Kurdistan Regional Government Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Sulaimani Faculty of Physical and Basic Education School of Basic Education Department of English
AN INVESTIGATION OF KURDISH EFL LEARNERS’ ABILITY IN USING WORD STRESS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE COUNCIL OF SCHOOL OF BASIC EDUCATION/ FACULTY OF PHYSICAL AND BASIC EDUCATION/UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING
BY
MUHAMAD AMEEN HUSSEIN ABDULLAH (BA IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE/1987)
SUPERVISED BY
ASSIST. PROF. DR. ABBAS MUSTAFA ABBAS (PHD IN THEORETICAL LINGUISTICS)
1435H
2714K
2014AD
Supervisor's Report I certify that this thesis which is entitled (An Investigation of Kurdish EFL Learners’ Ability in Using Word Stress) was prepared under my supervision at the Department of English Language, Faculty of Physical and Basic Education, School of Basic Education, University of Sulaimani by the M.A candidate (Muhammad Ameen Hussein Abdullah) as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language Teaching.
Signature: Supervisor: Dr. Abbas Mustafa Abbas Scientific Rank: Assistant Professor Date: / / 2014
In view of the available recommendation, I forward the thesis for debate by the examining committee.
Signature: Name: Barham Sattar Abdulrahman Head of English Department Date: / / 2014
I
Recommendation of the Chairman of Scientific Committee In view of the available evidence and recommendation, I forward the thesis for debate by the examining committee.
Signature: Name : Dr. Nazar Shkur Shakir Scientific Rank: Assistant Professor Chairman of the Faculty Committee on Postgraduate Studies Date : / / 2014
II
Examination Committee Certification We , the examining committee, certify that we have read this thesis entitled (An Investigation of Kurdish EFL Learners’ Ability in Using Word Stress) and as Examining Committee, examined the student (Muhamad Ameen Hussein Abdullah) in its contents and what relates to it and that, in our opinion, it is adequate with the standing of (……..) as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language Teaching.
Signature: Name: Dr.Wrya O. Ameen Scientific Rank: Professor Date : 22 / 11 / 2o14 Chairman
Signature: Name: Dr.Himdad A.Muhamad Scientific Rank: Assist. Professor Date : 22 / 11 / 2014 Member
Signature: Name: Dr. Ahmad H.Sagar Scientific Rank: Assist. Professor Date : 22 / 11 / 2014 Member
Signature Name: Dr. Abbas M. Abbas Scientific Rank: Assist. Professor Date : 22 / 11 / 2014 Member and Supervisor
Approved by the College Committee of Postgraduate studies.
Signature: Name: Dr. Abbas Mustafa Abbas Scientific Rank: Assist. Professor Dean of the Faculty of Physical and Basic Education Date: / / 2014 III
In the name of Allah, most Gracious most merciful
….. And say, Oh my Lord increase me in knowledge. (Taha 114 )
IV
DEDICATION This thesis dedicated: • To the Pure Soul of my Mother and Father; • To all Members of my Family; • To Everyone Who Taught me Even a Word.
With Love & Gratitude Muhamad Ameen Hussein
V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First of all, I express my sincerest gratitude and special thanks to my supervisor Assistant. Prof. Dr. Abbas Mustafa Abbas the dean of the Faculty of Physical and Basic Education, for his endless support and help, throughout my thesis with his guidance, insightful scientific notes and objective comments. Without his encouragement and his friendly behaviour, this work would not have been completed.
I am also indebted to Mr. Barham Sttar Abdulrahman, the Head of English Department for his endless support, encouragement and his scientific guidance in writing the thesis and in preparing and arranging the 3rd year university students for the test and for his guidance in analyzing data statistically. My special thanks go to Mr. Rawaz Jamal Ameen for his encouragement and recommendations in writing this work and his friendly help in preparing the students for the test.
Many thanks go to the teaching staff during the MA courses: Prof. Dr. Anis Bahnam Naoum, Prof. Dr. Wriya Omer Ameen , Prof. Dr. Basim Y. Jasim, Asst. Prof.Dr. Ayad Hameed Mahmood,
Dr. Rauf Kareem Mahmood , Asst. Prof.
Safwat hawar Al- Bazaz, Assist.Prof. Dr. Galawezh Ibrahim Muhiadeen.
I would like to thank the jury members who enriched the final version of the test with their insightful notes, guidance and recommendations.
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My special thanks go to Mrs. Najat Ismael Sayakhan the previous Head of English Department of the Faculty of Physical and Basic Education for her help and continuous encouragement during the MA courses.
Finally, I would like to thank my dear friend Mr. Sapan Sleman Aziz and those who helped me in writing this work.
VII
ABSTRACT Stress placement in the right place in words is one of the problematic areas of pronunciation, since stress is the central of pronunciation and changing of stress placement in words leads to mispronunciation and misunderstanding of the message to be conveyed. The present study investigates the Kurdish EFL learners’ ability in using primary stress in words at both recognition and production levels. The researcher hypothesizes that 3rd year EFL university students’ failure in using primary stress is tight to lack of knowledge of word stress patterns rules , phonological structure of words and the influence of the mother tongue on the part of the students . This involves low ability in using primary stress, in general and difficulties at both levels: recognition and production in particular. To validate the hypotheses above, the researcher used a reliable tool to assess the students’ ability which is students’ test. The results are then analyzed statistically, using SPSS and Microsoft Excel 2010. The study comes up with some findings and conclusions that let the researcher put forward some suggestions and recommendations to be recognized by lecturers, syllabus designers and EFL learners to overcome this problematic area .Some of the main conclusions of the study are: the students’ inadequate ability in using primary stress could be attributed to lack of knowledge of stress patterns rules in English language and the influence of the first language as well as a little or no contact with native speakers of English . That’s why, for reinforcing EFL university students’ ability in using primary stress, it is recommended that only two courses of pronunciations and phonetics at university are not enough. Besides an intensive course of phonology should be added and the students must be given more chance to interact with the native-speakers of English language.
VIII
List of Abbreviations and Notations Adj.
Adjective
CW
Content Words
C
Consonant
EFL
English as a Foreign Language
FW
Function Words
ID
Item Discrimination
IF
Item Facility
M
Marginal
N
Noun
O
Onset
PP
Past participle
Prep.
Preposition
R
Rhyme
S
Strong syllable
Ult.
Ultimate
V
Vowel
WS
Weak syllable
#
Bounding nodes
σ
Stands for a syllable
-
Lack of feature
+
Presence of feature
SPSS
Statistical Package for Social Science
IX
List of Tables No.
Title
Page
1
Sonority Scale
14
2
The Test Sample of the study
62
3
The Pilot Test Result
67
4
Item Facility of the First Set of Questions of the Pilot Test
68
5
Item Facility of the Second Set of questions of the Pilot Test
69
6
Item Difficulty of the First Set of Questions of the Pilot Test
70
7
Item difficulty of the Second Set of Questions of the Pilot Test
70
8
ID of the First Set of Questions in the Pilot Test
72
9
ID of the Second Set of Questions in the Pilot Test
72
10
Error Percentage of the First Set of Questions, the Pilot Test
73
11
Error Percentage In the Second Set of Questions, the Pilot Test 74
12
Scoring Scheme
13
Numbers and Percentages of the First Set of Questions, subjects’
75
Performance 14
77
Numbers and Percentages of the Second Set of Questions, Subjects’ Performance
79
15
Students’ Results Obtained at Recognition and Production Levels 82
16
Numbers and Percentages of Simple Words, Subjects’ Performance
17
85
Numbers and Percentages of Compound Words, subjects’ Performance
18
88
Numbers and Percentages of Phrasal Verbs, Subjects’ Performance
19
92
Numbers and Percentages of Words with Suffix Ending, Subjects’ Performance
94 X
20
Numbers and Percentages of Words with Prefix, subjects’ performance
21
97
Students’ Results Obtained at Simple Words, compound Words, Phrasal Verbs, Words with Suffix, and Words with Prefix
22
Average percentages of Correct and Incorrect Responses at Recognition Level
23
99
101
Average Percentages of Correct and Incorrect responses at Production Level
102
XI
List of Figures and Diagrams No.
9
Title
Page
1
Test- retest Reliability
66
2
Frequency of Correct and Incorrect Responses / Q1
78
3
Errors Percentage of the Whole Test
80
4
Frequency of Correct and Incorrect Responses / Q2
81
5
Percentage of Correct and Errors/ Q1
81
6
Percentage of Correct and Incorrect Responses / Q2
82
7
Mean : Recognition and Production Levels
83
8
Average of Correct and Incorrect Responses / Types of Words
100
Percentage of Correct Responses and Error Percentage of/ Types of Words
100
XII
Table of Contents Subject
Page
Dedication
V
Acknowledgements
VI
Abstract
VIII
List of Abbreviations and Notations
IX
List of Tables
X
List of Figures and Diagrams
XII
Table of Contents
XIII
Chapter One : Introduction 1.1 The Title
1
1.2 Statement of the Problem
1
1.3 Aims of the Study
2
1.4 Hypotheses
2
1.5 Procedures
3
1.6 Limits of the Study
3
1.7 Value of the Study
4
Chapter Two : Stress in English 2.1 Introduction
5
2.2 Syllable in English
5
2.2.1 Definitions of syllable in English
6
2.2.2 The syllable Structure of English
6
2.2.3 Phonetic Approach
12
2.2.3.1 The Prominence Theory
12 XIII
2.2.3.2 The Pulse Theory
13
2.2.3.3 Sonority Theory
13
2.2.4 The Phonological App roach
15
2.2.5 Syllabification
15
2.3 Definition of Stress
17
2.4 Phonetic View of Stress
20
2.4.1 Productive Point of View
20
2.4.2 Perceptual Point of View
22
2.4.2.1 Loudness
22
2.4.2.2 Length
23
2.4.2.3 Pitch
23
2.4.2.4 Quality
23
2.5 Phonological View
25
2.6 Degrees of Stress
27
2.7 Functions of Stress
32
2.8 Word Stress
38
2.8.1 Stress in Simple Words
39
2.8.2 Stress Assignment in Derived English Words
42
2.8.2.1 Auto-Stressed Suffixes
43
2.8.2.2 Stress-Shifting Suffixes
44
2.8.2.3 Neutral Suffixes
44
2. 8.3 Word Stress Patterns and Prefixes
49
2.8.4 Stress in Compound Words
50
2.8.5 Rules of Word Stress
52
2.8.6 Sentence Stress in English
56
XIV
Chapter Three : Data Collections 3.1 Introduction
61
3.2 The Sample
61
3.3 Instrument
62
3.3.1 The Test and It’s Design
62
3.4 Validity
63
3.5 Reliability
64
3.6 The Pilot Test Administration
66
3.6.1 Item Facility
68
3.6.2 Item Discrimination
71
3.6.3 Percentage of Errors
73
3.7 Final Administration of the Test
74
3.8 Scoring Scheme
75
3.8.1 The Test
75
Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Discussion of the Results 4.1 Introduction
76
4.2 Quantitative Assessment of the Students’ Performance
76
4.2.1 The First Set of Questions
76
4.2.2 The Second Set of questions
78
4.2.3 The Whole Test
82
4.2.4 The Mean
83
4.3 Analysis and Discussion of the Test
84
4.3.1 Simple Words
84
4.3.2 Compound Words
87
4.3.3 Phrasal verbs
91 XV
4.3.4 Words with Suffix Ending
93
4.3.5 Words with Prefixes
97
4.4 Average Percentage of Correct and Incorrect Responses of the types of words : Recognition and Production Levels.
101
Chapter Five: Conclusions, Recommendations and Suggestions 5.1 Conclusions
104
5.2 Recommendations
105
5.3 Suggestions for Further Studies
105
References
106
Appendices
114
Abstract in Arabic
125
Abstract in Kurdish
127
XVI
1
Chapter One Introduction 1.1 The Title The title of the current study is “An Investigation of Kurdish EFL Learners’ Ability in Using Word Stress’’. The current study focuses on the ability of using word stress by Kurdish EFL university students and investigates the difficulties that face them and, of course, with remedial strategies for future development.
1.2 Statement of the Problem After a long period of studying English as a foreign language, from primary till university level , students have difficulties and
use stress in the wrong way i.e.
putting stress on the wrong syllable and sometimes they are confused either to put stress on the first syllable or on the second syllable of the word which changes the syntactic category from noun to verb and vice versa and because the EFL university students are not aware of phonological patterns of stress, the function of stress, and how changing the place of stress in a word will change the meaning. This makes the message will not be understandable by the listener. So this study investigates the difficulties face the Kurd EFL learners and to what extent they use word stress correctly at the levels of recognition and production.
2
1.3 Aims of the Study The aim of the present study is to investigate the students’ ability in using word stress and the difficulties that face them and taking into consideration whether or not students are aware of putting stress on the right syllable in the words. The aim of this study is also to know the ability of Kurdish EFL learners in
using
primary stress
in
words
at
both
recognition
production levels and to know to what extent they are successful in
and using
primary stress in words. And to know at what level they are better either at recognition level or at production level. Then it tries to find in what types of words the students are successful in placement of primary stress at each level.
1.4 Hypotheses It is hypothesized that: 1- EFL university students’ incorrect use word stress is related to the lack of knowledge of word stress pattern, phonological structure and the influence of the mother tongue on the part of the students. 2- The stress patterns and phonological structure of words influence the placement of stress, the EFL university students’ performance in using primary stress in words is assumed to be in general low at both levels: recognition and production.
3
1.5 Procedures: To investigate the hypotheses, the following steps have been adopted: 1- A pilot test has been prepared and administered to (30) 3rd year university students at the Department of English/ School of Basic Education/ University of Sulaimani in the Academic year 2013-2014. 2- An achievement test for (50) 3rd year university students has been Administered
at the Department of English/ School of
Basic Education/
University of Sulaimani in the Academic year 2013-2014. 3- The final version of the test constructed after checking its validity has been given to experts in this field of study. 4- The results are analyzed and computed statistically, and then the source of the errors students made are marked and commented on.
1.6 Limits of the Study The oral test is excluded from this study. What the current study deals with is only the written test of 3rd year undergraduate students. In this study the two learning processes, recognition and production are concerned. Moreover, the study has chosen its sample from the Departments of English/ School of Basic Education/ in University of Sulaimani during the academic year 2013-2014. The 3rd year students of English Department have been selected to be the study sample.
