.8

Maintenance and repair ............................................

8.

Closing Remarks

9.

Appendix ....................................................

9.1

Regulations important to the ship safety service on board ............

9.2

Data concerning solid and liquid combustible substances (Table 1) .....

9.3 9.4

Upper and lower flammability limits (Table 2) ...................... Symbols for fire protection plans according to IMO-Resolution A. 654 (16) and DIN 0087903-2............................................

9. 5

Engine room fires.............................................

9. 6

Obsolescent plant and appliances................................

9. 6. 1

Obsolescent plant and appliances for use in boats...................

9. 6. 2

Obsolescent plant and appliances for fire defense...................

11

1. Ship Safety Service Fundamental Principles 1.1

Organisation of ship safety service on board

1.1.1 Definition The term ship safety service is in this manual used as collective designation for all functions connected with rescuing persons from danger, fire protection on board and abandoning ship in an emergency. The damage control service additionally included in that expression in maritime parlance is in this manual dealt with only insofar as the establishment of the watertight closed-down state is understood by it. 1.1.2 Firemen and lifeboatmen Every ship has qualified fire- and lifeboatmen as members of the crew or as persons otherwise employed on board. The training of the fire- and lifeboatmen is carried out in accordance with the guidelines issued by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft (SeeBG). Examination is carried out by the See-BG or supervised by it. If the examinations have been passed, the certificate of competency as fireman or lifeboatman is issued. The certificates are valid for ten years. Their validity is increased by ten years each time the holder meets the requirements of the training and examination instructions in the course of a lifeboat- and fire protection exercise carried out under the supervision of a See-BG technical supervisor. Certificates that have expired can only be renewed by again attending a training course and taking the final examination. The minimum number of fire- and lifeboatmen on board is laid down in § 55 of the UVV See (German regulations for prevention of accidents at sea) on the basis of the gross tonnage. 1.1.3 Muster list Successful defense against danger on board is only possible if careful planning ensures that in emergency the necessary appliances are available and serviceable and every member of the crew knows how to conduct himself. Such planning is the ship management's task. In working out the measures to be taken in emergencies it relies on international and national regulations. A list of the most important ones is included in the Appendix. This planning for emergencies is expressed in the muster list. Being prepared for an emergency means being familiar with the safety-related tasks by virtue of

thorough training and regular exercises. The muster list thus doubles as the framework within which the prescribed exercises with the lifesaving appliances and the fire-defense installations and equipment are carried out. The organisation of the ship safety service on board is laid down in standard form for all German ships in the "(B6) Guidelines for drawing up Muster Lists" of the See-BG. Members of the crew are formed into small teams called "units" which in an emergency carry out fire-defense or life-saving appliance procedure tasks. Depending on size and composition of the crew, each crew member is permanently assigned to a unit. This ensures that an emergency situation can, observing the inevitably limited means available on board, be rapidly and effectively be brought under control by a concentration of forces, even if some crew members are missing. The muster list is compiled on the printed form approved by the See-BG and posted on the bridge and in other places accessible to the crew. From muster list each member of the crew can deduce his membership of the unit to which he belongs for exercises and in an emergency. A proforma "muster list" is included in the Appendix. Every ship has a "command unit" and a "defense unit". With larger crews there may additionally be a "support unit". On passenger ships, one or more defense units will be established. In addition one or more evacuation units must be formed for evacuating the passengers in an emergency. On ships carrying dangerous goods, special units may be subdivided for service in the event of incidents involving the cargo. 1.1.4 Organisation on board Normal operation For normal operation of the ship at sea or in harbour there is an organisation covering all persons on board while at work and in their free time. Crew: watchkeepers daywork hands off-watch men Other persons: passengers relatives of the crew pilots, guarantee engineers etc. with relative superiorities in accordance with the seamen's law:

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

12

Remarks: 1) In relation to the other persons present on board, the master has authority to issue instructions on all matters concerning the safety of individuals, ship or cargo, plus the maintenance of security and good order on board. 2) Additional superiority relationships may be established on board by announcement and notices. Fig. 1.1 Organigram

Fig. 1.2 Organigram

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

13 The master is the superior of all members of the crew. The master is authorised to issue instructions other persons in all matters concerning safety of the ship and the protection of maritime environment. He may exercise authority through the officers of the ship.

to the the his

Ship's officers are the superiors of all ratings. Ship safety emergency

service

for

exercises

and

in

an

An exercise or an emergency is announced by the GENERAL EMERGENCY ALARM. At that time the organisation of the ship safety service in accordance with the muster list automatically comes into force. This means: The master is in overall charge. The ship's officer on watch on exercises this overall charge until arrives.

the the

bridge master

The head of operations is the superior of all unit leaders. The unit leaders are members of their unit.

the

superiors

of

the

The crew assembles at the designated assembly stations. The officer of the watch hands over overall charge to the master, and charge of the service to the ship's officer designated as its chief, as soon as these have arrived. However until they do arrive he makes all decisions necessary to rescue people from danger and limit the damage. 1.1.5 Command unit (CU) The task of the command unit is, on the basis of the available information, to organise the fire defense and the activation of the life-saving appliances for extraneous rescue or abandoning ship. Above all it has to deploy the units formed in accordance with the muster list as effectively as possible. This cannot be done by proceeding merely on the basis of instinct and experience. In an emergency there is no time left for long discussions. For that reason action must be taken on the basis of repeated, preplanned sequences of events practiced again and again. It is also part of the ships command unit task to take the prevailing conditions into account and to see to it that in an emergency situation the ship is in no danger from outside or that it endangers others. The prevailing conditions include:

- ship location (high seas, coastal waters, harbour) and distance from navigational hazards; - weather (above all wind and visibility conditions); - sea state;

- current, tides; - traffic situation; - operational condition (sea operation, harbour operation, loading or unloading cargo, shipyard operation or emergency operation); - cargo state (type and quantity of dangerous goods loaded, stability, etc.). 1.1.6 Defense unit (DU) The main burden of the ship safety service on board rests on the defense unit (DU). It must be capable of fighting a fire anywhere in the ship effectively and preventing its spread, and bringing to safety or rescuing any persons endangered by the fire. If the ship has to be abandoned, it undertakes the preparing and launching of the survival craft plus taking charge of the lifeboats. It also provides the crew of the rescue boat. To be able to carry out this task, the members of the defense unit must be physically healthy and tough. This may in principle be expected of all crewmembers in possession of a valid Seediensttauglichkeitszeugnis (certificate of fitness medical) for ship operational service; nevertheless there may be restrictions as regards fitness for service in individual cases. Severe illness may for example make a unit member unfit for the envisaged function. If crew numbers permit this, age, size and weight plus style of hair and beard should also be taken into account. It must be ensured that the members of the unit can communicate easily in one language. Where crew numbers do not permit a defense unit structure of one leader plus four members, then in an emergency the simultaneous layingout and preparing of at least two C-hoses with jet nozzle and preparing of the wearer of the breathing apparatus for service is only exceptionally possible. The unit leader must take account of this when making his decisions and issuing orders for action. 1.1.7 Support unit (SU) If the crew is large enough to designate members for several units, a support unit is formed whose members can back up the defense unit once they have fulfilled their own task. The principal task of the support unit is, to bring individual sections of, or the entire ship, to .the closed-down state. The air supply to a fire that has broken out is thereby inhibited and the spread of the fire is prevented or delayed. If

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

14 flooding has occurred, sinking or capsizing is delayed so that the ship can be abandoned in good order. To permit the support unit to carry out this task perfectly and without delay, separate closingdown plans or check lists are prepared for each watertight section of the ship, listing all apertures to be closed with their designation and exact location. Bringing the ship to the closed-down state is facilitated if all closures to be dealt with, such as doors or flaps, are marked clearly on both sides (e.g. with red marking paint). On passenger vessels the main fire sections coincide with the watertight sections. On cargo vessels they are laid down by the ship management. To be considered are: - the accommodation area plus adjacent compartments; - the machinery spaces plus adjacent compartments; - the cargo hold or tank area; - workshops and storerooms in deckhouses or underneath the forecastle. Further subdivision may make sense in the light of the size of the ship and that of the support unit. When the support unit has completed its own tasks, the leader reports completion to the Head of operations. Provided the latter does not give it any other task, the support unit then without further orders independently starts to render the life-saving appliances safe. 1.1.8 Additional units It may be worth-while to form additional units for special tasks. These units must consist of a leader plus at least one member. This then takes account of the principle that every unit during service must be able to safeguard itself. Evacuation units An evacuation unit is composed of members of the operating personnel, detailed to look after the passengers during exercises and in an emergency. The evacuation unit is not equipped with personal protective equipment and thus cannot enter compartments filled with dense smoke. It is however worth-while equipping evacuation units with "emergency escape breathing apparates" so that they can retreat together with the passengers in their care from compartments into which dense smoke is penetrating. The rescue of persons from compartments on fire is the duty of the defense unit responsible for the

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

main fire zone. If this unit is put into service as a rescue unit, the defense unit detailed for one of the more distant fire zones takes over fire defense in its place. 1.2 The formation of units with small crews 1.2.1 Fundamental principles - Regulations Problems - Suggested solutions The international regulations concerning the safety organisation on board, leave many details to the national authority - for German ships this is the See-BG - to settle these by national regulations or else by instructions such as contained in this manual. However, the different ship types, ship sizes and above all crew numbers make it necessary to make numerous decisions on the spot so that the available appliances and installations on the one hand and the crew on the other hand, can be used to optimum effect. In this connection, primarily the numbers and composition of the crew must be taken into account, but also its standard of training. Requirements regarding the fire defense organisation are given in SOLAS Regulation II2/40. These apply only to passenger ships and state merely that every fire alarm must come to the knowledge of a responsible crew member while the ship is in operation. If there are more than 36 passengers on board, crew members trained in fire defense must do fire rounds. The requirements regarding the lifeboat service are more detailed. They can be found in SOLAS Regulation III/18 (Exercises and Training for abandoning Ship), SOLAS Regulation III/51 (Training Manual) and SOLAS Regulation (Muster List and Instructions for Emergencies). This last regulation also deals briefly with the organisation of fire defense. Supplementary regulations can be found in the Verordnung liber die Sicherheit der Seeschiffe Schiffssicherheitsverordnung SchSV (Ship Safety Decree) and in the UVV See §§ 53 to 56. Within the limits set by these regulations, the ship management must create the safety organisation for the individual ship and reflect it in the muster list. In doing this, it is essential to take into account the links and elements of interdependence between fire defense on the one hand and the lifeboat service on the other. In an emergency they cannot be separated: At the same time as fighting a fire in the superstructure it is for instance often necessary to safeguard the lifeboats against fire damage by swinging them out or lowering them unmanned. Abandoning ship, e.g. after a collision, will be put off for as long as possible by bringing the ship to the closed-down state as regards

15 watertightness. This is done simultaneously with preparing the life-saving appliances. The result of such deliberations will in many cases be, that within the coarse grid marked out by the regulations several emergency event sequences which, according to experience, occur relatively frequently will be planned through and the measures to be taken in each case laid down in advance. A focal point for consideration in this planning for emergencies must be any danger arising from the peculiarities of the cargo. The result for an oil- or a chemical tanker will thus differ in some details from that for a container or general cargo ship. Examples of deployment of the units in the event of fires Any fire in the engine room caused by the escape of combustible liquid under pressure is fought immediately by bringing the machinery section to the closed-down state and using C02. The defense unit is only engaged if there are persons to be rescued from the fire zone. Only after the fire has been smothered and the fire zone has cooled sufficiently the defense unit does extinguishes any remains of fire. A fire in the accommodation area cannot be fought in that way because of the ever-present risk of there being persons whose escape routes have been blocked by the fire. Here the defense unit goes into action at once, rescues anyone trapped, establishes a fire boundary and extinguishes the fire. In the case of fires in the cargo area, predominantly fixed fire defense installations are brought into play. The defense unit will primarily be charged with establishing and maintaining the fire boundary. In the case of dangerous-goods fires, the defense unit will act in accordance with the procedures specially laid down for dangerous goods, in the EMS Unit Emergency Schedules. 1.2.2 Safety organisation and document of safe manning Most of the qualified lifeboat- and firemen on board in accordance with UVV See § 55 insofar as they have a nautical or technical certificate of competence are planned into the command unit. This includes the master, the 1. officer as Head of operations and additional navigating and technical ship's officers. A ship's officer with a general operators certificate is designated as responsible for distress and safety radio communication. The members of the ships command unit may take over tasks in other units only to a limited extent or for a limited time. For ships whose tonnage exceeds 4000 GRT, 3 additional lifeboat- and firemen are required to serve as unit leader, deputy leader and wearer of

breathing apparatus in the defense unit. This means that a support unit entered in the muster list often has to be deployed without a trained unit leader. That substantially reduces the potential for deployment. The following section shows examples about the organisation of the safety service in relation of the numbers of certified lifeboat- and firefighting personnel on board. The size and composition of the crew derives from the ships document of safe manning issued by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft. On vessels whose crew numbers fewer than 15 (excluding the master) it is necessary to deviate from the desirable form of organisation. This deviation means that in an emergency important safety functions can no longer be carried out simultaneously or with the same effectiveness. Priorities have to be established. The ship command unit is capable of deployment without restriction only if, apart from the master, it comprises at least two more nautical and one technical ship's officer. If this cannot be achieved at all, or only after the support unit has completed its tasks, there will be a heavy work load in the initial phase of an exercise or when an emergency arises. A priority recommendation is, to form a fully manned defense unit with five crew members. The unit leader, his deputy and the wearer of breathing apparatus are to be qualified lifeboatand firemen. This unit can in emergency be deployed without delay to rescue trapped persons and establish a fire boundary. The support unit, to be formed next, should if possible also consist of the unit leader, his deputy and three other members. At least the leader, if possible also his deputy, are to be qualified lifeboat- and firemen. The ship command unit breaks the pattern insofar as its members have individually specified functions in the muster list. It is therefore necessary to check whether and to what extent members of the unit can be deployed elsewhere in certain situations. This can be approached in a variety of ways: If on a ship only one fully manned defense unit and a smaller support unit are established, it is possible to dispense with the Head of operations; the master will take charge of the service as part of the overall leadership. The first nautical officer is then available as unit leader of the defense unit or the support unit, depending on the actual conditions existing on board. Only if it is possible to form more than two fully manned units the function of the Head of operations becomes indispensable. In the case of fires in the machinery area caused by the escape and ignition of fuel from

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16 pressurised systems, the requirement to man the machinery control position or control compartment lapses. It therefore fairly obviously makes sense to include the second technical officer in the plan as unit leader of the defense unit. The chief technical officer takes over starting the emergency lighting sets and operation of the fixed fire extinguishing installation (C02). He also takes over operation of the emergency disconnections and the quickacting closures if there is no crew member in the support unit qualified to do this. Immediate manning of the radio station with the possessor of a maritime radio certificate, usually a nautical officer, is not always necessary. It must always be effected without delay if: - the ship sends out a distress call, e.g. if the possibility of sinking must be considered following a collision, or a cargo fire cannot be limited, - a "man-overboard-situation" has arisen, or - a distress call from another ship or sea distress call repeated by a coastal radio station has been received. Since the radio installations are anyway switched on continuously while at sea, no laborious and time-consuming switching is necessary. The nautical officer with a general operators certificate can thus at least temporarily be deployed on other tasks, e.g. the establishment of radiotelephone communication between the bridge, the units and if appropriate the launched survival craft. Certain difficulties arising from the smallness of the crew can be mitigated by supplementing the equipment held on board with non-mandatory but inexpensive and very useful appliances. Appliances of this kind are described in Section 2. Particular attention is drawn to the "Hydroshield" which can be used to establish and maintain a most effective fire boundary which need not be continuously manned. When drawing up the muster list, the ship management runs through a number of such situations with the conditions provided by the ship and its operating zone and makes the arrangements which in individual cases produce the optimum preconditions for rapid and effective defense against the danger. The following procedure is recommended: As the first operational step it is to be established which members of the crew are in possession of certificates of competence as lifeboat- and firemen. In principle all officers plus all ship's master mechanics, ship's mechanics, qualified boatswains and able seamen are in this category. Additional members of the crew may possess one of or both these certificates of competency if

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they have attended the training courses gained the necessary professional experience.

and

From this category of people first of all the unit leader, his deputy and the wearer of breathing apparatus is selected. The wearer of breathing apparatus must meet the physical fitness requirements. Wearing a breathing apparatus when deployed on ship safety service places a considerable stress on the wearer of breathing apparatus, so his suitability is to be determined by a doctor authorised to carry out medical fitness examinations. Suitability is in principle ensured by unrestricted medical fitness in the deck or engine room departments. However, if choices are possible, only crew members not older than fifty, completely healthy and physically and psychologically capable of withstanding stress are to be considered as wearer of breathing apparatus. Attention Acute illness, such as head and chest cold with fever, also precludes deployment of the affected individual as wearer of breathing apparatus. To cope with this, as a precaution, an additonal man who holds a certificate of competency as fireman or at least has been thoroughly instructed on board and trained in wearing the apparatus is to be included in the plan. Next the unit leader of the support unit is selected. He also must hold the fire- and lifeboatman certificates of competency. The required strength of the support unit depends on the technical and specific features of the individual ship. On modem ships, the closeddown state of a section affected by a fire can often be achieved by closing just a few flaps and doors - which takes only a little time. The same applies to rendering life-saving appliances safe. On such ships it is therefore justifiable to provide the support unit only with a leader and one or two members. During exercises and in an emergency the support unit will receive instructions regarding which tasks are to be undertaken first and which later, depending on the situation. Once their tasks have been completed, the members of the support unit can be deployed elsewhere. 1.2.3 Examples of the safety service organisation with small crews Specimen case: "Model ship 1" This is a motor vessel in the trade restricted to Europe and the Mediterranean Sea with a GRT of 990 as a full scantling vessel. The ship's document of safe manning establishes the crew as

17 MUSTER LIST Ship's name: MODEL SHIP No. 1 Operating region: Home Trade Displacement: 990 GRT Safety officer: -1stN.O. Ship Command Unit Rank

Number

Certificate of Unit competence, fire prot. and lifeboat man Total Ratings

function

Master 1 Chief 1 engineer Support Unit

1 1

Rank

Number

Certificate of Unit competence, fire prot. and lifeboat man Total Ratings

function

1stN.O.

1

1

Unit leader, maritime radio position, for special duty on the bridge

Command unit Overall charge Command unit Emergency generator. emergency fire pump, CO;, activation, for special duty on the bridge

Support unit

Defense Unit Rank

Number Certificate of Unit competence, fire prot. and lifeboat man Total Ratings

2nd N.0. Able bodied seaman (AS) Ordinary seaman (OS) Ordinary seaman (OS) Assistant-seaman

1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 0 0

Defense Defense Defense Defense Defense

function

Unit leader Deputy unit leader (No. 3) breathing apparatus Unit member (No. 1) Unit member (No. 2) Unit member (No. 4) (Note 1)

Notes: Note 1: the AS first of all helps the 1st N.0. to close down

Fig. 1.3 Muster List "Model Ship 1' MUSTER LIST Ship's Name: MODEL SHIP NO. 2 Operating region: Distant Trade Displacement: 3975 GRT Safety officer: 2nd N.0. Ship Command Unit Rank

Number Certificate of Unit competence, fire prot. and lifeboat man Total Ratings

Captain IstN.O. Chief technical officer Ship's electrician

1 1 1

1 1 1

function

Command unit Overall charge Command unit Service direction Command unit Emergency generator, emergency fire pump, CO; activation for special duty on the bridge For special duty

Support Unit Rank

2nd N.0. Ordinary seaman (OS) Assistant-seaman Cook

Number Certificate of Unit competence, fire prot. and lifeboat man Total Ratings 1 1 1 1

1

0 0 0

Support unit Support unit Support unit Support unit

function

Unit leader, maritime radio position, for special duty on the bridge Deputy unit leader Unit leader Unit leader

Defense Unit Rank

2nd technical officer Ship's mechanic Ship's mechanic Ordinary seaman (OS) Skilled mechanic, able bodied seaman (AS)

Number Certificate of Unit competence, fire prot. and lifeboat man Total Ratings 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1

1 1 0 0

function

Defense Defense Defense Defense Defense

Unit leader Deputy unit leader (No. 1) Unit member (No. 3) Unit member (No. 2) Unit member (No. 4)

Fig. 1.4 Muster List "Model Ship 2"

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Master 1st nautical officer 2nd nautical officer Chief engineer 1 able bodied seaman (AB) 2 ordinary seamen (OS) 1 assistant-seaman This document belongs to the ship's papers which are always to be carried and is used as the legal basis for drawing up the muster list. According to UVV See § 55, there must be three qualified lifeboatmen on board and two qualified firemen, in each case one has to be a seaman rating. Since the master, the chief technical officer and the two nautical officers plus the able bodied seaman (AB) - possess this competency, the regulation is complied with. With this size of crew it is not possible to form the three planned units so that they are ready for deployment simultaneously. The muster list derived from this provides that: - the defense unit is initially deployed only with the 2nd. N.0. as leader, one able bodied seaman (AB) as wearer of breathing apparatus (No. 3) and as deputy leader, plus two ordinary seaman (OS) (No. 1 and no. 2) and one assistant-seaman (No. 4); - the support unit consists only of the 1st N.0. who, until the closed-down state and the rendering safest the life-saving appliances have been achieved, has the assistant-seaman from the defense unit assigned to him, and - the ship command unit consists only of the master and the chief engineer. On this small ship it will be possible, even with initially only four men, to establish the tire boundary and to undertake the rescue of people or fighting the fire. For this, water can be provided from two hoses. With two men, the support unit can close the few doors and flaps and then make ready or render safe the life-saving appliances. On ships with free-fall life boats this is primarily made easier if the boat is provided with special protection equipment against tire, or if fixed water spray installations prevent the fire spreading to the boat. Following completion of these tasks the 1st N.0. takes over tasks in the ship command unit as instructed by the master. He is above all available to undertake distress and safety radio communication if necessary. The assistant - seaman rejoins the defense unit as No. 4.

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Specimen case: MS "Model Ship 2" This is a motor ship in worldwide trade, with a GRT of 3975. The ship's document of safe manning establishes the crew as Master 1st nautical officer 2nd nautical officer Chief engineer 2nd engineer 1 ship's electrician 2 ship's mechanics 2 ordinary seamen (OS) 1 assistant-seaman 1 ordinary seamen - engine 1 cook. The total number of qualified lifeboat- and firemen is seven, two of them seaman ratings. Here also the requirements of UW See § 55 are met. The formation of three units available for simultaneous unrestricted service is not possible with a crew numbering a total of 13. The muster list derived from this provides that: - the defense unit is formed with the 2nd engineer as leader and one of the ship's mechanics as deputy leader (No. 1), a second ship's mechanic as wearer of breathing apparatus (No. 3) plus two more members; - the support unit is available with the 2nd N.0. as leader, one trained man - seaman as deputy leader and two more members, and that - the ship command unit consists of the master, chief engineer and 1st N.0. plus the ship's electrician. With this arrangement the required holders of certificates of competence as lifeboat- and firemen are distributed among the units in a task-oriented manner. If there are no additional lifeboat- and firemen on board, unit manning must be completed with personnel not fully qualified in specific duties. With this composition the defense unit is still able simultaneously to establish the fire boundary, and to rescue trapped persons or start fighting the fire with two hoses. The support unit can simultaneously bring about the closed-down state and render the lifesaving appliances safe. Following completion of these tasks, the 2nd N.0. joins the ship command unit and is primarily available to undertake the distress and safety radio communication if required. Within the ship command unit the 1st N.0. goes into action as Head of operations. However until

19 the 2nd N.0. arrives he can also, if required, take on radio communication. In the case of fires in machinery spaces the chief engineer stops the engine-room ventilators, the quick-closing valves of the fuel tanks and operates the C02-fire extinguishing equipment. If required he starts the emergency generator set and starts the emergency fire pump. The ship's electrician acts as his back-up. 1.3 Fire protection and safety plan On every ship, the fire protection and safety plan approved for the ship is posted on the bridge and in other places accessible to the crew at any time. Apart from other information it contains - the stowage location of all elements of the survival equipment, represented by symbols, such as survival suits thermal protective aids life jackets life buoys line throwing apparatus satellite emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) radar transponder

VHF radiotelephones (portable radio set for survival craft) - the positions of all survival craft such as lifeboats liferafts - the emergency exits and escape routes. The symbols for the safety equipment are standardised. Every plan contains a list of the symbols used. 1.4 Training manual In this manual the various appliances and installations comprising the safety equipment are described with the aid of examples. Because of the variety of types approved, the appliances and installations on board any specific ship may however be of a different type or work in a different way. For that reason, on every ship the operating instructions for all ship safety service appliances and installations on board are compiled in an orderly form and available to the crew in a generally accessible place. Together with a copy of this manual they constitute the internationally required training manual. Where the illustrations in this manual differ from the data in the operating instructions the latter apply.

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2. Fire Protection - Basic Principles 2.1 Oxidation - Combustion - Fire The chemical process by which a combustible substance combines with oxygen with release of heat to form a new substance, the oxide, is called oxidation. A rapidly-proceeding oxidation with the appearance of light is called combustion; the light, flame and heat created during combustion are called the fire.

no significance for the practical side protection on board.

2.2 Combustion process Combustion always depends on four preconditions which must coincide: 1.There must be a combustible substance, 2.oxygen must have unimpeded access, 3.the ignition temperature of the combustible substance must be attained or exceeded, and 4.the proportion of ingredients necessary for the combination of the combustible substance with the oxygen must be attained.

2.2.3 Ignition temperature

of

fire

2.2.2 Oxygen Oxygen is one of the most frequently occurring elements of our living-zone on earth. The air contains about 21% by volume of free oxygen. Chemically combined oxygen is present in water (89% by mass) and in the crust of the earth (50% by mass). Combustible substances cannot by themselves combine with oxygen with the appearance of fire. They do not burn by themselves. Ignition only becomes possible when the combustible substance has been heated to generate gas or vapour and these have mixed with oxygen. Combustion is always initiated by ignition. It occurs when a combustible substance in contact with an adequate amount of oxygen is heated to a certain minimum temperature, the ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of a combustible substance is the minimum temperature at which in the presence of oxygen in a proportion which permits ignition fire will appear. The lowest temperature at which external ignition can generate fire symptoms is called ignition point for solids, flash point for liquids. If the source of ignition is removed, the fire goes out again.

Fig. 2.1 Four-column-model 2.2.1 Combustible substances Combustible substances are solids, liquids and gases (including vapours, mists, dust) which mixed or in contact with the oxygen contained in the air can be made to bum. For the assessment of the fire risk posed by a substance, the following properties are of importance: ignitability, combustibility, heat of combustion and combustion temperature. For fire protection on board it is sufficient to know that there are substances which are difficult, normal and easy to ignite. Even just a flying spark can set on fire a substance easy to ignite. Normally-ignitable substances need the heat of combustion of a match to set them alight. Substances difficult to ignite must be strongly heated, e.g. with a blowlamp, before they can be ignited. The characteristics of combustibility, heat of combustion and combustion temperature are of

The lowest temperature at which positive ignition can generate a fire which remains alight after the source of ignition has been removed is called minimum combustion temperature for solids and fire point for liquids. The ignitability of a combustible solid is described by its ignition point and its minimum combustion temperature. The ignitability of a combustible liquid determined by its flash point and its fire point.

is

Fig. 2.2 Ignition temperatures

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22 If a combustible substance is heated above its minimum combustion temperature or its fire point, spontaneous ignition can occur. 2.2.4 Flammability ranges - Proportions of ingredients The chemical combination of a combustible substance with oxygen can only occur if the ingredients are present in specific proportions. The minimum necessary percentual proportion of the combustible substances in atmospheric air is called the lower flammability limit (explosion limit). The maximum permissible percentual proportion of the combustible substance in atmospheric air, the upper flammability limit (explosion limit). The range between the two limits is called the flammability range (explosion range). Ignition cannot occur, and combustion is therefore impossible, outside the flammability range. 2.2.5 Forms in which fire appears Depending on the character of the combustible substance, the fire can appear in two forms, as flames or as a glow. Both forms can occur together or separately. As flame is described the visible part of a stream of gas comprising three parts. These are: - the incoming flow in which the combustion air flows to the reaction zone; - the reaction zone in which the combustible gas released from the combustible solid or liquid by heating rises, mixes with the air and chemically combines with the oxygen in the air with the generation of light and the release of heat; - the waste gas flow in which the gaseous products of combustion mixed with air rise and cool further. What is called glow is the light radiation of a solid heated to a high temperature. The colour of the light radiated allows the temperature to be deduced. Corresponding values are: Grey glow 400 °C dark red glow 525 °C red glow 800 °C yellow glow 1100 °C incipient white glow 1300 °C full white glow

1500 °C

Substances burning with a glow only are: - solids which have been de-gassed such as coke or charcoal; - combustible metals. Substances burning with flames and a glow are: - solids which on heating break down into gaseous components and solid carbon. The gaseous components form the flames, the solid gives off the glow.

Fig. 2.3 Forms in which fire appears 2.3 Deflagration - Explosion - Detonation Particularly favourable conditions for combustion prevail if combustible substance and oxygen are present in the correct proportions and additionally the substance is mixed in extremely finely divided form with oxygen. The result is rapidly proceeding combustion. In deflagration the above-mentioned conditions are not fulfilled, and combustion is incomplete with a low level of pressure and noise, e.g. if gasor vapour-air mixtures are ignited near the limits of the flammability range. An explosion is combustion with the creation of strong pressure, heat and light effects. Ignition progresses rapidly, e.g. when petrol vapours explode, at about 20 m/sec. If the ignition propagation rate becomes supersonic, it is called a detonation. Here a pressure wave is generated, producing heat of compression at the wave-front which causes ignition. The detonation pressures can be up to 150,000 bar and the ignition propagation rate over 6 km/sec (TNT instantaneous fuse).

Substances burning with flames only are:

The ignition propagation rates are in the case of:

- gases; - liquids following transition into the vapour form; - solids which generate vapour or gas when heated.

- deflagrations, of the order of magnitude of cm/sec; - explosions, of the order of magnitude of m/sec; - detonations, of the order of magnitude of km/sec.

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23 2.4 Heat Heat Transfer - Heat Build-up Spontaneous Ignition Heat is a form of energy. It is generated during combustion by conversion of the chemical energy of the combustible substance by means of the oxygen in the air, as heat of combustion. Heat acts physically by way of: - thermal expansion; - change of state of aggregation; - alteration of the strength properties. Of these effects, on board seagoing ships the alteration of strength has the most serious consequences. Shipbuilding steels if heated to 500 °C lose up to 50% of their strength and do not recover it when they cool. Steel parts affected by fire must therefore be replaced.

Fig. 2.5 Example of heat radiation Heat convection is the transfer of heat carried by a liquid or gaseous substance. It is utilised for instance in space heating using hot-water heating elements.

Heat can be transferred from one substance to another, e.g. from an ignition source to a combustible substance. There are three forms of heat transfer: Heat conduction is the transfer of heat in a solid, liquid or gaseous substance between immediately adjacent particles. Gaseous substances conduct heat badly, liquid ones well. Amongst solids there are good and poor conductors of heat. Good conductors are for instance metals such as steel, iron, copper, light alloys; poor conductors are for instance wood, concrete, wool, rubber, leather.

Fig. 2.6 Example of heat convection Heat build-up If more heat is supplied or generated than is used or removed, there is a heat build-up. As the cause of spontaneous ignition this is of crucial importance. Spontaneous ignition If a combustible substance oxidises slowly, i.e. without flames appearing, and the heat generated in the process builds up, the temperature inevitably rises with increasing speed as a result of this build-up until the ignition temperature is reached. Spontaneous ignition then follows.

Fig. 2.4 Example of heat conduction Heat radiation is the radiation emitted by a substance, surrendering a part of its thermal energy to its environment, as a consequence of its temperature. It penetrates open space even against the wind and can travel substantial distances. In the case of major fires, ignition due to heat radiation has been observed even at a distance even of 40 m.

Spontaneous ignition is assisted by the following circumstances: -high ambient temperatures, e.g. when embarking bag cargo in tropical ports (expeller, fish meal, etc); - fine granulation or large surface areas of combustible substances, such as rich coal, greasy cotton cleaning rags; - heat-generating bacteria decomposing organic substances, such as in fermenting hay or moist fishmeair - high oxygen concentrations, e.g. at the reaction between oxygen carriers such as alkali peroxides with water and combustible

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substances such as organic dust, paper, wood, also called cargo hold sweepings.

Fig. 2.7 Spontaneous ignition A schematic representation of the spontaneous ignition process (The process is here shown in fairly large steps to make it easier to understand. In reality it progresses steadily. As a factor, the speed of oxidation doubles for every rise in temperature of 10 °C, in accordance with Vant' Hoff's Law). 2.5 Classes of fires The object of subdivision into classes of fires is the appropriate allocation of extinction methods and means to the various combustible substances.

2.6 Small - Medium - Large Fire Fires are subdivided into three classes according to their extent: A small fire is one of limited extent, contained within an enclosed compartment in the accommodation, culinary/service or cargo areas; A medium fire is one extending out to involve directly adjoining compartments, e.g. to adjoining cabins in the accommodation area or from a container to adjoining ones. Any fire in the machinery spaces in which combustible liquids like fuel or lube oil escaping under pressure are burning is a medium fire; A large fire exceeds a medium one in extent and involves several areas of the ship, e.g. machinery plus accommodation area or machinery plus cargo area. Also designated major fires are ones which totally engulf an area of the ship, e.g. several decks of the accommodation spaces. 2.7 Materials In practice a distinction is made between combustible and incombustible materials. An "incombustible material" is one which does not release ignitable gas or vapour in such quantities that when heated to 750 °C the gas/vapour can ignite spontaneously. Every other material is combustible material. Some combustible materials can be made hard to ignite by treatment with fire-resistant substances. "Low flame-spread materials" are materials, woven textiles or coatings which are able to prevent the spread of a fire or restrict it adequately. 2.8 Preventive fire protection By structural fire protection measures, the start of a fire is impeded, its spread substantially prevented and fire defense facilitated. Structural fire protection includes design/construction measures such as the subdivision into main fire sections, the arrangement and design of doors, fire flaps and other closures, escape- and rescue routes, the use of incombustible or low flame-spread materials, the installation of fire alarm and extinguishing systems and appliances, and of special equipment to protect for example compartments or installations in which combustible liquids, compressed gases or dangerous substances are used, transported or stored, such as fuel tanks, pumps or pipelines. Operational fire protection results in timely recognition of fire risks and safe operating of fire protection equipment. Operational fire protection includes above all the organisation of operations so as to prevent fire risks arising.

Fig. 2.8 Classes of fires

25 Focal points as regards this are, proper maintenance of the fire defense and fire protection appliances and correct conduct in emergency. Structural and operational fire protection complementary and are not to be separated.

are

Class "A" and "B" divisions must be approved. This applies to the division as a whole and to the materials used.