4
1.7 Value of the Study The study has its own pedagogical value. Since students face difficulties in using word stress, the teachers may pay more attention to this aspect of phonology and make the students to be more familiarized with word stress patterns, and the problems they encounter in terms of syntactic function and category. This study also helps curriculum designers, lecturers and EFL students to have better understanding of word stress and pronouncing English words correctly.
5
Chapter Two Stress in English 2.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the definition and syllable structure of English from phonological and phonetic point of view and then it deals with
the linguistic
definition of stress in terms of phonetics and phonology. It throws lights on the degrees and functions of stress in English as well as its importance. It also studies simple word stress, affixation, and its influence on stress placement, compound word stress, rules of word stress and sentence stress.
2.2 Syllable in English Word stress, as well as the syllable, is one of the most important and complicated phonetic phenomena. To understand word stress, it helps to understand syllables.
Every word is made from syllable (s). Each word may have
one, two, three or more syllables. Each syllable, as an independent suprasegmental unit, is characterized by some degree of acoustic energy, which appears as a result of intensification of a speech organs muscles and their movements in the process of speech production. A word, consisting of two or three syllables, one of the syllables is characterized by a greater tension of the muscles or the organs participating in speech and consequently, by a stronger impulse of energy than other syllable or syllables of the word. Such syllables are said to be stressed. The syllables which are characterised by a weaker muscle tension and a weaker impulse of energy are said to be unstressed.
6
2.2.1 Definitions of Syllable in English The way in which the phoneticians and phonologists define the syllable is different. O' Conner ( 1973: 200), states that " we can define the syllable by saying that it is a unit containing one and only one vowel either alone or surrounded by consonants in certain numbers and in certain arrangements." The syllable is usually divided into two parts marginals and nucleus or center. Those consonant sounds which come before the nucleus or center are called onset and those consonants come after the center are called coda . Crystal phonetically defines syllable in auditory terms that “is a string of sounds, some are intrinsically more sonorous than others and that each peak of sonority corresponds to the centre of a syllable, which has the greater sonority”. Others such as Steston defines it in terms of articulation as a puff of air forced upward via the vowel channel by a compression of the intercostal muscles. Robins states that phonologically the syllable is a unit that can have a single degree of stress. Crystal (1980) believes that the syllable phonologically focuses on the ways phonemes combine individual languages to produce typical sequences Babu (1987:11-16).
2.2.2 The Syllable Structure of English According to Bauman (2009: 302 ) , structurally the syllable can be divided into three parts : peak ,onset and coda . Peak is the most prominent and, acoustically most intense part of the syllable. A peak may stand alone as in the first syllable of the word " a- lone", or it can be surrounded by other sounds as in "stand or clean". According to O'Conner ( 1973:200) the syllable is usually is divided into marginals (onset , coda ) and nucleus.
7
Marginals (consonants)
S I T onset
c v c
coda
nucleus ( vowel or diphthong) Diagram ( 1) syllable structure Adopted from Kingdon (1970 :145) Some syllables have an onset before the nucleus as in he / hi: / C V - and some have no onset but coda such as : eat / i:t / - VC. Some syllables have onset and coda. Examples: (1) a- CVC
run
/ rʌn /
b- CCVC
stop
/stop /
c- CCVCC
stopped
/ stopt /
d- CCCVC
street
e- CCCVCC
streets
/ stri:t/ / stri:ts /
f- CCCVCCC strengthen / streŋөs / g- CVCC
ships
/ ʃips /
h- CVCCC
text
/ tekst /
i- CVCCCC
texts
/ teksts /
Although vowels are more prevalent as syllable peaks , in many languages ,including American English consonants function as syllable peaks ,for example button,/ bʌtn /, or bottle / botl/. Consonants serve as syllable peaks are called syllabic consonants. The onset of a syllable consists of all sounds or segments that come before the peak and coda is made up of all sound segments that follow the peak. Segments that occur as onsets of a syllable are called syllable initiating segments and those which are codas of a syllable are known as syllable terminating
8
Another way of categorizing a syllable is the rhyme which consists of the nucleus plus coda of a syllable ,if coda is present .Thus, for the words ( hat, cat ) the rhyme is / æt / , but for the words( bee, see, and me ) the rhyme is / i:/. Syllables can be categorized according to the presence and absence of a coda. Syllables that have coda are called closed syllables and those that have no coda are called open syllable .
According to Katamba (1989 : 153-161) many phonologists use a branching hierarchical syllable structure .This is an approach where phonological representations are regarded as consisting of independent levels that are linked to each other, for example , a syllable structure can be represented as in:
σ O
R N
k
a t
M
s
Diagram (2) Hierarchal Syllable structure
Cats is made up of one syllable which has two constituents the onset which is at the beginning and the Rhyme which follows it. Sometimes a rhyme is simple as in the first syllable of e-ver, it doesn't branch. It contains only one constituent which is a vowel. On the contrary, the rhyme of cats branches, as indicated above .It consists of a vowel that is followed by a consonant. We can conclude from the above examples that the rhyme is the head constituent of the syllable and it is compulsory. Though onset branches off on the left of the rhyme coming from the
9
same node, it is possible in English, for a syllable to have no onset as in the first syllable of e-vW. The nucleus slot in the rhyme is filled by a vowel, a consonant may also occupy that position in cases where the final consonant clusters are mostly an alveolar with one of these consonants [ l, n and m ] is syllabic. Hyman suggests another approach in which the cores of phonological representations consist of rhythmic weight units rather than onsets and rhymes or C and V slots. According to this model only vowels can preserve their associations with weight units while consonants lose their weight units. Through the rules of syllabification, they get re-associated with a weight unit of a neighboring vowel. Segments whose association with a weight unit survived are syllabic. According to a generative CV-phonology model of syllable structure the syllable is viewed to have a three-tiered structure consisting of a syllable node a CV-tier whose C and V elements dominate consonantal and vowel segments; and a segmental tire consisting of bundles of distinctive feature matrices which represent consonant and vowel segments ( Katamba 1989 : 155). σ Syllable tier
C-V tier C
Segmental tier
-cont -voice +labial
V
+syll -back -high -low
C
+nas +ant +cor
Diagram (3) Syllable Tier Structure
10
The relation between CV tier and the segmental tier is linked by association lines that is, they link V elements to [-cons] segments (vowel) and C elements to [+ cons] segments. Segments which are dominated by C elements of the CV- tier are not syllabic whereas segments that are dominated by V elements are syllabic .The V element of the CV-tier is the constituent of the syllable which contains the sonority peak. The more sonorous a sound is the more audible it is likely to be. The element dominated by V(nucleus) is relatively more sonorous than the consonants( onsets and margins).In a word like cat ,the vowel / æ / is dominated by V and it is more sonorant than the consonants /k/ and /t/.The more open a vowel is , the more sonorous it will be. The most sonorous sound is dominated V element while the less sonorous segments which precede the nucleus are dominated by C-elements (onset) and segments following it are dominated by other C-elements (coda, margin, or tail).The following is a scale which shows the most sonorous and less sonorous sounds.
Sonority hierarchy Least sonority
1 Voiceless obstruent 2 Voiced obstruent 3 Nasals 4 Liquids 5 Glides 6 Vowels Greatest sonority Diagram ( 4) scale of sonorous hierarchy Adapted from ( Katamba 1989 : 158).
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Crystal (1992: 377-8) explains the term syllable as “The minimal unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds, acting as a unit of rhythm". It usually consists of an obligatory nucleus (typically, a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants). Structural classifications also recognize division between an initial onset and a following rhyme , with the latter further subdivided into a peak followed by a coda. Onset corresponds to initial margin, peak to nucleus, and coda to final margin. For example, in the syllable / kt /, / k /, is the onset, / a / the peak, and / t / the coda; / at / is the rhyme. A syllable ending in a vowel is an open syllable; one ending in a consonant is a closed syllable. A syllable can be a single vowel in isolation, as in: are /a: /, or,
/ɔ: / err /3:/.
These are preceded and followed by silence. Some syllables have an onset (that is, they have more than just silence preceding the centre of the syllable), as in bar/ ba:/ key/ki:/. Syllables may have no onset but have a coda, as in am /æm/ ought/ ɔ:t/. Some syllables have onset and coda, as in run [r n] sat [s æ t]. The syllable may have the following structure (Roach 2000: 70-1).
Syllable
Onset
rhyme
peak
coda
Diagram ( 5 ) Syllable Structure The syllable is a basic unit of speech studied on both the phonetic and phonological levels of analysis. No matter how easy it can be for people and even for children to count the number of syllables in a sequence in their native language,
12
still there are no universally agreed upon phonetic definitions of what a syllable is. Syllable has its importance phonetically and phonologically and those who try to define the term syllable fall into the following two main categories:
2.2.3 The Phonetic Approach Phonetically, syllables “are usually described as consisting of a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after that centre there will be greater obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound” (Roach, 2000: 70). In the monosyllable (one-syllable word) cat /kæt/, the vowel /æ/ is the centre at which little obstruction takes place, whereas we have complete obstruction to the airflow for the surrounding plosives /k/ and /t/.
2.2.3.1 The Prominence Theory Attempts have been made to provide physiological, acoustic or auditory explanations and definitions of the syllable. According to the prominence theory, for example, which is based mainly on auditory judgments, the number of syllables in a word is determined by the number of peaks of prominence. In the word entertaining /entə'teɪnɪŋ/ the prominent peaks are represented by the vowels /e , eɪ, ɪ /. However, this theory does not help much in discussions of syllable division. According to this theory some sounds are more ‘prominent’ or ‘sonorous’ than others. In the word sonority / səˈnɒrIti /, such ‘peaks’ of prominence are carried by / ə,ü, 1 ,i /.The number of syllables are being determined by the number prominent peaks . There are in this case four syllables (Gimson 1970: 51-2). Gimson (1970: 51-2) also points out difficulties that are encountered in the case of languages such as English which permit consonant cluster. The word extra,
13
for instance, transcribed as / e´ kstr ə / would show by the same procedure three peaks of prominence on / e, s, ə /, thus forming three syllables.
2.2.3.2. The Pulse Theory This theory is concerned with the muscular activity controlling lung movement which takes place during speech. It is claimed that in any utterance there are a number of chest pulses, accompanied by increases in air pressure, which determine the number of syllables uttered. This theory suggests that the syllable rather than the sound is the basic unit of speech, consonantal sounds acting typically as the onset (releasing factor) and closure (arresting factor) of the syllable, while vowel sounds are nuclear to the syllable and render the chest pulse audible. Again such a unit on the speech level may prove to be irrelevant or misleading on the linguistic level, particularly when it is a question of the juxtaposition of two vowel sounds, the second being weakly stressed as in the case of seeing / si:iŋ /, it is doubtful whether a double chest pulse will be evident, although it is clear that the word is to be divided linguistically into two units (Gimson 1970: 52).
2.2.3.3. Sonority Theory Another approach is presented by sonority theory according to which the pulses of pulmonic air stream in speech “correspond to peaks in sonority”. The sonority of a speech sound is discussed as “its relative loudness compared to other sounds” (Giegerich 1992: 132) and each syllable corresponds to a peak in the flow
14
rate of pulmonic air. Thus nuclear elements or syllabic segments can be described as intrinsically more sonorous than marginal or non-syllabic elements. Speech sounds can be ranked in terms of their intrinsic sonority according to a sonority scale. The sonority scale for English is given below (although in principle it is also valid for other languages). Voiced segments are more sonorous than voiceless ones and sonorants are more sonorous than obstruents; vowels are more sonorous than consonants, open vowels being more sonorous than close ones. The disyllabic word painting /'peɪntɪŋ/ has been plotted onto the sonority scale as an example.
Table (1) Sonority scale. ( Adopted from Giegerich 1992: 132) ↑
vowels
more
approximants
sonorous
nasals
•
•
•
•
fricatives less sonorous
affricates
↓
plosives
• p
• eɪ
n
t
ɪ
ŋ
→ linear sequence of phonemes → As can be seen from the chart, there are two peaks of sonority in the phoneme string /p-eɪ-n-t-ɪ-ŋ/, namely the vowels /eɪ ɪ/. This is to indicate that the number of syllables is two as well. The sonority scale, like all the approaches outlined above, is of little help when it comes to delimiting separate syllables, however.
15
2.2.4 The Phonological Approach Laver (1994: 114) defines the phonological syllable as “a complex unit made up of nuclear and marginal elements”. Nuclear elements are the vowels or syllabic segments; marginal elements are the consonants or non-syllabic segments. In the syllable, paint /peɪnt/, the diphthong /eɪ/ is the nuclear element, while initial consonant /p/ and the final cluster /nt/ are marginal elements.
2.2.5 Syllabification It is a process by which we know the number of syllables in a word. Simply, the number of vowels determines the number of syllables. For example, in a word like "port /pɔ:t/" there is
only one vowel so it is a
monosyllabic word. In "harbor / ˈhɑːbə /" there are two vowels so it is disyllabic and there are three vowels in "determine /dI tԑ: min/" so it is a polysyllabic word.
Katamba (1989 161-164) states that Each V-element is linked with a syllable peak, what is ambiguous is to which syllable node are C-elements assigned, in another word where C-elements could go with either the preceding or the following vowel. For example, where
the middle consonant of sonic / ˈsɒnɪk /
(CVCVC) is assigned. The Onset First Principle has been proposed to deal with such situations: (a) Syllable-initial consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the syllable structure conditions of the language in question.(b)Subsequently, Syllablefinal consonants are maximized to the extent consistent with the syllable structure
16
conditions of the language in question. Principle (a) applies before (b) in any derivation. In ambiguous, cases initial consonant clusters take precedence over syllable final ones. In cases like VCV ever [evə],
the Onset First Principle
requires the string be divided up as V-CV [e-və] rather than VC-V *[ev-ə]. According to the Maximal Onset Principle, Roach (2009: 61), states that " where two syllables are to be divided, any consonants between them should be attached to the right-hand syllable ,not the left ". The theory incorporates the following algorithm . (a) Underlying every V of the CV- tier is linked to a; this merely reflects the fact that no syllable exists without a V element (nucleus). (b) Link each C element to the nearest V- element to its right provided that the resulting sequence doesn't violate any language specific rules .This procedure creates syllable onsets. (c)Repeat the procedure in (b), this time linking the C-element to the nearest V to its left. This procedure creates syllable margins. The effect of this algorithm is illustrated in: a. σ C k
σ
V C W
n
C
C
C
V C
C
s
k
r
i
t
p
V- elements are pre-linked with a by convention (a)
17
b. σ C k
σ
V C W
n
C
C
C
V C
C
s
k
r
i
t
p
By convention (b) we create scri not *nscri because in English nasals are not allowed to occur at the beginning of a syllable initial consonant cluster of three element.
c. σ
σ
C
V C
C
C
C
V C
C
c
o
s
c
r
i
t
n
p
By convention (c) a sequence allowed in the language. Diagram (6 ) Syllable Margins
Katamba (1989:164 )
2.3 Definitions of Stress Kingdon ( 1970: ) defines stress as " Stress is the relative degree of force used by a speaker on the various syllables he is uttering " Ladefoged and Johnson (2012: 249) define stress as a suprasegmental feature of utterances that is applied to the whole syllable. A stressed syllable is pronounced with a bigger amount of energy than unstressed syllables. The speaker expends more muscular energy on stressed sound, the extra activity of the laryngeal muscular, and extra contraction of the muscular of the rib cage make an additional
18
increase in pitch and articulatory movements. Vowels and consonants are known as segmental phonemes or segmentals because speech sounds can be divided into its components which together they form syllables which further go to form utterances. However, Liberman and Prince (1977: 392 state that the term stress not only belong to the characteristics of individual segments or syllables, but rather reflects a hierarchical rhythmic that puts together the syllables, words
and
syntactic phrases of a sentence . According to Roach (2000:93-5) stress can be studied phonetically in terms of production and perception. The production of stress relies on using more muscular energy for stressed syllables than for unstressed syllables. But regarding, the perceptual point of view, stressed syllables have the prominence characteristic in common; the prominence is produced by loudness ( stressed syllables are produced with greater intensity ,greater breath effort and muscular energy ,and thus stressed syllables are heard as louder than neighbouring ones), length (the duration of stressed syllable is greater, and they are perceived as longer and vowels are shorter in unstressed than stressed syllables), pitch (vocal folds vibrate more quickly, and this is heard as higher pitch and it is the most important factor which associates with stronger stress), and quality (whether a vowel is central or peripheral, the stressed syllables contain the peripheral vowel, whereas the unstressed syllables have a central vowel). Sometimes syllables can be prominent by only one or two of them. Stress can also be studied from a phonological point of view in that the prominence of one syllable among others cannot be attributed only to one feature such as loudness, but also to other features as vowel quality and quantity. Constable (2002:1) states that accent (stress) refers to the vocal quality of a syllable, which can be distinguished from other syllables by virtue of articulatory force (roughly equivalent to volume and involving a ‘chest pulse’), pitch, and duration, or, by combination of some or all of these features.
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According to phonologists, stressed and unstressed syllables are known as foot, and they regard it as the next biggest phonological unit above the syllable. McMahon (2002:124-5) holds that “each phonological foot starts with a stressed syllable, and continues up to, but not including, the stressed syllable”. According to this definition a phrase like mouse in a basket consists of two feet, the first containing mouse in a, and the second basket. There are also exceptions because they can be classified into three types ; first is an iambic type and structures like W S (W refers to a weak syllable and S refers to a strong one), and this is opposed to the definition that all feet start with a stressed syllable; second is a trochaic foot which structures as SW, and third is dactylic foot which structures as SWW. On the other hand, Teschner and Whitley (2004:5) classify feet into spondees SS, trochees SW, iambs WS ,dactyls SWW, and anapests WWS. A language in which stress is completely predictable is known as a fixed stress language because most words in the language bear stress on the same syllable, for example Czech is a fixed stress language with word-initial stress. Other languages in which stress is unpredictable are called free stress languages; here the third type is paradigmatic stress, in which the stress patterns depend on what part or kind of speech a word is , a noun or a verb. The English stress system is mostly paradigmatic with some unpredictable aspects (Zsiga 2006: 1312). Because of stress variations, different languages have different rhythms. This causes some languages to be called syllable timed languages, like French, and some other languages, like English ,in which stresses occur at regular intervals within connected speech and their duration is more dependent on stressed syllables rather than unstressed ones is called stress- timed languages. In addition to variability of the primary stress which is mobile. This can be shown in morphologically related words in the stress shifts on to different syllables, for
20
example
democrat [ˈdeməkræt]
democracy [ dɪˈmɒkrəsi] , democratic,
[ˌdeməˈkrætɪk] Although this discussion may suggest a highly variable and unpredictable situation , this does not mean that there are no rules or principles underlying the stress patterns of English . It should be noted that those regularities are tendencies rather than airtight rules. Yavaş (2011: 165 ) states that " Stress is a cover term for the prosodic features of duration , intensity , and pitch ; thus the prominence of stressed syllable is generally manifested by their characteristics of being longer , louder , and higher in pitch rather than unstressed syllable . From the speaker's point of view , this corresponds to the amount of effort expended , while from the hearer's point of view is the perceptual prominence ."
2.4 Phonetic View of Stress 2.4.1 Productive point of view Roach ( 2002 : 93 ) states that the production of stress generally depends on the speaker by using more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables ;however measuring muscular energy is difficult , but it is possible .When we produce stressed syllables, the muscles that are used to expel air fro the lungs are often more active ,producing higher subglottal pressure . Phoneticians have defined stress as a basically physiological, and speaker-based, phenomenon. Sweet (1906: 47) asserts that stress is a matter of respiratory activity because it is identical with the effort by which the breath is expelled from the lungs. He sees that stress mirrors the force which is set into the utterance by the speaker. On the other hand, Jespersen (1913:119), while supporting this in principle, claims that stress is not limited to a single organ. Stetson (1928)
21
proposes a theory of articulation which assumes that every syllable is accompanied by a ballistic 'chest pulse' produced by the internal intercostals muscles, and that in stressed syllables this pulse is reinforced by the activity of the abdominal muscles. A similar conclusion is reached by Fónagy (1958), who again defines stress in terms of force, and relates it to the activity of the internal intercostals muscles. He is like Ladefoged, he discards an acoustic definition of stress (Fox, 2000:121). It is clear that, all the above definitions lay emphasis on the role of the speaker’s articulation and activity in producing stressed syllables. Jones (1967: 134-5) states that stresses are essentially subjective activities of the speaker, and thus in real language it is often hard, and may not be possible, for the hearer to judge where strong stresses are. He considers it to be force of utterance, involving greater overall effort on the part of the speaker. Ladefoged (1967:2-3), similar to Sweet, relates stress to the respiratory mechanism; he concludes that stress is best described in physiological rather than acoustic terms, because the effect of respiratory mechanism on the acoustic features (intensity, duration, and fundamental frequency) is complex and variable . Abercrombie (1967: 35) looks at the stress as an organic result of force when breath is gone out from the lungs, and it is associated with the force of utterance and degree of muscular effort. The syllable that is produced by a chest-pulse is called a stressed syllable and the stress –pulse is the result of muscular movement. However, Lehiste (1970:106) concludes that there is no single mechanism to which the production of stress can be attributed (Fox 2000:121-2). Another difficulty to establish the physiological basis of stress is made by Catford (1977: 84-5) who concludes that there seems to be little doubt that initiator power is the organic-aerodynamic phonetic correlate of what is often called stress. Initiator power is defined as the product of initiator-velocity and the pressure-load against which the initiator is acting (91-2). Since one factor of this is the force
22
exerted by the respiratory muscles, this definition is evidently not unrelated to the earlier views of Sweet and Jones (Fox 2000:121). For this reason, stress can phonetically be defined, as the degree of force in syllable production, and that stressed syllables have more prominence than unstressed ones. This is due to an increase in loudness, the length and pitch that may affect the overall impression of prominence (Crystal 2003: 435).
2.4.2 Perceptual Point of View Many experiments have been carried out on the perception on stress, and it is clear that many different sound characteristics are important in making a syllable recognizably stressed. From the perceptual point of view Roach (2010: 73 ) states that "All stressed syllables have one characteristic in common, and that is prominence .Stressed syllables are recognized as stressed because they are more prominent than unstressed syllables ." According to Roach (2000: 94-95) states that ‘‘there are four factors which make a syllable prominent: loudness, length, pitch and quality.
2.4.2.1 Loudness Most people seem to feel that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed syllables; in other words loudness is a component of prominence. in a sequence of identical syllables (e.g. ba:ba:ba:ba:) ,If one syllable is made louder than the others , it will be heard as stressed . However it is important to realize that it is difficult for a speaker to make a syllable louder
without changing other
characteristics of the syllable such as length, pitch and quality.(Ibid: 94)
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2.4.2.2 Length The length of a syllable is important in making a syllable prominent. If one of the syllables in the nonsense word
ba:ba:ba:ba: is made longer than the others,
there is a quite tendency for that syllable to be heard as stressed. (Ibid:94)
2.4.2.3 Pitch “Every voiced syllable heard on some pitch. Pitch in speech is closely related to the vibration of the vocal folds and to the musical notion of low- and high – pitched notes. It is perceptually a characteristic of speech .If one syllable of the nonsense word
ba:ba:ba:ba:
is said with a pitch which is noticeably different
from the others , this will have
a strong tendency to produce the effect of
prominence .” (Ibid: 94)
2.4.2.4 Quality “A syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality from the neighbouring vowels. If we change one of the vowels in the nonsense word ba:bi:ba:ba:
the "odd" syllable bi: will tend to be heard as
stressed.” (Ibid: 95) Prominence, then, is produced by four main factors i.e. loudness, length, pitch and quality. Generally these four factors work together in combination, although syllables may sometimes be made prominent by means only one or two of those them .Experimental work has shown that all these factors do not have the same importance, the strongest effect is produced by pitch and length is also a powerful factor. Loudness and quality have much less effect.” From the view point of perception, stress seems to be different from the perception of loudness. Phoneticians as Daniel Jones states that stress perception involves language knowledge. Moreover, he distinguishes stress from prominence
24
.Stress is independent of length and intonation, though, it can be combined with them. In addition, Lehiste (1970: 119) shows that according to Jones, prominence can be decreased or increased by means of any of the sounds, because it is a perceptual quantity that attributes to length, stress, pitch, timbre, and stress is an articulacy gesture. Despite these distinctions, he does not make it clear which of them has linguistic function or if they have different linguistic functions, and stress goes back to prominence produced by respiratory effort and he employs the term accent when it is achieved by other phonemic means, in addition, to respiratory effort. Fry (1973:80) states that the term stress is used to show the total effort that a speaker puts when uttering some speech sequence. Perceiving stress differences depends largely on inferring what he hears, the amount of effort he himself would have put into the utterance. Crystal (1980) accounts for both the articulatory and auditory features of stress .He defines stress as phonetically referring to the degree of force used in production of a syllable, and the usual distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables is that the former being more prominent than the latter (Babu 1987: 45-6). Ladefoged (1982:104) considers the definition of stress difficult from the listener's point of view. A stressed syllable is often, but not always louder than an unstressed syllable. It is usually but not always on a higher pitch. The most dependable thing for a listener to notice is that a stressed syllable regularly has a longer vowel. The prominence of one syllable among the others cannot be attributed only to one feature such as loudness, but also to other features such as vowel quality . Here, loudness is defined as an auditory property of a sound that makes listener place it on a scale going from soft to loud.( Fudge as cited in Babu, 1987:45) discusses the culminative nature of stress and claims that stress means essentially
25
that one phonological element is singled out within another longer phonological element , Finch ( 2005:49-51) makes a terminological distinction by grouping loudness and length within stress and differentiating them from pitch, although stress and pitch cooperate together in influencing meaning . He distinguishes the tonic syllable (one on which the greatest movement of pitch occurs in an utterance) from the other stressed syllables in that tonic syllables are made prominent by the movement of pitch.
2.5
Phonological View of Stress Phonologically, vowels in stressed syllables may be pronounced as
/e/,/æ/,/ü/,/ai/,/aυ/,/ɔi/, while vowels in unstressed syllables may have either [ ə], or [i] which appear less frequently (Prator 1957: 16).
Gimson ( 1970: 260-1)
makes clear that “ the number of syllables stressed by the speaker depends largely upon the nature of the words composing the utterance .Thus, an utterance containing a high percentage of content words is likely to receive more stress than one with the same number of syllables but higher proportion of form words”, as in the two sentences. (2) a. The first eight have all got a book. b. There were books for six of them. The stressed syllables which are associated with unstressed ones are said to form rhythmic groups. The rhythmic beats of an utterance occupy equal intervals of time, i.e. the speed and the length of unstressed syllables depend on the number occurring between the strong beats. The stressed syllables following the strong beat of a rhythmic group occupy slightly more time than those which precede the strong beat. A listener usually recognizes stressed syllables by means of pitch
26
prominence. In this case, the combination of any of the factors of loudness (relating to stress), sonority (relating to the quality and length of the syllable sound), and the nature of the word (‘content’ as opposed to ‘form’) the syllable has its prominence. Primary stress can be defined as the greatest prominence or loudness that a vowel or syllable shows within a word. A vowel is the nucleus of a syllable; a word contains as many syllables as it contains separate vowel sounds. When a two syllable word like ḿethod is pronounced the first syllable receives primary stress. In a word like preśent the second syllable gets the primary stress. This means that the primary stressed vowels in ḿethod and preśent are more prominent: louder in volume and longer in duration/length and/or differently pitched on the musical scale than the rest of the vowels in the word. In this case, All lexical words in English receive a stress whether they are composed of one syllable or two syllables or more. Stress is either present or absent. Present stress can be primary stress and secondary stress whereas absent stress is unstressed syllable which is usually called Secondary stress null stress / fəˈsɪlɪteɪt /
(Teschner and Whitley 2004:1-2).