2.8.1 Structural fire protection Until a few years ago, fires in accommodation spaces of seagoing ships in many cases had disastrous results. Because of the then current type of construction it was possible for a fire to spread quickly over the entire superstructure. Ship fires which involved loss of life and ultimately total loss of the ship were no rarity. It is only recently that there has been a recognition that the initially applicable regulations of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea of 1948 and 1960 were inadequate. They were replaced in a number of steps, first for passenger vessels, later also for cargo vessels, by new ones enforcing the socalled "standard method" also known as the "noncombustibility method". The now valid set of regulations is based on principle that the best fire protection for entire accommodation area can be achieved using exclusively incombustible materials for bulkheads, sides and ceilings.

Class "C" divisions must be of approved incombustible material. For them there are no special requirements as regards the prevention of smoke or flame penetration or as regards insulating effect.

the the by all

Approval requires the passing of a so-called "Standard Fire Test". The details of the test are fixed internationally. It involves exposing a bulkhead or a deck with an exposed surface of at least 4.65 m2 and a height or deck length of at least 2.44 m in a fire test furnace to temperatures which by 60 minutes after the start of the test must have risen to 925 °C. Bulkheads and ceilings in the passage regions must not have any openings without closures. Passage bulkheads must extend from deck to deck. All internal stairs leading to accommodation spaces, service spaces or control stations must have a steel load-bearing structure and be inside a shaft bounded by class "A" or "B" divisions. Doors in the stair shafts must be at least class "B" and self-closing. They must not have any means of ventilation.

A distinction is made between division classes "A", "B" and "C", with additionally class "F" on fishing vessels. Class "A" divisions are steel bulkheads and decks with the reinforcements necessary for stability, so insulated with an approved material that they will certainly prevent the penetration of smoke and flames for an hour, and an increase in the average temperature of more than 139 °C above the initial temperature on the side away from the fire for a specified minimum period. This period in minutes is appended to the type designation. A class "A-60" division for instance meets the requirements for a period of 60 minutes. The temperature must not at any point increase by more than 180 °C above the initial value. Class "B" divisions are bulkheads, decks, deckheads or claddings of approved incombustible material which will certainly prevent the penetration of smoke and flames for half an hour. The temperature at the side away from the fire must not exceed 139 °C and only for shorter minimum periods than with class "A". The maximum permissible value must not exceed 225 °C.

Fig. 2.9 Structural fire protection in the accommodation area The result of this is, for instance, a cabin fire which has already spread beyond its original source and has set fire to everything burnable in the cabin cannot extend to adjoining spaces. The crew has enough time for an effective attack on the fire. The method of construction described additionally has the effect that escape routes are particularly protected. They are intended to provide persons leaving the danger zone on the outbreak of a fire with a secure exit to the open deck and at the same time offer the defense unit a secure route of advance to, and retreat from, the source of the fire.

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The regulations about structural fire protection are too extensive to be quoted in their entirety in this manual; a list of the applicable regulations is added to the manual as Appendix 1. The texts of the regulations are available as part of the mandatory collection of leaflets on board. Some particularly important details are: On passenger ships: - In the accommodation spaces and compartments with a comparable fire risk, built-in furniture must be of approved incombustible material. Freestanding chairs, sofas, etc. must have frames of incombustible material. Curtains and other hanging fabrics must be of approved incombustible material. Floor coverings must have corresponding properties. Paints and other coatings, and markings or notices on foil must be of approved low flame-spread material. -

Additionally to the incombustible bulkheads and decks, a subdivision of the ship into vertical main fire sections is carried out to prevent the spread of a fire to other parts. Vertical main fire sections are created by having main boundary bulkheads extending at intervals of up to 40 m through the hull, the superstructure and the deck houses.

Fig. 2.11 Fire doors

On all ships: All doors must be made of material of the same type as the bulkheads in which they are set. Certain doors have to be self-closing. All fire flaps must be made of material of the same type as the ventilation shafts or ducts in which they are fitted. The inlet and outlet apertures of all ventilation systems must have easily accessible closure devices on deck, which on the outbreak of a fire can be closed manually.

Fig. 2.10 Fire flaps

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Fig. 2.12 Fire flap in ventilation shaft The structural fire protection in the engine room is primarily intended to prevent the uncontrolled escape of liquid combustible substances and, should this nevertheless occur, prevent their being heated to their ignition temperature. For that reason the fuel pumps and engine room ventilation fans must have emergency stop devices outside the engine room. Equally, the suction lines from the fuel tanks must have quick-closing arrangements outside the engine room. Fuel lines are run as far away as possible from components with hot surfaces. They must be of such materials and so constructed as to pose a major obstacle to the escape of fuel. Components with hot surfaces are insulated. The insulation is protected against fuel soaking-in by sheetsteel cladding. The engine room can be made airtight. Some spaces, such as battery dangerous-substance stores, cargo

27

compartments, rooms with facilities for acetylene and oxygen bottles, are explosionendangered compartments. The electric installations in those compartments must be made explosion-proof. Fire alarm systems are provided primarily for the cargo spaces and unmanned machinery spaces, plus on cargo vessels for all passages, stairs and escape routes in the accommodation area and on passenger vessels also for the public rooms and recreation spaces. The arrangement and number of alarm units is fixed so that all endangered areas are securely monitored. 2.8.2 Operational fire protection Designated "operational fire protection" measures which

are

all

- prevent fire risks arising, - ensure that any fire risks on board are recognised early, and - in emergency bring about the rapid and secure operation of the fire defense appliances to prevent spread of the fire. Structural and operational fire protection complement one another. Both are of the same value; they must not be separated. Among the most important operational fire protection are:

measures

of

Safe storage of combustible working-materials Some working-materials such as compressed gases, cleaning materials, solvents or coating materials are combustible and certain safety measures must therefore be observed regarding their storage and use on board. For the storage space there are special structural fire protection regulations: -

petrol/gasoline, solvents and other highly flammable liquids with a flash point below 21 °C, plus compressed gas for use on board may only be stored on the open deck, protected against heat effects. - Coating materials must be stored on the open deck or in a special compartment (paint locker). This compartment must be separated from the other spaces in the ship by steel bulkheads and self-closing doors, so as to be gastight. It must have adequate supply and exhaust ventilation. It must have permanently installed fire extinguishing arrangements. - Coating materials containing volatile components with a flash point below 21 °C are to be stored in strong, firmly closable containers and as cool as possible. The containers must be marked. Smoking is prohibited where they are stored. A warning notice is to be posted.

ATTENTION - FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS EXPLOSION HAZARD NO NAKED LIGHTS ! NO SMOKING!

- At the place of work, only one - original container of dangerous working-materials may be kept ready for use. Protective measures for entry into dangerous compartments Compartments which have been cut off from the outside air for some time, or in which organic substances, oil or chemicals have been stored may be dangerous primarily because of the lack of breathable air or the presence of poisonous or suffocating gases or vapours. In such compartments there may also be a fire risk. The regulations about entry into dangerous spaces therefore also serve the purpose of operational fire protection. Protective measures when welding or working with fire Welding and work with fire are among the most frequent causes of fires, so the regulations applicable to these must receive particular attention. In the context of operational fire protection this is ensured by careful supervision of the work and its environs. Maintenance of fire defense installations and appliances to ensure their readiness for use in emergency Only if they are immediately ready for use in emergency can the installations and appliances fulfil their purpose. To this end there are graded maintenance measures: - check of completeness and proper condition at set intervals; - immediate elimination of any deficiencies detected; if that is not possible, repair ashore or replace; - check of dates due for inspection e.g. in the case of portable fire extinguishers, compressed air bottles, breathing apparates; - functional check of the installations under quasi-operational conditions, e.g. water pressure, C02 plant, discharge of a fire extinguisher. Fire patrols To ensure early detection of any outbreak of fire during silent hours regular fire patrols are necessary, day and night in harbour and at night at sea, above all in the accommodation area. They are one of the most important measures of operational fire protection!

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28 Fire defense exercises - instruction - initial and further training Only by constant exercising of the crew, by introductory instruction of crew members new to the ship, by careful nurturing of the young crew members and the ongoing further training of the core personnel in as-realistic-as-possible fire defense exercises can it be ensured that a fire breaking out in spite of all precautionary measures can be fought swiftly and effectively.

chemicals. The interruption of the supply of combustible substance is also a possibility, particularly in the case of fires of liquid or gaseous substances.

2.9 Defensive fire protection 2.9.1 Fire boundaries All regulations or instructions for fire defense on board, and also this manual, are based on the experience that with the limited means available, fighting a fire effectively is only possible if it can be kept within bounds. A designated fire boundary is any permanent or temporary device which assists in - preventing the spread of the fire and thereby protecting persons against danger form it, - carrying out the fight against the fire with minimal use of personnel, appliances and extinguishants, - ensuring a secure base for the personnel engaged in fighting the fire, and - minimising the consequential damage arising from the use of the extinguishant. The purpose of the numerous measures of structural fire protection is, the precautionary erection of permanent fire boundaries. Predominant among these are, the subdivision of passenger vessels into vertical main fire sections and the construction of all bulkheads, ceilings, doors, etc. in the accommodation area using incombustible materials with proven high fire resistance. Where in an emergency a permanent fire boundary does not exist or has been breached, a temporary fire boundary can be erected. In the accommodation area for instance, a fire boundary can be erected in an operational passage using table tops. When advancing with a protective spray, the curtain of water emitted by this also constitutes a fire boundary. 2.9.2 Extinguishing fires Combustion is a chemical process in which a combustible substance and oxygen in the correct proportions combine as soon as the minimum combustion temperature is reached. Extinguishing means interrupting this process by altering the proportions or lowering the temperature. Extinction is achieved by smothering or cooling. A third method is based on the reactionimpeding (anticatalytic) effect of some

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Fig. 2.13 Extinguishants 2.9.3 Extinction mechanisms Smothering a fire means separating the combustible substance from the oxygen, or reducing the oxygen content of the air until the proportion drops below the minimum necessary for combustion. This can be done in a variety of ways, e.g. by mixing a sufficient amount of asphyxiating gas (carbon dioxide) with the air or by covering the substance with a layer of foam or powder extinguishant. Cooling means slowing down the chemical process by lowering the temperature until the process breaks down altogether as the temperature drops below the minimum combustion temperature. The effectiveness of cooling depends on the heat absorption potential of the extinguishant. Water is in this respect of supreme importance because it absorbs, and thus extracts from the fire, large amounts of heat energy both in being heated and in being evaporated. Many extinction processes use both modes together; e.g. water first acts by cooling then, once steam has been generated, also by smothering. 2.10 Extinguishants In the choice of extinguishant, the circumstances in the environs of the fire as well as the method of extinction must be taken into account. When transporting dangerous goods and on gas and chemical tankers, particular care must be taken to see that extinguishants compatible with the cargo are on board or are taken on board. Details are to be taken from the reference book "Emergency Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods - Group Emergency Schedules (EMS)" which when transporting

29 dangerous goods is part of the mandatory documentation carried on board. Smothering as an extinction method is particularly effective if the chemical process can be made to break down solely by altering the proportions of the constituents. That applies to flame-producing fires. Glowing fires on the other hand cannot be extinguished by smothering alone because the heat energy of the glowing mass is too great. The fire would break out again immediately oxygen regained access. Glowing fires must therefore primarily be extinguished by cooling. Extinguishants can cause damage in the environs of the fire. These undesirable sideeffects must be taken into account in the choice of extinguishant. Lastly, disturbing influences from the environment must be taken into account. In the case of a fire on deck, for instance unsuitable foam would be torn apart by the wind which would prevent it producing an adequate extinguishing effect. 2.10.1 Extinguishant water Water is the extinguishant most widely available, cheapest and easiest to use. It is easy to transport by pumping, easy to carry even over considerable distances through pipe and hose lines and to convey to the location of the fire in a solid jet or spray form over spaces necessary for extinction. The main way in which water extinguishes is, by cooling. In this it is not surpassed by any other extinguishant. Properties Water freezes at temperatures turns to steam at 100 °C and 1013 hPa. One litre of water steam. In evaporating 1 litre of the heat energy absorbed is

- impact force, by which loose burning material is torn apart so that a larger glowing surface is exposed to the extinguishing effect, - penetrating effect, which forces the water deeper into the layers of glowing material, and - wetting properties, which can be increased further by the addition of wetting agents so that larger areas retain their coating of water. Water is non-poisonous and chemically neutral. Disadvantages At ambient temperatures below freezing water can only be used to a limited extent.

point,

Especially when used against cargo hold fires, water can endanger the stability of the ship. Water is absorbed by certain organic cargoes such as grain, pulse, cellulose. This causes these to swell, which may endanger the ship's structure. Water can cause breakdown of powered equipment. This includes pumps.

electrically the fire

Safety instructions Water can have a dangerous reaction with chemicals. For instance, the reaction with calcium carbide produces combustible acetylene, with sodium or potassium combustible hydrogen, with peroxides firepromoting oxygen and heat. Water conducts electricity. For that reason, when using jet nozzles a minimum distance must be maintained between their mouthpieces and live components. For voltages up to 1000 V, these distances are 5 m for solid jets, 1 m for spray jets.

below 0 °C and an air pressure of forms 1700 litres water from 10 °C,

378 kJ for heating to 100 °C 2264 kJ for evaporating completely 2642 kJ Use By virtue of its powerful cooling effect, water is the most effective extinguishant against glowing fires, e.g. those involving substances such as wood, coal, paper, straw, fibrous materials. (Fire class A) Advantages Water can be used in many different ways, e.g. as a solid jet, spray jet, mist, personal protective spray. As well as the cooling effect, the solid jet has

Fig. 2.14 Safety distances Voltages above 1000 V occur in ships only in fully-enclosed and marked electro-operational compartments or in specially protected and marked installations (e.g. radar sets, aerial leads). In the event of fires there, the minimum distances to be maintained between jet nozzle mouthpieces and live components are 10 m for a solid jet, 2 m for a spray jet.

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30 Water sprayed into hot (over 100 °C) liquids can evaporate suddenly. This results in a spontaneous expansion of the steam to a volume 1700 times that of the water and thus an eruption-like ejection of the combustible liquid. Water is heavier than most combustible liquids. In containers it displaces the lighter combustible liquids, which as a result overflow and cause the fire to spread. If used as a solid jet, water may stir up dust from combustible solids. This creates the danger of dust explosions. Hot water used as extinguishant or steam generated in the extinction process can endanger persons. In consequence of (e.g.) the simultaneous opening or closing of several hydrants, pressure fluctuations can arise in the firefighting-water system. This may adversely affect the firm stand of the jet nozzle operator. 2.10.2 Extinguishant foam Properties Foam consists of - water to which has been added - foaming agent, and - air which fills the foam bubbles. In the case of fixed installations for special purposes (e.g. on tankers), other inflating-gases such as carbon dioxide may also be used instead of air. Foam as extinguishant can be mixed to different strengths, depending on the agent and the foam tube. A distinction is made between: - heavy foam with frothing up to 20 times; - medium foam with frothing up to 200 times, and - light foam with frothing up to 1000 times. To generate heavy foam, a protein-base foaming agent (admixture rate 5%) and, for all types of foam, one with a fat alcohol base (admixture rate 3%) is used. Foaming agents are dangerous substances and must be marked in accordance with the relevant regulations. Foaming agent containers must be kept in frostprotected storage. Use Foam extinguishant is lighter than most combustible liquids. For that reason, its principal field of application is to extinguish fires of liquids in fire class B. For extinguishing combustible solids, foam can be used but is not economical. In

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

the case of fires combining class A and B, using foam is appropriate. Foam extinguishant covers the heart of the fire and acts primarily by smothering. In the case of liquid fires, that calls for an unbroken layer of foam at least 15 cm thick. The water element of the foam provides cooling. This effect is most powerful with heavy foam by virtue of the high proportion of water and is least powerful with light foam. Heavy foam is used above all to fight liquid fires. It is considered the only promising extinguishant for fires in major tank farms. It is particularly suitable for installations on the upper decks or cargo tank decks of tankers. When used in these circumstances, its cooling effect is also important. With appropriately designed fixed installations, effective ranges of jet of up to 45 m can be achieved. Medium foam is primarily used in mobile units if large quantities of foam are needed, as for instance for fires in accommodation areas or cargo holds. Effective ranges of jet are only from 2 to 10 m. Light foam is used in seagoing shipping only exceptionally, namely where the compartments to be protected can be totally flooded with foam from fixed installations. Safety instructions Protein-based foaming agents must not be allowed to get into open wounds. There is a risk of blood poisoning! Food contaminated by foam not be consumed subsequently!

extinguishant

must

When exercising with foam extinguishant, all relevant environment protection regulations are to be observed! Medium and heavy foam are not to be used in the vicinity of live electric components. 2.10.3 Extinguishant powder Properties Extinguishant powder is produced in variety of compositions for the variety of uses. Regularly available on board is powder for class A,B,C fires, for class B,C fires and in some cases for class D fires. ABC extinguishant powder consists principally of ammonium phosphate or ammonium sulphate, BC powder of hydrocarbons, D powder of sodium chloride with flux added. Extinguishant powder is kept fine-grained runny by means of special additives. Dry extinguishant lengthy periods.

powder

remains

usable

and for

31 In dry conditions, extinguishant powder is not corrosive. Because of its saline character (hygroscopic properties) it must however after use be removed from any corrosion-sensitive components. ABC powder is suitable for use against fires in electrical installations only if a safety-distance of more than 3 m can be maintained if high voltages (greater than 1000 V) can occur, as the melt formed is electrically conductive. There is no restriction on the use of BC powder against fires in electrical installations provided the safety instructions are observed. Use Extinguishant powder is brought to the seat of the fire in the form of a powder cloud, by means of a propellent gas. The extinguishant powder cloud in the case of flame fires (fire classes B, C) acts instantly by impeding the reaction in the flame and with a smothering effect by reducing the proportion of oxygen in the reactive region. Glowing-fire extinguishant powders effect separation by their ability to melt, as the glassy melt can form an air-excluding layer over the glowing mass if the surface is smooth. These powders are used in universal manual extinguishers in the accommodationand service spaces (A, B, C class fires). Extinguishant powders for incandescent metals (D class fires) have a smothering and covering action. Complete extinction requires a great deal of powder.' Fires in low-tension (voltage less than 1000 V) electrical installations can be extinguished safely if a safety-distance of at least 1 m is maintained between the powder nozzle and the live components. For high-tension (voltage more than 1000 V) that applies only if BC extinguishant powder is used. Safety instructions Extinguishant powder is not harmful to health. It irritates the mucous membranes. Due to the high pressure of the propellent gas, the extinguishant powder jet is ejected at high speed. This can mean that particles of combustible solids (e.g. wood chippings, iron filings) are stirred up and bum in the form of a dust explosion. 2.10.4 Extinguishant Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) Properties Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is a colour- and odourless gas heavier than air. CO2 can be compressed into a liquid at 20 °C and a pressure of 56.5 bar into bottles (0.766 kg/dm3 )

or stored at -20 °C and a pressure of 20 bar in large containers. A sudden drop in pressure causes liquefied CO2 to cool to -78 °C and form snow ("dry ice") which reverts to gas slowly with the absorption of heat. If liquefied CO2 in sealed containers is heated, the pressure rises rapidly and at 52 °C reaches 190 bar. Use Carbon dioxide has a suffocating action. This starts to take effect as soon as a concentration of at least 10% in the air is reached; that is only possible if it is used in enclosed compartments. A good extinguishing effect is above all obtained with flame-only (fire class B, C) fires. Retardation of the fire progress can be achieved with glowing fires in enclosed spaces. CO2 is used for compartment protection, e.g. in machinery spaces, or to protect specific objects (e.g. exhaust duct, scavenge air duct). CO2 is suitable for fighting fires in electrical installations as it is electrically no-conducting. It evaporates completely, thus its use as extinguishant causes no damage to electromechanical equipment. It can however cause damage to electronic equipment because of its low temperature of -78 °C. CO2 must not be used on light-alloy fires because at high incandescence-temperatures it breaks down into carbon and fire-promoting oxygen. As there are small amounts of steam mixed-in with the C02, a fire-promoting effect can also arise from that being split into hydrogen H2 and oxygen 02. CO2 is carried on board in fixed installations for flooding cargo and operating compartments. Storage requires a good deal of space, so only a limited, stipulated amount of extinguishant can be carried on board. This demands a careful determination of the amount of CO2 to be injected to flood a compartment in emergency. Safety notes In low concentrations, CO2 is harmless to humans. In higher concentrations it produces respiratory paralysis, unconsciousness and ultimately death. Enclosed spaces which have been flooded with CO2 may only be entered wearing a compressed-air breathing set. Contact with non-insulated parts of the apparatus during use may result in injuries through freezing. The pressure rise due to heating of C02 containers in enclosed spaces can result in triggering of the safety devices (bursting discs)

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32 and thus to uncontrolled flooding of the compartment with the gas. ATTENTION! The safety device does not close again after cooling-down. Whatever happens the complete contents of the C02 container will escape! 2.10.5 Extinguishant Sand - Sawdust soaked in soda - Dry substances Sand, sawdust soaked in soda or other approved dry substances are kept in readiness at every boiler firing position.

First aid for injured persons and subsequent care for them is arranged by the ship's management. 2.12 Fires in ship operation By fire prevention measures, the preconditions for a fire breaking out are eliminated as far as possible, and any fire which does break out in spite of all the precautions remains restricted to its originating area. It is then a matter of a small fire or, if the fire spreads to several spaces in an area, of a medium fire. The equipment of the ship with fire defense installations and appliances and the training and repeated exercising of the crew in fire defense makes it possible to fight such fires immediately and effectively. Experience teaches that a fire on board which spreads beyond its originating area to become a large fire can no longer be extinguished with the means available on board. That increases the importance in fire defense of rapid, resolute and drastic action. Examples of fires in accommodation areas are given in the reports ,,SICHERHEIT AUF SEE - Schiffssicherheit - Unfallverhutung Gesundheitsschutz" (safety at sea - safety of the ship - accident prevention - health care) issued annually by the See-BG and available on board for the crew to look at. 2.12.1 Fires in accommodation spaces

Fig. 2.15 Classes of fire 2.11 Danger to personnel - Accident prevention when fighting fires There is always the risk of an accident where there is the possibility of an uncontrolled and unsafeguarded release of energy. That is always the case with a fire. Accidents can however also be caused by carelessness, by inappropriate personal protective gear or by inexpert handling of appliances. The most important accident prevention measure is the identification and elimination of dangers. This is a task shared by everyone involved in fire defense. On board, dangers can arise which cannot be eliminated, e.g. ship-motion in a seaway, list, low visibility caused by fog and also the restrictions to movement about the ship due to its dimensions. The injuries to personnel caused by accidents in the course of fire defense are primarily bums, corrosion injuries and injuries due to stumbling.

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Special characteristics: The accommodation area is subdivided into a multitude of small spaces. The initial fire is in most cases small. The escape routes may become obscured by dense smoke which develops. People are in immediate danger. Fire protection: The fire is restricted to its original seat by the use of incombustible materials. Fire alarms make early discovery of an outbreak of fire possible. Fire defense: By bringing the entire accommodation area to the closed-down state, the fire is restricted to the area where it started and is extinguished by the crew using fire protection and fire defense equipment. 2.12.2 Fires in the cargo area The cargoes transported on the seas include a substantial proportion of "Dangerous Goods". Regarding their transport, there are detailed, comprehensive international regulations supplemented by national laws. There is also a special manual for incidents in the course of the transport of dangerous goods, the " Emergency Procedures Guide". This is held on

33

board every ship which transports dangerous goods and must also to be observed and complied with if dangerous goods catch fire. If that happens, the instructions in the „ Emergency Procedures Guide" override all other instructions, manuals, etc. All the information which follows about fires in the cargo area therefore applies only to cargoes which are not dangerous goods. Fires in the cargo area of dry-cargo vessels Special characteristics: The cargo holds in many cases contain large amounts of combustible substances. Because of the large size of the spaces, with little subdivision, restriction to the original seat is not always possible. If the cargo hold transverse bulkheads are not constructed as fire boundaries, spread of the fire to adjoining compartments cannot be ruled out. Fire protection: Fixed fire alarms permit early recognition of an outbreak of fire. Closures for loading hatches, accesses, ventilation inlets and outlets permit prevention of the ingress of atmospheric oxygen. Fire defense: By bringing the area of the fire and the adjoining spaces to the closed-down state, the ingress of air and the oxygen it contains is prevented. Fixed fire defense installations allow the fire to be restricted to the cargo hold in which it broke out, and extinction by smothering. The employment of fire defense units often does not make sense or is not possible, as the seat of the fire is not accessible and opening-up the compartment would allow free access to combustion air - which would increase the danger of the fire growing into a large one. Spread of the fire is made more difficult or prevented by water-cooling the closures, transverse bulkheads and decks.

Fire defense: If the suspicion arises that a fire might have broken out in a container, because for instance the paint on it discolours or blisters, spread of the suspected fire to adjoining containers or areas is prevented by cooling with a lot of water. Fires in the deck cargo Special characteristics: The seat of the fire is usually accessible. Oxygen for combustion is available in unlimited quantities. Fire protection: No special protective measures, but care should be taken to see that fixed fire defense installations (deck-washing- and fire main with hydrants) are accessible and in emergency can be used for fire defense. Fire defense: On ships under way, provided the navigational circumstances permit, course and speed are chosen primarily to lower the air speed at the seat of the fire as far as possible, and if possible to avoid causing people on board discomfort from smoke. A fire boundary is created by means of a "water wall". If necessary, endangered cargo is removed from the danger zone. 2.12.3 Fires in the cargo area of oil-, gas- or chemical tankers For fire protection and defense on board tankers there are comprehensive international regulations with supplementary national administration instructions. These regulations concentrate primarily on the dangers arising from the cargoes and the defense against these dangers. Tanker crews have been familiarised with these additional regulations and instructions in supplementary training courses which build on the general training in fire defense dealt with in this manual. 2.12.4 Engine room fires

Fires in the cargo area of container vessels Special characteristics: On the condition that only approved, undamaged containers suitable for the cargo in question are used, experience indicates that the danger of a fire spreading within the cargo area is small. No case is known of a fire in a sealed container not going out by itself due to lack of oxygen, far less of one spreading to adjoining containers. Fire protection: Sealed containers have such good properties in the context of fire defense that special additional measures are not necessary.

Special characteristics: Because of the large quantities of fuel present in engine rooms there is a risk that if a fire breaks out it will very quickly spread over the whole area. Due to the height of the engine room, a thermal lift develops above the fire which promotes its growth unless the engine room ventilation is shut down and the fire flaps are closed. As a result of distant effects, engine room fires can also produce failures of operationally important systems away from the engine room. That can lead to persons being endangered even at some distance from the seat of the fire.

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34 Fire protection: Apart from the machinery control room, there are in general no permanent fire boundaries within the machinery area. Special regulations regarding structural fire protection apply to fueltransporting systems. There is a fixed fire defense installation. In part-time unmanned engine rooms there are fixed fire alarm systems. Fire defense: Every fire in the machinery area brings with it the risk of expansion into a large fire. It is therefore essential to order immediate closingdown of the area and interruption of the fuel supply, provided the navigational situation permits this. To fight the fire, primarily the fixed fire defense installations are used. Additional reports concerning fires in the machinery area are in the Appendix. 2.12.5 Fires as the consequence of explosions in the cargo area or in operational compartments Preliminary remarks The investigation of accidents at sea has repeatedly revealed that following the outbreak of a fire ship managements or crew feared that an explosion might occur, specifically due to - oxyhydrogen gas being formed from firefighting water, or - heating of partially-filled daily supply fuel tanks or suchlike containers in the machinery area. In practice, both are impossible. Formation of oxyhydrogen gas from firefighting water Water is a very stable compound. Even at the most extreme pressures (up to 200 bar) and temperatures (up to 1800 °C) occurring in technical thermal power plants the water involved in the process is not separated into its components hydrogen and oxygen either in its liquid or its vapour form. There is no formation of oxyhydrogen gas. Water can be reduced in contact with certain metals. This splits it into hydrogen and oxygen; the oxygen is immediately bound again to oxidise the metal, the hydrogen is released. Hydrogen's ignition temperature is 510 °C in air, 450 °C in oxygen. These temperatures are significantly exceeded during metal oxidation. If oxygen is available, the hydrogen released by the reduction bums immediately. The formation of explosive gas-air mixtures at a temperature below the ignition temperature is in practice impossible. Heating of combustible liquids containers in the machinery area

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in

tanks

or

If a combustible liquid stored in a tank or a container in the machinery area, such as fuel in the daily supply tank or hydraulic oil in the storage tanks, is heated because the tank is engulfed by flames or adjoins an incandescent bulkhead, the combustible liquid will be heated to its boiling point and then evaporated. It is impossible for an explosive vapour-air mixture to form inside the tank because there is not sufficient air above the surface of the liquid. Also, it will escape through the overflow or venting arrangements because of the volumeincrease due to the evaporation of the combustible liquid. These fittings also ensure that the tank cannot burst. If they terminate within the machinery area, the escaping vapour will be heated above its ignition temperature by the flames and ignited unless the closed-down state has been established and the access of combustion air prevented. There is no risk of an explosion. If on the other hand the tank vent pipes end in the open, in still air and with the ship stopped it is possible for clouds of explosive vapour-air mixtures to form under certain circumstances. That sort of danger can in practice however only arise in harbour, if buildings and jetty walls close off an entire basin substantially against any movement of the air. Explosions can therefore only occur if dangerous goods of class 1 are heated above their ignition temperature due to an accident such as a collision, or if vapour-air mixtures form in empty, inadequately ventilated or not inerted tanks and are ignited. Fires as the consequence of explosions An explosion will destroy the area boundaries partially or entirely; at the same time, installations or appliances will be rendered unusable for fire defense. Persons may be killed or injured. There may be flooding and the risk of sinking. Because of the immediate crossing of the region boundaries, a fire following an explosion becomes a large fire. Limitations are placed on fire defense not only by the possible nonavailability of fire defense personnel, installations or appliances. In many cases it will be necessary to prepare to abandon the ship at the same time as attempting to create a new fire boundary. Fire defense: If the navigational situation permits, course and speed are chosen to reduce air movement at the seat of fire and discomfort or danger to those on board from smoke as far as possible. At the same time all available means are employed in an effort to restrict the fire. A call for help cannot be avoided in such situations and is made without delay.

35

3. Fire Defense Appliances and Systems on Board 3.1 Regulations - Approvals The appliances and systems used on board comply with the regulations (cf. the list in the Appendix). They are approved. Approval is given by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft on the basis of type tests carried out by the Germanischer Lloyd or some other official test establishment. Approval by the responsible authority in an EU Member State is accepted by the SeeBerufsgenossenschaft if it is based on test and approval regulations equivalent to the corresponding German ones.

The transmission system pipeline or an electric cable.

takes

the

form

of

a

At the central unit, if a detector is triggered a visual or acoustic signal is activated and the location of the triggered detector indicated. Any malfunction of the system also produces a visual or acoustic indication in the central unit.

On the basis of the regulations, every ship is equipped with the requisite number and kind of fire defense appliances and systems according to its type, size and service. The arrangement of the appliances on board is laid down in the fire control and safety plan posted in a generally accessible location. Fire defense exercises are carried out at set intervals to familiarise the crew with the operation of the systems and appliances. Every member of the crew is obliged to take part in these exercises. Painstaking care and maintenance create the preconditions for a trained crew to fight fires on board successfully. ATTENTION: The approved systems and appliances may differ not insignificantly in detail. There is room in this manual only to describe the important characteristics in each case of a type of appliance or system, and not to detail these differences. For that reason it is absolutely essential also to draw on the makers' operating instructions and technical documentation for the initial and continuation training of the crew!

Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram of a fire alarm system Fire detectors used on board ships are Early warning detectors Early warning detectors have an especially high triggering sensitivity. They respond to a fire already in its nascent phase. There are two versions, namely - Ionisation detectors

3.2 Reporting Fire - Alarms 3.2.1 Fire alarm systems To make possible early detection of a fire and identification of its location, fire alarm systems are installed on board. These comprise detectors, a transmission system and a central unit. The detectors monitor their environs for the measurable characteristics of fires: temperature, smoke and radiation. A limited number of detectors may be connected in series; this arrangement is called a detector loop.

Fig. 3.2 lonisation detector The smoke aerosols (invisible products of combustion in the air) produced by every fire are taken up by the detector. They reduce the stream of ions flowing in the measuring chamber. The resultant weakening of the electric current triggers the alarm actuator. Ship Safety Service; February 1996

36 - Smoke detectors working on the scatteredlight principle

Flame detectors

Smoke or dust gets into the path of a directed ray of light, making the light scatter. A photoelectric cell measures the weakening of the ray which this causes. When a certain threshold value is reached, the actuator is triggered. Heat detectors Heat detectors are triggered when a predetermined temperature is exceeded. This temperature can be set at between 40 °C and 100 °C at the maker's works. Two versions are used on board ships, namely - Bimetallic detectors

Fig. 3.3 Bimetallic detector Heating causes unequal expansion of two strips of different metals rolled together. The bimetallic spring distorts and makes an electric contact when the triggering temperature is reached. That actuates the alarm. Thermal detector

Fig. 3.4 Thermal detector An easily fusible solder holds two metal springs together. As soon as a wave of heat at the triggering temperature reaches the solder, it immediately melts. The springing apart of the two springs breaks the closed circuit of the detector; the alarm is raised.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Fig. 3.5 Flame detector The electromagnetic radiation emitted by the flame is led via an optical system to a photoelectric cell. In the connected frequency filters the flicker frequency of the flame is amplified, separated from other light effects and evaluated. If the measured frequency coincides with the preset typical flicker frequency, the alarm is raised. 3.2.2 Fire alarm raised by persons Every outbreak of fire must immediately be reported to the nautical officer on watch. His place while at sea is the bridge. Where persons are reporting a fire, technical means should preferably be used to transmit the message. Fire alarm press-buttons, telephones and VHF walkie-talkies are available for this. There are fixed fire alarm press-buttons (manual fire alarms) in the passages needed for operational purposes. Breaking the protective glass and pressing the button triggers a visual or acoustic alarm in the central unit. At the same time the location of the alarm is shown on an indicator board. If the telephone or a walkie-talkie is used, particular attention must be paid to message discipline. The caller must provide the following information unambiguously, concisely and clearly: Who is making the report? Whereabouts is the reporting person? What is being reported (Nature and size of the fire)? How are conditions otherwise? Runners are used for reporting fire only if there are no technical means available for transmitting the message. 3.2.3 Alarm systems Alarm systems are fitted on purposes. A distinction is emergency alarm systems indicating the triggering safety systems.

board for a variety of made between general and alarm systems of certain technical

37

The purpose of general emergency alarm systems is, to alert everyone on board. The general emergency alarm can be initiated from the bridge or from other control stations. It consists of a sequence of seven short notes and one long one. This signal is made by bells or sirens in the accommodation and operational spaces of the ship and constantly repeated. On top of that, it is made with the signal lamps. If initiated from the bridge, the signal is also made with the ship's siren.

Fig. 3.6 Automatic signaltransmitter to actuate the general alarm system As in the engine room there is not an adequate assurance that acoustic signals will be noticed because of the high noise level frequently prevailing there, machinery spaces additionally have all-round lamps and signal strip lights fitted to provide visual signals.

3.2.4 Alarm systems for operational compartments Alarm before activating the CO2 system Before operational compartments are flooded with CO2 an alarm is triggered automatically. It consists of a continuous note sounded by an air whistle with a magnetic valve. The CO2 alarm is additionally indicated by the signal strip light. It must be unambiguously apparent in all spaces capable of being flooded with CO2 - main and auxiliary machinery compartments, machinery control rooms and all connected enclosed secondary spaces like stores or workshops. Alarm by the automatic fire alarm system Certain operational compartments have an automatic fire alarm system fitted. In unmanned machinery spaces this system indicates that a fire has broken out or is imminent, as soon as the characteristic quantities smoke, temperature or radiation have exceeded a certain preset threshold value. The alarm consists of a sequence of two notes repeated at short intervals (two-tone). It is sounded in the technical officers' accommodation by means of a horn and on the bridge by means of a buzzer. The signal strip light also shows it. 3.3 Fire extinguishing appliances 3.3.1 Portable fire extinguishers Fire extinguishers are portable (mass less than 20 kg) extinguishing appliances kept ready for use. Because of their design, amount of extinguishant and relatively short operating time they are primarily intended for use by a single person to extinguish fires in their initial phase. They can be used without any special training provided the operating instructions shown graphically on the appliance are complied with. Fire extinguishers are approved appliances. Approval covers the appliance, the extinguishant and the propellent.

Fig. 3.7 Signal strip light

The number of extinguishers is laid down in regulations. The type of extinguisher is selected on the basis of the nature of the fire risks in the compartments to be protected. Up for consideration are ABC powder extinguishers, BC powder extinguishers, D powder extinguishers and CO2 extinguishers. Every portable extinguisher has a name plate and a test badge. Additionally there are simple operating instructions on every extinguisher. If a portable extinguisher is refilled on board after use, application of a home-made refilling certificate next to the test badge is recommended. In addition to the refilling date, this bears the warning that the extinguisher has Ship Safety Service; February 1996

38

not been tested and must be sent ashore for test at the next opportunity.

Fig. 3.9 Powder extinguisher 3.3.2 Powder extinguishers

Fig. 3.8 Name plate, test badge and graphic operating instructions of a modem fire extinguisher (in German language only) The fire extinguishers are positioned to be easily visible and ready to hand. Their position in the ship can be seen from the fire control and safety plan.

Functioning mode of the appliance When the propellent flask has had the safety device undone and has been opened, the propellent gas flows into the extinguishant container. After 3 seconds the extinguishant has been swirled up and driven into the rising tube. When the actuating element (extinguisher pistol) is operated the powder-propellent mixture issues as a jet.

Contents Powder and compressed gas Amount 6 kg 12 kg Spraying time 15 sec. 30 sec. Operating distance 3-5 m Class of fire ABC or BC Safety valve set pressure *) =22.5 bar Extinguishing action Impeding reaction, smothering Reserve According to ship safety decree *) The safety device must ensure that the pressure inside the extinguishant container does not exceed 90% of the container test pressure. See Basic Test Principles for Fire Extinguishers according to circular of the Minister of the Interior of the Land Nordrhein-Westfalen dated 26.4.1977.

Fig. 3.10 Table of powder extinguishers

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

39 3.3.4 Mobile fire extinguishing appliance Mobile fire extinguishing appliances are kept ready in the engine room, and on tankers also near the connecting position for the cargo lines. They permit effective combating of liquid fires in the initial phase, as a single person can easily transport them to the seat of the fire and operate them. The large amount - 50 kg - of extinguishant and significantly longer operating tune ensure a high extinction-effectiveness in situations where it is not possible to deploy several portable extinguishers. The number of mobile fire extinguishing appliances is laid down in regulations. The extinguishant used propellant is nitrogen (N2 ).

is

BC powder; the

Fig. 3.11 CO2 extinguisher 3.3.3 Carbon dioxide extinguishers Functioning mode of the appliance Operation of the actuating element causes the liquefied carbon dioxide to be driven by the gaseous CO2 above it through the rising tube into the ,"snow tube", expanded and thereby cooled to -78 °C. The CO2 reaches to the seat of the fire as a jet of snow/gas mixture.

Fig. 3.13 Mobile fire extinguishing appliance

Contents CO2 liquid Amount 5 kg Spraying time 50 sec Operating distance 3 m Class of fire B Bursting disc set pressure =22. 5 bar Extinguishing action Smothering Length of hose about 1m Reserve For every extinguisher one spare extinguisher

Fig. 3.12 Table of CO2 extinguishers Ship Safety Service; February 1996

40 Contents

Powder and compressed gas

Amount

50 kg

Spraying time

50 sec.

Operating distance

6-8 m

Class of fire

BC

Safety valve set pressure = 22.5 bar Extinguishing action

Smothering

Length of hose

5 m or 10 m

Reserve

According to ship safety decree

Fig. 3.14 Table of mobile fire extinguishing appliances The mobile fire extinguishing appliances are located in the engine room near doors to the shaft-enclosed emergency exit. From their location, it must be possible to transport them without difficulty to those parts of the engine room where it is possible for liquid fires to break out.

Divisions Fire doors Means of escape Fire pumps Connections Valves Fire extinguishing devices Release stations, remote control Alarm devices Closing appliances Space protection systems Equipment of the ship

Fig. 3.15 Systems and equipment contained in fire control plans 3.4.1 Water fire extinguishing systems Every ship has an approved fixed water fireextinguishing system. Extensive regulations amongst other things control - pumps: type of drive, working pressure, output, safety valves, number and location

Functioning mode of the mobile fire extinguishing appliance Opening of the propellant flask valve causes gaseous nitrogen (N2 ) to flow through the pressure distribution line into the extinguishant container. After 3 seconds, the operating pressure is reached. The extinguishant issues as a jet of powder/propellant mixture when the extinguishing pistol is operated. 3.4 Fire extinguishing systems Symbols for fire control plans according to IMOResolution A.654(16) and DIN 0087903-2 are listed in table 3.

Fig. 3.17 Emergency fire extinguishing set

Fig. 3.16 Water fire extinguishing system Ship Safety Service; February 1996

−

pipelines: run of pipes on board, pipe bore, number and arrangement of hydrants, accessibility when there is deck cargo

−

fire hoses: material, length, diameter, standard hose couplings

−

nozzles: design, minimum mouthpiece bore

−

international shore connection: dimensions, working pressure.

standard

Fig. 3.19 Firefighting station

Technical data of a water fire-extinguishing system: Pump pressure Pressure at nozzles mouthpiece Mouthpiece Hose lengths, deck Hose lengths, engine room Hose diameter Output Jet throw Height of throw Fig. 3.18 Main fire pump

Fig. 3. 20 Spray/jet fire nozzle to provide a personal protective spray 41

6 bar 2.8 bar 12mm 15 to 20 m 10 to 15 m 52 mm more than 10 m3 /h 20m 15m

42

Functioning mode When the fire pump is switched on, water from outboard is drawn in via the sea valve and conveyed to the site of the fire via pipelines, hydrants, fire hoses and nozzles.

Should the fire pumps break down, fire-extinguishing system can, international shore connection, be and made to operate from ashore, ships or by transportable pumps.

the water via the pressurised from other

A spray/jet fire nozzle permits adjustment of the issuing jet.

Fig. 3.22 International shore connection

Fig. 3.21 Solid jet, spray jet, with and without personal protective spray

3.4.2 Sprinkler systems The automatic sprinkler system protects the spaces used by the crew and the passengers. It is always ready for immediate use.

Fig. 3.23 Sprinkler system

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Fig. 3.24 Sprinkler system central unit The working pressure for these systems is 8 bar. If as a result of the water being drawn off during this operation the air pressure in the pressurized water tank drops to 5 bar, the built-in pressure switch switches on, which starts the sprinkler pump. This draws in water from over the side and forces it through the lines direct to the sprinklers. When the fire has been extinguished the pump has to be switched off by hand. Fig. 3.25 Sprinkler head For ships operating in temperate regions, the sprinklers arranged behind the suspended ceilings have a triggering temperature of 68 °C. When this value is reached after the outbreak of a fire, the small glass capsule sealing the sprinkler bursts and releases the water. The resulting pressure drop in the supply pipe causes a valve lid to lift in the distribution station, so that fresh water from the pressurized-water tank can flow through the main, distribution station and the supply pipe to the opened sprinkler. There it impinges on the impact plate so that a conical spray is produced.

The automatic activation of the system is indicated by an electrical alarm in the fire alarm centre, and in the space to be protected. When the valve disc in the distribution station lifts, the opening to a service pipe is freed at the same time. The water flowing through operates a pressure switch. 3.4.3 Water-spraying systems for manual operation On ferries, Ro-Ro vessels and passenger vessels with special compartments (for motor vehicles whose fuel tanks have not been emptied), manually operated spray systems are provided.

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Fig. 3.26 Water-spraying system for manual operation

Functioning mode of the system In the main control station the quick-opening valve for the compartment to be protected is opened and the pump starter operated. The pump draws in water from over the side via the sea valve and forces it via the pipelines and the open quick-opening valve to the spray nozzles in the compartment to be protected. Fitted pressure

switches system.

at

the

same

actuate

the

alarm

3.4.4 High-pressure water-spraying systems High-pressure water-spraying systems are used to atomise fresh water in special nozzles under a pressure of 100 bar into a mist with a droplet size of less than 50 microns. This mist behaves like a

Fig. 3.27 Main control station for water-spraying system

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

time

45

Fig. 3.28 High-pressure water-spraying system so that it is not within the scope of this manual gas: the droplets do not sink but rather float in to provide a universally valid description. the air in the compartment and with it are even carried into awkward comers to develop their The high-pressure water-spraying system extinguishing potential there. By virtue of the comprises very fine atomisation, the effective surface of the - high-pressure pumps, extinguishing water is increased many times compared with that in low-pressure systems. - fresh water storage tanks, Evaporation extracts so much heat energy from - stainless steel pipelines, the fire in a minimum of time that the - special water-atomising nozzles, combustion process breaks down. The steam so - valves for the various extinguishing-water line generated at the same time creates a smothering branches, effect; the air in the compartment is separated from the combustible gases. Lastly, hot surfaces - activating stations, and any hot gases around are cooled. - control units. High-pressure water-spraying systems need only one tenth of the quantity of water required by sprinkler systems to achieve the same extinguishing effect. The time required to extinguish a fire is substantially less, so that extensive heating of the environs of the seat of the fire can be avoided. That prevents the stability being endangered. The consequential damage from the extinction process is usually insignificant. The environmental pollution caused by the extinguishing water is greatly reduced. The whole system weighs less and needs less space than other systems. Structure of the system: ATTENTION ! The high-pressure water-spraying systems of different manufacturers differ in many details,

The atomising nozzles have glass capsule or fusible plug safety devices built-in. As soon as these are set off by a rise in the compartment temperature above the selected threshold value (usually 68 °C), the pressure in the associated pipeline drops below the closed-circuit value of 10 bar. The high-pressure pumps are started, either by this pressure drop in the system or by an automatic fire detection system or by hand. They take suction immediately from the fresh water storage tanks; the tanks are continually refilled by special pumps. The pumps having started, the pressure in the pipes increases from the 10 bar in the quiescent condition to 100 bar. The valves for the various line branches can also be opened and closed either by hand or by remote control.

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Fig. 3.29 Foam fire extinguishing system

High-pressure water-spraying systems are produced in various versions for fitting in accommodation spaces. They must be approved.

3.4.5 Foam fire extinguishing systems for tankers To protect the cargo tank decks, cargo tanks and machinery spaces on tankers, approved foam fire extinguishing systems are fitted. The technical details (reserve of foam concentrate, pump output, volumetric flow, etc.) are laid down. Structure of the system The system comprises: - the main- and the emergency fire pump, - the pipe system,

- the foam concentrate tank, - the mixer, - the fixed foam monitors, - the hand-held foam nozzles, - the fixed foam nozzles in the machinery spaces. The mixer is fitted in the system of pipes between the fire pumps and the extraction points. Either by means of the partial vacuum produced by the high-speed water flow, or with a special foam concentrate pump the multi-region agent is mixed with the water in a proportion of about 3%. At exit from the monitors heavy foam is generated by the admixture of air. The handheld foam nozzles are connected to the pipe system via hoses with Storz couplings. There are heavy and medium foam nozzles.

Fig. 3.30 Foam fire extinguishing system main control station

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Fig. 3.31 Medium foam nozzle, heavy foam nozzle, mixer, fixed water and foam fire station

Fig. 3.32 CO2 fire extinguishing system Ship Safety Service; February 1996

48 3.4.6

Combined

CO2

fire

extinguishing

and

smoke detection system

Fig. 3.33 CO2 fire extinguishing system central unit

Fig. 3.34 Smoke detector cabinet in the control station Functioning mode The combined CO2 fire extinguishing and smoke detection system serves as - fire alarm system for closed cargo spaces in which no loading, unloading or other work is taking place,

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

-

fire extinguishing system for machinery and cargo spaces. The same system of tubes is used for both purposes.

Fig. 3.35 Opened smoke detector cabinet with smoke extraction tubes and three-way valves Once the exhaust fans installed above the control station (bridge) have been switched on, air is continuously drawn from the cargo spaces. This flows via three-way valves through glass tubes, such a valve and tube being provided in the control station for each incoming suction line. If the air drawn-in contains smoke or is in some other way clouded, a ray of light directed through the glass tubes onto a photoelectric cell is weakened and a visual or acoustic alarm is triggered. As the alarm can also be set off by substances other than smoke, e.g. by dust raised when the space is cleaned, a check on the origin of the fire is necessary in each case before any fire defense measures are initiated. When it has been ascertained that a fire has broken out in one or more cargo spaces, the spaces are first checked to make sure that there is no longer anyone in them and they are then closed down. The lines from these spaces are then connected to the CO2 -cylinder room by changing the setting of the three-way valves concerned from .SMOKE" to "CO2 ". At the activation station in that room, the quantity of CO2 required for the spaces on fire is established from the tables posted there. That indicates the number of CO2 cylinders to be opened. Protection of the engine room by a CO2 fire extinguishing system Functioning mode When the activation station door is opened, a door-operated switch triggers the CO2 alarm in the engine room. Next, the quick-opening valve is turned to "OPEN" and the CO2 -control cylinder opened. That sends its contents into the

49

Fig. 3.36 Engine-room CO; fire extinguishing system activation cylinder in the CO2 cylinder room, 3.4.7 Powder fire extinguishing system which via rods opens all the connected cylinders Gas tankers are equipped with a fixed powder in the batch dedicated to the engine room. fire extinguishing system to protect the cargo area. This system is capable of projecting at least 10 kg of extinguishing powder per second through fixed monitors or 3.5 kg per second via pressure hoses and hand gun. Structure of the system: The powder fire extinguishing system consists of one or more powder containers with associated batches of propellant-gas cylinders, and of the activating and operating stations. These are so arranged on deck that every place which needs protection can be covered with extinguishing powder. Functioning mode of the system:

Fig. 3.37 Activation station with control cylinder Safety note When the CO2 alarm sounds, everyone leaves the engine room and the adjoining secondary spaces via the normal-use ladders or the emergency exits and proceeds to the assembly station.

Opening a control cylinder at one of the activating and operating stations, via a control line opens the batch of propellant-gas cylinders of one of the powder containers. The propellant gas (nitrogen - N2 ) issuing from the cylinders swirls the powder in the containers and drives it through fixed pipelines to the operating stations. From there it is projected through fixed monitors or via pressure hoses with hand guns and spread over the area to be protected. Ship Safety Service, February 1996

50

Fig. 3.38 Powder fire extinguishing system

Fig. 3.39 Powder fire extinguishing system central unit Ship Safety Service; February 1996

51

-

an explosion-proof electric safety lamp (portable lamp) with a minimum burning time of 3 hours, - a fireman's axe with a handle insulated against high tension, - a crowbar, - a portable electric drill heavy enough for at least a 10 mm bit, or - a cutting-off wheel; each with at least a 10 m long connecting lead. The minimum number of fireman's outfit is laid down based on the size of the vessel. Should additional fireman's outfit be carried, voluntarily or because of other regulations such as those regarding the transport of dangerous goods, the safety lamp, fireman's axe, crowbar and drill/cutting-off wheel may be omitted. A chemical protection suit may be provided instead of the heat protection suit.

Fig. 3.40 Monitor

Fig. 3.41 Hose chest 3.5 Fireman's outfit The term fireman's attached to it.

outfit

has

two

meanings

In a broad sense it is taken to refer to the personal protective gear which protects the crew members employed on fire defense against radian heat, bums or scalds and against damage to their health from breathing-in poisonous or suffocating gases or vapours. 3.5.1 Fireman's outfit according to SOLAS In a narrower sense, according to the relevant regulations fireman's outfit comprises -

a self-contained compressed-air-operating breathing apparatus with a face mask and spare air bottles, - a fireproof lifeline of adequate length and strength, - a rigid helmet (equipment with additional helmets for all members of the defense unit is recommended), - a heat protection suit (trousers, jacket, hood), - a pair of safety boots of rubber or some other non-conducting material,

3.5.2 Fire protection clothing Special protective clothing for fire defense is not stipulated and as a rule not carried on board. However the normal working clothing, made from stout cotton material, provides almost complete protection for the wearer if he gets in the way of a jet or a puff of flame. The members of the crew detailed for the defense unit should therefore be dressed, for exercises and in an emergency, in - a boiler suit (if possible flame retarding protective suit), - safety helmet, - working gloves, - safety boots. Particularly the crew members working in the engine room or doing painting need to be aware that boiler suits soiled with oil, grease, solvents etc. catch fire easily and thus can endanger the wearer if worn for fire defense. If the clothing cannot be changed prior to such a service, soiled boiler suits must be drenched with water to eliminate any danger to the wearer. 3.5.3 Heat protection suit The heat protection suit protects the against thermal radiation as well as bums and scalding by steam.

wearer against

It is made from a multi-layer composite material and has a metallised outer surface for protection against thermal radiation. The permissible 7 minutes.

length

of

service

is

at

most

Examples of service possibilities are therefore - for closing valves - for closing bulkheads, doors or skylights.

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52

Fig. 3.42 Fireman's outfit (SOLAS)

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53

Fig. 3.43 Heat protection suit The heat protection suit comprises - a jacket with hood and exchangeable wraparound transparent visor 15 x 25 cm, goldtinted, with a detachable safety helmet inside the hood, - trousers with elastic or adjustable braces, - boots, electrically non-conducting, with heatprotective coating, - three-finger gauntlets. Accessories include 1 spare transparent visor,

Fig. 3.44 Various types of protective suits The heat protection suit is stored immediately by the breathing apparatus, packed in the carrier bag ready for use. When the heat protection suit is worn for exercises, the transparent visor is to be exchanged for the exercise version; when the exercise is over, the exchange is to be reversed before the suit is packed away. The leaflet produced by the See-BG concerning the use of heat protection suits contains additional information. Safety notes

- 1 transparent visor for exercises,

The heat protection suit does not protect against

- carrier bag with instructions for use, maintenance and packing.

- the effect of flames over extended periods, - the effect of touching live components, Ship Safety Service; February 1996

54

Fig. 3.45 Putting-on the heat protection suit corrosive or poisonous liquids, gases or oxygen or in the presence of poisonous gases or vapours which can occur particularly with vapours, and to protect him from detrimental chemical fires. influences. The heat protection suit may only be worn Breathing apparatus must not be used as diving together with the compressed-air breathing sets! apparatus. For fire defense on board, only compressed-air The wearer must remain at least 1.7 m clear of sets are used. Certain tankers additionally carry the flame. emergency escape breathing apparatus, As the heat resistance of the boots is limited exclusively for life-saving purposes. because they are made electrically non3.6.1 Compressed-air breathing apparatus conducting and waterproof, care must be taken when walking on hot decks. Compressed-air breathing apparatus are bottle-

3.6 Breathing apparatus Breathing apparatus are intended to allow the wearer to breathe even in a non-respirable atmosphere, e.g. where there is not enough Ship Safety Service; February 1996

supplied air.

appliances

independent

of

the

ambient

Normal-composition air is stored under pressure in one or two gas bottles, ready for use.

55

Fig. 3.46 Possible combinations of compressed-air breathing apparatus

Fig. 3.47 Compressed-air breathing apparatus - two-bottle set

Fig. 3.48 Compressed-air breathing apparatus - single-bottle set Ship Safety Service; February 1

56 When breathing in, the wearer receives decompressed bottle-air via a pressure reducer, a breath-controlled dosing unit (artificial lung) and a breathing attachment (face mask). The used air breathed out escapes through the outlet valve in the face mask.

- the carrying-frame, - the pressure-reducer with pressure gauge and warning device, - the artificial lung, and - the face mask. The carrying-frame is intended to hold one or two compressed-air bottles. Carrying-straps with self-locking sliding buckles and a body belt with press-button snap closure are fitted. Material and padding, even on the carryingstraps, provide protection against the cold and comfort in wearing. There are also securingloops for holding the pressure gauge and intermediate pressure line.

Fig. 3.49 Artificial lung, normal-pressure apparatus

A support-bracket and hinged strap near the top allow either one 6-litre air bottle to be fastenedin where the maximum working pressure is 300 bar, or two 4-litre bottles where the maximum pressure is 200 bar. Near the bottom of the carrying-frame are the mountings for the pressure reducer and a tool hook-impact guard.

Fig. 3.50 Artificial lung, overpressure apparatus There are two types of compressed-air breathing apparatus, namely normal-pressure apparatus and overpressure apparatus. The significant difference between these two types is that - with the normal-pressure apparatus the air pressure in the face mask is slightly lower than that of the outside air; as a result the rim of the mask is pressed against the skin and a seal against the outside air effected; and that - with the overpressure apparatus the air pressure in the face mask is slightly higher than that of the outside air; as a result there is a steady outward flow of air through between the rim of the mask and the skin of the wearer, preventing the ingress of non-respirable air. Structure of the compressed-air breathing apparatus The compressed-air breathing comprises

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

apparatus

The pressure reducer reduces the bottle pressure to an intermediate pressure of 4.5 to 7 bar, depending on the type of set. It has a safety valve fitted which lifts if the intermediate pressure rises to more than about 11 bar. A pressure gauge, encased and splash-proof, shows the bottle pressure. It is connected to the pressure reducer by a flexible pipe. A warning device (signal whistle) is set at the manufacturer so that it is activated if the bottle pressure drops below about 55 bar and continues to produce an acoustic signal until the reserve of air is very nearly exhausted. The artificial lung (breathing-controlled dosing device) is connected to the pressure reducer by a pressure hose. The face mask is connected to the artificial lung via a screw connection. Functioning mode of the compressed-air breathing apparatus - in the case of normal-pressure apparatus: When the wearer breathes in, a slight negative pressure is created in the face mask and the chamber of the artificial lung connected to it, which pulls the diaphragm of the artificial lung inwards. The rocker arm controlled by the diaphragm follows and opens the breathing-in valve.

57 When the wearer has finished breathing in, the air accumulates, the diaphragm is pressed back into its original position by the overpressure. The valve spring closes the breathing-in valve. The air breathed out escapes via the outlet valve in the mask. The breathing-in valve remains closed during this phase. With normal-pressure apparatus there is a resistance to breathing which must be overcome by the breathing effort of the wearer. m the case of overpressure apparatus: the breathing-in valve is set to maintain an overpressure of about 3.5 mbar relative to the external air pressure in the face mask up to an air consumption of 450 1 per minute. This corresponds to more than three times the quantity the wearer can breathe under maximum stress. This additionally effects slight cooling of the skin of the face and continuous ventilation of the transparent visor which safeguards this against misting. The air breathed out escapes through the outlet valve. With overpressure sets there is no resistance to breathing. Safety note: Normal and overpressure apparatus have different screw connections. Face masks can only be used for one type of set or the other! Using the compressed-air breathing apparatus The compressed-air breathing apparatus is kept ready for use in exercises or emergency, checked and serviceable in accordance with the information in the operating instructions.

Read the pressure gauge (Minimum pressure: 270 bar for 6 V300 bar bottles 180 bar for 4 1/200 bar bottles) Shut the bottle valve On two-bottle apparatus have both bottles checked for contents level individually in turn. The apparatus is tight if after a minute the indicated pressure has not dropped. With the pressure gauge connected to the mask connection of the artificial lung showing 0 bar, start sucking. The apparatus is negative pressure-tight if there is no inflow of air. Warning device Press the button on the artificial lung until air comes out; watch the pressure gauge while doing so. The acoustic warning signal must sound at about 55 bar. Once you have released the button, the apparatus is ready for use. Putting on the apparatus - Open compressed air bottles by turning handwheel; the bottles are opened fully, handwheel then closed one turn. - shoulder the apparatus with the carrying straps set loose - adjust the carrying straps by pulling at the ends until the set is sitting firmly comfortably - fasten the body belt - slide the free ends of the carrying straps under the body belt.

the the

free and

The serviceability of the apparatus is checked each time before it is used for exercise or in emergency. The information needed for this check is contained in the operating instructions. Check each time before use Set in general All parts must be there; the handwheels on the compressed air bottles turned shut and the pressure hose to the artificial lung connected. Contents level and tightness In the case of overpressure apparatus, bring the artificial lung to the ready setting in accordance with the operating instructions. Open bottle handwheel.

valve

by

two

turns

of

the

Fig. 3.51 Putting on a single-bottle apparatus

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

58

hang the face mask around your neck by its carrying-strap

Fig. 3.52 Holding the face mask ready slide the buckle midway along it

of

the

forehead

strap

to

Fig. 3.54 Inserting the chin in the mask - smooth the head pad of the straps against the back of the head; tighten the neck straps evenly by pulling backwards.

using both hands, spread the straps so that neck and temple straps he between thumbs and index fingers

Fig. 3.55 Tightening neck straps - tighten temple straps evenly until you feel the sealing rim of the mask pressing slightly against the skin

Fig. 3.53 Spreading mask straps - insert the chin into the chin portion of the mask, bring the mask in front of the face and pass the straps over your head until the forehead strap bears firmly Ship Safety Service; February 1996

ATTENTION! Do not tighten so far that the temporal artery is constricted!

59

fig. 3.56 Tightening temple straps set the frontal strap so that the chin and temple straps are aligned with the cloth tabs fixed to the body of the mask.

Fig. 3.58 Checking tightness of the mask with it on Using the compressed-air breathing apparatus Connect the artificial lung to the face mask by means of the round-thread connection (normalpressure apparatus) or the handwheel with threaded connection or plug-in connection (overpressure apparatus). By means of a few deep breaths, check whether the apparatus is working and whether the air breathed out is escaping via the outlet valve. Service time of the compressed-air breathing apparatus „ Usage time" means the length of time available based on calculation and assuming a normal rate of air usage. The compressed-air breathing set is kept ready for use at a content of between 1600 and 18001. With an air usage rate by the wearer of 40 1 per minute, that gives a usage time of 40 to 45 minutes.

Fig. 3.57 Mask straps sitting properly

Checking that the mask is fitting tightly Using the ball of the hand, apply slight pressure to the connection-opening of the mask to close it and breathe in until there is a negative pressure. Repeat check two or three times. If air from outside still enters the mask, tighten the straps until it fits tightly.

„ Service time" designates the period available, depending on the prevailing circumstances, in an emergency with an increased rate of air usage. Increased physical stress in service significantly increases the air consumption, so the „ service time" may be substantially shorter than the „ usage time". For that reason the quantity of air remaining has got to be checked from time to time during service by reading the pressure gauge. That is only possible if no protective clothing is worn over the set.

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If the acoustic warning signal sounds at its activating pressure of about 55 bar, an immediate retreat is called for. This applies particularly if under protective clothing there is no other possibility of ascertaining what the reserve of air is. The unit leader may order that retreat is to commence already at a higher content. After the apparatus has been in use - to remove the face mask, slacken the head straps, hold the mask by the connection piece and pull it backwards over your head. - Shut bottle valves, - normal-pressure apparatus, de-pressurize by pressing the button of the artificial lung - overpressure apparatus, bring to the ready setting by pressing the button of the artificial lung - unfasten body belt - lengthen shoulder straps by pushing up sliding buckles - put the set down carefully, do not drop it!

oxygen-enriched air flows into the breathing bag and is breathed in again by the wearer.

Packed

Restoration of readiness for immediate further use in emergency - disconnect and mark used bottles - detach artificial lung from face mask - rinse face mask and artificial lung - connect full bottles - carry out a quick check of the set for degree of fullness of newly-connected bottles and for tightness. If there is a different wearer, if possible a cleaned and disinfected face mask should be used. 3.6.2 Emergency escape breathing apparatus The emergency escape breathing apparatus is a small breathing set independent of the ambient air. The appliance provides enough air for only about 15 minutes, therefore it is only used for leaving an area contaminated by poisonous gases or vaporous quickly in order to get to one where there is respirable air. The appliance may under no circumstances be used if there is work to be carried out in the contaminated area. Structure of the emergency escape breathing apparatus The emergency escape breathing apparatus is a circulating appliance. The air breathed out by the wearer flows through chemicals contained in a cartridge, which bind moisture and CO2 and release oxygen. A start-up device ensures that sufficient oxygen is available immediately the appliance starts operating. The cleaned and

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Fig. 3.59 Emergency escape breathing apparatus Functioning mode of the emergency escape breathing apparatus The emergency escape breathing apparatus is packed in a case, ready for use. The case is supported on the chest, hung from a neck strap (quick-fastening). The lid of the case is opened, the seal being destroyed. The protective goggles are taken out and initially hung over the left arm (they are put on last). The breathing bag is taken out and positioned ready for use. The appliance is pulled up by means of the strap until the mouthpiece is at mouth-level. The breathing bag is folded forwards and the starting lever rotated to its stop. The breathing

bag is folded back again; it now inflates due to the oxygen generated in the appliance. The plug is removed from the mouthpiece which is placed in the mouth. The gripping-lugs are held with the teeth and the flange inserted between teeth and lips and tightly enclosed. The nose clip is put on, the rubber pads being pulled apart with both hands far enough for the clip to be pushed on to seal the nose. The anti-gas goggles are put on and the straps tightened so that the goggles provide gas-tight protection for the eyes. The safety helmet is put back on again. The hook strap is put on around the belt. ATTENTION! The air breathed warms up while the emergency escape breathing apparatus is in use - this is a sign that it is working properly. The appliance must not be taken off until an area with respirable air has been reached, even if breathing the hot air feels unpleasant.

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nitrous gases oxygen, and for qualitative gas indication. The test tube for qualitative gas indication gives an indication of traces over a wide range of dangerous admixtures to the air. Information about the nature of the admixture and determination of the concentration can however not be provided. ATTENTION! The test tubes are usable only up to a date printed on the package. After the ,,Use-by" date, any unused test tubes must be replaced by fresh ones.

Safety notes: Appliances which have been used for exercise or in emergency may not be used again until they have been checked and had a fresh chemical cartridge fitted. Used appliances must therefore be sent ashore at the next opportunity for this to be done. For exercises using the emergency escape breathing apparatus, there are special exercise appliances. Instead of the chemical cartridge, these have a valve which replicates the resistance to breathing of the cartridge. These exercise appliances are specially labeled; they must be kept under lock and key separate from the rest of the safety equipment. They do not require testing after use in exercises. 3. 7 Gas measuring instruments Designated „ gas measuring instruments" are - gas detectors for measuring the air's content of oxygen and noxious substances such as suffocating or poisonous gases or vapours, - gas concentration metering instruments for measuring combustible gas-air- or vapour-air mixtures. 3. 7. 1 Gas detectors Basic components of the gas detector are - operating instructions with notes regarding the useful life of the test tubes, - gas detector pump, comprising pump head and pump body (suction ball or bellows pump) - testing hose - 10 test tubes each, for measuring carbon monoxide carbon dioxide

Fig. 3.60 Gas detector Functioning mode of the gas detector The gas detector pump draws compartment ail through the test tube. The gas or vapour Shin Safety Service: February 1996

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admixtures to the air react chemically with the tube contents, changing the colour of the latter. This colour change provides information about the nature of the admixtures and about the proportion of them in the compartment air, measured in volume-% or ppm. Using the gas detector Use of the gas detector involves the following sequence of actions: - seal the suction opening of the appliance with an unopened test tube and compress the gas detector pump to its stop. If after the interval stated in the operating instructions the pump has not extended, it is as tight as it need be. - Break off both ends of the selected test tube - insert the tube in the pump head with the arrow pointing towards the pump - fit the testing hose to the suction opening and take the other end into the compartment to be checked for noxious substance admixtures - operate the pump for the number of strokes indicated in the operating instructions - read off the degree of colour change from the scale on the test tube. The value read is the measure of the concentration of the noxious substance in the compartment air. 3.7.2 Gas concentration meters - explosimeters Explosimeters are used to determine the proportion of combustible gases or vapours in the air of a compartment, and thus to establish whether there is an explosive gas-air- or vapourair mixture present. Such mixtures are particularly liable to occur in ship's cargo and fuel tanks. With the aid of the explosimeter and appropriate ventilation, a tank atmosphere can be kept below the lower explosive limit. Gas concentration measurements can carried out with fixed gas alarm systems.

also

be

Functioning mode of the explosimeter The explosimeters on board have a batterypowered measuring device operating on the heat-of-reaction principle. The compartment air to be tested is drawn up through hoses or pipes using an electrical or manual pump and fed into a combustion chamber. Within this chamber there are measuring elements which due to the combustion produce a pointer deflection or a digital readout on the indicating instrument. The data necessary for deflection/read out are operating instructions.

Shin Safety Service: February 1996

evaluation contained

of in

the the

Fig. 3.61 Explosimeter 3.8 Recommended additional equipment Regulations cannot go into detail regarding the circumstances of every individual case. The provision of equipment in accordance with the regulations thus in many cases does not ensure comprehensive readiness for service of the fire defense organisation on board. The task in particular of the defense unit can be made perceptibly easier by means of a few additional appliances which can either be obtained from specialist shops for firefighting gear or home-made with the means on board. On ships which because of the low crew numbers cannot provide any support unit or assistant personnel for the defense unit, it is in many cases only by the addition of a few appliances that effective firefighting without dangerous delays becomes possible. For that reason the acquisition of the appliances described below is strongly recommended:

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3.8.1 Case for face mask The face mask of the compressed air breathing apparatus is in many cases stored without any protection in the safety-gear store. This produces quick ageing of the material; seal failure can also develop if the mask is permanently deformed by objects lying on top of it or even just by it lying all the time on one side. This ageing and deformation damage cannot be made good by repairs; replacement of the mask is the only cure. If on the other hand the mask is stored in a case obtainable for this purpose from specialist shops it is permanently protected against ageing and deformation. The cost of the case is a fraction of that of the mask.