Primary stress Phonologically, the origin of words and the rhythmic factors (heavy-light syllables) affect the placement of stress in English, for example, words, that are borrowed from Latin and other donor languages are stressed differently. The first syllable of the root is stressed in Anglo-Saxon words, as in these words: - bosom, / ˈbʊzəm /
,body / ˈbɒdi / , holy / ˈhəʊli /, never / ˈnevə /, unpacks /
ˌʌnˈpæks / . For determining the main stress, there are steps to be taken such as removing inflectional suffixes and stress neutral suffixes, and then if the word has two syllables, stress the first one, as in: donkey / ˈdɒŋki / , printer/ ˈprɪntə /, bonus / ˈbəʊnəs /. In three syllable words or more, determine whether the penult
27
(before the last syllable in a word) is heavy as in recruitment, entailment, detergent, escapist or light, as in average, bungalow, regiment, resolute. Main stress falls on the penultimate syllable if it has a long vowel or if it is closed by a consonant; otherwise, main stress falls on the antepenultimate syllable. The distribution of heavy syllables affect the placement of stress, as well as distinction between heavy (long vowels; more prominent) and light (short vowels) syllables. A foot with one heavy syllable is stressed; however, a foot with one light syllable is not stressed.
2.6 Degrees of Stress However the placement of stress in English is unpredictable, the degrees and levels of stress are also controversial. Some phoneticians or phonologists claim that there are three levels of stress such as Kingdon where as others such as Zafarani states that there are four levels, below is a brief account of each levl. According to Kingdon (1970: 10) there are three distinct degrees of stress in English 1- Primary stress : Primary stress represents the maximal prominence of a syllable. It is indicated by placing a small vertical line ( ') at the upper left hand side of the syllable. This syllable is called a strong syllable. Examples: 1- window / ˈwɪndəʊ / 2- above
/ ə 'bʌv /
3- examination / igz ami'neiʃn / ' '
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2- Secondary stress : Secondary stress shows the second degree of prominence of a syllable . It is indicated by placing a small vertical line at the lower left hand side of the syllable. Example: Examination
/ ig £zami 'neiʃn /
Secondary stress
primary stress
3- Weak stress Syllables which are unstressed are referred to as weak syllables. They are not indicated by any mark. Example: / 1bɪ 'haɪnd /
Unstressed syllable ( weak )
stressed syllable ( strong)
According to Zafarani and Shokouhian( 2009: 49-50) , there are four degrees of stress: primary , secondary, tertiary and weak stress. And the usual signs used to indicate the four types of stress are : (' ) ,( ¯ ), (ˉ ) and(˙ ) for primary ,secondary ,tertiary and weak stress respectively. 4 - Tertiary stress is the intermediate stress in words like program /'progræm/ where it occurs on the last syllable and compound words like newspaper / ʹnju:z¯peipә / where it occurs on the first syllable of paper. Roach (2000: 96) states that there are four levels of stress primary,secondary, tertiary and weak stress (unstressed).
29
Indivisibility
/ˌɪndɪ 5vɪzəˈbɪləti/
Secondary tertiary primary Jespersen also (1913) recognizes four degrees, but admits that they are arbitrary. Bloomfield (1935: 90-2) establishes a system of contrasting stresses: 'loudest stress' (marked "), as in: (3) That's "mine! Ordinary stress (marked '), as in: (4) ex'amine or I've 'seen it. and less loud stress (marked ֽ◌ )as in: (5) 'milk ֽ◌ man This is elaborated by Trager and Bloch (1941) and Bloch and Trager (1942) who again on the bases of relative loudness, establish a set of four stress phonemes: loud, reduced loud, medial and weak (Fox 2000:128-9). Prator (1957: 16) points out that stressed syllables which stand out among other syllables are more important and long words usually have two stressed syllables, primary, and secondary stress. Quirk and Warburg ( 1962: 316-7) shows that there are as many degrees of stress as there are syllables in multisyllable words, Moreover he indicates that practically three degrees of stress are enough. He marks the primary stress with the symbol/ ʹ / before the syllable; associated with strong stress, full vowel value and potential change of pitch direction. Syllables with secondary stress are marked with the symbol / ` / which are mixed with rhythmic stress, qualitative or quantitative prominence, and often with a change of pitch level .Quirk further states that unstressed syllables are unmarked as they are weakly uttered, often with obscuration of a vowel to /ә /, / i /or / u /, or having a syllabic consonant as syllable center. In addition to all of this, Quirk finally adds that among the features like quality, quantity, pitch, and stress
30
variations, pitch is the most effective means of rendering a syllable to be prominent. By means of intonation, Gimson (1970: 267) realizes the following degrees of stress:1- Primary (nuclear) accent– by means of a change of pitch direction initiated by the syllable receiving the accent (marked, `, ՛, ˇ, ˆ ) 2- Secondary (pitch prominent) accent- by means of a change of pitch level (higher or lower) on the stressed syllable (marked '). 3- Secondary accent without pitch prominence- secondary stress on some words may be shown by qualitative, quantitative, or rhythmic prominence, with out pitch prominence (marked ֽ◌). 4- Unaccented syllable – They don’t normally have pitch or other prominence and they are unmarked. On the other hand, Crystal (1992:369) recognizes three degrees of stress most commonly primary, secondary, and weak stress, as in: (5)
£anti
'slavery
Secondary primary
weak
He also defines a stress group as a sequence of syllables constituting a rhythm unit, containing one primary stress. Kelly (2000: 69) states that within longer words different degrees of stress can be heard when considering all syllables in terms of their levels of stress, rather than their presence or absence .Kelly reminds us that “Daniel Jones outlines up to five different levels of stress in a single word, as in: opportunity / ˌ2ɒp 5ə1ˈtjuːnə 4ti3 / . Kelly adds that despite Jones’s view many others agree on a three- level of stress between primary, secondary, and unstressed.
31
Because of the occurrence of stress on other words next to the word in question, stress is not always fixed in English words. Moreover, not all speakers agree on the placement of stress in some words. For example, the stress on finalstressed compound moves to a preceding syllable if the following word begins with a strongly stressed syllable, as in: good-՛tempered
and a �good-
tempered ́teacher (Roach 2000:109). Alkhuli (2000: 17) adds that each nucleus or peak of a syllable has a certain degree of stress which is different from one syllable to another within one word. According to Alkhuli, there are four degrees of stress, such as primary ՛ /, / secondary / ˆ/, tertiary / ՝ /, and weak stress / ˇ /. But in practical terms only the two degrees of stress and unstressed are important. The vowels of syllables are different in their degrees of stress as stress is the loudness, and intensity (volume / time ration) of air stream, the primary stress is symbolized as /՛/ , secondary is symbolized as/ ` /, and no mark for unstressed syllables (Hudson 2000:27). In American structuralist tradition four degrees of stress are distinguished and analyzed as stressed phonemes from the strongest to weakest. These degrees of stress are primary, secondary, tertiary, and weak, however, they can only be seen on words in isolation as in congratulation
/ kənˌɡrætʃu_ˈleɪʃn / . Here, the fourth
Weak secondary
tertiary
primary
syllable seems to have a higher degree of stress. This is only when the word is said in isolation or at the end of a phrase, as in: (6) The ՛socioling՛ uistics ՛ course was ՛ fun. There is no difference between the syllables. The last stressed syllable in tone group usually carries the tonic accent. The superimposition of an intonation pattern affects the levels of the first and the second stress. On the contrary, in sentences,
32
where there are no intonations; there are no levels of stressed syllables (Crystal 2003: 435; Ladefoged 1982: 105-6). Ladefoged (1982: 107) states that syllables are either stressed or unstressed, they may or they may not be the tonic syllables, which carry the major pitch change in the tone group. If they are unstressed, they may or may not have a reduced vowel. (Ibid: 285) defines a tone group as "the part of a sentence over which a particular intonation pattern extends. There may be one or more tone groups in an English sentence". Within a tone group a syllable stands out since it carries the major pitch change. English is generally supposed to have two levels of stress, although it is described to have four levels, primary, secondary tertiary, and quaternary, Ladefoged (1982:108) thinks that it is not useful to describe stress in terms of a multilevel system since such descriptions are not in harmony with the phonological facts. These are only phonetic details and not true phonemic stress. According to Ashby and Maidment (2005:157) primary stress is marked with a raised vertical tick at the beginning of a syllable as in: be'low while secondary stress is marked ֽ with a lowered tick as in the first element of this compound: ◌first 'rate. An alternative way is used for marking stress especially those published in the USA, by using diacritics over the vowel of the syllable, as in:s(harp k!nife.
2.7 Functions of Stress Stress has different functions in English, such as syntactic function, semantic function and emphatic function. According to Ladefoged &Johnson ( 2011: 112), stress can be used to give a special emphasis to a word or to contrast one word with another . Even a word such as and can have contrastive stress. The contrast can be implicit rather explicit. For example if someone else says, or if you even
33
thought that someone else might possibly say (using stress marks within regular orthography): (7) 'John or 'Mary should 'go. you might, without any prior context actually ,say ( 8 ) 'I think 'John 'and 'Mary should 'go. Examples for special emphasis (emphasized utterances). 1. It is 'yours not mine. 2. 'You did that. 3. I put it 'on the table. (not under it ) Another function of stress in English is to indicate the syntactic category of a word. In some words the placincement of stress changes their grammatical function. Examples:
Verb
Noun
Addict / ә'dikt /
addict / 'ædɪkt /
Collect / kә'lekt /
collect /'külekt /
Conduct / kәn'dU kt /
conduct / 'ko ndʌ kt/
Decrease /di'kri:s/
decrease/ 'di:kri:s /
Desert / di'zә: t/
desert / 'dezә t /
Export /eks'po:t /
export / 'ekspO:t /
Import / im'pO:t /
import / 'impO:t /
Record / ri'kO:d /
record / 'rekO:d /
Contract / kәn'trékt /
contract /'küntrékt /
Insult / in'sU lt /
insult / 'insʌ lt /
Another function of stress is semantic function. By placing stress on compound words causes a change in meaning. Examples: 1. a- a green 'house
34
(A house which is painted green ) b- a greenhouse (A house made of glass and used for keeping and growing plants.) 2. a- a black 'bird (A bird which is in black colour) b- a 'blackbird (A kind of European bird, the male is black with a yellow beak and the female is with a brown beak.) 3. a- a light 'ship (A ship which is small, not heavy) b- a 'lightship (A small ship that stays at a particular place at sea and has a powerful light on it to warn and guide other ships.) 4. a. a cross 'word (a secret word to cross or pass ) b- a 'crossword (A game in which you have to fit words across and downwards into spaces with numbers in a square diagram.) Brosnahan and Malmberg (1970: 156-8) distinguish two main functions of stress. First is the linguistic use where stress takes discrete degrees or levels of loudness plus associated physical features, and one of these occurs with each syllable. Second, it is extralingustics; the substance of each physical feature along which the various levels of stress are differentiated is of continuous nature rather than a series of discrete steps. For example, by increasing the difference between the usual levels or, while maintaining normal difference, by moving the whole range of the levels of stress towards greater or less loudness; such differentiations
35
are used to communicate or to express information. For example increasing loudness in the stressing of a command, such as: (9 ) come on! It conveys an extra degree of imperativeness and associated emotion. On the other hand, decreasing loudness conveys the necessity for quietness in the situation. This extra loud level is often called emphatic stress; it is used for contrastive purposes. Abercrombie (1973:8-9) thinks that the stress – timed rhythm of English is the basis of the structure of English verse .Stress pulse can occur in an utterance where there is a gap in the sequences of words, and there is no articulatory movement. For example, when somebody says: (10) A funny thing happened to her, on her way here this evening. There is a silent stress-pulse between her and on .It does not exist for the hearer, therefore it is called a silent stress (Quirk and Greenbaum 1973: 452). Stress is also used to distinguish between different relations, such as: (11) a. A 'car factory produces car. b. A car 'factory is a car. Falk (1978:106) states that differences in stress result in differences in meaning, as in the first and final syllables of English ‘noun’ and ‘verb’ ́record and rećord. English stress has several different functions; it is used to emphasize a word or to contrast one word with another; it can also be used to indicate syntactic relationships between words or parts of words, for example, in English there are noun-verb oppositions such as ՛desert , and to de՛ sert in nouns stress falls on the first syllable whereas it is on the last or second in verbs.
Stress also has a syntactic function in distinguishing between a compound noun such as a 'hot dog (a form of food) and an adjective followed by a noun, as in the phrase a 'hot 'dog (an overheated animal) ; compound nouns have a single
36
stress on the first element, and the adjectival phrases have stresses on both elements(Ladefoged 1982:105-6) Saka (1989:98) states that stress may be used to distinguish the subjective complement from the direct object. The variation of stress between them occurs, especially, when the noun phrase after the verb is a pronoun, as in the following examples: (12) a. It is ՛I. b. I śaw her. In sentence (a) the subjective complement ( I ) takes stress and the verb is hardly pronounced,while in (b) the verb takes the main stress and the direct object (her) is reduced to an unstressed syllable. Akhuli (2000:19) points out that a speaker places a primary stress on certain words when he wishes to emphasize or to make a contrast in meaning. For example, in a sentence: (13) ãShe ate three oranges. Here, the speaker may wish to put stress on she to indicate that she and not he or they did the eating. But if the speaker stresses ate, this is to indicate that she ate and not drank or bought. The speaker can also stress the word three to show that she ate three and not one or four. It may mean she ate orange not banana if the stress is on orange. Hancock (2003: 52) believes that stress helps hearers differentiate similar words, for example, numbers ending in – teen or ty, as in (14)
Thirty / ˈθɜːti/ Fifteen /ˌfɪfˈtiːn /
Thirteen / ˌθɜːrˈtiːn / Fifty /ˈfɪfti /
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Stress can also be used as a grammatical device to distinguish adjectives and verbs, and adjectives and nouns, for example in:
(15) Adjective
Verb
a. Absent/ˈæbsənt/
absent /æbˈsent/
b. Frequent/ˈfriːkwənt/
Frequent/ friˈkwent/
c. Perfect/ˈpɜːfɪkt/
Perfect/ pəˈfekt/
The stress is on the first syllable in adjectives, while it is on the second syllable in verbs; the same stress movement occurs between adjectives and nouns in the following:
(16) Adjective
Noun
a.invalid / ɪnˈvælɪd /
/ ˈɪnvəlɪd/
b.minute /maɪˈnjuːt /
/ ˈmɪnɪt /
c. complex/ˈkɒmpleks/
/ˈkɑːmpleks /
The stress is on the second syllable in adjectives, whereas, it is on the first in nouns. All these phonological processes in English, by which verbs are changed into nouns or adjectives is called Initial – stress derivation . Those who have much difficulty in understanding what is being said by native speakers hold that native speakers usually address with reduced forms (changes) that occur in natural speech due to the environment or context in which words are found. The function of stress in English is directly related to reduced
38
forms. Rhythm in English is the guide to the structure of information in the spoken language, and it is based on the contrast of stressed and unstressed syllable. The function of stress is to mark the information bearing words in an utterance. The feature of unstressed syllables leads to reductions in spoken English (Norris 2002:1-2).
2.8 Word Stress Word stress belongs to particular syllable or parts of word, which are stressed within an overall word. While sentence stress is more of a consideration for overall fluency, word stress has more phonological and morphemic importance. AlKhuli (2000: 17-18) states that “each syllable in a word has a peak or nucleus which receives a certain degree of stress which varies from one syllable to another within the same word”. The position of the primary stress in English is unpredictable, that is it can fall on any syllable of the word, and it can shift in connected speech. As far as stress placement in words is concerned, there are two contradictory views. The first is that stress placement is unpredictable, as there being no rules which determine the syllable that carries the stress. Even if there are rules, they have many exceptions (Jones 1956:249). Others like Kingdon (1958.xii) and Fudge (1984:10) hold different view in that they think stress placement is rule- bound; their view is based on the properties of affixes. According to Roach (2000: 97). In order to decide on stress placement the following information is necessary: a- Morphological structure of the word, whether it is simple, complex, or compound. b- The grammatical category of the word, whether it is noun, verb, adjective, etc. c- How many syllables the word has. d- The phonological structure of those syllables which the word consists of.
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2.8.1 Stress in Simple Words “Simple words are those words that have no prefixes or suffixes in present – day English (though some have prefixes historically).Content words are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, demonstratives and question - words are usually stressed. Function words include determiners such as (a, the), pronouns, prepositions, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions are usually unstressed .among the content words, the placement of the primary stress may vary, depending on the syntactic category of the word.” Carr (2013: 77-78) Stress placement is not easy but difficult although there are some rules. Roach (2000:97) states that “Certainly anyone who tries to analyse English stress placement has to recognize that is a highly complex matter.” The following are some rules of placement of the primary stress 1. Monosyllabic words : one syllable words ( either nouns, verbs , adjectives or adverbs) are pronounced in isolation are uttered with primary stress as in : bat / 'bat /
go /'ɡəʊ /
big / ' big/
out
/'aʊt /
2. Di syllabic words: Words of two syllables, the stress is placed on the second syllable, if it is long. If short, the first syllable is stressed. This rule can be applied to nouns, verbs, adjectives. Apply / əˈplaɪ /
open / ˈəʊpən /
arrive / ә 'raiv /
enter /'entә /
3. Polysyllabic words: words of three and more syllables, the syllable with a long vowel is stressed, especially the ultimate and penultimate syllables. Examples : Entertain / entә'tein
/
encounter / in'kauntә /
If both the second and the third syllables contain weak vowels, the stress then falls on the first syllable as in: Family / 'fӕmәli /
parody / 'pӕrәdi
/
40
Kenworthy (1987: 59) states that “any syllable of a polysyllabic word can carry the main stress”. This is very different from other languages which have a fixed word stress in which, for example in a disyllabic word, the second syllable will always be stressed; in a three- syllable word the final syllable will always be stressed. Kelly (2000:66) explains that there are identifiable syllables in each of the following words: (17) TECH nical
phoNEtic
underSTAND
These stressed syllables which are indicated in capital letters show the change of pitch, and level of the speaker’s voice. The vowel sounds in those syllables are lengthened. Roach (2000:81-100) states that disyllabic words either of the two syllables are stressed not both. If the second syllable of the verb is a strong syllable (has a peak one of the vowel phonemes or possibly a triphthong.If the vowel is short, the strong syllable will always have a coda), the second syllable will be stressed as in arrive / əˈraɪv / , and about / əˈbaʊt / . On the contrary, the first syllable will be stressed, if the final syllable is weak (has one of a very small number of possible peaks we may have a weak syllable ending with a vowel, weak syllable contains vowels like: the vowel/ ә / "schwa", close front unrounded vowel symbolized as/ I /, and close back rounded vowel symbolized as u) as in enter /entə/and equal/՛i:kwəl/.A finalsyllable w illalso be unstressed if itcontains /əυ/, as in: follow / ˈfɒləʊ / /, and borrow /bürəυ /, the same rule can be applied to two – syllable simple adjectives, for example, lovely/ /′lUvli/ alive / ə′lαiv/, except for words like, honest / ′ɒnɪst /, and perfect /′p3:fikt/ that end with strong syllables but are stressed on the first syllable . This is different for nouns, as they require a short vowel in the second syllable .The stress will go onto the first syllable, otherwise it goes on the second, as in: (18) money product
/ ՛mʌni/ / ՛pr üdʌkt/
estate / ɪˈsteɪt / design
/ dɪˈzaɪn /
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Adverbs and prepositions behave as verbs and adjectives. But for threesyllable words if the final syllable is strong, in verbs, it will be stressed, as in entertain / entə՛tein/. However, the stress will be placed on the preceding syllable if the last syllable is weak and if the preceding syllable is strong, as in encounter /Iŋ́kauntə /.In case both syllables have weak syllables, the stress will be put on the initial, as in parody /ṕærədi/. Nouns can be treated in the same way, if the final syllable is weak, or ends with /əu/, then it is unstressed; the preceding syllable is stressed if it is strong, for example , potato / pə'teitəu/. The stress will be placed on the initial, if the second and the third syllables are weak, as in quantity / ˈkwɒntəti / and cinema / / ˈsɪnəmə / . Because of these observations we can conclude that stress goes onto the strong syllable. Though, three- syllable simple nouns are different, even if the final syllable is strong the stress will usually be placed on the first syllable. The last syllable is usually quite prominent, so that in some cases it could be said to have secondary stress, as in: intellect / ˈɪntəlekt / /. The samething can be applied to adjectives, for example: insolent
/ ˈɪnsələnt / .
As mentioned, the main characteristics of stressed syllables are loudness, lengthfullness and highness. On the other hand, unstressed syllables have the characteristics like quietness, shortness, reduction, and lowness. That is why, when we pronounce a word of more than one syllable, the stressed syllables appear to be louder, longer, clearer, and higher pitched (Hancock 2003:35). Primary stress moves leftward, Teschner and Whitley (2004:28) claims that 82 percent of all bisyllabic words are penultimately primary stressed. This proves that the longer the word the more likely the primary stress falls leftward. He statistically proves that the leftward trend usually stops at the antepenult rather than advancing to the pre-antepenult.
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2.8.2 Stress Assignment in Derived English Words Zafarani and Shkouhian ( 2009: 60) , state that“ English has both suffixes as in ( sorted with the – ed suffix ) and prefixes as in (indirect with the prefix in).Suffixes can be subdivided into
inflectional and derivational suffixes. The
additional of an inflectional suffix produce a different form of the word, for instance when the suffix –ing is added to the verb obscure, the resulting word is obscuring which is a form of that verb .But when an derivational suffix is added to a word, the resulting word is not only a different form of the same word, but another word .Thus when the suffix –ly is added to an adjective bold, the result is the adverb boldly which is a distinct word.” According to Carr ( 2013 : 20 ), the inflectional suffixes are not stressed and have no effect on word stress in English words as can be seen from pairs 'refuge / 'refuges( plural suffix ), 'comment / 'commented ( past tense suffix ) and he states that there are two sorts of derivational suffixes : First is stress-neutral suffixes which they have no effect on stress when they are added to a word , and the second is stress –shifting suffixes which they have effect on stress in English. Stress – shifting suffixes are all of Latinate descent, i.e. from French or Latin. Another type is auto-stressed suffixes. This means that the suffix will be the bearer of the primary stress, such as –ee, -ette, -ese etc. According to Yavaş (2011: 165-7) , the suffixes are classified into three sorts : a- Stress- bearing (attracting) suffixes. These suffixes when they are added to a root they attract the stress to themselves and constitute heavy syllables. b- Stress- shifting (fixing ) suffixes .These suffixes when they added to a root ,
they shift the primary stress from it's original position to the syllable
immediately preceding the suffix .
43
c- Stress – neutral suffix. These suffixes when added to a root, they do not change the stress on the resulting word including the eight inflectional suffixes (plural –s, possessive-s, third person singular –s, progressive –ing, past –ed, past participle –ed/ -en , comparative –er , superlative –est ) and several derivational ones.
2.8.2.1 Auto-Stressed Suffixes These suffixes when they added to a root, they attract the stress to themselves and constitute heavy syllables. -ade
lʹemon
-
lemonʹade
-aire
mʹillion -
millionaʹire
-ation
rʹealize
-
realizʹation
-ee
ʹabsent
-
absentʹee ( exception : commʹittee )
-eer
mʹountain -
mountainʹeer
-ese
Japʹan
-
Japanʹese
-esque
pʹicture
-
picturʹesque
-ette
kʹitchen
-
kitchenʹette
-itis
lʹarynx
-
laryngʹitis
-ific
hʹonor
- honorʹific
Yavaş (2011: 166) .
44
2.8.2.2 Stress- Shifting Suffixes These suffixes when added to a root , they shift the stress from it’s original to the syllable immediately preceding the suffix. Primary stress is on the last syllable of the stem. '-eous':
"advantage" ǝd'vaːntidʒ;
'-graphy': "photo"
"advantageous"
ædvǝn'teidʒǝs
'fǝutǝu
"photography"
fǝ'togrǝfi prǝ'vɛbiǝl
'-ial':
"proverb"
'provɛːb
"proverbial"
'-ic':
"climate"
'klaimit;
"climatic"
klai'mætic
'-ion':
"perfect"
'pɛː fikt ;
"perfection"
pɛː'fekʃn
'-ious':
"injure"
'indʒǝ;
"injurious"
in'dʒuǝriǝs
"tranquillity"
træŋ'kwiliti
"reflexive"
'riːfleksiv"
'-ty':
"tranquil"
'træŋkwil ;
'-ive':
"reflex"
'ri ː fleks;
(Roach 2010:84)
2.8.2.3 Neutral Suffixes These suffixes when added to a root, they do not change the stress on the resulting word including the eight inflectional suffixes. '-"able":
"comfort"';
' kʌmfǝt
"comfortable"
'kʌmfǝtbl
"-age":
" anchor"
'æŋkǝ
"anchorage"
'æŋkǝridʒ
"-al":
"refuse"(verb)
ri ' fjuːz
"refusal"
ri 'fjuːzl
"-en":
"wide"
'waid
"widen"
'waidn
"-ful":
"wonder"
'wʌndǝ
"'wonderful"
' wʌndǝfl
"-ing":
"amaze"
ǝ'meiz
"amazing"
ǝ 'meiziŋ
"-ish":
"devil"
'devl
"-er"
" big "
" 'big "
"devilish" " bigger"
'devliʃ 'bigW
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(this is the rule for adjectives; verbs with stems of more than one syllable always have the stress on the syllable immediately preceding 'ish', e.g. "replenish"
ri ' peni ʃ
"demolish" di ' moli ʃ .)