Fig. 3.63 Lifeline bag 3.8.3 Tool bag The gear to be carried to the fire by No. 2 and No. 4 of the defense unit includes amongst other things spare compressed air bottles, spare hoses, axe, crowbar, drill or cutting-off wheel. The tool bag is useful for transporting all these things. It makes it possible to bring along the whole fire protection outfit straight away and avoids unit members having to make the journey several times. The tool bag can be made with the means on board. It is like a kit bag but has rope strops for carrying, as with the life line bag with snap hooks for hooking into rings. They can be detached if necessary and used for other purposes.

Fig. 3.62 Case for face mask

The defense bags.

unit

equipment

needs

two

tool

3.8.2 Lifeline bag The lifeline bag, also obtainable from specialist shops for firefighting gear, houses the lifeline. Inside the bag it is fitted into loops and so coiled that it can run out of the bag aperture freely and without kicking. The leading member of the defense unit hangs the bag from his safety belt and on his way lets exactly as much line as necessary run out of the bag. His hands remain free. The free end is held at the starting point by the defense unit safety sentry or made fast. However it is also possible to throw the line in the bag over a distance of a few metres. Then also, the length of line that runs out corresponds precisely to the distance to be covered. The lifeline bag comes with a rope strop for carrying as a shoulder bag. The rope has snap hooks at each end for hooking into rings at both ends of the bag. The strop can be detached and used for instance to secure a hose in a companion hatch or on stairs against slipping down or kinking.

Fig. 3.64 Tool bag 3.8.4 Metal hose bandage The metal hose bandage consists of a short length of iron pipe, cut in half lengthways. The two halves are linked by hinges and can be locked together with a quick-fastening device. The pipe bore corresponds to the outside diameter of the fire hoses.

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If a hose is damaged in service so that it leaks, it can be adequately repaired temporarily with the hose bandage so that the supply of water to the fire need not be interrupted to insert a replacement hose in the line. The hose bandage can specialist suppliers but can the means on board. Fitting an eye allows it also to be hose.

be obtained from also be made with it additionally with used for securing a

3.8.6 Hydroshield The hydroshield is a device with which a semicircular water-wall with a radius > 5 m can be established. It constitutes a temporary fire boundary in compartments, service passages and also on deck. The hydroshield consists of a semicircular iron plate of 20 to 30 cm radius to which a piece of about 60 mm bore iron pipe is welded at right angles. The weld extends only around the lower half of the pipe, the upper half is cut back about 10 mm relative to the lower. The free end of the about 50 cm long pipe is fitted with a size-C Storz coupling. Usefully, eyes are welded to both sides of the plate, allowing it to be secured when in use. To establish a fire boundary, the hydroshield is taken to the envisaged position and connected to a hydrant by a hose of the necessary length. When the hydrant is opened, the water impinges on the plate (baffle plate) and forms a semicircular water-wall. Once put into operation, the hydroshield needs no tending.

Fig. 3.65 Metal hose bandage 3.8.5 Hose clasp In an emergency it is the task of unit member No. 2 to carry two hoses to the fire. The hoses are ready in the safety store, coiled so that the end couplings are on the outside. They are difficult to transport in that form without coming apart, particularly over stairs or ladders or if the ship is moving in a seaway. That means delay, as they can no longer be unrolled simply at the connecting point. The hose clasp is a clasp fitted diametrically across both sides of the coiled hose, with a bolt through the middle. With a strop, the clasp can be hung from the shoulder so that the person carrying it has his hands free on the way to the fire.

Fig. 3.67 Hydroshield 3.9 Storing the fire defense gear In an emergency it is of decisive importance that the defense unit can get ready for service and advance to the seat of the fire in the shortest possible time. A precondition for this is, a properly thoughtthrough, orderly storage of the fire defense gear. All appliances are to be set out ready in the safety-gear store so that each member of the defense unit finds his part of the gear in a given place and can pick it up straightaway.

Fig. 3.66 Hose clasp Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Based on the space situation aboard the vessel, there is to be a stowage plan which ensures that nothing has to be searched for in an emergency.

65 wound onto the reel or laid into the stowage. That ensures that in emergency there is no fatal delay because hoses start leaking while the fire is being fought and have to be replaced. 3.10.2 Fire extinguishers Fire extinguishers used for exercises or in emergency must, in order to be ready for use again immediately, be emptied completely and refilled. The refilling of fire extinguishers and testing for functional safety of the appliance and its component parts is according to the existing regulations a task reserved for experts. These have completed a training course and passed an examination. They have an expertise certificate to prove this. As a rule no crew members are available on board who hold that certificate.

Fig. 3.68 Fire defense gear 3.10 Maintenance of fire defense gear 3.10.1 Hoses Fire hoses are sealed internally with an elastic rubber compound. This dries out in time and becomes brittle; the hose becomes useless and has to be replaced. An effective way of preventing this is to subject each hose to water pressure once a year. For maintaining fire hoses therefore, every hose on board is put into use once in the course of the year in accordance with an established plan, at the mandatory regular periodic exercises. On completion of the exercise the hoses used are cleaned, dried out and starting from the middle

If it is not possible to dispense with refilling the extinguishers used because the number of appliances remaining ready for use in an emergency is too small, this task is carried out by a crew member who has completed qualified professional training, e.g. a ship's mechanic, supervised by a ship's officer. In doing the work, the data in the maker's operating instructions are to be observed most carefully. Fatal accidents have occurred when refilling fire extinguishers because stipulated steps in the process have been omitted accidentally. If fire extinguishers are refilled on board in accordance with the data in the operating instructions in order to be available for use until the end of the voyage, they must be handed over to an expert for testing in the next port where this is possible.

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4. Conduct during Fire Exercises and in an Fire Emergency 4.1 Fire risk and fire prevention

-unusual deformation of floor coverings or

Extensive international and national regulations concerning preventive fire protection ensure that by the construction and equipment of seagoing ships the likelihood of a fire breaking out is reduced to a minimum.

-coatings,

If all stipulated measures of structural and operational fire defense have been taken, and all plant is in a functionally proper condition at all times, a fire breaking out is in the great majority of cases to be attributed to incorrect human conduct. Examples of incorrect conduct are - failure to observe smoking bans, - use of unapproved operating material, - careless handling of naked flames, - disregard of joint-storage prohibitions regarding dangerous substances. If in spite of all precautionary measures a fire does break out, a well trained crew will in accordance with predetermined procedures and using the available means for fire defense restrict it to its initial seat, impede its spread and fight it effectively. 4.2 Fire prevention - Individual conduct 4.2.1 Conduct during time off work From a German Federal Ministry of Transport document about „ Analysis of the fires on board seagoing ships flying the Federal flag (1961 to 1985)": „ Crew conduct makes a significant contribution to the causes of fires in the accommodation area. Cigarette ends, matches and smoking in the bunk keep on turning up as causing fires. These causes can scarcely be dealt with by structural measures applied to the ship. It is noticeable that the majority of fires have occurred at night between 22.00 and 06.00, peaking in the period between 00.00 and 02.00, whereas in the early morning between 06.00 and 08.00 and in the early evening between 18.00 and 20.00 a clear minimum can be discerned. " This establishes the need for regular fire rounds during the night and in silent hours. These must also check spaces not as a rule used during the night, such as rooms for parties, hobby rooms, photographic labs., television rooms, laundry and ironing rooms. But also, every single member of the crew must during the hours from 22.00 to 06.00 keep a special lockout for any signs of an outbreak of fire and raise the alarm immediately at any suspicion. Possible signs of a fire are for instance: -development or smell of smoke, -unusual discoloration of bulkheads or doors,

-unexplained generation of heat. Safety notes Take extreme care when flames and when smoking!

dealing

with

naked

Obey smoking bans rigorously! Always set up ashtrays so that they cannot slip or tip over and if necessary (e.g. in a seaway) secure them! Ashtrays must be of incombustible material. They must be easy to empty and also emptied at regular intervals! Ashtrays part-filled with moistened sand are particularly suitable for the public rooms and at parties, barbecues, etc.! Never throw lighted cigarette ends over the side! They can be carried inboard again by the turbulent air around the moving ship, and start fires. Coffee machines and other small electrical appliances are a particular source of danger if after use they are not switched off and the plug pulled out of the socket. Electric irons, portable immersion heaters and other appliances without thermal cut-out may after use be laid down only on an incombustible surface. If accommodation spaces are going to be left unoccupied for lengthy periods, disconnecting radio-, television- or video sets and suchlike from the mains is recommended. Be careful when laying down clothing on or near heat sources! Even just the heat radiating from a radiator is sufficient to set clothing alight, particularly if this is contaminated by combustible dangerous substances. Use only the rooms or appliances provided for the purpose for drying clothing! Piles of washing, clothing, etc. always represent a special fire risk. These must never be left lying about in large quantities but rather must immediately be taken to the stores or cupboards intended for them! Always run and fasten any leads for private electrical appliances so that they cannot wear through (risk of a short circuit!). Use of multiple plugs is forbidden as it can lead to overloading of the circuit! If in doubt, get the responsible expert on board (ship's electrician or ship's engineer) to approve the run and fastening! Lit filament bulbs can attain surface temperatures of several hundreds of degrees Celsius if they are not cooled adequately by the compartment air. They must therefore never be

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68 wrapped directly in paper or fabric, e.g. for party illumination! 4.2.2 Conduct at work Safety-conscious conduct at work prevents fires! Before starting work. whilst carrying it out after completing it, all crew members must some idea of the fire risk connected with it this the appropriate precautionary measures be deduced, and such fire defense gear as be necessary in each case be made ready.

and gain From can may

If the regulations have been observed consistently, the storage of combustible substances of fire class A - D is such as to reduce the fire risk to a minimum. However a fire risk arises in many cases when these substances are taken out of the store and used as fuel or working material. Omission of important safety precautions when burning, welding or working with fire has been the cause of many shipboard fires. Welding sparks glowing red have a temperature of 700 °C to 900 °C. Even sparks cooled in flight, glowing grey and even in the dark scarcely visible, still have a temperature of over 400 "C and can thus act as sources of ignition. Such work gives rise to temperatures at which the structure or strength of certain materials may be reduced. The heat supplied to the material being worked on may also be conducted inside it beyond the immediate environs of the work. Thus ignition may occur even over a wider area if all combustible material has not been removed as a precaution before the start of work. This means removing all movable combustible objects from the compartment where welding or burning is taking place and from all adjoining compartments. Fixed combustible objects are to be covered with incombustible material as protection against flames and sparks. Lining and insulation is to be removed over the danger area on both sides of the bulkheads.

surface temperatures, fire risks arise particularly as a consequence of inadequate care and maintenance of the machinery installation and its auxiliaries and accessories. Inadequately controlled and cared-for deep fryers, grease filters in exhaust ducts from galleies, ironing rooms and linen stores can constitute a fire risk. Safety notes Obey all mandatory and prohibitory notices! Obey SMOKING BANS! If possible avoid smoking at the workplace even if there is no smoking ban, rather smoke only during breaks, in the accommodation spaces. When working with combustible dangerous substances such as coating, spraying or lubricating materials, keep open containers as far as possible from sources of ignition. During breaks, close the containers securely and remove them from the danger area. On completion of the work, return the containers to the specified storerooms. Oils, greases and glycerine presence of pure oxygen, so oxygen bottles or -pipelines lubricated.

ignite in the the fittings on must never be

Work with fire, like welding, burning or forging may only be carried out by experts specially trained and tested for this. Throughout the work with fire there must be a fare sentry on the spot. Suitable extinction materials and appliances are to be there ready for use. For work in enclosed spaces, ensure effective ventilation or have a breathing apparatus ready.

The risk also continues to exist for some time after the work has finished, until the parts worked-on and their environs have cooled down entirely. A further series of shipboard fires is to be attributed to spontaneous ignition of rags or cotton waste soaked with combustible liquid. These must therefore be collected and stored where air cannot reach them. Whereas fares in the accommodation area have become a rarity by virtue of the regulations for preventive fire defense which have been extended continuously over decades, it has not been possible to achieve this to the same extent for fares in the machinery area. Owing to the amount of space taken up by the machinery and the necessity for transporting and storing major quantities of combustible liquids, some under high pressure, near components with high Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Fig. 4.1 Fire sentry with extinction appliances

69 Entry into compartments where there has been a fire which has been extinguished is always dangerous, primarily because there may be a lack of oxygen or a risk of poisoning from fumes or extinguishant. The precautions set out in the "Richtlinie uber das Betreten gefahrlicher Raume" (Instructions concerning entry into dangerous compartments) must be taken before the compartment is entered, Before the engineering personnel leave them, unmanned engine rooms are visited by a ship's officer and checked for fire risks. A primary object of this exercise is, to check all components which convey fuel or lube oil and are exposed to vibration, particularly in the vicinity of diesel engines, for incipient leaks. 4.3 Defensive fire protection 4.3.1 Definitions In recent years a vocabulary previously used in connection with fire defense has happily fallen into disuse. Expressions like fire commando, extinction assault and similar ones conveyed the idea that the fire was an enemy, a creature consciously bringing danger and damage to belongings, to life and to limb, which man had to fight valiantly and with self-sacrifice. In this manual such expressions are as far as possible no longer used. Fire is a process controlled by natural laws, whose initiation, development and dying away is determined by a small number of variables and parameters. Fire becomes dangerous if it breaks out in an uncontrolled fashion where it is not intended and spreads without direction. Fire does not have a will; it does not attack. But fire also is not amenable to being intimidated or frightened. Fire is a chemico-physical process. One intervenes in its course using technical means developed for the purpose, based on the knowledge of these natural laws. Applied at the right time in the right way and in adequate quantity they with certainty produce the right result: restriction of the fire by preventing its further spread and its extinction by depriving it of its prerequisites for existence: combustible substance, oxygen, ignition temperature, quantitative proportions. Defensive fire protection, in this manual called fire defense or firefighting, consists of systematic and targeted use of technical means by trained and experienced men acting coolly and deliberately. It does not call for any heroics or any special application of physical force. The realisation of this truth is the basis for all exercises and instructions intended as

preparation for an emergency which occurs only rarely but when it does brings danger with it. 4.3.2 Basic principles Defensive fire protection is successful if all danger from fire to people, ship and cargo is eliminated - without accidents to own personnel. - in the shortest possible time, - with minimum damage from the extinguishant. This presupposes purposeful leadership and application of the correct extinguishing tactics and extinguishing technique. 4.3.3 Leadership In shipping, following developments in society generally, a style of leadership called „ Collaborative Leadership " has become established progressively over recent decades. It is characterised by a common orientation of all participants, towards superior economic set targets. Wherever possible, command and obedience has been replaced by a consensus between leader and led continuously renewed by dialogue and the transfer of task and authority also called delegation of responsibility. However in an emergency this style of leadership cannot be used for a number of reasons: - Firstly, in an emergency the time factor is decisive. Fighting a fire successfully presupposes purposeful action without delay. Any attempt (e.g.) first of all to arrive at an agreed procedure by discussion within the fire defense party would mean that in the meantime the fire gets out of hand. - Secondly, the material and personnel potential available on board is limited and at sea cannot be supplemented or replaced quickly. The necessity arising from this, of getting a fire under control at the first attempt calls for the immediate application of all available forces and means. To want to economise with this would be totally wrong; there is no second chance with a fire at sea. - Thirdly, the conditions as regards space on board have the effect that fires predominantly have to be tackled under unfavourable circumstances. The seat of the fire is often only accessible from above. If there is too much delay, smoke and heat may have become so intense in this area that an advance to the seat of the fire is n.o longer possible even when wearing fire protection equipmentThe inevitable constriction on board has the effect that in the course of a fire important installations such as pipelines, power- and communication cables, etc. may become inoperative even if the fire does not extend beyond the limits of the section.

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Fig. 4.2 Model of a leadership process These reasons make it essential in emergencies There follows a success-check which at the same to go over to a different style of leadership which time represents the assessment of the situation reduces the threats to safety arising from the for the next time „ round the course". constraints described above as far as possible. The circular presentation can represent the actual sequences only incompletely and in a Leadership in an emergency is a purposeful, simplified form, in particular the cooperation of reiterative and complete sequence of thought the separate leadership levels. Leadership is a and action for the execution of the stipulated dynamic process continually under pressure task. It occurs at all levels of leadership, i.e. in from the need for swift action. Often the master the case of the master as overall leader, the 1st as (overall) head of operations has to make officer or chief engineer as Head of operations decisions and issue orders before the and in the case of all unit leaders. It is initiated reconnaissance and assessment of the situation by the event causing the damage or the service has been completed. task. The leadership phases:

process

has

four

progressive

- reconnaissance, determination of the situation; - assessment of the situation; - decision; - issuing of orders, reporting back to the next higher leadership level.

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4.3.4 Extinction tactics Extinction tactics are the deliberate and planned actions of the defense unit taking into account the situation and its own safety, to complete fighting the fire in the shortest possible time and with a minimum of consequential damage. The task of fighting the fire is given to the unit leader by the ships command (head of

operations). Any service by a unit is rendered exclusively on the orders of the unit leader or his deputy. Once the defense unit has drawn its gear from the safety gear store and has got near the seat of the fire, the unit leader must - reconnoitre the situation, - assess the situation, - make a decision and issue the appropriate orders, - report the situation and the decision to the service direction. In the meantime the members of the unit have got themselves and their gear ready for the service. 4.3.5 Extinction technique Extinction technique comprises the correct handling of the appliances and systems, the correct use of the extinguishants and extinction procedures plus the correct conduct during fire defense on board.

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When fighting a fire, the following basic service principles are to be adhered to:

Fig. 4.4 Basic service principles 4.4 Structure of the defense unit in case of fire defense To be able simultaneously to tackle the most important tasks, rescuing people and restricting

Fig. 4.3 Extinction tactics Ship Safety Service; February 1996

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the fire, the defense unit must consist at least of the unit leader and four members. These have the following individual tasks: Defense unit leader: At the assembly position: check whether everyone present Starting the service:

is

check advance to the fire as a unit, with complete set of gear

reconnaissance and assessment of situation, planning of what to do next, report back to the head of operations, action orders to the members, continuous success-check and assessment If breathing of situation write down start and end of apparatus are used: service time of wearer. At the site of the fire:

Unit members 1 to 4 Pick up gear intended for them at the assembly position and proceed in accordance with the unit leader's instructions and under his supervision to the vicinity of the seat of the fire. All unit members who are qualified lifeboat- and firemen must be capable of exercising every function within the unit, so that in the event of a member being missing, e. g. due to sickness or injury, they can immediately take over his functions. If unit members 2 and 4 are not qualified lifeboat- and firemen, they must at least be capable of substituting one for the other. That kind of role-exchange is also practised during the regular stipulated exercises.

Fig. 4. 5 Defense unit - structure and gear Unit member 1 (unit leader's deputy): Unit member 2: Form the water group and without further orders on arrival near the seat of the fire prepare a C-

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

hose line (hose plus jet nozzle) for use. Water is actually brought into use only by specific command of the unit leader. Unit member 3: Unit member 4: Form the breathing-apparatus group and also get their gear ready for use without further orders on arrival near the seat of the fire. The breathing-apparatus is checked and put on. The artificial lung is not connected to the face mask until the unit leader gives the order to advance. The heat protection suit is only put on by specific order of the unit leader. 4. 5 The defense units gear for fire defense The defense units gear is intended to enable it in an emergency without delay to start rescuing people and fighting the fire simultaneously. The gear is so distributed between the unit leader and the members that all necessary appliances can be brought along when advancing without anyone having to make the journey twice to fetch additional appliances. Assuming the additional gear described in Section 2. 10 has been provided, the following may be considered the optimum distribution: (the appliances underlined are part of the obligatory gear; those not underlined, part of the recommended additional equipment!) Unit leader:

Portable VHF radio apparatus. safety lamp, lifeline in bag at safety belt, manifold note pad and pen Unit member 1: spray/jet nozzle. 1 C-hose in a clasp, 1 C-hose in a clasp, axe in case at safety belt Unit member 2: 2 C-hoses in clasps, 2 coupling keys, in the tool bag: metal hose bandage, spray/jet nozzle, crowbar, portable drill or cutting-off wheel with 10 m connecting-lead and plug Unit member 3: breathing apparatus, lifeline in bag on safety belt Unit member 4: in tool bag: heat protection suit. axe. hydroshield, spare air bottle (s), rescue sheet If because the crew numbers 8 men or fewer, one member of the defense unit must temporarily be entrusted with other tasks, member 4 is the one chosen for this. If that is so, member 2 if necessary and ordered by the unit leader goes back to fetch the former's gear as soon as the fire hose line has been rigged and connected.

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4.6

Service by the units in emergency

4.6.1

Conduct in the event of a general emergency alarm If the general emergency alarm sounds, everyone on board proceeds as quickly as possible to the assembly position laid down in the muster list. Exceptions: - watchkeepers remain at their post until they are relieved or receive the order to leave it from the head of operations, - crew members who have already started fire defense measures continue these until the fire defense unit arrives or the head of operations gives other instructions, - on passenger vessels, the crew members detailed to look after the passengers stay by the cabins allocated to them until every passenger has picked up his/her life jacket, and then accompany the passengers to the assembly position. The same applies on cargo vessels which carry passengers or on which persons not belonging to the crew (relatives of crew members, maintenance personnel) are travelling. Before leaving the workplace, electrically, pneumatically or hydraulically driven power tools are switched off. In accommodation or operational spaces, windows, portholes and doors plus the entrance opening of the airconditioning or the ventilating fan are shut tightly. Stout clothing covering the entire body, stout footwear and headgear are put on. The life jacket, if stored in the accommodation area, is taken along to the assembly position, but not put on. As time is wasted by going from the workplace to the assembly position via the accommodation space, at that position there is, as well as the fire protection gear, to be the following for each member of the defense unit: - safety helmet; - boiler suit; - safety boots; - gloves; - safety belts. This additional gear is not mandatory. However it is to be acquired and kept ready as it substantially augments the readiness for service of the defense unit, at no great cost. 4.6.2 Check whether everyone is present Following arrival at the assembly position, the unit leaders check whether everyone is present and report to the head of operations that the unit is complete or that members are missing.

At the same time, the crew members detailed to look after the passengers or other persons not belonging to the crew carry out their check whether everyone is present and also report completeness or absences to the head of operations. The reports are made in person. The head of operations reports the result to the master. 4.6.3 Portable VHF radiotelephone for internal communication An approved portable VHF radiotelephone should be available at least for each unit leader, if possible also for one other member of each unit. When not in use for operational purposes, the sets are kept in the charging station which is installed somewhere around the bridge. The head of operations hands the sets over to the unit leaders as soon as these have reported the result of the check whether everyone is present. Before the service tasks are assigned, all sets are tuned to the predetermined frequency and a speech test is carried out, conducted from the bridge. Each individual equipped with a portable VHF radiotelephone is called up in turn and reports back. ATTENTION! Do not use radios which are not approved! They frequently transmit on frequencies, e.g. ..Citizens' Band" (CB-radio sets), which do not penetrate to the inside of the ship. Only the approved portable VHF radiotelephone guarantee that even from inside enclosed compartments radio communication can be established! 4.6.4 Instructions from the head of operations As a first step, the master now decides whether a defense against the danger shall be undertaken or whether the ship has to be abandoned. If he decides on a defense against the danger, depending on the situation he gives the following instructions to the head of operations: - search for missing persons and rescue these if (e.g.) they have been trapped by the fire; - initiate fire defense in accordance with the procedures predetermined for the fire-area in question; - render the life-saving equipment safe and if necessary turn it out or launch it. Only on ships with larger crews will it be possible to carry out these specific tasks simultaneously. If on ships with a small crew there is only the ship command unit and the defense unit, the head of operations in

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consultation with the master decides order the tasks are to be executed.

in

which

On the fundamental principle that SAVING PEOPLE COMES BEFORE SAVING THINGS search for and rescue of persons always has the highest priority. 4.6.5 The defense unit as rescue unit If there are thought to be persons in the area where the fire has broken out, the defense unit assumes the role of rescue unit. It alone has the training and the gear for instance to advance with any prospect of success into fume-filled parts of the accommodation area to reach trapped persons and bring them out of the danger area with the least possible injury. For this, the same procedures are used as for fighting the fire: When the unit leader has received the service task from the head of operations, the unit proceeds to as near the service point as is possible without protective gear. The unit leader defines this point as the starting point; if possible it should be to windward of the seat of the fire and between bridge (head of operations) and the seat of the fire. The manifold is set up at the starting point. Unit member 1 readies a hose plus jet nozzle for action and connects it to the left-hand (LH) outlet of the manifold; at the same time unit member 2 runs a hose line from the nearest hydrant to the manifold and connects it to the inlet. The unit leader in the meantime has reconnoitered the environs of the seat of the fire and made a situation report to the head of operations. He now decides on the way to be used in searching for and rescuing any missing persons. If there are several possible ways, it is usual to advance with the movement of the air and from below upwards. The closed-down state can now no longer be maintained, as, in order to allow the rescue unit to proceed, a door on the deck where the seat of the fire is or on a deck lower down, if possible on the windward side, has to be opened. Even if there has not yet been any heavy generation of smoke, it is advisable to let unit member 3, with the breathing apparatus, go ahead. If there is a lot of dense smoke, a door on the leeward side of a deck above that with the seat of the fire is opened. The smoke being drawn off makes it easier for the rescue unit to advance. However, with the smoke also a lot of heat gets out into the open, so the surroundings of the

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smoke escape opening must be cooled. For this, the water party (members 1 and 2) of the defense unit can be employed, or else the support unit. When the unit leader gives the order to advance, unit member 3 connects the artificial lung to the face mask he has already put on and checked for tightness, takes the jet nozzle from unit member 1 and advances to the seat of the fire or to the compartments around the seat in which the missing persons are thought to be. If during his advance he encounters smoke or heat, he protects himself against both with the protective spray. In an operational passage for instance this forms a temporary, movable fire boundary which provides effective protection against heat and smoke. Persons who have been surprised in their sleep by the outbreak of fire have often suffered poisoning by smoke inhalation and are unconscious. Stretchers can only be used if there are at least three breathing sets available, to protect the wearer of breathing apparatus and two more persons who bring the injured person out. If that is not the case, improvisation is necessary. If the proximity of the seat of the fire poses a direct threat to life, it may even be necessary to accept the risk of injury to the unconscious person when being dragged or carried out of the danger zone. This can be substantially avoided if as a precaution a rescue sheet has been acquired or made using the means on board. If there is a suspicion that the missing persons are cut off and can only be saved by going through the immediate vicinity of the fire, the wearer of breathing apparatus puts on the heat protection suit. This situation can arise if the second escape route stipulated for every compartment is blocked. Rescuing trapped persons through sections on fire is however only possible if appropriate protective measures are taken. If there are still spare heat protection suits with breathing or emergency escape breathing apparatus available, these are first taken to the trapped persons and put on by these. If there is no spare protective clothing, the clothing of those to be rescued is thoroughly soaked with water and if possible additional protection provided by means of dripping-wet blankets. In the immediate vicinity of the seat of the fire this provisional protection is however effective only for a short time. They then follow the wearer of breathing apparatus through the zone on fire. The latter makes use of personal protective spray and spray jet to shield those to be rescued as effectively as possible. Verbal communication between the wearer of breathing apparatus and the unit leader or the head of operations is unlikely to be possible,

75 because to transmit speech comprehensibly through the speech diaphragm built into the face mask of the breathing apparatus to the microphone of the VHF radiotelephone of the wearer of breathing apparatus has to be specially trained. So the wearer of breathing apparatus is almost completely on his own. That demands a high degree of training and if possible practical experience in fire defense under real service conditions, but also prudence and drive.

in the engine room, the defense unit is employed as rescue unit. As the stairs/ladders used for operation are no longer usable because of the developing heavy smoke, the shaft-enclosed emergency exits are now used for access. At the same time by command of the head of operations the engine room is brought to the closed-down state, except for the access through which the defense unit is advancing. Ventilating fans are stopped; the fuel line quick-closing devices outside the engine room are actuated. The emergency generator and the emergency fire pump are started by hand if they are not connected to feed the mains automatically or by remote control. The emergency lighting is switched on. If the ship is near the coast or other ships, the .not under control' signals for daytime or nighttime in accordance with the regulations for preventing collisions at sea are to be hoisted at once. In addition, a safety report is made by VHF to warn shipping.

Fig. 4.6 Defense unit as rescue unit 4.6.6 The defense unit on defensive Fire protection Experience shows that the great majority of fires on board can be separated into three units: - engine room fires in which combustible liquid substances issuing under pressure are burning, - fires in the accommodation area, which may directly endanger people, and - fires in the cargo area. For each of these three types of fire, there are special procedures for the defense unit which have proved optimal. Engine room fires Engine room fires are without exception to be considered medium fires whose expansion to large fires, e.g. by spreading to the accommodation area, must be prevented with all available means. In this, the time factor plays a decisive role, so that particularly rapid, drastic and resolute action is needed for engine room fires. If it appears from the check whether everyone is present that there might still be persons trapped

If there is no-one to be rescued, the closed-down state is brought about completely straight away and the engine room flooded with CO2 . By blocking the further supply of combustible substance and air, the fire is extinguished quickly, before it has damaged or destroyed parts of the, or the entire, installation. The sooner CO2 is used, the less will be the damage - which particularly affects the electric cables. Once the drop in temperature has confirmed that the fire is out, the defense unit enters the engine room wearing breathing apparates and taking a jet nozzle, to extinguish any remaining fires and prevent the fire flaring up again because the closed-down state has been lifted. This way of fighting an engine room fire makes it possible to resume the voyage after a short interval and to get back to the daily routine or the normal operating condition for unmanned engine rooms. In relation to a conceivable small fire, e.g. from the spontaneous Ignition of dirty cleaning-rags, that effort looks somewhat excessive. But fighting a small fire of this kind using portable fire extinguishers may only be attempted, if it is possible at the same time to warn the bridge and thus make it possible to raise a general emergency alarm, i.e. when there are at least two people in the engine room. In all other cases raising the alarm has priority. Fires In the accommodation area Experience indicates that fires in the accommodation area break out especially frequently at night, at a time when there is quiet in the ship. This is also the time when there is a particularly high likelihood that people will be

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76 trapped by the fire or rendered unconscious by poisoning due to smoke inhalation. If it is established from the count that there are people missing, the defense unit is employed as rescue unit. If no-one is missing, the defense unit starts to fight the fire. At the same time the support unit establishes the closed-down state and then renders the lifesaving equipment safe. A number of precautions are to be taken when deploying the defense unit: - Always wear a breathing apparatus when entering enclosed spaces! - Keep the way back free! Remove every obstacle at once! Secure doors in the open position! - At the slightest sign of indisposition or dizziness, retreat immediately! - Before advancing, check that the jet nozzle will work in all its settings! - When advancing, take care that there are no fires still burning beside or at the back of the withdrawal path, which could cut off the retreat! - During service always wear gloves! Should they be lost, use only the back of the hand for feeling ahead! (Bums on the palm of the hand make continuing with the service impossible. If the palm of the hand comes into contact with live components it may cause the hand to grasp the conductor convulsively.) - When running the hose, see to it that the person holding the jet nozzle is neither pushed from behind nor stressed or hindered by having to pull the hose along. - To open bulkhead- or other doors, hatches, or flaps always bend down and use the door or bulkhead as a shield! (The ingress of air is liable to produce a jet of flame! Such flames lick out through the upper part of the opening!) - Point the spray at the door before opening it! - After opening the door to a space completely or almost completely on fire, keep the spray directed into the upper part! (Most of the water will evaporate, which produces a smothering and a cooling effect. Heat and flames are perceptibly reduced.) - Hold tightly onto the jet nozzle! (Opening the jet nozzle produces a powerful recoil effect.) - Do not look directly at bright flames! (Risk of being blinded!) Fires in the cargo area - no dangerous goods involved Fires in the below-deck cargo area are fought in a similar way to engine room ones, by closing

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down and employing the fixed extinguishing system (usually CO2 ). Fires in the deck cargo are fought by the defense unit, by establishing temporary fire boundaries using the hydroshield and by the application of water. The latter is limited only by the pump output available. For fires in the cargo area, the jet nozzle operator(s) is/are deployed wearing breathing apparates predominantly if the possibility of jets of flame or a gush of heat cannot be excluded. Fires in the cargo area - dangerous goods involved From the cargo manifest, the head of operations establishes the nature of the dangerous goods which have caught fire or are near the seat of the fire. From the „ Emergency Procedures for Ships Carrying Dangerous Goods (EMS)" held on board, its members gather what protective gear and which extinguishant is to be used. The defense units equips itself for the special service. The head of operations informs the unit leader of the service task and about any special conduct to be observed in fighting the fire. 4.7 Establishing the closed-down state A ship or section of a ship is in the closed-down state if - all openings in the watertight bulkheads have been closed with the means provided for this, and - all openings above the waterline through which air can get inside the ship have been closed and all powered ventilation equipment has been shut down. The closed-down state is established in order to - limit flooding, for instance from a leak due to collision or grounding, to the section which has sprung the leak or delay its spread to other sections, or - prevent a further reduction in stability due to water getting in, if the ship has a list, or

prevent the access of air to the seat of a fire and the spread of heat and smoke within the section. The openings in each section to be closed to establish the closed-down state are shown in closing-down plans or check-lists. The members of the support unit charged with establishing the closed-down state are handed these check-lists by the unit leader during exercises and in an emergency and close all doors, windows, ventilation flaps, skylights, installation openings,

77 etc. in the order indicated. At the same time the technical officer designated for this task in the muster list stops the ventilation appliances. To establish the closed-down state for the cargo" area in dry-cargo ships, it is often necessary not just to close the cargo hatches but also to set them down. In the case of engine room fires, on orders from the head of operations the quick-closing devices of all pipelines or tanks containing combustible liquids are closed at the same time as the closeddown state is established.

Fig. 4.7 Principle of closing-down check-list 4.8 Fire defense training on board 4.8.1 Basic principles The safety training on board is limited by the fact that it is not possible to create a dangerous situation which in every respect corresponds to the actual emergency. Unlike in static training establishments which have sites for fires ashore or in decommissioned ships at their disposal for training, on board it is not possible either to start a fire for exercise or to introduce complicating factors like the list of a ship. The crew is made up of individuals with widely differing standards of training: All members of the deck- and engine room crew have done a 2-week safety course. Since 1992 all newly-joined members of the catering and steward branches undergo a 1-week safety course. These safety courses form the common denominator. All crew members who have completed professional training on board to the level of able seaman or ship's mechanic, plus all licensed officers hold the certificate of competence as qualified lifeboat- and firemen. The training for this certificate is to be considered the basic training for the safety service. The See-BG training establishment on the Priwall (Travemunde) holds further training courses for holders of the certificate of competence as qualified lifeboat- and firemen.