'-like':
"bird"
' bɛ ːd
"birdlike"
'-less':
"power" 'pauǝ
"powerless"
'-ly':
"hurried" ' hʌrid
'bɛ ːdlaik ' pauǝles
"hurriedly"
'hʌridli
'-ment '(noun): "punish" ' pʌniʃ
"punishment"
'pʌniʃmǝnt
'-ness': "yellow"
'jelǝu
"yellowness"
' jelǝunǝs
'-our': "poison"
' poizn
"poisonous"
' poiznǝs
' gloːri
"glorify"
'gloːrifai
'-fy': '-wise':
"glory" "other"
' ʌðǝ
"otherwise" ' ʌðǝwaiz
'-y'(adjective or noun): "fun" ' fʌn
"funny" ' fʌni
(Ibid)
According to Kenworthy (1987: 63-5) English affixes affect the stress placement in the word and might have the following patterns: The following suffixes are never stressed in English: (19) a. ly
quietly
b. al
musical, original
c. ive
administrative, primitive
d. ent/ant equivalent, assistant e. ic
automatic
46
Additionally, Benua (1997:180-194) classifies English affixes into two groups: group A (-al, ate,-ic,-ity,-ous) and group B (-able,-er,-ful,-ist,-ness, un-). Words in group B are highly faithful to their base, copying main stress and various derived segmental properties, while words in group( A) affixes are less faithful, and copy their bases only in the placement of non primary stress feet. Group ( B) affixation is invisible to stress (or stress –neutral) and similarly irrelevant to other phonological rules, whereas, group A affixation is “stress- affecting” and subject to a variety of segmental alternations. Words with Group A affixes disobey the (20)Group A affixation
Group B affixation
՛origin
or՛iginal
՛obvious
՛obviousness
՛parent
pa՛rental
՛parent
՛parenthood
՛universe
uni՛versal
՛sordid
՛sordidness
՛popular
popu՛larity
in՛habit
in՛habitable
con՛tinue
contin՛uity
ar՛ticulate
ar՛ticulator
՛grammar
gra՛mmarian
as՛tonish
as՛t onishingly
՛opera
ope՛ratic
՛wonder
՛wonderfullness
secondary stress generalization. In or՝igin՛ ality, ar՝ istocr՛ atic , and mun՝icip ՛ ality , secondary stress appears on the second of three light pre-tonic syllables, rather than the first, because main stress appears on the corresponding vowel in the relevant base word: or՛igin, ar՛ istocrat, an d mun՛icipal There are suffixes that change the stress in the shorter word, for example, the suffix /∫in/ changes the stress in the word ́educate to edućation ,moreover, by adding the suffixes(-ion, -ian, and –ic,) the stress always moves to the syllable before these suffixes, as in électric, elect́rician, and ́atom, at́omic. Teschner and Whitley (2004:36-9) classify English suffixes as follows:
47
1- The suffixes that change stress to the pre-antepenult: (-ary), as in: ́constable and cont́abulary. 2-The suffixes that change stress to the antepenult:(- ity, -eity, -al,-bian,-ology,dian,-lian,-nian,-rian,-ean,-itan,-icide,-ute,-neous/nious,-dious,-rious,-lous,-mous,nous,-rous,-tous,-uous,-ius,-ograph,-ographer,-ography,-ient,-ify,-ium,-cracy,-crat,ia,-omy,-eria,-onia,-ica,-omita,-ular)like: ćapable→capab́ ility,v́ary→vaŕiety,t́echńique→t́echnical,ḿethod→method́ ology,Ár ab→Aŕabian,́infant→inf́anticide,h́ armony→harḿonious,d́ emocrat→ deḿocracy. 3-The suffixes that change stress to the penult :( -ics,-cial,-tial,-cian,-tian,-gian,sian,-cious,-tious,-aceous,-geous,-gious,-sis,-tis,-nda,-sive,-ive,-ata,-ella,-ina,-o,um-cent)as in ́aci→aćidic,b́ enifit→bnif́icial,́analize→anaĺysis,,pŕospect→prosṕective. 4-The suffixes that change stress to the ult: (-ade,-ain,-aire,-ane,-ee/e,-een,-eer,ese,-eze,-esse,-eur,-ique,-oon,-sque,-ette)
as
in: ĺemon→lemońade, ́journal→
journaĺese, ṕicture→ pictuŕesque, ́novel→ noveĺette. 5-The suffixes that do not change stress :( -able,-ant,-ate,-cy,-er,-ed,-es,-ess,-ful,ing,-ine,-ish,-ism,-ist,-ite,-ize,-less,-like,-ly,-ment,-ness,-phile,-phobe,-proof,-ship,some,-tor,-tory, -ish )as in: agrée→agréeable,asśist→asśistant,stéward→stéwardess,revénge→ revéngeful,wóman→wómanish,regárd→regárdless,lády→ládylike. Most prefixes do not change stress within word, the prefixes are as follows:ab,ac-,anti-,as-,be-,bi-,co-,com-,con-,de-,des-,di-,em-,en-,ex-,for-,geo-,homo-,hyper,in-,inter-,intra-,ir-,micro-,macro-,mid-,mis-,mono-,multi-,non-,ob-,off-,per-,post,pre-,pro-,re-,under-,etc. (Teschner and Whitley 2004:40-2). Kreidler (2004:79) mentions that when an old English affix is added to a word there is no effect on the position of stress as in these words 'neighbor 'neighborly 'neighborhood or 'thoughtful, un'thoughtful, un'thoughtfulness.On the
48
contrary, when an affix is added to words of Greek, Latin, or French origin ,there is often a change of stress as in these words 'origin, o'riginal origi'nality or 'photograph pho'tography, photo 'graphic .Consequently a vowel which is stressed in one word becomes unstressed in another word and the vowel is reduced ,while a reduced vowel becomes stressed in another word as can be seen in the first vowel of origin and original and second vowel in photograph and photography. More recently, Zamma (2006) summarizes English stress patterns as extrametrical ( where stress falls on the antepenult if the penult is light as in n՛atural, d՛ ominant, and h՛ umorous ; non-extrametrical ( where stress falls on the light penult) as in alc՛holic, a՛ tomic, and ti՛ tanic non-retracting (where stress falls on the last syllable )as in Ja՝pa՛ nes e, ՝engi՛ neer, ՝ arabe՛ sque, and c՝iga՛ rette ; strongly –retracting (where stress falls on the antepenult) as in
՛desig՝ nate, ՛ demonst՝ rate ; and weakly –retracting (where stress falls on the penult if it is heavy) as in sta՛lag՝ mite, ele՛ mentary and ge՛ lig՝ n ite. Zamma also presents a closer approach with the stress patterns of suffixes where some suffixes show categorical stress patterns, whereas others do not; in other cases, few suffixes show variant stress patterns. According to Zamma; extrametrical suffixes include: -ity, ion,-(i)an,-al,-ous,-ive ; non-extrametrical suffixes include: -ic, id-; non-retracting suffixes include: -ese,-eer,-esque,-ette; strongly retracted suffixes include: -ate, (i)fy,-ize; and weakly retracted suffixes include: -oid,-ite,-ary,-ory . Some suffixes show both strong and weak reaction patterns, as in:–ary, ate,-ize, and – ite. It is noticed however that some affixes can have dual membership, that is, sometimes they determine the place of stress and show the properties of group A affixes and sometimes behave as group B affixes. These include: auto-, circum-, hyper-, mono-, neo-,-able,-ism,-ist,-ive,-ize,-ment,-y.For example, the adjective forming suffix-able acts as a dual suffix. Therefore we can distinguish two
49
different types of able, that is -able1 and -able2. The adjective suffix/əbl/ is generally stress- neutral. That is, it cannot cause the position of main stress in the base to change, as in: ́watch and ́watchable. However, there are examples like adḿire, and ́admirable where the suffixes cause the place of stress to shift, showing another type of able which can be labeled -able2 (Ahmed 2007: 12-13).
2.8.3 Word Stress Patterns and Prefixes Prefixes come before the stem such as (un + pleasant= unpleasant). According to Yavaş (2011: 164) and Roach (2009:85), the addition of prefixes does not change word stress. Most of the separable monosyllabic prefixes bear secondary stress if the prefix is removed, the existing English word is left. The following is a list of prefixes: (21) co- (together) as in co-con'spirator, co-'edit de- (get rid of ) as in de-regu'lation , de-'louse dis- (negative ) as in disa 'ppear, dis'pleasure ex- (former)
as in
ex-ad'ministrator, ex-'boss
in- (negative ) as in
inco'rrect , in'active
mal- (badly ) as in
mala'djusted , ma'lodorous
mis- (wrongly) as in
misa'ddressed , mis-'spelled
pre- (before) as in
pre-e'xist , pre-'pay
pro- (in favor of ) as in pro-'hunting , pro-'choice re- (again)
as in
re-a'ppear , re-'fill
sub- (beneath ) as in
sub-a'tomic , sub-'human
trans- (across) as in
trans-At'lantic , tran'sexual
un- (negative ) as in
una'ttractive , un'fair
Carr (2013: 83)
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2.8.4 Stress in Compound Words Yavaş (2011: 168) states that "a compound is composed of more than one root morpheme (mostly two free morphemes) but functions like a single word in syntactic and semantic term." A compound can be written as single word such as (blueprint) or with a hyphen in between such as (open-minded) or with a space between the elements such as (battery charger). All noun compounds receive the primary stress on their first element. Exception to this rule involves names (e.g. Lake 'Erie, Mount 'Siani, Great 'Britain ) and they have the following combinations: a- Noun + noun e.g. 'teapot b- Verb+ noun e.g. 'stop watch c- Particle/ adverb + noun e.g. 'overdose, 'underwear. For the adjective compounds having the same rule of noun compounds, the stress is on the first element and they have the following combination: a- Noun + adjective e.g. 'seasick b- Adjective + adjective e.g. 'red hot c- Preposition + adjective e.g. 'overripe For the verb compounds which give us compounds that function like verbs they also have stress on the first element . a- Noun + verb e.g. 'spoon-feed b- Adjective + verb e.g. 'dry-clean c- Verb + verb e.g. 'drop- kick d- Particle/ adverb + verb e.g. under'take , overs'leep ( exception to the rule , the second element receives the stress .)
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Compounds with more than two elements are almost always stressed on the first element . e.g. 'fly- by- night, 'mother- in- law in complex compounds which are formed by joining a noun compound to another noun have the stress on the first element such as : a- noun + noun e.g. 'assembly line worker b- adjective + noun e.g. 'high school student c- verb + noun
e.g. 'pick up truck
According to Kenworthy (1987: 64-5) compound words are formed by the combination of two nouns, a noun and an adjective, a verb and a preposition, etc. The meaning is clearly derivable from the two elements where there are combinations of two free morphemes such as grass sḱirt, white b́ ook . Such combinations are labeled phrases and the primary stress is on the second element except in cases where an emphatic contrast is intended on the first part. There is also another type of the combination of two free morphemes, here the meaning is often less obviously derivable from the two elements, .eg. bĺackbird, ḿatch box, bĺue stocking. Such combinations are labelled compounds and the primary stress is on the first element. There are also exceptions where combinations such as central h́ eating and full ḿoon are semantically regarded as compounds whereas they are stressed on second the part (Cruttenden 1997:16-7). Compound nouns may have stress on the first element, as in a teapot,
a
grand mother, a police man, but for nouns and adjectives, which are used separately, each word, will have, its own stress, as compared to words, which are formed by adjectives and nouns, for Example: (22) What a big black board! Look at that small black board!
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Hancock (2003: 64-6) shows that the stress is on the first part (stress falls on the first syllable), in most compound words, as in the examples: (23) ́bed room
́shoe shop
However the stress will be on the second part if the first part of the compound is an adjective, for instance: black ՛board . The second part of a compound noun is also stressed if the object in the second part is made out of the material in the first, for instance: wooden ՛table , glass ՛jar , or if the first part tells where the second part is, for example: car ՛key , and car ՛door . The stress may often be put on the second element if the compound noun is not a noun, as in seĉond ́class, and long ́sighted. Stress also moves from second component to the first when the compound is used in a noun phrase: (24) The 'coffee shop is in down town here. The stress moves onto the first element, because it is used in a noun phrase, as in (25) a 'down town coffee shop.
2.8.5 Rules of Word Stress Though there are exceptions to the rules. Stress assignment in words relies on four factors: the word-class (noun, verb, adjective, etc) of a word; the number of syllables in a word; the distinction between strong syllables and weak syllables, and identification of certain specific affixes and especially, suffixes. Rules for stress assignment in simple words can be summarized as follows: 1- words stressed on the last syllable (ultimate) are of two kinds: A- Certain suffixes are always stressed (ee, eer, ique, ese, esce, aire, ette, esque).
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Nouns
millionaire nominee, trainee, engineer, technique
Noun-adjective
Chinese, Japanese
Verbs
acquiesce
B-Verbs and adjectives of two syllables that have a strong ultimate are stressed on the ult: agree, absurd, divine, decide, divide, obey, produce, seduce, and accept etc. 2- Words stressed on the next-to-last syllable (penult) are of three kinds: A-Verbs and adjectives which have a weak ult: abandon, discover, examine, insipid, periodic, dynamic, humid. B-Two-syllable nouns with a strong ult or weak ult: canine, calcite, hygiene, membrane, statue, garden, hindrance. There are also exceptions where some two syllable nouns are stressed on the ult, such as: police, machine, hotel, canoe. C-Nouns of two or more syllables that have the suffixes –ics or –ion: civics, economics, panics, addition, solution, physics, nation, tonic. 3- Words stressed on the next-to-last syllable (penult) or on the third syllable from the end (antepenult) are of two kinds: A-Nouns of more than two syllables that have a weak ult are stressed on penult, if the penult is strong, on the antepenult if the penult is weak: horizon, citizen, arena, aroma, veranda, intestine, and cinema. B-Adjectives with the suffixes –al,-ant,-ent,-ine,-ous are stressed on penult if the penult
is
strong,
and
on
the
antepenult
if
the
penult
is
weak:abundant,accidental,internal,reluctant,tremendous,feminine,generous,magnif icent,ridiculous,vigilant. 4- Words stressed on the antepenult (one kind) Nouns with the suffix –ty always have the stress two syllables forward, on the antepenult: anxiety, humility, loyality, novelty, possibility, society. 5-Words stressed on the antepenult or pre-antepenult are of two kinds:
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A-Most words of three or more syllables with a strong ult are stressed on the antepenult: Verbs
multiply, prosecute, gallivant, implement, manifest
Adjectives destitute, erudite, grandiose, Nouns
asteroid, exercise, ridicule, satellite, cellophane
Yet, if the antepenult vowel is followed immediately by the penult vowel, with no consonant between them, stress is on the pre-antepenult such as bibliophile, deteriorate, heliotrope, stereophone. B- A number of nouns and adjectives with certain endings are stressed on the antepenult or pre-antepenult relying on the on the number of syllables in the word and whether the penult is strong, as in suffixes: -acy,-ancy, -ency in words like fallacy, vacancy, urgency, adequacy, and presidency. If there are three syllables, the antepenult is stressed; if there are more, the pre-antepenult is stressed as in suffixes: –ary, -ory in words like secretary, advisory, complimentary, territory. If the antepenult is strong it is stressed .If not the pre-antepenult is stressed. If the word has only three syllables or the penult is weak, the antepenult is stressed such as: astronomy, biology, catastrophe, geography, apoplexy, epilepsy, matriarchy. But if the penult is strong, the preantepenult gets stress (Kreidler 1997: 135-9). Apart from what is mentioned above, there are two very simple rules about word stress in English. First, a word has only one primary stress; second, vowel only can be stressed not consonants. Besides, there are some other rules which can help the placement of stress. Collins and Mees (2008:127-9) state that though it is very difficult to provide a complete guideline for stress placement in English because there are actually many irregularities, knowing some simple rules at least can make the placement of stress in compounds much easier particularly for non native learners .Compounds
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in English are of two types: those which have the primary stress on their first element and those which have the primary stress on their final element. Here are some guidelines below: A- Compounds written as two words or non-hyphenated usually attract stress onto the first element, as in: 'Kurdish boy, 'office boy. B-Stress falls on the final element if the compound includes a material used in its manufacture such as: cotton 'socks, diamond 'ring. On the contrary, stress falls on the initial element if includes non manufactured item as in: 'orange- tree, ' cotton -reel. C-Final element of the compound attracts stress if a name of location is involved in some way. For example, if the first element of the compound is the name of a country, region or town, such as: Kurdish 'partridge, African 'tiger. Stress also falls on the final element where there are names of
places
or
geographical
features,
such
as
names
of
region,towns,suburbsl,districts,naturalfeatures,bridges,tunnels,parks,pub licbuildings,sportsclubs,such as: Notting 'Hill, Erbil 'citadel, and all street names except the street itself ,e.g. Green 'Road ,Seven 'bridge ,Churchill 'way, sixth 'avenue. D-Parts of building have final stress as in front 'door, kitchen 'window, and garden 'seat. E-Stress falls on the final element of the compound where positioning of any sort is involved such as (right 'wing, lower 'class, bottom 'line).The same thing applies to time location as in evening 'star, February 'sale, morning 'tea. F-Most of the food items attract stress onto the final element of the compound as in Welsh 'rabbit, fish 'soup, but some items tend to have
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initial element stress because they can be regarded as part of the living plant or animal as in 'chicken liver, 'orange juice, 'vine leaves . G-Names of magazines and newspapers tend to have final stress, as in: daily 'post, Eastern 'mail. H-Stress falls on the first element of the compound where there are names of academic subjects, skills, as: in 'technical college, 'English teacher (a person who teaches English). I-Nouns formed from verb+ particle, tend to have initial stress as in 'make-up, 'come-back, 'look-out. There are also few exceptions, such as: lie-'down, look-'round. J-Nouns ending in –er or –ing+particle attract stress on their final element, such as: passer-'by, cleaning-'up. K-Compounds formed from –ing + noun are of two types. First stress falls on the initial element where an activity is aided by the object śewing machine, ẃashing machine. Second, stress falls on the final element where a compound suggests a characteristic of the object, as in: running 'water, casting 'vote.