The Federal Ship Safety Service Training School at Neustadt/Holstein has provided many licensed officers and ship's master mechanics with comprehensive information and skills in fire defense and also in damage control in courses lasting several weeks. The supplementary courses licensed officers on tankers questions of ship safety.

stipulated also go

for into

Foreign crew members in many cases have had safety training in their own or a third country. In such cases there may not only be the problem of verbal communication, but also the fact may become clear that internationally there are basically differing ideas concerning the theory and practice of the safety service. The safety-service training on board can only build on the basic training which the individual crew member brings with him. To carry out such basic training on board will not be practicable in most cases, not just because of a shortage of time but also because lengths of service on a given ship are relatively short. Only with considerable effort in training and exercises is it possible to make crew members without basic safety service training capable of being included in the ship's safety organisation without restrictions. In such cases the training on board will aim at providing full competence in carrying out certain functions whose execution is possible even without the full knowledge of the background and data. The establishment of the closed-down state for a certain fire section on the basis of the check-list, for instance, does not require knowledge of the physics and chemistry of fire or of the extinguishing effect of the exclusion of oxygen. In the case of the qualified lifeboat- and firemen it is a matter of maintaining the standards of knowledge and skill attained in the basic training and of extending these taking into account the specific design, size, fittings and equipment of the ship in question. The ships command will make it its particular concern above all to transmit to the less experienced licensed officers its experience in leadership within the framework of the ship's safety organisation. Relevant to safety training at all levels on board is the recognition that regular and realistic exercises with full involvement of all levels of command provide all participants with the firm conviction of being able to cope with any emergency at any time. 4.8.2 Psychophysical problems In his phylogenesis extending over more than a million years, man has acquired the ability to think. Unlike his animal ancestors, his behaviour

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78 is no longer exclusively or predominantly guided by instinct. Man's mind can function properly, however, only if he does not feel threatened in his physical existence. In a situation where his existence is endangered, his instinct of self-preservation inherited from his animal ancestors cuts out reason, and he follows his instincts. The cultural history of mankind, extending over only a few tens of thousands of years, has made very little difference to this. If a person feels that a situation is a threatening one, he experiences anxiety. He tests the wind in all directions and exerts all his energies to ascertain whether there really is a danger, and if so from which side it threatens. This behaviour is totally independent of whether there is any actual danger. In his anxiety, he is prepared at any time, at the least sign of actual danger, to take flight with maximum exertion without any further thought, in line with what his instincts teach him. If he becomes aware of something threatening, he experiences fear. This fear is directed at a specific object and instantaneously releases the forces already prestressed by the anxiety. Nothing is recognised except the direction from which the danger threatens, and perhaps its nature. Determination of its magnitude is no longer possible - that would require a timeconsuming thought-process, and primitive experience from his phylogenesis has taught him that this time is not available to him if he wishes to survive. This inherited behaviour pattern results in a significant overestimate of the magnitude of the danger, that is the only way in which the last remaining reserves of physical energy are released for flight or resistance. In fire-fighting, in an emergency he is in a fearinspiring situation right from the moment the general emergency alarm sounds. Even just the loud and unpleasant-sounding signal creates uneasiness. The uncertainty regarding the dangers which actually threaten him reinforces this uneasiness. Darkness, the violent motion of the ship on the high seas, and eerie sounds make a further contribution. Just the sight of leaping flames or heavy smokeformation can then lead to a suspension of rational self-control, and he rushes away in headlong flight, dragging others nearby along with him. A panic-stricken crew will no longer be capable of an organised, effective defense against danger. On the other hand man has the ability to learn and apply modes of conduct which neutralise his atavistic instincts for flight or resistance. Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Danger inspires fear as long as an individual hesitates to face it. The fear decreases if he can assess the danger and adjust to it. By habituation to certain dangers, he can reach the stage that even in extreme situations he can act rationally. We call this rational behaviour control. If habituation to the danger is not possible, he can by practice acquire certain patterns of behaviour which protect him from descent into panic even when rational thinking has already been suspended. In a situation of danger the individual behaves as he has practiced on previous occasions. We call this reflective behaviour control. It has the characteristic that it takes over very quickly, without requiring lengthy deliberation - but it can take effect only in the way in which it has been practiced. A change in the pattern of behaviour could take place only by rational control, of which the individual in the danger situation will in many cases not be capable. For the exercises on board, these three levels of behaviour control are of great importance. The overriding requirement is, if possible to bring the entire crew to such a pitch that even in situations which look very dangerous they are capable of reflective behaviour control, so that the activities learnt and practiced individually or in a unit are carried out confidently, ,,with their eyes shut", as it were. This objective is attainable by means of the exercises and instruction on board. However at least the members of the ship command unit, plus the unit leaders and members 1 and 3 of the defense unit, are to have been brought by practice in extinguishing real fires to the stage where they can still act rationally even in the face of flames apparently as high as a house. The latter objective can generally not be attained on board, as there is no possibility of lighting fires for practice; for that reason possession of the fire- and lifeboatman certificate of competence is an absolute necessity for the above-mentioned crew members. The only way in which the groundwork of 'fire security' can be acquired which is reinforced by the exercises and instruction on board is, by means of the courses leading to that certificate. 4.8.3 Exercise objectives The principal objectives instruction on board are:

of

the

exercises

and

- to habituate the entire crew to such an extent to the correct behaviour when the general emergency alarm sounds, even at night or with the ship moving violently in heavy seas, that in an emergency it is possible to count on

79 immediate readiness for service of the units once they have arrived at the assembly position, - to familiarise the units with the stowage for their gear and achieve confident skill in picking up and putting on their personal gear, - depending on the service task, individually or within the unit to carry out the actions confidently for the advance of the defense unit, for the establishment of the closed-down state and for the readying and rendering safe of the life-saving appliances. 4.8.4 Training the individual Service distance The critical element in the exercising and instruction of the individual is, to accustom him to the service distance to be maintained when using extinguishing appliances. The untrained individual feels the fire to be something particularly threatening. He instinctively endeavours to maintain a distance from this threat which to him seems adequate. This safety distance varies from one individual to another; for one it may be only 10 m, for another more than 25 m. From that sort of distance, the extinguishing system and appliances on board are almost completely useless against a fire. The service distance is the distance between the discharge opening of the extinguishing appliance and the seat of the fire at which - the cross-sectional area of the cone of extinguishant emerging has become adequate, - the velocity of the extinguishant particles is sufficient for them to penetrate the curtain of air in front of the flame and go on to the core of the target region, - the total physico-chemical extinguishing effect of the extinguishant used is as high as possible. The service distances for the extinguishing appliances and systems available on board are: - powder extinguisher 4m - spray water jet 4m - solid water jet more than 4 m That the correct service distance is taken up initially and maintained must be a focal point of the regular exercises. Estimation of the distance in metres can be replaced by graphic imagery like ,,two men and a dog". Optimistic assessment of the service distance leads to infringement of the safety boundary and thus to the risk of injury; pessimistic, to diminished effectiveness of the appliance. Both

are equally dangerous in must be avoided at all costs.

an

emergency

and

Fig. 4.8 Service distance Target region In order to achieve the optimum extinguishing effect, the extinguishant must be conveyed to the region above the combustible substance in which the gas or vapour generated mixes with the incoming air and reacts chemically with the oxygen it contains. This region lies just above the surface of the combustible substance and below the visible flame. Only in that region can the extinguishant develop its cooling, smothering or reactionimpeding extinguishing effect and thereby achieve the extinction of the fire. Extinguishant which gets into the region of the flames themselves remains ineffective and is thus wasted. As an aid for exercises on board, a flame at least 2 m in height can be painted on a blackboard/panel. This can be used to train every member of the defense unit in how to maintain the service distance and how to aim correctly. 4.8.5 Training the unit Going down a companion way carrying a portable extinguisher It is of course desirable to be able to approach the seat of a fire from below or from the same deck. However on board it will not always be possible to avoid also having to approach a compartment or a deck where a fire has broken out from above. The defense unit going down companions must be practiced particularly thoroughly and carefully, if in the emergency situation there are not to be delays in the fire defense or risks to the unit. Going down a companion wearing fire protection gear and carrying a portable extinguisher is thus an ever-recurring basic exercise: The unit member approaches the companion so that the steps lead down in front of him. The

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portable extinguisher is carried in the left hand, the right grasps the handrail on the RH side of the companion as seen by the unit member. The right foot is placed on the top step, foot and body being turned so far to the right that the foot is parallel with the step. The left foot is now placed on the second step parallel with it and rotation of the body continued until the line of sight makes an angle of about 135° with the axis of the companion. The extinguisher now hangs free from the left hand, the right arm runs from the chest to the handrail. The unit member can look over his left shoulder in the direction of further advance. Standing like this, the soles of the shoes bear firmly and are safe against slipping. The total weight of body, breathing apparatus and extinguisher has a joint centre of gravity above the bearing surface and a favourably short lever arm to the gripping-point on the handrail. The unit member now descends diagonally step by step. Arrived at the bottom of the companion, he turns his body 135° to the left so that it once again faces in the direction of further advance. If there are other unit members to follow, he takes three steps forward to clear the foot of the companion for those following.

Going down a companion way carrying a C-nozzle The unit members advancing with a C-nozzle hold the hose along the RH side of their body at hip level. With the jet nozzle shut off, the hose is relatively stiff, so care must be taken to see that those following the unit member approaching the companion do not push him over the sill or down the companion with the hose. As soon as the nozzle-holder has reached the companion, he turns his body about 135° to the right and at the same time seizes the hose behind the nozzle with his left and jams the hose in his left armpit. With the right he grasps the handrail on the RH side of the companion, reaching across his chest and under the hose. Hose and handrail form the holds for the further descent. At the foot of the companion the hose is transferred back to the right hand and the body turned 1350 to the left, so that body and nozzle once again face in the direction of further advance. The unit members who come behind follow the same procedure.

Fig. 4.10 Going down a companion way carrying a C-nozzle

Fig. 4.9 Going down a companionway carrying a portable extinguisher

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Opening a door An important element of exercises is, practicing opening a door. In the case of fires in the accommodation area, particularly at night, it will

81 often be necessary to open a cabin door to rescue someone believed to be asleep behind it and to extinguish the fire. Smoke coming out through the cracks makes the need clear. Standing in the passage, it is not possible to determine the scale already attained by the fire in the cabin. Only rarely is it possible to look into the cabin from outside through a window. It might just be a matter of a smoldering fire, e.g. in a waste paper basket, but it can equally well be fire which has spread to part of the furniture, generating a lot of smoke and using up much of the oxygen in the cabin air. Anyone in the cabin may still be alive, but is certainly unconscious and unable any longer to make any contribution to his rescue. Whatever the situation, opening the cabin door will allow fresh air in, and the fire which has died down substantially because of lack of oxygen will bum up again fiercely. When a cabin door behind which a small fire broken out is opened, two things happen. gases, smoke and flames escape through upper part of the opening; fresh air flows into cabin through the lower part.

has Hot the the

In every case therefore, opening the door brings with it the risk of the fire spreading to other spaces, i.e. of a breach of the fire boundary. Precautions are taken against this before opening the door. At least one, if possible two, C-nozzles must be ready on the spot. The nozzle-holders must be wearing full personal protective gear. The spray jet is pointed at the door at handle-level, the protective spray turned on. The spray jet must definitely cover the entire surface of the door. Only now does another member of the unit open the door. If it opens outwards, he remains shielded by the door leaf and leaves as soon as he has opened the door, with his face turned away. When opening a door that opens inwards, personal protective gear including a heat protection suit must be worn. The axe is used to push the door leaf inwards. Stuck between door leaf and frame, it prevents the door closing again.

Cabin fires may also be extinguished using powder extinguishers. However in that case it must be ascertained that there are no helpless persons remaining to be rescued from the cabin. If that is so, instead of opening the door a 13 mm dia. hole is drilled with the portable drill and the contents of a powder extinguisher are blown into the cabin through this hole. Only then is the door opened and are any remaining smoldering fires put out with water. When extinguishing fires in the accommodation area it must always be assumed that everything in the cabin has already been destroyed by the fire. Under no circumstances must one save on extinguishant in order to be able to save some material assets undamaged. Using the lifeline The principal purpose of the lifeline is, to make possible a safe return through dark or smoky spaces for the unit members advancing from the starting point towards the seat of the fire, and to allow the rescue without a lengthy search for any unit members who have become casualties. The lifeline is therefore primarily considered an aid to orientation forwards and backwards. The lifeline may also be used as an aid, e.g. for slacking away to the deck from endangered spaces in the superstructure and in an emergency to safeguard the way back. If a lifeline is not available for every member of the defense unit, the lines which are available are to be given to those unit members who are advancing without hose and nozzle. 4.8.6 Leadership training Emergencies make heavy psychological demands on all members of the crew engaged in fire fighting. Above all, young, incompletely trained and inexperienced individuals are subjected to extremes of stress in the anxiety and fear-inspiring situation of a fire on board. Unfortunately it is not possible on board to accustom the fire defense personnel systematically, step-by-step to the sight of fire and to the effective extinguishing of fires of increasing size. All the more important is it, to practise the manoeuvres to be carried out in fire fighting so often and so thoroughly that in emergencies they can be carried out without thinking or questioning via the reflective behaviour control. That lessens the instinctive urge of the individual to take flight when danger threatens, or even as a unit to panic. However not every emergency situation can be practised and worked through in advance. In an emergency it will always be necessary to act rationally and as the specific situation demands.

Fig. 4.11 Opening a door

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This presupposes that the members of the crew who in the muster list have been entrusted with leadership tasks have in exercises thoroughly come to terms with their function as leaders and are psychologically prepared for emergencies. There are no exceptions to this: even those most senior and experienced, including the master and senior officers, must consider carefully how they would deal with their task in an emergency, every time they change ships or there is a change of crew. The leadership training within the framework of the exercises must above all inspire those being led with a firm feeling of confidence in the capability of their superiors to be able to cope in an emergency situation at any time. That is the basis for the inevitable deployment in fire fighting also of seamen less well trained and less experienced than one might wish. Special care is needed in the training of the unit leaders; they are in the forefront of fire defense. Above all their example, their issuing orders clearly and convincingly, keeps the unit together. The leader of the defense unit must therefore be picked from the 'fire resistant' circle of the crew so that in an emergency he has only to worry about the tactics and technical points of the management of the unit, without having to worry about his efforts to maintain his selfcontrol in an unfamiliar dangerous situation. The unit leaders must be trained, when on service to take action with the unit in a swift but controlled manner and without haste. In this connection exercises are useful in which recurring operations are carried out against a stopwatch. Examples of such recurring operations are, picking up the gear, advancing to the starting point, putting-on the gear and arranging the hoses, the manifold, the jet nozzles as laid down in the muster list. None of this must turn hectic, as that increases the inevitable agitation and takes the members of the unit closer to the point where rational and reflective behaviour control is suspended and uncontrollable flight or else unrestrained aggression take over. Careful practicing of the correct speed of working is an important precondition for keeping the unit at all times in the control of its leader. The unit leaders must also be given practice in recognising early when a member of the unit is beginning to lose his self-control. A quiet word can then be as appropriate as short, sharp orders which bring out practised patterns of behaviour, thus contributing to the emotional steadiness. The unit leaders must on the other hand always have the certainty of solid support from the head of operations. Above all during radiotelephone Ship Safety Service; February 1996

traffic between head of operations and defense unit, great care must be taken that message discipline is maintained in both directions. Practice in using a radio telephone is thus a part of leadership training. Past accidents at sea have shown that a fire breaking out during the night, when the major part of the crew as well as the master and officers are asleep, makes particular demands on the watchkeeping officer often young and inexperienced. The watchkeeping officers must therefore have clear and unambiguous instructions regarding the measures to be taken in emergencies. These must also be workedthrough and practised on a role basis if they are to be effective. The master cannot be awake and ready to intervene at all times. The more important is it, that he himself familiarises his permanent or temporary deputies with this function and that they do not have the feeling that in taking the immediate measures necessary in an emergency they may be exceeding their competence and authority. Within the framework of the mandatory exercises, leadership training and instruction has the same status as the training in extinguishing tactics and technique on board. 4.8.7 Fire defense training and exercises organisation The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, London 1974, as amended, in its regulation IIV18 lays down the outline for training and exercises on board. A basic feature is, that „ abandon-ship" exercises and fire protection exercises involving all members of the crew must take place at intervals of not more than four weeks. If more than 25% of the crew have changed, an „ abandon-ship" exercise and a fire protection exercise must take place within 24 hours of sailing. These regulations were developed in more detail in § 54 of the UVV See. In the fire defense exercises, the crew is to be familiarised with all means of fire protection. Depending on the kind of place chosen for the assumed fire, limiting and fighting it practised. Within this outline, it is open to the ship management to organise these exercises in such a way that the routine of running the ship is not disturbed any more than necessary. This can be achieved by carrying out exercises of varying scope in a predetermined sequence.

83

4.8.8 Types of exercise Exercise type

Participants

Individual training

new crew members

Unit training

crew members with special responsibilities defense unit support unit

Partial exercise

Full exercise

whole crew

whole crew

Notes to the table: Individual training Individual training takes place if for instance following a crew change there are fewer than 25% new members on board. Content is decided on the basis of the scope of the knowledge and skills the new members bring with them. There will at any rate be instruction regarding the ship's safety organisation based on the muster list, and regarding the ship's fire defense systems and appliances based on the fire protection- and safety plan. Individual training can also be applied to familiarise individual crew members with e.g. special protective gear for the transport of dangerous goods, or for instance unit leaders and their deputies with the use of the portable VHF radio apparatus. Unit training In unit training, the units identified in the muster list ship command unit, defense unit, support unit and possibly additional units) are separately familiarised with their tasks in emergencies by means of coordinated exercises becoming progressively more difficult. The objective of unit training is, to ensure the unrestricted readiness of all units for service in emergencies, even under adverse circumstances (darkness, bad weather, list of ship). Training of parts of the crew (e.g. only the engine room personnel or only cooks and stewards also fits within the framework of unit training. Partial exercise All crew members take part in partial exercises, just as they do in full exercises. Partial and full exercises are initiated by the general emergency alarm, having previously been announced. Within the scope of partial exercises, the content is easier to grasp for individual participants and

Frequency Scope of exercises of repetition introduction to ship safety e.g. extra gear for transport of dangerous goods, operational RT basic exercises moving weekly members between tasks closed-down state according to weekly check list for accommodation, machinery or cargo area rescue drill half-yearly fire defense exercise "abandon-ship" exercise

monthly monthly

combined rescue drill, fire quarterly defense- and "abandon-ship" exercise

leaders. It is easier to recognise and correct mistakes; exercise elements carried out incorrectly can be repeated immediately. The degree of difficulty and the influence of external factors adding to the difficulties can be increased from one partial exercise to the next as appropriate to the crew's degree of training. By coordinated planning of the partial exercises for, e.g. a year ahead, it can be ensured that all component parts of the safety system are made to operate at least once under conditions resembling those of an emergency. The exercises due to be carried out at intervals of four weeks may be represented by respectively an „ abandon-ship" partial exercise and a fire defense one. Another objective of partial exercises is, to establish the time needed by the crew for everyone to arrive at the assembly position, and for the units to be ready for service. A record of this, using a stopwatch, is recommended. Full exercise The full exercise is an „ abandon-ship" and fire defense exercise carried out simultaneously in accordance with § 54 sub-para. (2) and (3) of the UVV See regulations. On the basis of a realistic assumed danger situation, the ships command can determine whether in a real emergency an effective defense against the danger would be possible, or if that failed, orderly abandonment of the ship. The full exercise shows up defects in the safety training. It is the precondition for correcting these in unit training and partial exercises. There is no element of training in the full exercise. However a successfully executed full exercise imparts on the crew a feeling of confidence in their own capability to cope with a real danger situation.

84 Full exercises are carried out regularly, at no more than quarterly intervals. Exercise plan annual The exercise plan for the year set out below is intended as a basis for the practice on board. Its Month Topic

Type of exercise

1.

partial

" Abandon-ship "

2.

Fire defense

3.

"Abandon-ship' + fire defense

4.

" Abandon-ship '

5.

Fire defense

6. 7.

"Abandon-ship" + fire defense " Abandon-ship "

8.

Fire defense

9.

"Abandon-ship" + fire defense

10.

partial

full

partial partial full partial partial full

" Abandon-ship " partial

11.

Fire defense partial

12.

" Abandon-ship " + fire defense

full

Notes: In the weeks where there is no partial or full exercise, training and instruction of parts of the crew is carried out. One full exercise each year is to be carried out in darkness. In the course of a year, each lifeboat must be launched and driven at least four times.

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use ensures compliance with the relevant regulations. Deviations made necessary e.g. by types of cargo or operating area must be worked into the plan as appropriate by the ships command. Notes Readying lifeboats for launching and manning them Action of defense unit to erection of fire boundary Bringing about closed-down state for one closing-down section Handling fire defense gear Fighting an imaginary medium fire in a closingdown section under aggravated circumstances (darkness, internal lighting switched off) Bringing about closed-down state and rendering life-saving gear safe Readying, manning and launching a lifeboat Readying lifeboats for launch and manning them; operating life-saving equipment Defense unit action following fighting an engine room fire with CO2 As '3' but in a different closing-down section of the ship Readying lifeboat for launch and manning it; embarking injured people (buoyant stretcher) Defense unit rescuing trapped persons with support unit help Rescue drill, rescuing trapped people from spaces sealed-off by fire Readying, manning, embarking casualties and launching a lifeboat Conduct in boat in distress Readying for launch and manning a rescue boat Preparations for handing over/accepting castaways to/from rescue boat Exercise using several breathing apparatus with extra demands (going down companions, carrying loads) Readying, manning, launching a rescue boat Picking up castaways from the water and taking them over from a boat Treating people suffering from injuries or hypothermia

Each month, one fire extinguisher is to be used for exercise in emergency-simulating conditions, thus using a fire extinguisher is to be part of every fire defense and full exercise. This means that for training and instruction purposes four extinguishers still remain available per year.

85 4.8.9 Example of a fire defense exercise Following the sounding of the general alarm, all persons on board proceed to the predetermined and publicised assembly position. Unit leaders check whether everyone is present and report the result to the head of operations. Once it has become clear that no-one is missing, a start is made with fighting the fire. The defense unit picks up its gear and when instructed by its leader goes to the starting point. If possible this is windward of the seat of the fire and between seat of the fire and service direction, as close to the point of service as it is possible to go without protective gear. At this point the unit leader sets up the manifold and then reconnoitres the situation. At the same time, unit member 1 runs a hose with a jet nozzle from the manifold to the seat of the fire and connects it to the manifold's LH outlet. Unit member 2 runs a hose line from the nearest hydrant to the manifold, connects this to the manifold's inlet and opens the hydrant. Unit member 2 then runs a second hose with a jet nozzle from the manifold to the seat of the fire, ready for use, and connects it to the manifold's RH outlet. Unit member 3 with the aid of member 4 puts on the breathing apparatus and gets it ready for use. The face mask is put on; the artificial lung is only connected on the unit leader's orders. The unit leader has in the meantime completed his reconnaissance and reported the situation to the head of operations. He now gives the order (for example): „ Cabin fire in cabin X. Advance through starboard forward bulkhead. Breathing apparatus group forward with the 1st hose to fight the fire! Water on! " At this order from the unit leader, unit member 2 opens the manifold's LH outlet (for the 1st hose).

Unit member 3 connects the artificial lung to the breathing set face mask, picks up a jet nozzle and proceeds to the fire defense. The unit leader notes the time the wearer of breathing apparatus (member 3) started his service. Unit member 4 opens the indicated bulkhead door and secures it against accidental closure, by the means provided or provisionally. The wearer of breathing apparatus now goes ahead and, as soon as he encounters smoke and heat, opens the jet nozzle to the 'spray jet plus protective spray' setting. As much of the lifeline as necessary runs out from the bag fastened to the safety belt. The free end of the lifeline is made fast near the manifold at the starting point. Unit member 4 makes sure that the wearer of breathing apparatus can take the necessary length of hose with him without extra effort. If the seat of the fire is accessible from two sides, the unit leader orders the erection of a temporary fire boundary. He orders (for example): „ Water group set up fire boundary in starboard passage by cabin X, using hydroshield! Access through bulkhead starboard aft! " Unit member 1 takes the hydroshield, connects it to the hose lying ready and goes to the bulkhead indicated. Unit member 2 helps him with taking the hose along. At the order ,,2nd hose, water on!" the manifold's RH outlet is opened. The bulkhead door is opened and secured open. Unit member 1 now advances into the passage to the position indicated, holding the hydroshield in front of him, then lays this down and secures it in place with the strops provided. He then returns to the starting point and reports to the unit leader ,,fire boundary set up in starboard passage by cabin X, using hydroshield. "

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5. Life-Saving Appliances Description of Appliances, Installations and Gear 5.1 Personal life-Saving appliances There are approved personal life-saving appliances available for all persons on board, as required. This includes - survival suit - thermal protective aids - life jacket - work vest Type and minimum quantity of personal lifesaving appliances is required by rules. It is stored in the vicinity of the muster station. Additional personal life-saving appliances held on board may also be stored elsewhere, e.g. life jackets for those on watch, on the bridge. Newly-arrived members of the crew are told where the personal life-saving appliances are stored. 5.1.1 Survival suit

On ships with totally enclosed lifeboats, three approved survival suits are available on board for every boat. On ships with open lifeboats, an approved survival suit is held on board for every person permitted to be on board according to the safety certificate. The survival suit protects the wearer in distress against hypothermia. It covers the entire body including head, hands and feet and leaves only the face uncovered. The gloves are firmly fastened to the suit and have at least three fingers. The survival suit is made either from closed-cell neoprene or from plastic-coated fabric with thermally-insulating material applied on the inside and a reserve of buoyancy. Depending on the type, it is worn either with or without a life jacket. A watertight zip fastens the suit. The way the hood seals against the face ensures that an angle of vision of at least 120° remains. The survival suit can be worn lightly clothed as well as fully clothed. There are suits to be worn with shoes or boots, and ones where shoes or boots have first to be taken off. The survival suit allows the wearer - to climb up or down vertical ladders - to carry out the tasks involved in abandoning ship - to jump into the water from a low height - to swim a short distance and board a survival craft - to remain in water at 0 °C for at least 6 hours without suffering from hypothermia. A survival suit with adequate inherent buoyancy and intended to be worn without a life jacket is equipped with an approved light and a signal whistle. If the survival suit has to be worn with an approved life jacket, that jacket has to be worn over the suit. The life jacket can be donned by someone wearing such a suit without outside help. On ships equipped with that type of survival suit, the life jacket instead of the suit is equipped with an approved light. The survival suit is provided with a connectingline to allow several persons floating in the water to link up or fasten onto a floating object. It is also fitted with approved retro reflective material. The survival suit is packed in an easy-to-open carrier bag. Printed on the bag are instructions for putting it on and, if necessary, the notes

Fig. 5.1 Survival suit

- No shoes I (with symbol)

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- Only to be worn with life jacket! The place where the survival suits are stored is shown in the fire defense and safety plan. Every approved survival suit carries the following information clearly and permanently printed-on: - See BG approval No. - maker - model name or number - date of manufacture 5.1.2 Rigid life jacket There is at least one approved life jacket for every person on board. It is kept ready for use in box specially provided for this purpose on the boat deck or near the muster station. Additional life jackets must also be stored elsewhere, e.g. on the bridge for those on watch there.

Fig. 5.2 Life jacket The neck piece and chest pieces made either from rigid-foam blocks covered with coated fabric or foamed-in-the-mould soft plastic without any covering.

A life-jacket light with an operating time of at least eight hours is fixed to the upper side. Imprinted on the chest pieces there is - the maker's name - the See-BG approval number - pictorial instruction on how to put it on The smaller life jacket, intended for children, is clearly identified with the inscription CHILD on both sides. The above-water parts have reflective strips (at least 400 cm2 ). 5.1.3 Inflatable life jacket The inflatable life jacket also has to meet the basic requirements for life jackets regarding the stability and strength of the material, the buoyancy and distance of the mouth above the water, the ability to turn, the color, the fitting with retro reflective tapes, light, whistle, connecting-line and quick-acting fasteners for the straps plus the marking and inscription. Furthermore it must meet the following requirements: - it must have two separate buoyancy cells, each of which meets the requirements for a life jacket regarding buoyancy, ability to turn and distance of the mouth above the water; - it must inflate automatically upon immersion (automatics), must be fitted with a device which permits inflation by a single movement of the hand (manual initiation), and be capable of being inflated by mouth (mouth-inflation valve); - it must be maintained and checked for tightness annually by the maker or a specialist firm designated by him.

The materials are resistant to wetting, washing, cleaning and rinsing agents, and to oil and oil products. They are mould- and rot-proof, salt water- and ageing resistant, hard to ignite and resistant to microorganisms. The outside surfaces are dyed orange-yellow or luminous red. The life jackets are fitted with straps with plugin fasteners. On older life jackets there are two separate straps. Each strap is fixed to one of the chest pieces and is led in hard-plastic sleeves through both chest pieces to the side. A non-metallic two-tone whistle is fastened to the jacket via a lanyard. The whistle is stowed in a pocket in the clothing or in a hole in the body of the jacket.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Fig. 5.3 Inflatable life jacket 5.1.4 Work vest An adequate number of approved work vests is held on board as personal protection gear. They

89 are worn for all work where there is a risk of falling into the water.

Thermal protective aids protect the wearer in open lifeboats against getting soaked and against hypothermia. Thermal protective aids consist of a waterproof, sack-shaped covering with closed sleeves, hood and zip-fastener. The material is a coated waterproof foil with a specific thermal conductivity, reinforced to increase resistance to tearing. Thermal protective aids - are worn on top of the clothing, - cover the entire body except for the face, - can without outside help be unpacked and put on in a survival craft - can be removed in not more than two minutes in the water if they impede the wearer's swimming, - are effective and perfectly easy to handle over a temperature range from -30 o C to 20 °C.

Fig. 5.4 Work vest (Component parts) The work vest is made from hard-wearing, oil-, petrol- and rot-proof material. The fully-automatic inflation system fills the buoyancy chamber of the vest automatically after the fall into the water. The system works with a blocking pill; this pill disintegrates as soon as it is fully submerged. That releases a spring-loaded striking-pin which penetrates the compressed-gas cartridge. Atmospheric humidity, mist, rain or spray on the other hand do not cause initiation. Inflation can also be initiated by hand. The vest additionally has a mouth-valve - via which the buoyancy chamber is also to be emptied of air after use. Work vest must be checked at 2-yearly intervals in an approved workshop. 5.1.5 Thermal protective aids Cargo and passenger vessels are equipped with approved thermal protective aids. For every lifeboat or liferaft there are thermal protective aids for three people or ten per cent of the approved number of persons, whichever is the greater.

Fig. 5.5 Thermal protective aids 5.2 Lifeboats and rescue boats Cargo- and passenger vessels are equipped with approved lifeboats or rescue boats. Number, type and carrying capacity are required by rules.

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90 5.2.1 Lifeboats There are wooden, steel, aluminum and glassfiber reinforced plastic lifeboats. There are open, partially enclosed and totally enclosed types. Totally enclosed boats are made self-righting; they may be equipped with an air supply independent of the ambient air and with special fire protection (water spray system). Lifeboats on tankers must be of non-combustible material or be equipped with an air supply independent of the ambient air and special fire protection. Rescue boats may also be made of rubber. Wooden, aluminum and steel lifeboats have a skin fitted over frames. The joints used to be riveted; in the case of metal boats they are nowadays predominantly welded. The boats have a strong keel, and stem- and sternposts of the same strength. Wooden or metal lifeboats require significant maintenance. Metal boats tend to corrode quickly if neglected; wooden ones can dry out and then become leaky. Glass-fibre reinforced plastic (GRP) lifeboats on the other hand have a high corrosion resistance and a low maintenance requirement. For that reason, almost all lifeboats built nowadays are of GRP. GRP lifeboats are constructed in moulds. By this means large component parts are obtained which can be bolted or glued together. Lifeboats are usually built up from three moulded parts: Outer shell: outer skin with keel, stem/stern post, nibbing strakes, skates and gunwale Inner shell: seats, stowages, buoyancy-reserve cells, floor with drain holes Canopy: canopy shell with turret, access, window and ventilation openings. In the construction of the moulds, all fittings due to be fastened to it are already taken into account, so that expensive subsequent fitting can be substantially avoided. Nevertheless a lot of boat-specific work is still needed installing the engine with its seating, fuel tank, cooling system, shaft, stem tube, propeller, fitting heating, grab- and life lines, grab rails, the rudder, and last but not least the electrical and radio equipment. in the case of totally enclosed boats, the canopy rails, windows, access and ventilation opening closures have to be added, plus the water spray system and the ventilation system for oil, gas and chemical tankers, independent from ambientair. The system of pipes for the water spray system has a size C Storz coupling, allowing connection Ship Safety Service; February 1996

by hose to the ship's fire main. That allows the boat to be sprayed already in its stowed position. By virtue of airtight buoyancy-reserve cells either built-in or provided between the inner and outer shells, the boats fully equipped and with the approved number of persons on board are still capable of floating even when swamped. To retain this property even if the buoyancy cells are damaged, these are subdivided or filled with closed-cell foam. Totally enclosed lifeboats are self-righting if all openings are closed watertight and the persons on board are belted into their seats. That is the normal condition even at launch. If a totally enclosed boat capsizes with the access or ventilation openings open, it will in adverse circumstances adopt an attitude which makes it still possible to leave it above water. To allow this to be achieved, there are buoyancy cells also in the canopy. In less extreme situations it is often also possible to right the boat again. Partially enclosed lifeboats are also used, particularly on passenger vessels. In emergency these can be occupied by more persons more quickly. They are not suitable for free-fall launching and are always stowed underneath special launching appliances. Free-fall boats are totally enclosed lifeboats stowed on a specially designed launching appliance at the stem. They are fitted with special bucket seats and safety belts. 5.2.2 Rescue boats Rescue boats have namely

two

principal

purposes,

- the rapid rescue of persons floating in the water, and - the gathering, keeping in position and towing of liferafts. They are built and equipped with these designated purposes in mind. Rescue boats may be of rigid or inflatable construction, or of a combination of both. Their length must be not less than 3.8m and not more than 8.5 m. They must be capable of holding at least five persons seated and one person lying down. They must either have an adequate sheer or have a bow canopy extending over at least 15% of the length. Rescue boats have either an inboard or an outboard motor. That enables them to achieve a speed of at least 6 kn running free and 2 kn towing. Rigid rescue boats are subject to substantially the same construction regulations as lifeboats. For inflatable rescue boats there are different, special regulations:

91 They are so constructed that, hanging in inflated condition in their launching and recovery appliance with a full crew and fully equipped, they can be launched or recovered. Stowed on the open deck without they must be capable of withstanding all

protection,

weather conditions on the open sea. The same applies afloat for 30 days. The buoyancy of the inflated boat is ensured by at least one hose subdivided into five roughly equal compartments, or by two separate hoses of roughly the same size. The volume of the hoses 1 Permanently fixed skates 2 Painter which can be slipped from inside the boat (not visible) 3 Hoisting-hook with central release 4 Forward window flap 5 Lateral access opening 6 Guardrail, in the case of boats with special fire protection in the form of a water pipe with spray nozzles 7 Turret for the coxswain’s seat 8 Access door 9 Fixed canopy 10 Propeller with steering nozzle(not visible) 11 Buoyancy chambers the canopy, foam-filled 12 Remote control wire for lowering/launching 13 Socket for electricity cable 14 Ventilation flaps

in

Fig. 5.6 Totally enclosed lifeboat

Fig. 5.7a Partially enclosed lifeboat Ship Safety Service; February 1996

92

Fig. 5.7b

Fig. 5.8 Free-fall boat

93

Fig. 5.9 Rigid rescue boat

Fig. 5.10 Rescue boat with rigid floor and inflatable tubes is laid down. A positive freeboard must be There may be a transom, not more than 20% up retained even if one compartment is damaged. the length of the boat. Furthermore there are fittings for the painter, the lifeline running right Every compartment is provided with a nonaround the boat and the towrope. return valve for pumping up by hand plus a relief The rescue boat must at all times be kept fully or discharge valve. Rubbing strakes are fitted under the bottom and along the sides of the boat. blown up and equipped, ready for use. Ship Safety Service; February 1996

94

5.3 Liferafts Cargo- and passenger vessels as well as fishing crafts are equipped with approved liferafts. The number, type and carrying capacity derive from regulations and additional requirements. Approved are - liferafts for 6, 8, 10, 12, 15, 16, 20, 25 or 50 persons, throw overboard type - for 35 persons, davit launched type - large liferafts for 30, 35, 60 or 65 persons, without any protective canopy and usable either way up. Liferafts are automatically inflatable. For launching they may be thrown overboard or designed and positioned near launching appliances for launching fully manned. All liferafts are so installed that they can be launched quickly, securely and safely - if possible by one man - even with 20° list, over the high side. For that reason liferafts are nowadays almost always stowed on swinging-out storage frames, inclined ramps or equivalent appliances. 5.3.1 Inflatable liferaft Every inflatable liferaft is made from coated synthetic fabric and as a rule is packed tightly folded in a plastic container. On passenger

vessels, packing in a waterproof carrier bag is exceptionally also approved provided the liferaft is one for launching fully manned. The weight of a liferaft including its packaging and full distress gear lies between 100 kg and 185 kg, depending on the size of the raft. Every inflatable liferaft complies with the following requirements: -

Material and type are approved. A liferaft afloat withstands all weather conditions at sea for 30 days. - It is operable over an air temperature range from -30 °C to +66 °C. - It is stowed in a buoyant container. - It can be thrown into the water in its container without the raft or its gear suffering any damage. - Inflated, it has adequate stability in a seaway. - The buoyancy hoses are subdivided into an even number of compartments in such a way that the raft still floats even if only half the compartments are inflated. - The floor is waterproof and can be inflated for insulation against cold. - It has a canopy of a clearly visible colour, which protects the occupants from the effects of the weather. It has a light on the top, inside

Fig. 5.11 Inflatable liferaft

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95 and outside, an arrangement for collecting rainwater and a fitting for the radar transponder or the aerial of the portable radio apparatus. For inflation and to connect the inflated raft to the ship there is a release painter line which is cut using a knife. Life lines are provided all around, inside and outside. Carbon dioxide CO2 is used for inflation which is initiated by hauling on release painter line. Means for topping-up with air (bellows or air pump) are provided. Fitted to every opening is a boardingarrangement for persons in the water. A liferaft for 6 or 8 people has one boarding arrangement, every larger raft two. If it has inflated upside-down, it can easily be righted by one person. it has a fitting for securing a towrope. A liferaft for launching fully manned is constructed differently and reinforced, reflecting its task. It can be manned from the embarkation deck and is lowered to the water by means of a special launching appliance. This liferaft is so arranged that if the release painter line is made fast on board it can also be used as a droppable raft.

is pulled out of the container as the ship sinks further. If this tautens, the inflating-gas bottle is opened and the raft inflated. The sinking ship further parts the release painter line or a special breaking wire (weak link). Water-Pressure operated release The lashing is unlocked manually by means of a patent retractive shackle or slip hook fitted between the water-pressure operated release and the eye on the lashing. The release painter line with breaking wire (weak link) is fastened to the water-pressure operated release.

Fig. 5.13 Water-pressure operated release

Fig. 5.12 Liferaft lowerable fully manned 5.4 Liferaft release device Liferafts are so stowed that they can float free if the ship sinks. If liferafts are secured in their stowage by lashings they are therefore provided with an approved, efficient release device. In practice various types of water-pressure operated releases have become accepted as means for unlocking the lashings automatically. The water pressure increasing with depth as the ship sinks acts on one side of a diaphragm which on the other side has a spring in an air space, set to the release depth, pressing on it. The water pressure reduces the size of this air space, so that at a depth of between 2.00 m and 3.70 m the release unit unlocks which in turn releases the lashing. The raft container floats to the surface; the release painter line firmly secured to the ship

Fig. 5.14 Function of the water-pressure operated release 5.5 Inflatable lifeboats Fishing vessels engaged in large-scale deep-sea fishery, fishery protection vessels, seagoing cutters, seagoing tugs and ships of less than 1600 GRT may be equipped with inflatable life boats. Number, specified.

type

and

carrying

capacity

are

The buoyancy hoses of all inflatable life boats have partitions dividing them into several compartments. Hoses, bottom and partitions are made of ageing-, weather-, fuel- and abrasionresistant coated synthetic fabric whose tear and tear propagation resistance and breaking strength are specified.

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Fig. 5.15 Double-tube inflatable life boat - motorisable double-hose boats of classes KK 612, 617, 623 and 627, used as lifeboats on fishing vessels.

Single-hose boats have the whole hose, doublehose boats the upper hose coloured luminous yellow; all the rest is black. The individual compartments of the pumped up with air through filling valves. Inflatable into

boats

are

divided

according

hoses

are

5.6 Lifeboats and Liferafts to

type

5.6.1 Equipment and fittings

— single-hose boats of class KK 604, used as „ man-overboard-boats " and - double-hose boats of classes KK 610, 615, 620, 625 and 5.6.2 List of equipment and fittings

Lifeboats and rescue boats are provided with waterproof stowage compartments for small pieces of equipment plus mountings and other fixing arrangements for the equipment generally. It must be possible to stow or secure the entire equipment so that it does not get in the way during launching or running. The equipment of lifeboats, rescue boats or liferafts comprises:

Consecutive number 1 2

Item

Lifeboat

Oars, buoyant, thole pins crutches, attached to the boat by lanyards or chains boathooks

sufficient 2

3

bailer, buoyant

1

4

buckets

2

5

survival manual

1

6

binnacle with approved compass, luminous or

1

7

illummable, fixed or with mounting sea anchor with adequate-length hawser and tripping line

8

painter line of adequate length

9

hatchets

2

10

waterproof vessel with 3 1 drinking water for each

1

person the boat can carry, or 2 1 water and approved distilling apparatus

*) 2 buoyant bailers in rafts capable of carrying more than 12 persons

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Rescue boat sufficient

Liferaft

1

1*)

1

1

2

2

1 5

97 Consecutive number Item 11 rustproof dipper with lanyard 12 graduated rustproof drinking vessel

Lifeboat

Rescue boat

Liferaft

1

1

13 food ration of 10000 kilojoule per person the boat can carry, in airtight pack in watertight container 14 approved rocket parachute flares

1 4

1 4

15 approved hand flares

6

6

16 approved buoyant smoke signals

2

2

17 watertight torch suitable for Morse signalling with

1

spare bulb and spare batteries 18 daylight signalling mirror with operating instructions

1

1

19 life-saving signal table

1

1

20 signal whistle

1

1

21 first aid outfit in waterproof case reclosable after use

1

22 anti-seasickness medicine, doses of

6

6

23 seasickness bags, per person the boat can carry

1

1

24 jack knife attached to the boat by lanyards

1

25 tin openers

3

26 quoits, buoyant, each with 30 m buoyant heaving line

2

27 manual pump

1

28 fishing tackle, set

1

29 tools for engine, set

1

30 portable fire extinguisher, powder, 6 kg, ABC

1

1

1

1

1

2 2

1 1

31 searchlight 32 radar transponder or reflector 33 thermal protective aids for 10% of persons the

1 >2

boat can carry 34 towrope, buoyant > 50 m

1

>2

1

Only for rigid rescue boats 35 boathook 36 bucket 37 knife or hatchet

1

Only for inflatable rescue boats and liferafts 38 buoyant safety knife 39 sponges

2

2

40 bellows or manual air pump 41 repair kit in container 42 safety boat hook 43 buoyant paddles

2

44 survival instructions

1

45 instructions regarding immediate steps

1

46 knife for cutting release painter line

1**)

* *) 2 knives for cutting rip cord in rafts capable of carrying more than 12 persons

Ship Safety Service: February 1996

98

2. Lashing 1. Grab line extends in bights lengthways along both sides from forward to aft. It consists of buoyant material or is fitted with floats.

3. Painter is secured slipably forward in the boat. Extends three times the distance from the boat deck to the surface of the water with the ship at minimum draught. An additional painter of the same length is permanently fastened forward inside the boat.

Fig. 5.16 Lifeboat underneath davits 5.6.3 Illustrations Heaving line coloured to be easily visible, 30 m long and floats. In lifeafts fitted with a buoyant ring.

Hand flare when lit, for about 1 minute produces a bright-red light visible for about 10 nm on a clear night.

Fig. 5.17 Heaving line

Fig. 5.20 Hand flare

Sea anchor consists of a truncated-cone canvas bag whose major aperture is kept open by a rigid ring. Fastened to this is a three-part bridle with the sea-anchor line. The inhaul is fastened to the minor aperture. Fig. 5.18 Sea anchor Rocket parachute flare when fired climbs to at least 300 m, unfolds a parachute to which a bright-red light is fastened, visible for about 40s, for up to about 25 nm on a clear night. Fig. 5.19 Rocket parachute flare

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Buoyant smoke signal generates thick, orange smoke which even in a light wind lays a smoke trail; lasts about 4 minutes.

Fig. 5.21 Buoyant smoke signal Electric torch is waterproof and suitable for signalling Morse. Appropriate spares for replacing exhausted batteries or defective bulbs are provided. Fig. 5.22 Electric torch

99 Daylight signalling mirror comprises a metal mirror with a sighting device for reflecting light from the sun. Fig. 5.23 Daylight signalling mirror

Radar reflector permanently fitted or loose, reflects the radar beams from a search craft. Fig. 5.24 Radar reflector

Hatchet stowed respectively forward and aft in the boat to allow lines to be cut in emergency. Fig. 5.29 Hatchet

Jack-knife with tin opener, marline spike and lanyard.

Fig. 5.30 Jack-knife

Signalling whistle or equivalent sound signal, e.g. foghorn for producing acoustic signals in poor visibility.

Fig. 5.25 Signalling whistle

First aid kit (first aid box) is kept in a waterproof, sealed storage box. The contents are listed on the lid.

Fig. 5.31 First aid kit (first aid box)

Rescue-signal table & leaflet "Survival at Sea" Compass is housed in a protective casing. It can be read even at night with special lighting. Fig. 5.26 Compass .

Manual bilge pump consists of the pump plus suction hose which reaches down to the bottom of the boat. The water sucked-in is pumped overboard through another hose. Fig. 5.27 Manual bilge pump

makes recommendations regarding the correct use of the signalling means and conduct in the survival craft. Fig 5.32 Rescue signal table

Food ration is stored in airtight and waterproof containers.

Fig. 5.33 Food ration

Pall and bailer used for getting rid of the remaining water. Fig. 5.28 Pail and bailer Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Drinking water 3 liters per person are stored in several non-corroding containers with dippers or in smaller packs such as cans or plastic bags. Graduated non-corroding drinking mugs are provided. Fig. 5.34 Drinking water

100 Fishing gear comprises fish-hooks, weight, fishing line and illustrations of poisonous fishes.

Emergency position radio beacon (EPIRB)

indicating

Fig. 5.35 Fishing gear Repair kit consists of wooden plugs and rubber patches with adhesive for sealing leaks.

Fig. 5.41 Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) Two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus

Fig. 5.36 Repair kit

Boathook with point, hook and wooden shaft.

Fig. 5.37 Boathook

Air pump or bellows with filling hose for topping-up the hoses and for inflating the double bottom.

Fig. 5.38 Air pump

Fig. 5.42 Two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus 5.7 Propulsion systems The propulsion systems in the survival craft are provided in order that they may be maneuvered clear of the danger zone around the damaged vessel. 5.7.1 Diesel engine The propulsion system consists of the diesel engine with starter, the fuel system with a fuel tank, the electrical equipment, the gearing, shafting and the propeller. The diesel engine can be air- or water-cooled. The electrical equipment comprises

Powder extinguisher Operating instructions. Undo the safety device in front of the fire. Remove the pressure hose from its stowage. Open the propellant cylinder. Wait for about three seconds until the propellant which has flowed into the extinguishant container through the gas pipe has swirled-up the powder and pushed it up the rising tube. Operation of the actuating element (extinguishing pistol) releases the powder-propellant mixture. Fig. 5.39 Powder extinguisher

Radar transponder

- charging generator, voltage regulator and battery - power supply to radio apparatus and searchlight - electrical starter and preheating equipment (not on all diesel engines). The starter can take the following form - Manual starter, e.g. starting handle. This is kick-back-proof, disengages automatically once the engine starts and cannot be ejected from its guide. - Mechanical starter, e.g. spring power starter. A disc-spring pack is wound up by means of a winding crank or lever. When the triggeringlever is operated, the energy in the wound-up spring pack is transmitted to the engine crankshaft.

Fig. 5.40 Radar transponder Ship Safety Service; February 1996

101

Fig. 5.43 Propulsion system of a lifeboat with a diesel engine

Fig. 5.44 Grafic operating instructions - operating console

102 - Electrical starters. Actuation of the starting arrangements causes the battery-driven starter automatically to start the engine. - Hydraulic starters. The propulsion systems of survival craft are approved. The illustrations that follow are basic diagrams. The actual design and arrangement of lifeboat propulsion systems can in individual cases differ significantly from these. Careful study of the operating instructions held on board is therefore absolutely essential. 5.7.2 Outboard engines Rescue boats are powered by petrol or diesel outboard engines. The outboard engine is fitted to the transom of the rescue boat and secured by tightening the clamping screws. Trimming bolts are used to bring the engine to the appropriate angle relative to the boat's hull. The fuel container is portable and is accommodated in the boat separately from the engine. The fuel is conveyed to the engine through a hose line with a built-in hand pump.

The engine has a manual starter; electric starting facilities may also be provided. Outboard engines for rescue boats are approved. 5.8 Launching appliances Launching appliances are used to get heavy survival craft (lifeboats or liferafts) from the ship to the water even in the fully manned state. Number, type, dimensions and stowage is specified. All launching appliances are approved by the See-BG. The launching appliances include also gear which secures the survival craft in their stowage position (lashings), the emergency guardrail and the emergency lighting in the launching zone, plus remote-operating arrangements for stopping pumps which discharge into the launching zone and for retracting the stabiliser fins. The launching appliances are so dimensioned and arranged that launching is still possible on either side with a trim of up to 10° or a list of up to 20°, up to 15° for ships whose keel was laid before 01.07.1986.

1 Gipping-recess 2 Engine hood 3 Cooling water check outlet 4 Water plug 5 Tilting block 6 Propeller shaft casing 7 Cavitation plate 8 Anode 9 Secondary cooling water inlet 10 Propeller 11 Hand-starting handle 12 Gear lever 13 Speed control twist-grip 14 Clamping screw 15 Fitting for hanging from transom 16 Trimming bolts 17 Gear oil filler plug 18 Cooling water inlet with strainer 19 Gear oil drain plug 20 Battery cable 21 Stop button 22 Choke button 23 Fuel hose connection 24 Ignition lock 25 Fuel tank 26 Fuel tank lid 27 Venting screw 28 Feeder ball (pumping ball) 29 Fuel hose connector/fuel cock 30 flexible tubes

Fig. 5.45 Outboard engine

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

103 5.8.1 Davits and accessories Gravity-Type davit Due to its own weight and that of the survival craft, the pair of gravity-type davit arms swings into the lowering position by itself. With the aid of fairlead-rollers the boat's fall is taken via the davits from the boat winch to the lifeboat. There the fall is connected to the liftinghooks of the boat via hoisting-plates.

lifeboat hangs at an adequate distance from the ship's side.

Based on the nature of the movement of the davit arms, gravity-type davits are divided into - single pivot davit, or - roller track davits. Pivot davit The single pivot davit has rigid arms swivelling about pivots at their feet. As the centres of gravity of the lifeboat and the davit arms are on the seaward side of the pivot, once the winch brake has been released the davit arms swivel outwards about the pivots into the lowering position. If the lifeboat is not held against the ship by additional means (tricing pendant or bowsing tackle), it will hang vertically underneath the davit at an adequate distance from the ship's side.

1 Davit horn 2 Davit arm 3 Boat support pad 4 Control lever for electric winch drive 5 Winch brake lever (for lowering) 6 Winch casing 7 Winch drum 8 Roller track

Fig. 5.47 Roller track davit Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles Tricing pendants are strong wires of preciselymeasured length, shackled in between the davit arms and the hoisting plates to pull the boat to the ship's side for embarkation. A thimble and shackle fastens them to the davit arm, a patent slip hook which can be slipped under load to the hoisting plate.

1 Davit arm (movable) 2 Boat's fall 3 Davit pedestal (fixed) 4 Pivot point 5 Arm rest (on deck when the davit has been swung out) 6 Boat's winch (symbolised! For real appearance see roller track davit)

Fig. 5.46 Singel pivot davit Roller track davit The roller track davit has rollers on the arms able to run on the standing part which is a roller track. In the stowed position the arms rest in the top part of that track. Once the winch brake has been released, the davit arms run down the sloping tracks. These lead them down to the end position, in which the

Fig. 5.48 Tricing pendants and bowsing tackles

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Bowsing tackles hold the lifeboat to the ship's side after the tricing pendants have been slipped. Each consists of two blocks and the fall; each has one block fastened to the ship's side or the davit arm, the other to the hoisting plate for'd and aft. The fall is belayed around a cleat usually fastened to the block at the hoisting-plate end. Belt falls have special lowering arrangements. Boat lashings In its stowed position, the boat is held in place by wire pendants and bottle screws. To protect the boat, the wire is usually plastic-coated.

104

slip hook is opened, i.e. if when the boat was being prepared the lashings have not been cast off. In another version a rocking lever secures a bolt which holds the moving davit arm to the standing part, and which can only be removed after the lashings have been cast off. This bolt prevents the davit being swung out until the lashings have been cast off. 5.8.2 Liferaft Launching Crane The launching crane serves as launching appliance for rescue boats or liferafts. The survival craft hangs from a single fall. This is led over a swivelling cantilever mechanically powered to swivel out and in. In the case of a launching crane for liferafts, the winch brake can be released from inside the raft by means of a wire. After that, the lowering process can no longer be influenced - the raft is lowered all the way to the water. That makes it unnecessary to leave a man behind to operate the winch.

Fig. 5.49 Boat lashings

Fig. 5.51 Liferaft launching crane 5.8.3 Free-fall launching appliance This system has the totally enclosed lifeboat stowed at the upper end of a launchway mounted over the stem, bows facing outboard. Fully manned, it can from there

Fig. 5.50 Boat lashings for free-fall boat As a rule the lower fastening of the lashing to the davit is so arranged that it releases automatically if the davit is swung out before the bottle-screw Ship Safety Service: February 1996

- run down the rollers of the launchway once the unlocking arrangement has been triggered and then enter the water in free fall from the stem, or - be lowered into the water with the aid of the launching appliance, or - float free when the vessel sinks.

105

The unlocking arrangement is triggered from inside the boat by manually operated mechanical or hydraulic devices.

Fig. 5. 54 Lifebuoy with life line Fig. 5. 52 Free-fall boat on board MS HANSA LUBECK

The life-buoys, ready for immediate use, are - distributed all over the ship - accessible to everyone - painted in easily-discernible colour (luminous red, orange-yellow) on the outside and provided with retro reflective material - marked with the ship's name and port of registry and - provided with an all-round grab line firmly secured. It must always be possible to throw them overboard quickly, so they must not be lashed into their stowage. The number, supplementary fittings and positioning of the life-buoys is specified on the basis of the vessel's size and operating region.

Fig. 5. 53 Free-fall boat - triggering device 5. 9 Lifebuoys Life-buoys are made from approved materials. The filling is in one piece. Minimum inside and maximum outside diameter plus minimum weight are specified. They retain their buoyancy and shape in salt water even in contact with oil and oil products, and in spite of variations in temperature. They are able to support an iron weight of 14. 5 kg for 24 hours in fresh water. This is confirmed by a trial.

Fig. 5. 55 Lifebuoy with Lifebuoy light Ship Safety Service; February 1996

106 It is mandatory that - at least one lifebuoy on each side of the ship is provided with a 30 m long, buoyant life line, - a certain number of the total of lifebuoys is equipped with an efficient, automaticallyigniting light, - a heavy lifebuoy is mounted on each side of the wheelhouse, joined by a line to a light/smoke float ("man overboard buoy"), and

5. 10. 1 Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRB) Emergency position indicating radio beacons once activated automatically send out a sea distress call which reaches one or more shore radio stations via satellites and from there is forwarded to the Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre.

- a lifebuoy is mounted near the stem.

Fig. 5. 56 Man overboard buoy 5. 10 Radio Life-Saving Appliances Radio life-saving appliances are held on board for sending out distress calls, for voice radio communication with search and rescue units and for location of survival craft by search and rescue units. In contrast to the rest of the gear they are as a rule not stowed permanently in the lifeboats or rafts. However they are portable. In an emergency they must be removed from their stowage on the bridge or near the survival craft and taken along to the lifeboats or rafts.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Fig. 5. 58 Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon

The distress call contains the ship's identification and other information useful for the execution of successful search and rescue operations.

107

The distress position is either - inserted into the distress call by GPS built into the EPIRB, or - input manually continually during the voyage, or - established by detection from another ship. During the voyage the emergency position indicating radio beacon is kept in a stowage somewhere around the bridge. Before abandoning ship, it is to be embarked in one of the survival craft used; if that is not possible it can simply be thrown overboard. If even that does not happen, it will automatically float free to the surface when the ship sinks. It begins to transmit when switched-on by hand, thrown overboard or when it has risen to the surface automatically. The emergency position indicating radio beacon is coloured luminous orange/yellow, provided with reflective material and on top has a flashing light to make it easier to find in an emergency in the dark. It is important in an emergency that the survival craft and the emergency position indicating radio beacon remain together, as the search and rescue operation is targeted on the position of the beacon. 5. 10. 2 Radar transponder (or search and rescue) The equipment on board ships includes one or more radar transponders. They are kept in stowages near the bridge and must in emergency be embarked in the survival craft which are used. They are buoyant and in an emergency can also be thrown overboard if it is not possible to take them into a survival craft. If a radar impulse from a ship or aircraft reaches the receiving aerial built into the radar transponder, the transponder sends a reply on the same frequency. That produces an internationally agreed pattern on the radar screen of the ship or aircraft which - is accepted as an emergency signal in accordance with Appendix IV of the Regulations for Preventing Collisions and obliges the receiver to give assistance, and - marks the position of the radar transponder on the screen. For that reason radar transponders are also called radar reply beacons. The range of the radar transponder is about 5 nautical miles, depending on the height of the transmitting/receiving aerial and the state of the sea.

Fig. 5. 59 Search and rescue radar transponder 5. 10. 3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus The equipment on board ships includes two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus. They are portable and allow RT communication over short distances between survival craft, the ship, and search and rescue units. For this they can switch to the emergency and call-up frequency (channel 16) and at least one working frequency (channel 6 or 10). They can also be used for internal operational RT traffic on board if they can be operated on the frequencies provided for this (channel 15 or 17). As the same frequency is used for transmitting and receiving, simultaneous speaking and listening is not possible. If RT is to be used in emergency, it must therefore be used with heightened discipline. That can above all be expected from holders of a general operator certificate. Nevertheless the sets must be so designed and made that they can also be operated by untrained persons. The sets have batteries as an emergency power supply. These permit eight hours of operation, 10% of which can be transmitting, 10% receiving and 80% standing by. In an emergency the sets are therefore not to be switched on until there are search and rescue craft in the vicinity. If there are several sets available, as far as possible only one is to be operated at any one time. For use in routine ship operation, rechargeable batteries are additionally fitted. Operation using an external power supply is permitted. The range is determined by the power of the transmitter and the height of the aerial above the Ship Safety Service, February 1996

surface of the water. It is about the same as the range of vision. In an emergency the radiotelephone apparatus survival craft used.

portable tow way VHF must be taken into the

In lifeboats, there may also be permanently installed VHF radiotelephone apparatus. These are subject to substantially the same regulations as portable sets.

108 5. 12 Line-Throwing Apparatus Cargo and passenger vessels and fishing craft 24 m or more in length carry an approved linethrowing apparatus. The equipment comprises the firing device, propelling charges with built-in igniters and line bins each holding a 250 m long braided line. Propelling charges and igniter cartridges have a limited life. Their. use-by" date is printed-on and must be observed.

Fig. 5. 61 COMET line-throwing apparatus 5. 13 Helicopter rescue sling Buoyant stretcher The helicopter rescue sling is not part of ships' or survival craft equipment, it is provided by the SAR helicopter.

Fig. 5. 60 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus 5. 11 Pyrotechnic distress signals The equipment of ships and survival includes approved pyrotechnic distress signals. Ships are equipped parachute flares.

with

at

least

12

craft rocket

Survival craft are equipped with - rocket parachute flares, - hand flares, and - buoyant smoke signals. The number is specified depending on the type of life-saving appliance, (see inventory list Section 5. 6. 2.)

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Fig. 5. 62 Buoyant stretcher

109 The buoyant stretcher is used for the transport of injured or sick persons. It is provided with bridle and fittings which allow to transport also by means of lifting appliances or the winch rope of helicopters. The person transported can be protected by means of permanently secured coverings and belted-in to prevent falling out. 5. 14 Organisation of SAR-Operations at sea Every master of a ship at sea who receives a report from any source that a ship or aircraft or its lifeboats or rafts are in distress is obliged to hasten to the assistance of the persons in distress at maximum speed, and to inform them of this if at all possible (of. SOLAS Regulation V/1Oa). Every government of a nation participating in the SOLAS convention is obliged to make all necessary provisions for a coastguard service and for the rescue of any persons in distress at sea along its coasts (cf. SOLAS Regulation V/15). The International Convention for Search and Rescue at Sea, Hamburg, 1979, additionally provides for the voluntary undertaking by nations also to accept responsibility for a search and rescue service for certain areas of the high seas. For this the convention provides for forms of organisation fixed in every detail, in particular as regards transmission of information concerning distress at sea. The Federal Ministry of Transport as the authority responsible for the sea areas adjoining Germany's coasts has in a contract charged the German Lifeboat Institution (Deutsche Gesellschaft zur Rettung Schiffbriichiger DGzRS) to perform these tasks. The DGzRS has been active in the rescue from distress at sea along the German North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts since 1865 as an independent, charitable

organisation, means.

voluntarily

and

using

its

own

The Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre MRCC - Bremen of the DGzRS has overall responsibility in a distress-at-sea situation for the conduct of the operation to its conclusion. In the event of distress at sea it provides for the initiation, coordination and conclusion of SAR measures and their documentation. The DGzRS which deploys its own rescue cruisers and rescue lifeboats is supported in the execution of services by SAR helicopters and aircraft of the military SAR organisation. The execution of SAR measures in cases of distress at sea is based on an SAR task plan. This plan in addition to explanations regarding raising the alarm and execution also contains data about the SAR seagoing vessels and aircraft, passing of information on SAR service and other information needed by everyone involved in SAR services. Objectives and tasks of the DGzRS are - saving life in distress at sea - coordinating all measures taken in distress-atsea situations and where assistance is given within the SAR zone for which it is responsible - execution of safeguarding tasks for ships in danger and their crews - assistance with the freeing from immediate danger of crews of seagoing vessels and aircraft services to aircraft as regional search centre 8-sea - transport of sick and injured persons, first aid and initial medical care of emergency patients - all activities which help to prevent potential emergencies or accidents.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

110

Fig. 5. 63 Diagram “The German search and rescue service at sea “

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111

6. Handling/Operation of Life-Saving Appliances and Installations In this Section the handling/operation of the appliances and installations will be described for one example of each item of safety equipment. Because of the large number of approved types, the appliances and installations on board may vary from ship to ship and differ in handling/operation from those described here.

The maintenance instructions must be observed carefully to ensure that the survival suit remains in the impeccable condition necessary for an emergency and to prevent it being damaged.

For that reason every newly-arriving crew member must familiarise himself with the appliances and installations actually present on board, using the operating instructions. This purpose is served by the training and appliance manuals held on board, available to all members of the crew. They can be considered appendices to this manual and contain the operating instructions for all appliances and installations on board which form part of the safety equipment. 6. 1 Personal life-Saving appliances The handling of the personal life-saving appliances must be mastered by every member of the crew. This can only be achieved by planned instruction and specific practice on the occasions of the mandatory safety exercises carried out at regular intervals. 6. 1. 1 Survival suit Handling of the survival suit is practised during the mandatory safety exercises. For these practices, only a few and always the same suits are used. The rest remain in their original packaging. The putting-on procedure is as follows: All details are to be taken from the instructions for use printed on the carrier bag and to be observed. - put on the survival suit as you would an overall, don the hood, pull-on the sleeves, - zip the suit right up, - pull the straps or bands at the feet or legs really tight and secure them with the Velcro fastener or buckle, - fasten the mouth strap. (This strap may impede work in preparation for abandoning ship. As its purpose is to protect mouth and nose of persons floating in the water against spray or splashing waves it must be fastened at the latest before jumping into the water!)

Fig. 6. 1 Survival suit So that the zip-fastener, watertight and therefore somewhat stiff, can always be dosed quickly and easily it is after every exercise to be treated with the substance provided or rubbed with a candle. The zip-fasteners on survival suits not used must be treated in this way at least once a year. Following an exercise, the survival suit may only be repacked in its carrier bag if it is undamaged, having been dried thoroughly inside and out. Contact with hot objects during this process is to be avoided. Damaged survival suits may not be kept in the safety gear store together with those ready for use. They are to be repaired or replaced at the first opportunity. To ensure that it can be put on quickly and to avoid damage to the zip-fastener, the survival suit is always packed in its carrier bag with the zip open. Ship Safety Service; February 1996

112 6. 1. 2 Life jacket Putting-on the life jacket

Fig. 6. 2 Seepilz graphic instructions for use How the life jacket works The life jacket turns the body of a person in the water regardless of its position into a safe inclined supine position, even if that person is exhausted or unconscious, and within 5 seconds lifts the face out of the water to free nose and mouth.

Fig. 6. 4 A jump into the water 6. 1. 3 Thermal protective aids In lifeboats and -rafts are provided with approved thermal protective aids. These are sack-shaped coverings of insulating material with the sleeves cut in one with the garment, gloves and a hood. Their purpose is primarily the protection of sick and injured persons in the survival craft against hypothermia. 6. 2 Survival craft Designated survival boats and liferafts.

Fig. 6. 3 How the life jacket works Jumping into the water wearing a life Jacket Try if possible to get into the life-saving appliance dry-shod. If you must jump into the water, look for a place as close as possible to the surface. Grasp the life jacket with both hands at the front near the top and pull it downwards, otherwise it will strike your chin and lower jaw from below as it becomes immersed. That could cause an injury. The legs must be slightly bent at entry to avoid sprains. Ship Safety Service; February 1996

craft

are,

lifeboats,

rescue

If danger threatens, the master will order one or more survival craft to be prepared even before there is any immediate threat to passengers or crew. However the possibility cannot be excluded, that an accident at sea happens and creates a dangerous situation so suddenly that action has to be taken with all possible speed. Preparing the survival craft is therefore practised at the specified short intervals just as realistically as it would have to be done in an emergency. At every practice, just as in an emergency, there are certain basic rules to be observed which are clearly demonstrated in the example that follows: 6. 2. 1 Preparing and launching lifeboats Sequence of events of a boat drill (practice or emergency) If it is a practice announced beforehand

drill,

it

will

have

been

113 Master:

bridge sounds general emergency alarm ••••••------

Head of operations:

Head of operations: receives the service task from the master: „ Carry out a boat drill" Unit leaders: muster station carry out check whether everyone is present and report the result to the Head of operations: unit all present or unit members missing. Note. The crew members put on their life jackets only when ordered to by the unit leader. On passenger ships when the general emergency alarm has been sounded the passengers proceed to the assembly positions allocated to them. Those who have been in the cabins bring their life jackets with them to the assembly position. Passengers who do not bring a life jacket are given one from the reserve stowed near the assembly position. Passengers put on their life jackets as soon as they have arrived at the assembly position. The crew members detailed for this, check that every passenger has a life Head of jacket and that it is being worn operations: correctly.

Unit leader:

Head of operations: Note:

Master; Unit leader:

6. 2. 2 Preparing and launching liferafts ATTENTION! In contrast to the lifeboats, practices with liferafts are generally not possible on board, as after every time they have been used these have to be taken to an approved workshop to be made ready for use again. The following explanation therefore applies to emergencies. Launching a liferaft by hand When the order is given to launch a liferaft, the following actions are to be carried out:

Following receipt of the report, issues the task to the unit leader: „ defense unit (or: support unit), prepare and turn out No.... lifeboat!" In the case of lifeboats which can be manned in the stowed position, the turning out is omitted. Has lifeboat No.... - prepared inside and outside in the stowed position, - turned out and lowered to the embarkation deck by his unit. The details depend on the fact with which type of lifeboats and launching appliances the ship is equipped. He then reports to the Head of operations:.. lifeboat No.... ready for manning and lowering. " passes on the readiness-report the master on the bridge.

Gives the order: " Man lifeboat No....!" No lifeboat, rescue boat or liferaft is launched without an order form the master! The order to launch is given by the master directly to the unit leader: "Unit leader, this is the master, lifeboat No.... LAUNCH!" On receipt of the order LAUNCH, action is taken as appropriate to the boat and the launching appliance.