2.8.6 Sentence Stress in English When words are combined to phrases and sentences, only one syllable receives primary stress, all other stressed syllables are reduced to secondary stress. Stress in words in citation form is different form stress in connected speech i.e. sentence stress. In connected speech the words that convey the important information are usually stressed and the words that convey little information lose stress completely .Collins& Mees (2008:130). Function words
(articles, auxiliary verbs, verb be,
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prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions) are usually unstressed but the content words (nouns, main verbs, adjectives, most adverbs) are usually stressed. For example: (29) I have 'heard that 'Jack and 'Jane 'spent their 'holidays in 'Jamaica.
Sentences can be stressed in different ways , according to the special meanings, contrasts , emphasis and relative importance . According to Crystal ( 1997 )" the main function of stress is to provide a means of distinguishing degrees of emphasis or contrast in sentences " as in : (28) The 'big 'man 'looks 'angry ( normal) . (29) The 'big man looks angry ( not anyone else ). Jones (1972: 263) states that "when all the important words in a sentence are equally important they all have the strong stress." In this it frequently happens a number of strong syllables occur consecutively. Thus in the sentence, (30)John has just bought two large brown dogs . Every word would be stressed except has , thus / 'dʒon әz 'dʒʌst 'bo:t tu: 'la:dʒ 'braun 'dogz / Quirk et al (1962: 318) see that sentence stress is different from word stress in that sentence stress depends on the meaning which the utterance conveys. In any piece of utterance or connected speech, some parts are said to stand out from their neighbours, in the same way that certain syllables of a polysyllabic word are more prominent than their neighbours. But, we still have to be careful because stress in polysyllabic words is different from stress in any piece of utterance or connected speech in that the stress in connected speech is largely determined by the meaning that the utterance conveys. Besides, the meaning of utterance relies on its occurrence in a situation or context. That is why, sometimes function words are exceptionally stressed if the meaning requires. In sentence stress or speech
58
variations of pitch, length of stress, and quality participate in getting prominence or stress (Gimson 1970: 257-260). Ladefoged (1982:109-110) observes that word stress shifts when words are put into one sentence; there is a stress on the first syllable of each of the words big, black, cat, ate, twelve, white, mice, when these words are said in isolation, but there are fewer stresses, when they appear in a sentence, as in: (31) The ՛big black ՛ cat ate twelve white ՛ mice. It is untrue to show that there is always an equal interval between stresses in English because words that might have been stressed are nevertheless often unstressed so as to prevent too many stresses coming together, for example, both wanted and deer are stressed in: (32) He ՛wanted a ՛ pretty ՛ deer . But they may not be in: (33) My ՛uncle wanted ՛ nine pretty ՛ deer. Behne (1990:1) states that “stress is used both to make a phrase boundary and to provide focus on new discourse information. The acoustic correlates of stress are additive when phrase- final and focal stress converge in a sentence; and the acoustic correlates of stress are more dominant for phrase- final stress than for focal stress when they occur separately in a sentence ”. English sentence has a specific number of beats; stressed (Content) words take up an entire “beat”, while “unstressed” function words fall between the beats regardless of the number of function words. The time between beats is always the same; therefore, function words are often spoken faster and with less volume as if they are being squeezed into the gap between regular stressed beats, as in the following example: (34) Beat 1 I am talking
Beat 2
Beat 3
to the tall
man
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Sentence stress gives the language its particular “beat” or “rhythm”. In any utterance, there are particular words that carry more “weight” or “volume” stress, sense, content, or meaning than others. For this reason they are called “content words”. On the other hand, unstressed words that tend to have more grammatical functions or help sentences function syntactically are called “function words”, for example, if we take out all function words from a sentence, the sentence will still have meaning and can be understood. On the contrary, taking out all significant words, cause the sentence to be meaningless. Content words, include (main verbs), nouns, adjectives, adverbs, negative auxiliary verb, demonstrative, and question words. Function words include: (Pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs, and verb to be. Sentence stress is the music of spoken English. It gives English its rhythm or beat. If word stress is the accented syllable within a word, then sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence (Ashby and Maidment 2005:160-2). Two sets of function words such as wh-words where, why, how and demonstratives this, that, these, those are frequently stressed, when providing significant information and contrast. Prepositions are frequently stressed when indicating contrast, as in: (35) Actually, I know very much a 'bout guitar. The number of unstressed syllables will increase, and more lexical items will be unstressed at more rapid tempo, compare these two sentences (Collins and Mees 2008:130): (36) a. Normal tempo: I've 'heard that 'Tom and 'Allen 'spent their 'holidays in Malaysia. b. Rapid tempo: I've heard that 'Tom and 'Allen spent their 'holidays in Ma'laysia.
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In English sentences, for example in a simple English SVO sentence such as Tom met Jane. The main stress is on the object Jane, but this approach fails to account for the higher prominence of the subject Tom in comparison to the verb met. It also fails to account for passive and unaccusative sentences uttered in outof-the-blue contexts, primary stress falls on the subject, as in these examples(Kahnemuyipour 2009:16-27): (437) a.My car was stolen. b. A letter arrived for you today. prominent element
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Chapter Three Data Collection 3.1 Introduction To achieve the aim of the present study, this chapter is devoted to the mechanisms, strategies and procedures of data collection. The data is collected by using a test. Then the description of the sample, validity, reliability, and scoring scheme are commented on.
3.2 The Sample A sample is defined as a “subset selected randomly or otherwise to represent a population” (Brown, 2005: 104). To Mousavi (1997:122), a sample is a selection of a group as a representative of a population. The number of participants that have been selected as the study sample are fifty 3rd year students at the English Department/ School of Basic Education, University of Sulaimani in the academic year 2013-2014. For investigating and achieving the aim of this study, a test is designed for the students. Fifty Kurdish native speakers between 21-26 years old 3rd year college students have been chosen as the sample of the study. The test subjects have been taught two courses of phonetics and phonology, and hence they are supposed to be the most suitable study sample for this study. Moreover, all the students are chosen randomly. According to Mousavi (1997: 122) a random sample is the one that every student has the same chance to be selected.
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3.3 The Instruments Since this study is a quantitative one, the researcher has prepared a test. The test consists of two sets of questions. Each set of questions includes (15) items.
Table (2) The Test Sample of the Study
Participants
Types of Test/ Questionnaire
Number of Participants
Students
Pilot Test
30
Students
Final Test
50
3.3.1 The Test and Its Design A test is defined as “a measurement instrument designed to elicit a specific sample of an individual’s behavior” (Mousavi, 1997: 142). Equally, Brown (2004: 3) states that “a test is a method of measuring a person’s ability, knowledge, or performance
in a given domain”. Therefore, a test with two sets used as a data
collection mechanism will easily enable the researcher to proceed into the students’ written stress performance with regard to their ability in using primary stress. To fulfill the aim of this study, the researcher depends on an achievement test, since it is conducted to investigate how much someone has achieved after a specific program and/ or course to a particular material within a particular time (Brown, 2004: 47-48). Hence, the results of this study are beneficial to syllabus designers and allow them make changes in a given program. The problem question
63
is that are two courses of phonetics and phonology enough? Does the given curriculum cover enough knowledge with respect to language-specific and stress patterns rules? The study test consists of two sets of questions: the first set manages recognition, the other is a production one. Each of the sets consists of (15) items. All the items are taken from Oxford Advanced Dictionary 8th edition and Internet. The first set of questions is a multiple-choice format. Each item has two or three possible items, one correct answer and the distractors. In this set, students’ ability in recognizing the prominent part of the underlined words in the item is tested. In the second set of questions, students are asked to write and to indicate the prominent part of the underlined words that carries the primary stress; each sentence includes only one word whether simple or compound or phrasal verbs. This set is a two-fold: the first, investigates the students’ ability in recognizing primary stress in words, and the second measures their ability in producing the primary stress in the words.
3.4 Validity The most important feature or principle that makes a test more effective is validity. It concerns with the extent to which a test is a good representative. Mousavi (1997: 156) defines validity as “the degree to which a test measures what is supposed to measure or can be used for the purpose for which it is intended”. Long before Mousavi, Lado (1961: 321) stated that if the test measures what it is supposed to measure, then it is valid. So, for showing validity of the test prepared and designed in this study, only two types of validity are taken into account: content validity and face validity.
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Content validity refers to the content and relevance of a test. For example, a test will not be valid, if we assess a person’s ability to speak and ask him to answer paper and pencil multiple-choice. Content validity as McNamara (2000:132) states, is “the extent to which a test appropriately samples from the domain of knowledge and skills relevant to performance in the criterion”. This study is intended to assess the students’ performance in ; it has to include all the materials in this regard. Face validity, on the other hand, is that a test should look right and be accepted by the testees. Face validity is “the degree to which a test looks right, and appears to measure the knowledge or abilities it claims to measure, based on the subjective judgment of the observer” (Mousavi, 1997: 44). Therefore, the test which is conducted in this study is shown and exposed to a number of experts (jury members) in applied linguistics and phonology. The valuable comments, notes and recommendations that lead the test to be more appropriate are taken into account. (See Appendices B and C).
3.5 Reliability Reliability is another feature that deals with test quality. Reliability is used to evaluate if a test is consistent. Brown (2005: 175) defines reliability as “the extent to which the results can be considered consistent or stable”. The results of a test in two different time intervals or two equivalent tests in one occasion should yield the same or approximate information. Therefore, a test should be “consistent and dependable” (Brown, 2004: 20). Brown (2005) and Bachman (1990) propose three methods of testing reliability: test-retest, equivalent forms, and internal-consistency strategies. To evaluate the reliability of this study, the researcher uses a test- retest which is one
65
of the internal-consistency strategies. So, the reliability of the test is (0.845) Which is a highly coefficient reliability. One can also show whether the process of data collection is stable in both tests over time. Then by using Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient the reliability can be pointed out. The number that is the result of correlation between two tests can range from (−1 to +1) on a continuous scale and (1) is a perfect value which is an evidence of best possible reliability or full stability. In order to estimate the reliability of the test , the test-retest method is adopted after two weeks. Depending on the requirements of this method, the same test
re-
administered to (20) students of the group of students. The chosen students were retested and after checking their written performance, the researcher used Pearson product moment correlation coefficient to analyze the data. Brase and Brase (2009: 498) show the formula of Pearson product moment correlation coefficient as follows:
r
=
n(Ʃ x y ) – (Ʃ x ) (Ʃ y)
n (Ʃ x2 ) – (Ʃ x)
2
n (Ʃ y2) – (Ʃ y)2
Where r = reliability, X = label for one of the variables (final test scores), N = sample size (number of testees in the test), Y = label for the other variables (re-test scores), Σ = sum of, Σ xy = sum of the product X and Y scores for each student, Σ x² = sum of the squared scores on the X variable, and Σ y² = sum of the squared scores on the Y variable. Finally, it is worth mentioning that any valid test must be reliable; “without reliability the validity of a test is impaired” and “reliability without validity is pointless”. Both validity and reliability of a test are interdependent (Weir, 1993:
66
20) and both reliability and validity are essential in testing. “Reliability is a quality of test scores, while validity is a quality of the interpretations or uses that are made of test scores” (Bachman, 1990: 25) .However, Hughes (2003: 50) believes that a test which has reliability might not have validity, but Bachman (1990: 25) states that “a test score that is not reliable, therefore, cannot be valid”. Similarly Weir (1990: 33) claims that “a test can only be valid if it is also reliable” and he agrees that validity is the most important.
Figure ( 1 ) Test-retest reliability
3.6 Pilot Test Administration A pilot test is a small experiment designed to gather information about appropriateness, difficulty, clarity of items and instructions and the reactions of the testees. It is usually done prior to the main test to improve its quality and efficiency. Baker (1989: 46) states that a clear view will be achieved because the tester is familiarized with the behavior of the test. To Richards and Schmidt (2002:
67
200) before developing or last version of a test shown, the tester should check the suitability, effectiveness, reactions of teachers and learners to the material. The pilot test of this study is made up of (15) items for each of the two sets of questions. The items are divided according to simple words, compound words, phrasal verbs, words with suffixes and words with prefixes. The number of participants in the pilot test, randomly chosen, was (30) 3rd year students of English Department/ School of Basic Education/ University of Sulaimani. The following table demonstrates all the scores got by the students and ordered from highest to the lowest. Table (3) The Pilot Test Result No. of the students 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
The Degree of Q1 (30) 26 24 22 22 20 22 22 22 22 22 14 14 14 18 18 12 18 22 18 16 20 14 14
The Degree of Q2 (30) 28 24 24 22 24 20 18 18 18 16 24 24 22 18 18 22 16 12 14 16 12 18 16
Total (60)
Status
54 48 46 44 44 42 40 40 40 38 38 38 36 36 36 34 34 34 32 32 32 32 30
Passed Passed Passed Passed Passed Passed Passed Passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed passed
68 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
12 12 14 12 12 12 10
18 18 14 16 16 14 14
30 30 28 28 28 26 24
passed passed Failed Failed Failed Failed Failed
3.6.1 Item Facility The proportion of respondents’ correct answers is called item facility. Mousavi (1997: 70) uses ‘item facility’, ‘item value’, item difficulty interchangeably. Item facility is “a measure of the ease of a test item. It is the proportion of the students who answered the item correctly” (ibid.). Generally, if an item is between 0.15 and 0.85, it will be accepted. No. of Students who answered the item correctly IF = The total number of students
Table (4) Item Facility of the First Set of Questions of the Pilot Test Item Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Average
Students' Correct Responses 22 21 14 18 19 21 12 26 20 15 0 21 10 16 20 17.66
Students’ Wrong Responses 8 9 16 12 11 9 18 4 10 15 30 9 20 14 10 12.93
Item Facility 0.73 0.70 0.46 0.60 0.63 0.70 0.40 0.86 0.66 0.50 0 0.70 0.33 0.53 0.66 0.56
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Table (5) Item Facility of the Second Set of Questions of the Pilot Test Item Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Average
Students' Correct Responses 24 15 20 22 25 21 20 10 15 12 17 14 18 25 15 7.7
Students Wrong Responses 6 15 10 8 5 9 10 20 15 18 13 16 12 5 15 14.3
Item Facility 0.80 0.50 0.66 0.73 0.83 0.70 0.66 0.33 0.50 0.40 0.56 0.46 0.60 0.83 0.50 0.355
For finding item difficulty which is the proportion of those who answered the item correctly, Mousavi (1997: 193) subtracts item facility from one.