- in darkness, provide emergency lighting, - hang embarkation ladder over the additionally rig climbing nets, ropes or material suitable for climbing down, - check whether the release/painter line of the liferaft is secured to the ship, - cast off the lashing, (Fig. 6. 5)

side, other

- check whether the surface of the sea is free from obstructions, flotsam or leaked-out fuel, - throw the liferaft container over the side (Fig. 6. 6). Only when the container is floating in the water: - haul in the slack of the release/painter line until you can feel a resistance, as soon as the writing on the container becomes visible: - open the inflating-gas bottle by a sharp tug on the release/painter line, (Fig. 6. 7) once the lower, upper and canopy hose of the liferaft is inflated: - haul the liferaft in under the embarkation ladder, - man the liferaft, (Fig. 6. 7a) - cut the release/painter line with the knife hung near the embarkation point,

to

- use the single paddles to take the liferaft clear of the immediate vicinity of the ship.

The lifeboat is not manned until the Head of operations categorically orders this.

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114

The falls of the launching cranes are fitted with automatic-release hooks. There are several approved systems; the details of the system on board and how this is operated are to be taken from the operating instructions. When the order to launch the liferaft is given, the following actions are to be carried out: - hook-on the crane hook, cast off the lashings (Fig. 6.8)

Fig. 6.5 Remove lashing

Fig. 6.8 - secure tricing line and release/painter line, turn out liferaft

Fig. 6.6 Throw raft-container over board

Fig. 6.9 Fig. 6.7 Release gas bottles

- inflate by pulling on the release/painter line

Fig. 6.7a Man the liferaft

Fig. 6.10

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115

- man liferaft - cut tricing lines, lower away

Fig. 6. 11 - as soon as the raft is in the water, release crane hook - cut release/painter line and paddle away from the vicinity of the ship 6. 3 Survival craft propulsion systems The variety of approved propulsion systems on board makes it impossible to go into every detail in this manual. Study of the operating instructions available on board is therefore imperative.

The; device to make the handle kick-back-proof has the effect that the starting handle is not entrained - i.e. does not kick back - if the diesel engine does not go over TDC or starts to run backwards. Some older diesel engines have not yet been fitted with this device so extra care is needed when starting engines by hand. The following preparatory actions are to be carried out: - set fuel shut-off valve in " OPEN " position - open decompression valves - gear lever in neutral - engage starting handle - turn the engine over a few times to build up lubricating oil pressure and thus reduce friction - set speed adjusting lever in “ FULL SPEED “ position - initiate start with decompression levers open, build up adequate momentum by energetic turning over - close decompression valves by hand if there is no automatic closing arrangement - carry on turning until the engine starts.

6. 3. 1 Diesel engines Fuel and lubricating oil Because of the danger of only winterproved diesel fuel fuel.

paraffin precipitation, is to be used as

ATTENTION! The marine diesel fuel available on board for use by main or auxiliary engines is not always winterproved; for that reason a reserve of fuel for the life boat engines is kept on hoard. Down to -16 °C the boat engine fuel must not have a tendency to precipitate paraffin |cloud point -16 °C). Starting the diesel engine There are operating instructions provided on board for the lifeboat diesel engine; they are also in the training manual. As soon as possible after joining, every crew member is to be familiarised with the starting arrangements of the diesel engines. (See also § 8 UVV See) ATTENTION! If the lifeboat is not in the water, the watercooled engine may be run only in neutral and for no more than 5 minutes! Starting with a starting handle ATTENTION! Not every starting handle is kick-back-proof!

Fig. 6.13 Starting with starting handle Starting with a spring power starter The spring power starter is so constructed that the crankshaft is only turned through 3/4 of a turn with full torque. The best starting position for the diesel engine is therefore at "precompression" just short of TDC. The way to find this position is to turn the engine by starting

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116 handle with the decompression until strong resistance is felt.

valve

closed

ATTENTION! The spring power starter may only be operated with the decompression valve closed, otherwise It could be destroyed The following carried out:

preparatory

actions

are

to

be

- set fuel shut-off valve in “ OPEN “ position - open decompression valves - gear lever in neutral - engage starting handle - turn the engine over a few times to build up lubricating oil pressure and thus reduce friction - close decompression valves - turn the engine until there is noticeable resistance - remove the starting handle

1 Safety switch for main switch, motor switch, switch for internal lighting top light, radio-telephony apparatus

2 Control lamp for battery charge, oilpressure motor-temperature 3 Lever for speed control 4 Motor: stop 5 Motor: start

Fig. 6. 15 Operation and control console with electric starter 6. 3. 2 Petrol outboard engines

- set speed adjusting lever in " FULL SPEED" position - wind up the spring power starter

ATTENTION!

- operate the spring power starter

Water-cooled outboard engines must not started until the survival craft is in the water !

Fig. 6. 14 Loading of a spring starter by tension handlever Starting with electrical starting equipment The following carried out:

preparatory

actions

are

to

be

- set fuel shut-off valve in " OPEN" position - gear lever in neutral - set speed adjusting lever in " FULL SPEED" position - start the engine Should the electrical starting equipment fail, the engine is started by hand using the starting handle or by the spring power starter.

Fig. 6. 16 Starting outboard engines Ship Safety Service; February 1996

be

117 The following preparatory actions are carried out: - connect to the fuel tank - set fuel shut-off valve in the,, OPEN" position - pump up fuel with the pumping-ball - gear lever in „ NEUTRAL" - pull out CHOKE if there is one -turn speed-control twist-grip to „ START" position - start.

to

be

For a manual start, pull the starter cord slowly until the claws engage, then pull sharply. - once the engine is running, push CHOKE back in again 6. 3. 3 Maintenance and checking of propulsion systems Information concerning the execution of the maintenance work is contained in the operating instructions held on board. The checks to be carried out monthly cover the following points: - Is the fuel tank full and de-watered? If necessary top up with cold-proof fuel. Operate dewatering shut-off device. - Is the lube oil level as it should-be? If necessary top up with multigrade oil. - Is the battery liquid level as it should be? If necessary top up with distilled water. - Is the battery fully charged? If necessary top up the battery charge. - Does the electrical installation show signs of corrosion or other visible defects? If necessary take remedial action. - Clean off deposits of salt and dirt from surface of solar cells. - Is the diesel engine difficult to start? If necessary vent fuel line. After loosening the union nut on the fuel injection valve, the fuel injection system is vented by operating the fuel injection pump manually. In the case of some injection pumps additional venting can be achieved by means of a venting screw on the pump. Details are in the operating instructions. - Is it easy to engage the gears so that the propeller can be turned in both directions? If any defects are identified, make sure that remedial action is taken. ATTENTION! Before operating the gear lever, close off the danger zone around the propeller and make it safe! - In the case of outboard motors, after running them flush the cooling system with fresh water.

6. 4 Sea anchors The purpose of the sea anchor is - to slow down the leeward drift of the lifeboat, and - to hold the bow of the boat up into the seas. The sea anchor is laid out using the hawser. This is veered at least far enough for the larger opening of the sea anchor to be submerged, because it is not until then that the anchor begins to hold. The distance of the sea anchor from the boat at which the boat's motion is least is established by trial and error. If the sea anchor line is not long enough, it is lengthened using the lifeboat's fixed painter. The tripping line must at the same time be lengthened with the heaving line provided in the lifeboat.

Fig. 6. 17 Functioning mode of the sea anchor 6. 5 Pyrotechnic distress signals Pyrotechnic distress signals are intended to draw the attention of any search and rescue craft in visual range to the lifeboats or -rafts and to facilitate their being found and recovered. Pyrotechnic distress signals contain explosives and can therefore if inexpertly handled cause serious injuries or damage life-saving appliances so badly that they can no longer be used. In all exercises the Head of operations must therefore see to it that if any unit members are given pyrotechnic distress signals, the unit leaders hand these to them personally, explain the operating instructions printed on them and above all indicate the correct firing direction. Pyrotechnic distress signals have only a limited approved service life; once this has expired they can no longer be relied upon to function properly. Date of manufacture and service life are printed on every pyrotechnic distress signal. The procedure in the event of misfires is: If ignition has not occurred after triggering, rocket parachute flares and hand flares are thrown into the water in the firing direction indicated by an arrow. Rocket parachute flares Operation of the rocket comprises the following processes:

parachute flare

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118 - read the operating instructions printed on the rocket parachute flare, - take up a firm stand for firing vertically upwards, - remove the rocket parachute flare from its wrapping, - hold the device with its red head and arrow pointing vertically upwards, clear of any obstacles, - take off the protective cap, - grasp the device firmly by its lower end, hold it above eye level with the arm slightly bent, pointing vertically upwards, and actuate the percussion fuse by pulling the ring. The flare fired vertically upwards unfolds its parachute and sinks down to the water at a speed of about 5 m/sec. Fired vertically, the ceiling is at least 300 m. The burning time is about 40 sec. In good visibility it can be seen for up to 25 nautical miles.

Fig. 6. 19 Hand flare Buoyant smoke signal When operating the buoyant following is to be noted:

smoke

signal

the

- read the operating instructions printed on the buoyant smoke signal, - remove the buoyant smoke signal from its wrapping, - remove the protective cap.

Fig. 6. 18 Rocket parachute flare Hand flare Operation of the following processes:

hand

flare

comprises

the

- read the operating instructions printed on the hand flare, - remove the hand flare from its wrapping,

Fig. 6. 20 Buoyant smoke signal

- unfold the handle and let it lock,

Only aircraft can sight over greater distances.

- remove the protective cap,

6. 6 Lifebuoy

- extract the cord of the yank-fuse,

The lifebuoy serves as a swimming-aid for anyone who has fallen overboard; in addition it marks the spot of the accident.

- hold the hand flare over the side to leeward, turn your head away to avoid injury from sparks, - yank the fuse. The hand flare burns for about one minute. In good visibility, it can be seen for about 10 nautical miles.

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buoyant

smoke

signals

In an emergency the lifebuoy is immediately to be taken out of its mounting and thrown overboard in the direction of the person in the water. If the lifebuoy is equipped with an electric night light, that is taken out of the mounting and thrown over the side together with it. The night

light on reaching the upright position in the water makes a mercury switch, causing the filament lamp to be supplied with power from the internal battery. If at the shout of,, man overboard" someone on watch on the bridge pulls out the locking-pin of the bridge-wing mounted lifebuoy, this slides out of its mounting taking its light/smoke signal outboard with it. Light and smoke are produced automatically as soon as the device is in the water. When work outboard is in progress, near the gangway and when embarking the pilot a lifebuoy with its line is to be kept ready for throwing as a precaution. The end of the line must be left lying clear, so that it can be held onto when the buoy is used. 6. 7 Line throwing apparatus The purpose of the apparatus is to provide a link by line from one ship to another or to the shore. When operating it, the operating instructions provided with the apparatus are to be complied with carefully.

119

- turn the twist grip of the firing device into the loading position (BLACK on BLACK), - push the line-throwing rocket into the barrel up to the stop, - take up a stand 1 m behind the line box, - grip the firing device with both hands, label upwards, forward hand behind the guard ring - hold the firing device alongside the body at thigh level, firing angle about 20° above the horizontal, never aim over the barrel! - fire the shot by turning the twist grip to the left in the direction of the arrow (RED on RED). Time and place of the firing is determined by the master or his representative. Strong wind can affect the trajectory and result in misses. A miss can also result if the operator is not standing securely and the ship is rolling heavily in a seaway. Handling of the line-throwing apparatus is to be explained during the regular safety exercises. A practice shot with charge and line is only possible and approved if an appliance for faking down the used line properly and an extra charge is held on board. 6. 8 Radio life-saving appliances 6. 8. 1 Emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB) While at sea emergency position indicating radio beacons are mounted in stowages on the compass platform or somewhere near the bridge. Switching-on in emergency is possible either at the appliance or by remote control. Other possible means of activation are by detaching a connecting cable, lifting out of the stowage, throwing over the side and lastly by automatic floating to the surface if the ship sinks.

Fig. 6. 21 Graphic operating instructions for „ Comet 250" For example: - remove the lid of the line bin and put it to one side, - secure the (GREEN) end of the line coming from the bottom to a firm point on board near the firing point,

When abandoning ship the emergency position indicating radio beacon must be taken into one of the survival craft used. Light weight (maximum 10 kg) and small size (about the same as a portable fire extinguisher) make this possible without a great deal of difficulty. If in totally enclosed lifeboats or -rafts it is difficult to mount the apparatus on the outside of the canopy, it can continue to operate alongside floating in the water. It is important that the apparatus transmits in the open. It should be screened from the satellite as little as possible by the survival craft or its equipment. However a connection with the survival craft must be maintained by means of the painter fastened to the beacon, to prevent craft and beacon drifting apart. Emergency position indicating radio have a built-in power source which guarantees

beacons

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120 48 hours of operation in accordance IMO performance standards. The radio beacon can be switched off However this should in an emergency only if and when the rescue of all the is assured before the 48 hours are up.

with the manually. be done castaways

6. 8. 2 Radar transponder for search and rescue While at sea radar transponders are mounted in stowages around the bridge, at the muster station or near the survival craft. In an emergency they must be taken along into the survival craft. They can float, but must not be operated from the surface of the water as the range for sea search and rescue attainable from there is too short, particularly in a seaway. Switching the radar transponders on and off can only be done manually. The switch is so marked that even an untrained person can operate the appliance. Readiness to operate and activation by an external radar are indicated by light emitting diodes. Details regarding operation and operational control are obtainable from the operating instructions held on board. The power reserve is sufficient for 8 hours continuous operation. If several appliances are available, it is advisable to operate only one at a time so as to save the power reserves. As the range is determined by the height of the aerial above the surface of the water, the appliance must be set up as high as possible. If the survival craft has no permanent fitting for this, a mast, boat's oar or something of that sort can be used as a temporary mounting for the radar transponder. The radar transponder signal is an international distress signal, so radar transponders must not be switched on except in an emergency. This is only done on the orders of the master or his representative - in the survival craft, the coxswain. Switching the appliance on to test it, or for exercise, is permissible only exceptionally if there are no other vessels within radar range. The appliance must only be left switched on for a few seconds, until the interrogation indicator lights up and the transponder signal has been observed on the ship's own radar. 6. 8. 3 Portable two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus Two way VHF radiotelephone apparatus are for survival craft to communicate with one another, with the ship, and in emergency with search and rescue craft. They can also be used in day-to-day operation of the ship for internal exchange of operational

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

information, e. g. when casting off or making fast, or for anchoring manoeuvres. The appliances are approved and meet the IMO performance standards. The appliances consist of - transmitter - receiver - microphone - loudspeaker, plus - aerial and - battery/ies all installed in one casing. The operator's controls are mountedon the casing. The on/off switch is so designed that it is visually recognisable whether the appliance is switched on or off. There is a control for adjusting the sound level of the receiver. There is a channel selection switch for selecting the frequencies; manual tuning is not necessary. There is a noise level regulator for suppressing the disruptive noise. All usable VHF channels are simplex channels: the same frequency is used for transmitting and receiving. Pressing the speech key switches the transmitter on, the receiver off. Once a message has been transmitted the speech key must be released so that the receiver is switched on again. For VHF radiotelephone communication in emergency, channel 16 is to be selected using the rapid selection key. As soon as communication has been established with a search and rescue unit, the person in charge of the ship or aircraft decides which channel is to be used. ATTENTION In order to conserve the limited reserves of power, strict radio discipline is to be observed. The radiotelephones are to be used only briefly for radio communication between the survival craft; otherwise switched on only if search and rescue craft are in the vicinity. That can be determined from the indication of the radar transponder. For use in routine ship operation, rechargeable nickel-cadmium cells are used; for use in distress, lithium cells. These are coloured luminous yellow/orange. In an emergency the Ni-Ca cells must be removed and replaced by Li cells before any RT communication is undertaken.

121 6. 9 Distress signals The distress signals are laid down internationally in Appendix IV of the Regulations for Preventing Collisions (COLREG). Transmitted individually or collectively by seagoing vessels or aircraft on the water, they signify distress and the need for assistance. They may only be used or displayed in emergencies. The use of signals which could be mistaken for distress signals is prohibited and is punished as an Infringement of the regulations.

- flare-type signals on the vessel, e. g. burning tar barrels, oil drums or the like, - a red rocket parachute flare or a red hand flare, - a smoke signal making orange smoke, - slow and repeated raising and lowering of the arms stretched out to both sides, - the radio-telegraphy alarm signal,

Distress signals are:

- the RT alarm signal,

- gun fire or other explosive signals at intervals of about a minute, - continuous sounding of a fog signal apparatus, - rockets or flares with red stars separately at short intervals, - the morse signal •••--- ••• (SOS) transmitted by radio-telegraphy or as signal in some other form, - the spoken word „ MAYDAY" on the RT, - the distress signal NC of the international code of signals, - a signal consisting of a rectangular flag with a ball or something that looks like a ball above or below it,

- the radio signals radiated by an emergency position indicating radio beacon (EPIRB), - the radio signals radiated by a radar transponder. Additionally attention is drawn to the following signals: - a piece of orange sailcloth with a black square or circle or some other similar sign (for recognition from the air), - a dyed patch of sea water.

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122

1. The RT signal consisting of the spoken word "MAYDAY".

2. The Morse signal ••• ——— ••• (SOS) made by radiotelegraphy or some other means of transmission.

3. Rockets or Very lights with red stars, singly at short intervals.

4. A red parachute light rocket or a red hand flare

5. A smoke signal giving off orange smoke.

6. Gunfire (detonator) or other explosive signals at intervals of about one minute.

7. Continuous sounding of a fog-signal device.

8. The distress signal (flags) "NC" of the International Code of Signals.

9. A signal consisting of a square flag, above or below a ball or something similar.

10. Flare-type signals on the vessel, e. g. burning tar barrels, oil drums or the like.

11. Slow and repeated raising and lowering of the arms stretched out to both sides.

12. Radar transponder signal.

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Fig. 6. 22 Distress signals

123

7. Conduct during Lifeboat Exercises and in Emergency Preliminary remarks The success of a safety exercise depends on how well the individual participant is prepared for his task. Only he will collaborate willingly who knows his place in the scheme of things, is familiar with the moves to be expected and within the unit can make his contribution to success. Every training measure must take this fact into account. So here also the valid guiding principle is only he succeeds who keeps calm obtains an overview acts with careful consideration. The purpose of the exercises carried out on board is, to prepare for an emergency. Course and content of the exercises are to be directed at that objective. The trainer must therefore - plan every exercise carefully, - prepare those taking part theoretically, - demonstrate details practically, - let every individual practise, - supervise the combined exercise, - in a final discussion, point out mistakes made and explain the correct conduct. From this training manual for the ship security service, based on the equipment in one's own ship, an exercise plan can be compiled. Once written down and posted on the main noticeboard, in the messes or in other suitable places it is available to every member of the crew. New arrivals on board must have their attention drawn to it during their initial instruction. As the exercise requires a large number of individual activities, these must be well-known, their execution practised and the way in which those taking part collaborate made quite clear. If possible, everyone should be familiar with all activities. Exchanges of function must be practised. This involves being shown how to do it right and doing it again until every move can be carried out confidently. Before every exercise, all the details are settled in a preliminary discussion. This includes the scope, course in time, composition of the units, muster station and the appliances and installations to be used. An interesting, realistic structuring of the exercise encourages a positive attitude in those taking part. Everyone taking part must at the end of the exercise have the feeling that he is better prepared for emergencies than he was.

The effectiveness of exercises is checked in the follow-up discussion. The comparison between how they actually went and how they were planned brings facts to light which form the basis for the shaping of subsequent exercises. 7. 1 Handling lifeboats and liferafts The smooth cooperation of all crew members during exercises as in emergencies can lead to success only if everyone KEEPS CALM RETAINS AN OVERVIEW ACTS WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION Everyone must be able to rely on everyone else. 7. 1. 1 On board Calm and orderliness are the most important prerequisites for the success of a manoeuvre, whether during exercises or in an emergency. On the way to the muster station position hurry and haste must be avoided, particularly around stairs, ladders or coamings. At the muster station, tasks or instructions are accepted attentively. If an instruction is not understood, it is queried at once. Every instruction is repeated back and then immediately carried out conscientiously. There is no conversation of any kind, to avoid disturbing the unit leaders as they issue tasks and instructions. There is no discussion about content or execution of tasks or instructions. 7. 1. 2 Embarking The Head of operations instructs the unit leader to man the life-saving appliance. The unit leader supervises the orderly embarkation. He determines the order in which people embark. The positions in the boat important for the lowering process, are taken by crew members who are familiar with and experienced in the manipulation, and able to communicate verbally with the unit leader. Everyone climbing into the boat is helped by someone already in it. Families remain together. Passengers, children and casualties are treated with special care. Everyone sits down in the appointed place. Noone stands on the thwarts. In open lifeboats everyone on board holds onto the lifelines. Before climbing into free-fall boats, life jackets are taken off and stowed forward in the boat.

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124 Then the places are taken up and the safety belts buckled-on. The supplementary equipment is stowed in the life-saving appliance, located firmly and lashedin. Personal luggage is taken along only if of a kind useful for survival in distress, such as warm clothing. As soon as everyone is on board and in the right place, the unit leader reports execution of the instruction to the Head of operations. The Head of operations reports to the master. 7. 1. 3 Launching and casting off The master gives the order „ lower away! " The unit leader independently initiates lowering the boat and casting off. The bowsing and tricing are only operated on the orders of the unit leader. All occupants of the boat remain seated at all times. Only for tasks which can only be carried out standing-up is it permissible to stand up for a short time. In enclosed survival craft the unit leader provides the occupants with a running commentary about the situation while the craft is being lowered. In free-fall lifeboats, after belting-in the pressed firmly against the neck support boat is in the water. No-one puts his hand between the boat ship, or uses his hands to try to bear-off hitting against the ship's side.

head is until the and the the boat

The lifting hooks are disengaged simultaneously at the command of the unit leader, unless he does this himself using the central release gear. The lifelines are let go only after the hooks have been released, and in the case of motor boats handed aft, clear of the screw. The boat tackle blocks, dangling from the falls after release from the lifting hooks, have to be watched. If the survival craft is under threat from overhanging parts of the ship or the propeller, it is to move off ahead at once. 7. 1. 4 Launching and recovery with the ship under way Only lifeboats launched in free fall over the stem can be got into the water safely even when the ship is going ahead. Launching boats which are lowered from davits on falls on the other hand is a difficult and dangerous manoeuvre when the ship is going ahead. It is only to be considered for extreme emergencies.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Any angled pull on the davits must be absolutely avoided; they are not designed for such loading. This is achieved by having a precisely-measured painter of adequate strength, which, once the boat is in the water, holds it exactly vertically underneath the davits. It is not slipped until the lifting hooks have been disengaged. The boat must be released either just before or immediately after reaching the water, by means of the central release gear for the lifting hooks. If this is done too late, the boat is dragged bowsunder or the davits are damaged by the angled pull. If it is done too soon, the boat drops into the water which may cause serious injuries to the occupants. As on modem ships life- and rescue boats under davits are mostly mounted near the stem and thus only a short distance from the propeller, such manoeuvres retain an extraordinary element of danger even if carried out with the greatest circumspection. If the ship management nevertheless considers that launching while the ship is travelling ahead must be practised, the following additional precautions are to be taken: - Practices are to be carried out with a ship's officer in charge, under the best possible conditions for supervision, in still water. Even only a slight sea brings additional difficulties and dangers. - Practices are if possible to be carried out when the ship is loaded to its deepest draft. That above all reduces the danger from the propeller. - Should an incident occur, it must be possible to give immediate assistance to the boat launched for practice. A second boat must therefore be kept ready for launching. - At a preliminary discussion, the ship's officer in charge of the practice gives detailed instructions regarding its execution. He satisfies himself that every member of the crew involved understands what he has to do. - The only crew members in the boat are those essential for launching it and casting off. - Everyone in the boat wears a survival suit and life jacket. - The skates are removed before lowering. - In the case of totally enclosed lifeboats, all openings are closed before lowering. - RT communication using VHF radiotelephones is established between the bridge, the person in charge of the practice and the boat's coxswain before the launch and maintained throughout the practice. - The boat is lowered with the engine running.

125 - The ship's propeller is not turned during the launch or while the boat is still in the danger zone. The experience gained in the practice is to be enhanced in a final discussion. Detailed documentation of the course and result of the practice is recommended. Records on video or film, and photographs, are useful aids for the preparation of future practices. As even in future it is unlikely that merchant ships will be equipped with swell-compensating gear for the survival craft launching and recovery appliances, any attempt to recover a boat in a seaway has little chance of success. The ship management decides case-by-case, taking into account the possibilities existing, whether a lifeboat can be used, whether it has to be towed until conditions have improved, or in the most unfavourable case whether it has to be abandoned. If the ship is rolling heavily, recovery of a boat is not to be attempted. Boats can be towed at slow speeds of up to 5 kn. Ships with sufficiently powerful cargo-handling gear can in the first instance bring lifeboats back on board temporarily using that gear and then transfer them back into their stowage position under the launching appliances when conditions have improved. 7. 1. 5 Running lifeboats Immediately after entering the water, a lifeboat must leave the danger zone around the damaged ship as quickly as possible. The biggest danger to the boat and its occupants comes from the damaged and sinking ship itself, by its capsizing, by explosions, the deck cargo going over the side, drifting pieces of cargo or the wreck, and fuel leaking out. The best course is at right angles away from the damaged ship. Motor life- and rescue boats can in still water reach speeds of up to 6 knots. In a seaway or when towing other survival craft, that speed will not be reached. Damaged ships usually drift athwartships to the sea. A boat launched on the leeward side thus seems to,, stick" to the ship's side, but by going full ahead and putting the rudder hard over it can be manoeuvred clear. Propeller nozzles are particularly effective as rudders. Care is however necessary when putting the rudder hard over, to avoid the boat going out of control. If there is a fuel leak from the damaged ship, that part of the water surface must be avoided or left immediately. In the case of open boats, fuel being swept into the boat makes it so slippery that those in it can no longer hold on to it. Heavy fuel in the face glues up eyes and ears and gets

into the respiratory organs. That can quickly lead to a life-threatening condition. Persons and life-saving appliances floating in the water are approached upwind, carefully, and at moderate speed. Liferafts automatically lie to a sea anchor. When approaching them, the sea-anchor line must be watched for to avoid the propeller becoming fouled. The fuel reserve of a motor lifeboat is sufficient for 24 hours' continuous full-speed operation. However lifeboats are not to travel significant distances under power. After leaving the danger zone, picking up any persons drifting in the water, assembling the other life-saving appliances and laying the sea anchor the engine is stopped to save fuel. The strain on the boat's occupants from the noise of the engine running at full power can be considerable. For that reason also, the engine must be run at reduced speed whenever possible. If the boat is equipped for operating the portable radio apparatus (converter and socket), the engine is run slowly in neutral when the set is in use. 7. 2 Survival in distress Survival in distress is possible if the survival craft with the equipment accommodated in it has been brought into operation properly and all physical and mental forces are directed at the objective the rescue with deliberate application of the will to survive. Only he succeeds who KEEPS CALM RETAINS AN OVERVIEW ACTS WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION: 7. 2. 1 Conduct at the scene of the accident The first target of any search and rescue operation is always the last position of the ship reported by radio (distress position). Later, the search concentrates on the position determined at certain intervals by the emergency position indicating radio beacons and transmitted automatically. For that reason the survival craft always remain near the distress position. In every occupied survival craft a VHF radiotelephone is to be switched on and RT contact established with the other survival craft. The subsequent activities will then be under the control of the master or his representative. One of the emergency position indicating radio beacons is secured by means of the painter fastened to it and put into the water about 10m away from the survival craft.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

126 One of the radar transponders is fitted into the mounting provided for it or else in some other way set up as high as possible above the water and switched on. As soon as possible, a check of whether everyone is present is carried out. Until it has been established with certainty that everyone on board the damaged ship has been rescued, a lockout continues to be kept for persons floating in the water and any such picked up. So that shouts for help can be heard, there is no unnecessary conversation in the survival craft. In open lifeboats, all occupants remain in their places except for two who help persons in the water to climb aboard or lift them inboard. The place for this is midway along the boat, where the freeboard is least. To avoid excessive list, particularly in the case of small boats, the other occupants move over to the opposite side to counteract the list. Persons who are weak, unconscious or suffering from hypothermia are brought alongside and lifted into the boat horizontally by several helpers. The remainder of those in the boat counteract the list. In the case of enclosed boats without a recovery platform, the forward entrance is opened for the lockout and the side opening for embarking people. All occupants remain belted-in in their places, apart from the lockout and two crew members for attending to persons floating in the water. Heaving lines are kept ready and the ladder is brought out. The helpers always protect themselves with heaving lines before undertaking any further measures. In the case of enclosed boats with a recovery platform aft, all occupants remain belted-in in their places except for the lockout in the opened for'd entrance and two helpers who climb out onto the recovery platform when the boat gets near the person to be rescued. These helpers beforehand protect themselves with life jacket and heaving line against falling overboard. The person to be rescued is pulled to the stem, brought parallel to the flat stem floating horizontally in the water and pulled or rolled onto the platform. The survival craft drifting around the scene of the accident remain close together and are linked by lines, e. g. the fixed painters. If necessary, survival craft without engines are brought together by a boat with an engine. The painter provided can be used for towing; it is carefully made fast to both craft. Only bitts, cleats or lifting hooks strong enough to take the strain of towing are used for this. On liferafts, the towrope may only be fastened to the towing fitting (bridle). Unoccupied lifeboats and -rafts are also secured, as they contain equipment important and valuable for survival. Ship Safety Service; February 1996

The sea anchor prevents the survival craft being drifted a great distance by the wind. If the sea anchor has been lost, in each case a replacement is to be constructed from suitable objects and laid. Properly laid and veered far enough for the larger opening to be submerged, the sea anchor keeps the bow of a lifeboat head on to the wind and sea. That is the most comfortable and safest position, best achieved with the laid sea anchor and steering oars. As soon as these measures have been completed, watches are organised and rudder and lockout manned continuously. The lockout is not only to report the sighting of search and rescue craft, but also pay attention to changes in the weather. This for instance makes it possible to make timely preparations to catch rainwater. 7. 2. 2 Conduct in the survival craft The castaway is in danger from wetness, wind, cold or heat and insolation. He must therefore do everything he can to protect himself against these dangers. In open boats, only the cover which is part of the equipment provides protection, this is therefore rigged as soon as possible. If the weather permits, the climatic conditions in the survival craft can be improved by opening or closing ventilation flaps or access openings. It is important for the wellbeing of the occupants that the survival craft is dry and clean. Any water that has got in or vomit, is therefore removed as soon as possible. Dry clothing is an important prerequisite for survival. Wet clothing is to be exchanged for dry; if there is none of that available the wet clothing is to be removed, wrung out hard and then put on again. Chilling greatly saps the strength, so all possibilities for preventing loss of heat are utilised. The survival craft occupants move close to one another, wrap themselves together in woollen blankets, turn their backs to the wind. Survival suits are always to be kept on. The temperature inside them can be adequately adjusted by opening or closing the zip. Head, neck and eyes are particularly at risk to become sunburned and are therefore to be protected against this. Sitting still for a long time adversely affects the circulation. Individual limbs can,, go to sleep". Small-movement exercises are of some help, but every movement consumes energy, which in the survival craft can only be replaced to a limited extent by eating and drinking. Any work is

therefore considered deliberately.

carefully

and

carried

out

Seasickness leads to a generally weakened state. The anti-seasickness medicine is therefore taken every 6 hours. The occupants remain belted-in craft, or lash themselves in.

in

the

survival

If around the survival craft there is danger from sharks, nothing is done which could attract the animals' attention. Above all no garbage is thrown overboard and no parts of the body are dipped in the water. Equipment All measures for survival reach their limits in the composition and scale of the equipment provided in the survival craft. For that reason, an inventory-check is carried out at the first opportunity. If this should show that pieces of equipment are not adequately safeguarded against loss, straightaway everything possible is done to prevent loss or damage from wash of the sea. Each item of equipment is returned to its stowage immediately after use and secured there, so that when required at any time it can be found at once. First aid box for survival craft Survival craft are equipped with a first aid box. These boxes have a watertight closure and are sealed to ensure completeness and good condition of the contents. Scale and composition of specified. Every box contains:

the

first

Fig. 7.1 First aid box inventory

aid

kit

is

127

It is recommended that a copy of the first aid leaflet published by the German Red Cross be put by the first aid equipment. Opiates or included.

other

narcotic

medicines

are

not

Use of the first aid equipment Action in emergency must be based on the assumption of a lengthy stay in the survival craft. That means the first aid equipment has to be used sparingly. -

The analgesics (pain killers) and the antiseasickness medicine are issued in accordance with the instructions to be found on the packaging or in the accompanying leaflet. - The anti-seasickness medicine is to be taken already before the onset of the rocking that leads to seasickness, before leaving the ship or as soon as possible after the survival craft has been launched. The times when it is to be taken are to be obtained from the leaflet with the medicine. - Anti-seasickness suppositories are for people who cannot keep tablets down because of continuous vomiting or who are in a dangerous condition because of long-lasting seasickness. - PH5-Eucerinsalbe is a non-irritant, mild skin cream. It is used to treat dryness and chafing of the skin. Minor wounds can be dealt with Eucerinsalbe and an adhesive dressing. - Sticking plaster is used for keeping dressings in place. - The purpose of the bandaging cloth (black, triangular) is to protect bandages to immobilise broken arms to secure splints or similar aids in cases of broken bones to act as tourniquet in cases of arterial bleeding. The first aid leaflet published by the German Red Cross contains many examples of how to use the triangular cloth. - Dressing packs are used to treat more serious and bleeding wounds. The size is to be so chosen that the wound can be covered completely. - The scissors are for cutting sticking plaster and adhesive dressings to size. - Bandages or bandaging cloths can be fixed with the safety pins. Medicaments for widening the coronary vessels (e.g. Nitrolingual capsules) are given to people with cardio spasms (angina pectoris) in accordance with the instructions on the package or the leaflet with it. Crush the capsule and let the contents act on the tongue.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

128 - Leather finger stalls are for putting on over bandages on fingers if tasks are necessary which involve using the hand. Food in the survival craft Survival in distress at sea is decisively dependent on how the drinking water, the provisions and the materials additionally brought along are subdivided and used. Man can survive for 3 minutes without oxygen, for 3 days without water and for 30 days without food. A person normally needs 2.6 litres of water per day. If in the first 24 hours after the start of the distress nothing is drunk, the body reduces its requirement to 0.8 litres per day. As 0.3 litres per day are produced by personal metabolism, that leaves a daily requirement of 0.5 litres which has to be met by drinking. Body fluid is lost by sweating, the passing of urine or faeces, vomiting or remaining in the water for lengthy periods. Alcohol binds body fluids. Drinking sea water results in death from lack of water - the salts in sea water bind body fluid before they can be expelled. To expel 100 g sea water, the body is deprived of 120 g fresh water. The following rules therefore apply to the issuing of drinking water and provisions: - During the first 24 hours no water is issued, except to children and casualties. - On subsequent days, a daily water ration of 0. 5 litres is issued subdivided into three portions, in the morning, at midday and in the evening. - Drink every ration of water slowly in sips; first moisten Ups, oral cavity and pharynx and gargle. - If the reserves of water are getting low, the last days' ration is stretched further to 0. 1 litres per day. - Every possibility for obtaining fresh water is exploited. For catching rain water, the salt crusts are first removed from the catchment. Even the flesh of fishes can be squeezed dry. - The distribution of dry provisions depends on the quantity of water available. The dry provisions provided in survival craft are solid nutrient bars (Feststoffnahrungsriegel). One bar per person is issued every 5 hours. - Castaways have also supported themselves successfully on fish, sea birds and turtles. - Do not drink sea water! - Do not drink alcohol! The will to survive The attitude of the unit leader is decisive for the collective seeing through of the distress situation. It is his task to keep alive the will to survive of the occupants of the survival craft, even if the situation appears almost hopeless.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

As soon as possible, the unit leader gives the occupants a situation report. In this he talks primarily about proximity of land, traffic density plus weather and climate around the distress position, and gives prominence to any circumstances which can reinforce the hope of an early rescue. The unit leader emphasises the proven reliability of the survival craft and its equipment. The unit leader gives his instructions clearly and using terminology easy to understand. He sees to it that the tasks arising are shared equitably among the occupants. The unit leader keeps an eye on all the occupants, to be able to intervene encouragingly at once if there are signs of anxiety or aggression. In these endeavours he involves those occupants who are mentally and physically up to being stressed, and induces them to help the weaker ones. Clear and strict leaderhips and close cohesion of the unit form the basis for survival in distress at sea. Sighting rescuers The appearance of search and rescue craft can cause discipline to break down, excitement and rashness to break out, and thereby in the last minute endanger the successful conclusion of the rescue operation. This situation places a special burden on the unit leader. He must use all available means, in particular the support of the more circumspect of the occupants, to ensure that everyone in the survival craft remains calm and collected. The transmission indicator of the radar transponder lighting up will often be the first sign of the approach of search and rescue craft. That is an indication that the search radar of an assisting ship has already locked onto the survival craft or will shortly do so. The first thing now is to switch on the VHF radiotelephone and send a distress report; after that the set is switched to receive. If there is no answer from the searching craft, the distress report is repeated after a few minutes. The lockout is backed up. Depending on the time of day, visibility and weather conditions, all signalling means are made ready. For bringing the castaways to the attention of the rescuers primarily sails, protective canopy, brightly-coloured clothing and the daytime signalling mirror can be used in daylight in addition to watching the radar and the distress radio traffic. During twilight or in darkness, the pyrotechnic signalling means are used.

129 In reduced visibility, whistles can be used.

the

horn

or

the

signal

As soon as a rescue craft approaches, it is to be clarified by the use of the VHF radiotelephone how the rescue is to be effected. The unit leader now explains the rescue method to be used, issues the necessary instructions and fixes the order in which the occupants will be rescued. No occupant leaves the survival craft unless invited to do so by the unit leader. 7. 2. 3 Rescue by helicopter Helicopters are eminently suitable for rescuing castaways. Only poor visibility and weather conditions with the risk of icing set limits to their deployment possibilities. The types used by Germany are primarily the proven SEA KING MK 41 and BELL UH ID. These have a range of 300 nautical miles. In addition to the crew they can if necessary carry a doctor. For search and aid, BREGUET ATLANTIK BR 1150 type aircraft are also used. They have a cruising speed of 280 kn and an endurance of 6 hours. Once these have found surviving castaways, they attempt to improve their circumstances by dropping distress equipment, and to facilitate their being found again by other search and rescue units. The canisters for dropping have colour markings and clear inscriptions. They contain for instance -

liferafts, emergency position indicating radio beacons, VHF radiotelephone or visual signalling equipment in black canisters, - food and drinking water in blue canisters. For helicopter rescues the following rules are to be observed: - If aircraft are heard or seen to be approaching, all possible means are used to attract their attention. - The radar transponder is switched on. - A distress report is made with the VHF radiotelephone. - In twilight or darkness pyrotechnic distress signals are deployed - rockets parachute flares only while the searching aircraft is some distance away; hand flares only if the aircraft approaches the survival craft. Additionally the lights in the boat or raft can be used to indicate its position. - In daylight and good visibility visual signalling means and smoke signals are used.

-

-

-

-

-

Before the helicopter rescue starts, anything projecting above the survival craft such as masts, aerials and the like is taken down. All occupants of the survival craft remain seated or lying down for as long as possible, to reduce the risk of capsizing due to the downwards-directed flow of air (downwash) from the helicopter rotor. While the rescue is in progress, engine, sea anchor or steering oars are used to hold the survival craft as steady as possible in the sea. The technician on board the helicopter operates the rescue winch. Its line is about 75 m long. As a rule a helper who takes charge of the rescue operation in the survival craft is winched down from the helicopter. His instructions are to be obeyed. If no helper is winched down, the unit leader determines the order of rescue of the occupants. Before someone from the survival craft grasps the rescue-sling hanging from the rope, this is briefly dipped into the water by the helicopter to dispose of any electrostatic charges. The helicopter winch rope must be held well clear of any obstructions. It must above all not hook in behind access flaps, clips, bitts or cleats. The unit leader checks that the rescue sling has been put on properly and then with his arms gives the signal to hoist away. Meanings are arms up, thumbs up HOIST AWAY or AFFIRMATIVE

arms horizontal, fists clenched

STOP

NEGATIVE arms horizontal, thumbs down There is no special signal for VEER AWAY as the technician on board can see for himself whether the winch rope can be veered. However the helicopter crew also understands the seafaring signals normally used to control a cargo winch. - As well as the rescue sling other appliances, like a rescue anchor, rescue net, rescue stretcher and ambulance hammock may be used.

7. 3 Rescue of castaways Every ship is by international law required to provide assistance to castaways. The specified life-saving appliances on board are suitable also for use in castaways rescuing. Ships are either equipped with a special rescue., boat or one of the lifeboats available carries the special equipment which allows it also to be used as a rescue boat.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

130 The rescue of castaways and measures during and following require special care and attention.

the welfare the rescue

Here again only he succeeds who REMAINS CALM RETAINS AN OVERVIEW ACTS WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION 7. 3. 1 Man overboard The successful recovery of someone who has fallen over the side calls for especially rapid and prudent action. As the casualty in most cases is not wearing warm clothing, let alone a survival suit, or wearing a life jacket, death from hypothermia can occur after quite a short time even with average air and water temperatures. Anyone who notices someone falling over the side - immediately throws a lifebuoy over the side, thereby marking the accident spot and at the same time offering the casualty a swimming aid, - immediately alerts the bridge. The report must be clear and precise, e. g. " MAN OVERBOARD STARBOARD SIDE AFT". All subsequent measures are then initiated by the officer on watch: -

The lifebuoy with the combined light/smoke signal (man overboard buoy) on the side of the ship in question is released. - The general emergency alarm is sounded. - Those on watch on the bridge keep the person who has fallen overboard in sight whatever happens. The crew members arriving at the muster station are immediately sent, with binoculars, to lockout positions higher up to provide a better lockout from there. - The officer on watch immediately initiates the procedure laid down in the manoeuvring diagram on the bridge, to steer the ship back to the accident spot. - The flag signal OSCAR is hoisted if there are other ships nearby. A priority report is made by radio. - One unit prepares the rescue boat for launching. - The rescue boat's crew puts on life jackets and survival suits. - Radio contact with the bridge is established by VHF radiotelephone and kept up throughout the entire rescue operation. - As soon as the ship has reached a position from which the person who has fallen overboard can be recovered, the master gives the order RESCUE BOAT LOWER AWAY!

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

- Having cast off, the rescue boat guided by the coxswain heads for the accident spot identified, or indicated by radiotelephone from the bridge, and takes the casualty on board. 7. 3. 2 Picking up castaways If the ship receives a distress report from a ship or aircraft, or a repeated sea distress report from another sea- or shore radio station, the ship management will establish at once whether assistance can be provided. If so, the course is laid for the distress position and the ship heads for this with all possible speed. The details of the procedures to be used for this are described in the „ SEARCH AND RESCUE" manual which is on the bridge. The passage to the distress position will often require so much time that the preparations for picking up the castaways can be considered and made without haste. Above all, compartments are prepared for accommodating the castaways; blankets and dry clothing are placed ready. The galley prepares wanning food. The sickbay is prepared for looking after injured or sick persons. The rescue boat is made ready as far circumstances permit. The ship management gives orders for the other necessary measures. As arrival at the distress position may well signal the beginning of a lengthy period of great stress for all members of the crew, the ship management will make provision for this also; for instance it will arrange the issue of a hot meal even outside the usual times, or order an additional rest period for the off-duty watchkeepers and the crew members detailed for daywork. Following arrival at the distress position notified by radio, the lockout is first of all backed up. The ship in concert with others in the vicinity will run search patterns to find the castaways depending on the time of day or night, the weather, visibility and other conditions. As well as the lockout being backed up, the radar set and radio equipment are kept permanently manned. Only when the castaways have been sighted by the lockout or the radar the general emergency alarm is sounded and then a start is made with picking up the castaways in accordance with the master's instructions. Apart from the order LOWER AWAY which is given by the master directly, the unit leaders are given their tasks by the Head of operations and carry them out independently.

131 7. 3. 3 Treatment of castaways In every case of rescue from distress at sea it must be expected with that the castaways are - totally exhausted, - suffering from hypothermia, - injured, and - act unconsciously and without control. For that reason all measures are so planned that cooperation from the castaways is not required. They are to be encouraged to remain totally still and passive, as active movement can lead to a worsening of their state of health. When being picked up from the water, the castaways are if possible to be individually lifted out of the water horizontally by several helpers and transported thus in the rescue boat and later transported and positioned on board. The transfer from the rescue-/lifeboat to the ship is if possible carried out in a horizontal position in the floatable marine-stretcher. Once the castaways have been embarked they are immediately laid down in a horizontal position and still in their wet clothing wrapped in dry blankets. Only after that are they moved to a compartment in which they are protected against being chilled further by the effects of the weather. This compartment is to be moderately warm but not overheated. (Air temperature 20 °C) The castaways are moved about as little as possible. They are on no account to walk and climb stairs or ladders but are carried. If a number of castaways are picked up, those whose health is most seriously adversely affected are treated first. In cases of unconsciousness, the respiratory tracts are cleared first of all. 7. 4 Hypothermia and its treatment 7. 4. 1 Hypothermia How does hypothermia arise? Man as an „ isothermal" living creature is capable under normal conditions of keeping his body temperature constant at 37 °C. This temperature control results from the combination of heat generation by the combustion processes arising in the course of the intake and digestion of food, and heat release through the skin, the lungs and bodily excretion. Hypothermia arises when the bodily heat generation is no longer sufficient to balance the heat release. Depending on duration and severity of the influence of the cold, the core temperature drops below the normal value of 37 °C.

The thermal conductivity of water is 10 times that of air. For that reason hypothermia develops correspondingly more quickly in water. Movement of the water due to current or seaway and own movement of the person when swimming, particularly in a panic, increases the heat release by the additional consumption of energy. As hypothermia progresses, the first effect is to reduce the circulation in the limbs, particularly the legs. These are therefore affected more than the vital organs of the trunk of the body. If a person suffering from hypothermia is moved about, or himself moves, the cold blood predominantly in the legs can get from there into the trunk and lower the core temperature further. This can cause critical deterioration of his condition, especially due to cardiac arrhythmia. If a person suffering from hypothermia is picked up in an upright position, the blood running down into the lower parts of the body can cause a reduction of the blood flow through the brain leading to dimming of consciousness. The disappearance of the hydrostatic pressure to which the body was subjected in the water has an additional adverse effect ascribed to it. This makes it all the more important that the castaway be kept in a horizontal position at all times during recovery and subsequent transport. 7. 4. 2 Treatment of hypothermia The nature of the first aid for cases of hypothermia depends on its severity. All measures are carried out under medical supervision or in consultation with the doctor ashore. Rapid warming by means of a hot bath or a hot shower can result in serious complications. Absolutely forbidden are: - hot showers, hot baths, - drinking of alcoholic beverages, - smoking, - rubbing of the limbs, - „ running to get warm", - pouring liquid into someone's mouth if they are unconscious. To permit an estimate of the severity of the hypothermia, the following questions are to be answered: - Is there muscle tremor? - What is the pulse rate per minute? - What is the respiratory rate per minute? - What state of consciousness is he in? - How long was the patient in the water?

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

132

- What was the water temperature? - If it can be measured, what is the rectal body temperature? First degree: Findings:

7. 5 Abandon ship in case of emergency

Rectal body temperature 34 °C to 37 °C. Often shivering. Pulse rate 60 to 80 per minute or more. Fully conscious. Often agitation. First aid: Do not move. Give plenty of hot fluids sweetened with sugar to drink. When the shivering has died down, dry but do not rub down. Provide with warm, dry clothing. The patient is to be kept awake by continuous conversation. No other measures necessary. Second degree: Muscular irregular.

The main danger is cardiac arrhythmias, particularly at core temperatures around 30 °C. First aid: If required, cardiac massage and mouth resuscitation. No other treatment.

mouth-to-

Wait until shivering starts. Then continue with first aid as for first degree of hypothermia. Third degree: Findings: Body temperature below 24 °C. Deeply unconscious. Pulse and breathing no longer, or scarcely, perceptible. First aid: Continue cardiac massage and mouth-to-mouth resuscitation for at least two hours, or until pulse and breathing restart if that is sooner. Particularly where the hypothermia is due to very cold water, successful resuscitation is possible even after a significant length of time. Further measures: Once life-threatening conditions have been eliminated by the First aid measures described above, any injuries are to be treated within the limits of the means available on board. Everyone who has spent a significant length of time in the water or suffered from hypothermia is after disembarkation to be admitted for observation for at least 48 hours to a hospital

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

If after a sudden accident at sea it becomes clear that the ship has to be abandoned, the first action is not to sound the general emergency alarm but rather to sound the abandon-ship signal. If it becomes clear that measures already introduced to save the ship such as firefighting or damage control, rendering the life-saving equipment safe, have been unsuccessful and the ship must be abandoned without delay, again the abandon-ship signal is sounded. The abandon-ship signal - a continuous

•- •-

•- •- •-

- calls on everyone on board to proceed to the survival craft at once.

•- •- •- •- •-

Findings: Body temperature 24 °C to 34 °C. rigidity. Pulse slow, often Consciousness clouded.

with intensive-care facilities life-threatening respiratory or renal disorders can arise even some considerable time after the rescue.

The abandon-ship signal is only sounded on the orders of master or his representative. This signal means that the method for preparing, manning and launching the survival craft provided for in the muster list and used in the regular safety exercises has to be departed from to a greater or lesser extent. Such a situation makes especially high demands on the unit leaders and everyone else on board. In this situation everything depends on everyone REMAINING CALM RETAINING AN OVERVIEW ACTING WITH CAREFUL CONSIDERATION: Abandoning Ship

•- •- •- •- •-

Following sounding of the signal the ship is to be abandoned quickly, safely and if possible without getting wet. Everyone proceeds to the survival craft; the survival suits and life jackets are put on. Any further instructions issued by the ship management, the Head of operations or the unit leaders are obeyed. If there are no, or only incomplete instructions, every member of the crew is required to use his own initiative. Should circumstances make it impossible to wait any longer for missing prospective occupants, the survival craft are launched even though they are unmanned or only partially manned. For anyone still wanting to embark it is now a matter of getting into the survival craft if possible without getting wet. Jumping into the water is always risky; it must only be done as a last resort. It is better to use rope ladders, rope's ends, lines, nets, hoses and suchlike hung over the side.

Disabled persons are given assistance as necessary. Personal property is left on board, but articles which might make survival easier may be taken along. This includes particularly warm clothing or blankets/rugs. The ship management sees to logbooks are saved as is mandatory.

it

that

the

In the water If it has not been possible to launch survival craft so that the castaways are floating in the water, specially high demands are made on the will to survive of every individual. However even in the cases of accidents at sea which happen very quickly, the automatic triggering of the sea distress alarm and transmission of the distress position by the emergency position indicating radio beacon will lead to the initiation of a search and rescue operation. The situation of the castaways is therefore serious but not hopeless. The very limited horizon which a person floating in the water has, places him under great mental stress. It is easier to bear this if the castaways remain close together and try to fetch in anyone floating further away, to join the unit. The members of the unit use lines to tie themselves to one another to make sure no one is lost, particularly in the dark. The greatest danger to human beings in the water is from hypothermia. If the body temperature drops below 37 °C, consciousness rapidly becomes clouded, then unconsciousness follows and finally death from cold. For that reason nor item of clothing, nor the life jacket, may be taken off. They also contribute to the retention of warmth. The zip-fastener of the survival suit must on no account be opened. Any water getting in would seriously reduce the insulating effect and make climbing into a survival craft later very difficult. The spray protection on survival suit or life jacket is put on. If possible, drifting with the face turned into the sea is avoided to prevent sea water being swallowed accidentally. Movement accelerates the loss of heat, so movements are restricted to the minimum necessary. The only stronger movements which are inevitable are those to take up a secure position in a seaway, to fetch persons drifting in isolation or to get away immediately from regions where the surface of the water is covered in fuel. Human contact is of great importance in this situation. Conversation, storytelling, concerted singing have proved effective in such situations

133

in keeping up people's spirits and delaying weakening from cold. If search and rescue craft are sighted no effort is spared to attract their attention, But even now; hectic and uncontrolled movements are to be avoided, as they rapidly cause fatigue. Beaching survival craft If it becomes necessary to beach the survival craft, the following measures are to be taken before and while traversing breakers: - The unit leader explains the sequence of events and gives the necessary instructions. - The sea anchor is laid at the full length of its hawser. Boats are turned head-to-sea. - All openings are closed. - The seat belts or makeshift safeguards are put on. Every occupant holds on to something solid. - All available means are used to prevent the boat broaching-to. - Following beaching, the survival craft is abandoned as quickly as possible. - The survival craft is made safe against drifting away. Attention in tidal waters! 7. 6 Sea distress alarm - Pyrotechnic distress signals Burning hand flares only makes sense if - the coloured sidelights of search and rescue vessels are visible, or - if aircraft are heading straight for the lifeboat or raft. Rocket parachute flares are to be fired as soon as the white toplights of search and rescue vessels are in sight. The capacity for safe use of the hands in emergencies may have been adversely affected by long-lasting cold. Therefore the greatest is to be exercised!

care

and

circumspection

7. 7 Sea distress alarm and bringing up rescue craft by means of radio equipment In emergencies the ship management will make every effort to set off the sea distress alarm by means of the ship's radio equipment and to establish radio contact with search and rescue units. The ship management is to announce, if this is possible before the survival craft are manned, whether it has succeeded in already establishing such a contact. If no time remains for this or the equipment has failed, the alarm will be raised automatically by the emergency position indicating radio beacon

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

134 as soon as the set is taken out of its mounting or floats free as the ship sinks. When abandoning ship, every effort must be made to remove the radio equipment from its mountings near the bridge and take it along to the survival craft. The equipment comprises - the emergency position indicating radio beacon (s) - the radar transponders - the VHF radiotelephones - the portable radio apparatus for survival craft. If the emergency position indicating radio beacon has already been launched it should if possible have the position updated and be taken into the survival craft or secured afloat alongside. If there are several beacons available, only one at a time is to be switched on to economise on power. The radar transponders will float, but are not to be operated floating as their position-indicating range in a seaway is inadequate. They must be mounted as high as possible above the survival craft to provide an adequate pick-up range for the radar on search and rescue craft. If there are several transponders available, only one at a time is to be switched on to economise on power. The VHF radiotelephones will not float, but are so constructed that spray or a brief contact with salt water or oil does not damage them. If the emergency has involved the use of several survival craft the first function of the radiotelephones is to establish radio contact between these. However the exchange of information is to be limited to essentials to save power. For that reason also, the survival craft are preferably to be kept close together. If the operation indicator of the radar transponder shows that search and rescue craft are within radar range, one radiotelephone is to be used to establish radio contact. This is best carried out by the holder of a general operators certificate, who knows the sea-distress procedures. If there is no one with that certificate in the survival craft, untrained persons also may use the radiotelephones in an emergency. If that is the case, the call-up is to be structured as follows (press speaking key!): MAYDAY MAYDAY MAYDAY DELTA ECHO (or: THIS IS) SURVIVAL CRAFT (or: LIFEBOAT/LIFERAFT) OF „ .....” (name or call sign or MMSI of the ship) WITH (number of castaways) SURVIVORS OVER (release speaking key) Ship Safety Service; February 1996

If there is no immediate answer, the call-up is to be repeated at about 5 minute intervals for as long as the transponder operation indicator remains alight. The reply could for instance be MAYDAY LIFEBOAT LIFEBOAT LIFEBOAT OF (name, call sign or MMSI) DELTA ECHO (or,, THIS IS") name, call sign of the search and rescue craft, repeated 3 times) WE HEAR YOU LOUD AND CLEAR STOP WE HAVE LOCATED TRANSPONDER SIGNAL

YOUR

RADAR

STOP WILL ARRIVE AT YOUR POSITION IN THIRTY MINUTES OVER (if confirmation is expected), or OUT (if there is to be no further radio communication for the time being) The search and rescue craft then takes charge of the radio traffic. Until further notice all stations in the surrounding area are obliged to keep radio silence unless they are invited to speak. cf. “Handbuch Seefunk” (Maritime Radio Manual) §§ 44 and 45,,, VOPunk" article 39 7. 8 Maintenance and repair Although all the sets and installations are made from the best of materials, because of the permanent pressure on them due to the severe weather conditions at sea they required continuous care and maintenance to be unrestrictedly usable in emergencies. Every partially or totally enclosed lifeboat or liferaft is provided with a user's and maintenance manual. The maintenance requirements of the individual installations are to be taken from the maintenance manuals on board. Repairs to survival craft are carried out by approved specialist firms. Repairs to lifeboats Temporary repairs by the crew to keep the lifeboat in usable condition are permitted. They are to be made permanent by a specialist firm as soon as possible. The technical installations of lifeboats such as the engine, gearing, clutch, shaft, propeller, electrical plant, fire protection and air supply systems are maintained in accordance with the

135 instructions necessary.

in

their

manuals

and

repaired

as

If survival craft of glass fibre reinforced polyester resin (plastics boats) are provided with a repair kit, the instructions included with this are to be followed. Damage to the foam-filled parts requires only sealing of the surface to prevent the ingress of water, buoyancy foam is a closed-cell material and will continue to keep the boat afloat whatever happens even though the surface has been damaged. Straightforward side- or bottom components can be dealt with like wood. It is also possible to use glass fibre and resin held on board for other purposes for the temporary repair of life- or rescue boats, provided the directions for use are obeyed.

Repairs to inflatable liferafts If inflatable liferafts are damaged in use, the following action can be taken: - Expose the damaged area, dry and clean it well. - Roughen the area thoroughly using glass paper. - Spread adhesive over the damaged area, leave to dry for 3 or 4 minutes, then spread more and leave to dry again. - Pick a repair-patch large enough to extend beyond the damaged area by at least 30 nun all round. - Remove the protective foil from the adhesive side of the patch and apply the patch to the damaged area with a rolling motion. Press it on using the fingers and go over it rubbing hard with a paper knife. - Wait for a few minutes, then inflate.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

137

8. Closing Remarks

This manual is the product of a thorough revision of the basic manuals Lifeboat Service Training Manual and Fire Defense Training Manual issued by the See-Berufsgenossenschaft.

composition and the qualifications of crews undergone substantial change. Wherever possible, proven material has retained. Newly-introduced parts have designed to match the old closely in form layout.

have

Numerous adaptations, changes and amplifications of the existing material became necessary because in the almost ten years since publication a host of changes had taken place in the regulations on which they were based, because ship construction and ship operation technology had made great strides forward and because, not least important, the numbers, the

The endeavor to be comprehensive conflicted with the need for clear and crisp formulation wherever possible.

been been and

The progressively ever closer interlocking of lifeboat service on the one hand and fire defense on the other made it appear imperative now to combine the two earlier manuals in a single unified one.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

139

9. Appendix 9. 1

Regulations important to the ship safety service on board The file (Schiffssicherheitsvorschriften) is part of the mandatory outfit and to be found on board every ship. It contains, among other things: - International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS '74 in the version of several addenda) - Decree concerning the safety of seagoing ships (ship safety decree) - Dangerous goods decree (sea) The file (Schiffssicherheitshandbuch) is also part of the mandatory outfit and predominantly contains instructions for the compliance with the said regulations.

Accessible to all crew members at all times by display in the messes are the - accident prevention regulations for enterprises engaged in shipping (UVV See) - Richtlinien und Merkblatter der SeeBerufsgenossenschaft Available on board is the - Verordnung liber die Gesundheitspflege auf Kauffahrteischiffen Generally not available on board are the Rules of the Germanischer Lloyd for Classification and Construction of Steel Seagoing Ships - Prufungs- und Zulassungsbedingungen der See-Berufsgenossenschaft

9. 2 Data concerning solid and liquid combustible substances (Table 1) Ignition point Flash point

Minimum combustion

Petrol/gasoline

210 °C to 260 °C

-45°Cto60°C

temperature/fire point ca. 1200 °C

Benzene

220 °C to 350 °C

- 11 °C

ca. 1200 °C

Diesel oil

425 °C

55 °C and higher

ca. 1100°C to 1300°C

Lubricating oil

ca. 300 °C

165 °C

ca. 1100°C to 1300 °C

Ethanol

ca. 200 °C

12 °C

ca. 1200 °C

Wood

ca. 455 °C to 510 °C

--

Paper

560 °C

--

Propane

--

Hydrogen

--

9. 3 Upper and lower flammability limits (Table 2) Flammability limit lower vol % 2 4

Propane Hydrogen Petrol/gasoline (as vapour) Ethanol (as vapour) Ammonia

ca. 1 3, 5 15

upper vol % 11,7 75, 6 ca. 7 15 30

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

9.4 Symbols for fire protection plans according to IMO-Resolution A.654(16) and DIN 0087903-02 Symbol

Item

Item 9.4.3 Means of escape

9.4.1 Divisions A class division

Primary means of escape Bulkheads

Secondary means of escape Decks 9.4.4 Fire pumps Fire pump

Additional the fire class according to SOLAS (AO, A15, A30, A60) shall be indicated.

Emergency fire pump

B class division Bulkheads,

9.4.5 Connections International shore connection

Decks

Additional the fire class (BO, B15) shall be indicated.

according

to

SOLAS

9.4.6 Valves Fire main with fire valves

Main vertical zone Section valve Indicate near the graphical symbol: D Drenchsystem S Sprinkle system F Foam system

9.4.2 Fire doors A class lire door A class fire sliding door

door,

A class fire door, self-closing

9.4.7 Fire extinguishing devices Sprinkler/water fog/ foam installation Indicate in the graphical symbol: S Sprinkler W Water tog F Foam

A class fire door, sliding door, self-closing

B class fire door

B class fire sliding door

Remote controlled fuel/lubricating oil valves

CO2 - battery

door, Halon 1301 battery

B class fire door, self-closing

B c lass fire door, sliding door, self-closing

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Halon 1301 bottles placed in protected area

Symbol

141 Item CO2-/ nitrogen bulk installation Indicate near the graphical symbol: C02 C02-installation N2 Nitrogen installation

Symbol

Item

Symbol

Portable foam applicator

Locker with High expansion foam supply trunk

fireman's outfit Locker with additional breathing apparatus

Powder installation Locker with additional protective clothing

Drenching system

Fire axe 9. 4. 8 Release stations, remote control

Inert gas installation

Release station Indicate near the graphical symbol: CO2 P Powder

Monitor

F Foam H Halon

Indicate near the graphical symbol: P Powder F Foam W Water

Remote control for fire pumps or emergency switches Indicate near the graphical symbol:

Powder hose and handgun

MFP Main fire pump EFP Emergency fire pump ES Emergency switch Remote ventilation shut off

Foam nozzle

Remote controlled skylights Hose box with Spray/jet fire nozzle

9. 4. 9 Alarm devices Push-button/

Portable fire extinguishers

switch for fire alarm

Indicate near the graphical symbol: H Halon

Horn fire alarm

P Powder W Water F Foam C02

Horn Indicate nearly the graphical symbol S Sprinkler alarm CO2 CO2 alarm

Wheeled fire extinguishers

H Halon alarm

The capacity in litre (1) or kilogram (kg) shall also be indicated near the graphical symbol.

Smoke detector

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

142

Item Symbol

Item Symbol

Heat detector

Space protected by Indicate near the graphical symbol: SPRINKLER C02

Flame detector

H Halon F Foam D Drenching system W Water fog

Gas detector

9. 4. 12 Equipment of the ship Emergency generator

Emergency telephone station Emergency switchboard Bell fire alarm Bilge pump Manually operated call point Emergency bilge pump

Fire alarm panel Control station

9. 4. 10 Closing appliances Fire damper in ventilation duct

Breathing air compressor

Closing appliance for ventilation inlet or outlet

Fire control plan

9. 4. 11 Space protection systems Space protected by automatic fire alarm

Fire station

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

143 9. 5 Engine room fires Example 1: MS CONTI BRITANIA was en route from Ravenna to Haiphong when on 23 August 1984 at 05.50 hours while she was in transit through the Suez Canal a fire broke out. The cause of the fire was established to be the parting of the main engine fuel distribution line at cylinder No. 1 by the pressure controller. The main engine is a MaK Diesel type 6M551AK. Diesel fuel under pressure spurted from the parted line and ignited on the exhaust system. As the ship was in convoy, the main engine could not be stopped at once; the fuel continuing to spurt out spread the fire. Early intervention by the personnel on watch, and firefighting using portable extinguishers had to be abandoned because of the strong smoke and heat generation. Not until the closed down state had been achieved and the engine room been flooded with CO2 did the crew get the fire under control. Various lighting fittings and cableways were damaged; subsequently repaired in Suez roads. There were no injuries to personnel. The technical supervisory service during its inspections pays particular attention to hot parts of the exhaust system being covered by sheetmetal-clad insulation. The parts not thus protected like thermometer stubs and flanges are to be so arranged or protected by guard plates that oil dripping onto them cannot ignite. The exhaust system sheet-metal cladding must be replaced immediately following completion of any repair work. Example 2: On 20. December 1986 an engine room fire broke out in the TMS MANDAN. The cause was ignition of fuel spurting out under pressure and getting onto hot parts of the exhaust system. At 21. 17 hours the alert was triggered in the officers' mess, where the chief engineer and the 2nd engineer were. The 2nd engineer immediately went to the engine control room to determine the cause of the alert. The chief engineer was informed by him by telephone that a fuel pipe to the port main engine was damaged, recognisable by the emergence of heavy fuel. The chief engineer then went to the engine control room. As he was putting on ear protectors he observed, through the window to the engine room, a flame flaring up in the port engine room. He shut off the engine room fan and the fuel transfer pump; then the quickclosing valves on the fuel tanks were shut and the other electrical emergency switches operated. The 2nd engineer informed the bridge, which at 21. 19 raised the fire alarm by means of

the fire alarm system. The main engines were declutched and stopped. The quick-closing valve controlling the fuel supply to the auxiliary diesel was opened again by the 2nd engineer to bring in the emergency lighting in lieu of the main lighting. The crew, alerted in the meantime, completed closing down and once it was clear that no-one remained in the engine room CO2 was released. This attempt at extinction was a success. After about 30 minutes the engine room fans were started again to draw off smoke and CO2 . The fire defense party extinguished a few still-glowing wooden planks on the platform of the cooling water tank. Following this, the engine room could again be entered without a breathing set and the search for the cause of the leakage started. When the fuel transfer pump was switched on, leaks due to defective 0-ring seals showed up at the fuel injection pump of cylinder No. 3 of the port main engine, i. e. at the pump flange of the fuel return line as well as at the flange of the fuel-return shut-off valve. Following repairs as necessary, and renewal of the turbocharger air filter the voyage was resumed at 23. 20 hours. An investigation by the technical supervisory service revealed that the 0-rings had deteriorated prematurely. These 0-rings in the fuel system must therefore be renewed at shorter intervals. In contrast to older ships, where the fuel arrives at the pump at a low temperature and under static pressure, it is nowadays necessary to work with high supply pressures and temperatures. The possibility of premature deterioration can therefore not be excluded. 9. 6 Obsolescent plant and appliances 9. 6. 1 Obsolescent plant and appliances for use in boats Portable radio apparatus for survival craft Until 1. February 1995, the equipment provided for many ships will include a portable radio set for survival craft. Where this is the case, it can continue to be used until 1. February 1999 in addition to the sets designated in the preceding sub-sections, as up to that day ships, aircraft and coastal radio stations will also remain equipped with transmitting and receiving units for the same frequencies and operating procedures. The portable radio set contains a transmitting and receiving unit for sending out sea distress calls and reports, plus DF signals on the international distress frequencies 500 kHz and 2182 kHz. Furthermore all information of significance to the execution of a search and rescue operation

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

144 can be received and transmitted. For this, the frequency 8364 kHz is additionally available.

The range of the solid-fuel rocket lies between 400 and 800 m.

The transmissions are received

Other obsolescent plant and appliances

- on 500 kHz by ships with radiotelegraph equipment, and by coastal radio stations, - on 2182 kHz by all ships of over 300 GRT and by coastal radio stations. The range varies, depending on the type of aerial and the height at which it is mounted. It is to be at least 25 nautical miles. The apparatus is housed in a bright-orange or bright-yellow casing. It may be dropped into the water from a height of up to 18 m, is waterproof and will float in the closed state. The apparatus is equipped with a telescopic or a wire aerial. For earthing, a copper cable with a sinker and an earthing clip is provided. For power supply, the apparatus has an integral hand-crank-operated generator or batteries. It may also be connected to a 24 V power supply by a connecting cable and powered by this. Many motor lifeboats have that supply. The radio apparatus can be set to work and operated even by an untrained person, if the operating instructions provided with it are carefully followed. Line-Throwing apparatus For the rescue of persons from grounded vessels, some coastguard stations are equipped with a line-throwing apparatus. This consists of a launching-stand, solid-fuel rocket, throwing line, rescue rope, tailblock with hauling line and breeches buoy.

Ship Safety Service; February 1996

Rigid Liferafts, Water System), Sails, Oars

Pressure

Releases

(old

9.6.2 Obsolescent plant and appliances for fire defense Protection of engine rooms by means of a halon-1301 fire-extinguishing system The use of halon 1301 has been prohibited since 1. January 1992. Ships whose keel was laid after that date may no longer be equipped with halon1301 fire-extinguishing systems. For existing ships, an interim regulation applies until 31. December 1998. How the system works Opening the door of the halon triggering station causes one switch to sound the halon alarm in the engine room and a second to switch off the engine room ventilation. By opening the handwheel-operated valve on one of the two control bottles and operating the associated control valve, the bottle valves of the halon bottles are opened by remote control. Safety notes When the halon alarm sounds, the engine room is to be abandoned as quickly as possible via the operating stairs or the emergency exits, and the way made to the muster station.