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Table (6) Item Difficulty of the First Set of Questions of the Pilot Test Item Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Average
Item Facility 0.73 0.70 0.46 0.60 0.63 0.70 0.40 0.86 0.66 0.50 0 0.70 0.33 0.53 0.66 0.57
Item Difficulty 0.27 0.30 0.54 0.40 0.37 0.30 0.60 0.14 0.34 0.50 1 0.30 0.67 0.47 0.34 0.43
Table (7) Item Difficulty of the Second Set of Questions of the Pilot Test Item Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Item Facility 0.80 0.50 0.66 0.73 0.83 0.70 0.66 0.33 0.50 0.40 0.56 0.46 0.60 0.83
Item Difficulty 0.20 0.50 0.34 0.27 0.17 0.30 0.34 0.67 0.50 0.60 0.44 0.54 0.40 0.17
71 15 Average
0.50 0.355
0.50 0.645
As a result, depending on what has been shown in the tables above, items (8 and 11 ) in the first set of questions and all the items in the second set of questions are kept. The reason behind the change is easiness and difficulty of the items.
3.6.2 Item Discrimination Item discrimination deals with the power of an item or items in discriminating and distinguishing between bright students and weak students. To Brown (2005: 68) discrimination power “indicates the degree to which an item separates the students who performed well from those who performed poorly”. Also Heaton (1988: 179) defines item discrimination as the extent an item discriminates between testees, those who have more ability and those who have less ability. For demonstrating item discrimination, Heaton (1988: 180) and Baker (1989: 52) propose the following formula. No. of correct answers from top group - No. of correct answers from low group ID= No. of testees only in one of the groups
27% is taken from each of the top and low groups. The correct answers from low group is subtracted from the correct answers of the top group and then divided by the number of one group.
72
Table (8) ID of the First Set of Questions in the Pilot Test
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Number of Correct Responses in the High Group 8 6 2 5 6 8 5 8 7 8 0 6 6 8 7
Number of Correct Responses in the Low Group 5 5 3 4 3 3 2 7 6 0 0 4 2 3 5
ID 0.375 0.125 -0.125 0.125 0.375 0.625 0.375 -0.125 -0.125 1 0 0.25 0.50 0.625 0.25
Table (9) ID of the Second Set of Questions in the Pilot Test
Items 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Number of Correct Responses in the High Group 8 7 5 4 7 7 7 3 6 5 7
Number of Correct Responses in the Low Group 6 2 4 6 8 4 3 3 2 3 4
ID 0.25 0.625 0.125 -0. 25 -0.125 0. 375 0.50 0 0.50 0.25 0.375
73 12 13 14 15
6 7 7 3
2 4 7 4
0.50 0.375 0 0.125
Items (2, 3, 4, 8, 9,11) in the first set of questions and (3, 4, 5, 8 , 14) in the second set of questions are changed because they cannot discriminate between those who performed well and those who performed poorly.
3.6.3 Percentage of Errors According to Heaton (1975: 172, cited in Khidhir, 2010: 74), the percentage of errors refers to the number of students’ incorrect responses on the total number of responses. Consider the following formula: No. of incorrect answers Percentage of errors = ---------------------------Total No. of answers The following tables explain the errors percentage in the first and second sets of questions of the pilot test. Table ( 10 ) Error Percentage in the first set of questions of the Pilot test Item Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Students' Correct Responses 22 21 14 18 19 21 12 26 20 15 0 21
Students’ Wrong Responses 8 9 16 12 11 9 18 4 10 15 30 9
Percentage of Errors 0.26 0.30 0.53 0.40 0.36 0.30 0.60 0.13 0.33 0.50 1 0.30
74 13 14 15 Average
10 16 20 18.06
20 14 10 12.8
0.66 0.46 0.33 0.43
Table ( 11) Error Percentage in the Second set of questions of the Pilot test
Item Numbers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Students' Correct Responses 24 15 20 22 25 21 20 10 15 12 17 14 18 25 15
Students Wrong Responses 6 15 10 8 5 9 10 20 15 18 13 16 12 5 15
Percentage of Errors 0.20 0.50 0.33 0.26 0.16 0.30 0.33 0.66 0.50 0.60 0.43 0.53 0.40 0.16 0.50
3.7 Final Administration of the Test After the try-out test, the last version of the test was ready. On 3rdDecember, 2013 the final test was administered and the papers were distributed to fifty 3rd year college students at the School of Basic Education, University of Sulaimani. To create a good situation which enables the students react positively towards the test (i.e. not to affect the validity and reliability of the test), the Head of English Department helped the researcher to arrange and manage the students.
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During the process of testing, the students were given clear instructions and clarifications which were mostly in English and sometimes in their native language. The test period is 40 minutes.
3.8. Scoring Scheme 3.8.1 The Test The test includes two sets of questions, each with (15) items. Since there are (30) items, the test was scored out of 60, two marks to each item. The mark of each student was mathematically converted to be out of one hundred. The most important point, here, is that only the underlined words have been paid attention to, the other parts of the sentence are neglected .The test scored by one scorer. Table (12) Scoring Scheme Questions Number
Items Number
Scores
Percentage
1
15
30
%30
2
15
30
%30
Total
30
60
%60
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Chapter Four Data Analysis 4.1 Introduction This chapter is devoted to analyse the data collection, since the analysis of the achieved data is important because it will be the basis upon which the researcher’s hypotheses will either be verified or refuted. It also deals with the discussion of the results which is achieved by data analysis.
4.2 Quantitative Assessment of the Students’ Performance Any thesis should follow one research methodology: quantitative and qualitative. Dawson (2002: 4), Taylor (2005: 91) and Mackey and Gass(2005: 3) state that a quantitative method is a kind of data collection
mechanism in
numerical form that generates statistics to test hypotheses. On the other hand, Trumbull (2005:101) points out
that
qualitative
method
involves “an
interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter”.
4.2.1 The First Set of Questions The first set of questions, as it was clarified earlier, includes (15) multiple- choice items and its purpose is to measure Kurd EFL university students’ performance at
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the recognition level. Their performance shows that the averages of correct and incorrect responses are (23) and (27). The averages percentage of errors and correct responses are (0.46) and (0.54). The results indicate that less than half of the students face difficulty
in recognizing the exact placement of the primary
stress on the underlined words . So, only (46 %) of Kurd EFL university students are capable of recognizing the primary stress from the
options. The following
table clarifies the subjects’ performance on each item in this set of questions.
Table (13) Numbers and Percentages of the First Set of Questions, Subjects’ Performance Item Number
Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses Responses Responses
Percentage of Errors
1
38
12
0.76
0.24
2
20
30
0.4
0.6
3
28
22
0.56
0.44
4
25
25
0.5
0.5
5
39
11
0.78
0.22
6
24
26
0.48
0.52
7
19
31
0.38
0.62
8
22
28
0.44
0.56
9
25
25
0.5
0.5
10
15
35
0.3
0.7
11
21
29
0.42
0.58
12
13
37
0.26
0.74
13
15
35
0.3
0.7
78
14
19
31
0.38
0.62
15
22
28
0.44
0.56
Average
23
27
0.46
0.54
Figure (2 ) Frequency of Correct and Incorrect Responses/ Q1
4.2.2 The Second Set of Questions The second set of questions, which includes (15) items to be primary stressed, aims at measuring students’ ability in using primary stress at the production level in the underlined words. They are given a number of underlined words, to write down the prominent part of the words that carry primary stress. From the statistical results, one can conclude that the majority of students were unable to answer properly, in this regard both students’ averages of correct and incorrect responses are (20.2) and (29.8). The average percentage of errors and correct responses is
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(0.596) and (0.404). The results show that (40.4 %) of EFL university students are able to place the primary stress on words successfully. The following table shows the subjects’ performance clearly. Table (14) Numbers and Percentages of the Second Set of Questions, Subjects’ Performance
Item Number
Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses Responses
Responses
Percentage of Errors
1
20
30
0.4
0.6
2
15
35
0.3
0.7
3
30
20
0.6
0.4
4
19
31
0.38
0.62
5
36
14
0.72
0.28
6
29
21
0.58
0.42
7
23
27
0.46
0.54
8
24
26
0.48
0.52
9
23
27
0.46
0.54
10
21
29
0.42
0.58
11
11
39
0.22
0.78
12
18
32
0.36
0.64
13
12
38
0.24
0.76
14
10
40
0.2
0.8
15
12
38
0.24
0.76
Average
20.2
29.8
0.404
0.596
80
Depending on the statistical results of the two sets of questions, one can realize that the students’ ability in recognizing primary stress in word stress (first set of questions) is higher as compared to their ability at the production level (second set of questions), as showed in the following figures.
Figure ( 3 ) Errors Percentage of the Whole Test
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Figure ( 4) Frequency of correct and Incorrect Responses/ Q2
Figure ( 5 ) Percentage of Correct responses and Errors percentage /Q1
82
Figure ( 6) Percentage of correct and Incorrect Responses/ Q2
4.2.3 The Whole Test The statistical results show that the percentage of errors is (0.568). It means that (56.8 %) of the EFL university students are unable to use primary stress in words successfully .The following table is the summary of the test. Table ( 15 ) Students’ Results Obtained at Recognition and Production Levels
Question
Level
Numbers
Number
Number
of
of
Correct
Total
Incorrect Responses
Percentage of Errors
Responses Responses Q1
Recognition
345
405
750
0.54
Q2
Production
303
447
750
0.596
648
852
1500
0.568
Total
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Depending on the results, one realizes that difficulty is larger at the production level; they face difficulty at the production level much more than at the recognition level. Their correct responses at the recognition and production levels are (345) and (303) respectively. The percentage of errors at the recognition level (54 %) is lower than the production level (59.6 %).
4.2.4 The Mean To confirm that students’ performance is better at the recognition level than the production level, the means of the two sets of the questions are calculated statistically. The mean of the first set is (13.8) (recognition level) and the mean of the second set is (12.12), (production level). So, the mean of the recognition level is higher than the mean of the production level and that this matches the second hypotheses of the study. Mean
Figure (7) Mean: Recognition and Production levels
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Finally, one can say that students’ performance in using primary stress higher at the recognition level than the production level. The percentage of success at the recognition level is (42 %) and it is (20 %) at the production level. This means, (48 %) students failed at the recognition level and (80 %) at the production level. So, the percentage of success of the whole test is (30 %); thus, (70 %) of Kurd EFL university students have difficulty in using primary stress in words. (See Appendix D).
4.3 Analysis and Discussion of the Test Providing an accurate analysis and having a detailed discussion about students’ performance in using , word stress, the items in the test are explained for simple words, compound words, phrasal verbs, words with affixes (words with suffix ending and words with prefixes ). The test includes two sets of questions, each with (15) items, so the total number of the items in the whole test is (30).
4.3.1 Simple words Simple words includes (7) items. Item numbers (1, 5, 9) in the first set of questions and item numbers (1, 5, 6, 9) in the second set of questions are of simple words. The items are intended to measure students’ performance in using primary stress in simple words. The averages of correct and incorrect responses are (30) and (20). The average percentages of errors and correct responses are (0.4) and (0.6). The results show that more than half of the students are able to use primary stress in simple words successfully, and (40% ) of Kurdish EFL learners have
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difficulty in using primary stress in simple words. For details see the following table. Table ( 16 ) Numbers and Percentages of Simple Words, Subjects’ Performance
Test
Item Number
Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses Responses Responses
Percentage of Errors
1
38
12
0.76
0.24
5
39
11
0.78
0.22
9
25
25
0.5
0.5
1
20
30
0.4
0.6
Question
5
36
14
0.72
0.28
Two
6
29
21
0.58
0.42
9
23
27
0.46
0.54
30
20
0.6
0.4
Question One
Average
First Set of Questions:
Item (1) in the first set of questions displays that (38) of students, which equals (76 %), could recognize the exact using of primary stress among the options. (12) of the participants, which equals (24 %), provide wrong responses. The possible justification of this result could be that the simple word “ decide ” carries the primary stress on the last syllable in English and because of the predictability of stress in Kurdish , the first language that primary stress falls on the last syllable of
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simple words. Fatah (1980:184-187), states that stress in isolated words (simple or compound falls on the final syllable.) Item (5) is “ happy”. / ˈhæpi / Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (39) and (11), respectively. This means (78 %) of the students got the right answer. The rationale behind this result is the clear and familiarized word to the Kurdish students. On the other hand, (22 %) o f the students chose incorrect option. The difficulty could be attributed to the phonological aspect of the students themselves and the Kurdish students are familiarized with this word. Item (9) is “university” / ˌjuːnɪˈvɜːsəti / is a word consists of more than two syllables. The students’ correct and in correct responses are (25 ) and (25 ) Which indicates that (50% ) of the students chose the right answer and have the ability to recognize the exact correct option because the word “university” is common and frequently used among the students which is not strange to the ear of the students .
Second Set of Questions: Item (1) “release” / rɪˈliːs / is a verb form and consists of two syllables. Students’ correct and incorrect responses are ( 20 ) and (30 ) . This indicates that ( 40% ) of the students were able to write the correct response and (60% ) were not able to produce the correct primary stress. The results show that more than half of the students faced difficulty in using primary stress in
simple words of verb form.
The difficulty lies behind the ability of the students of form is unfamiliarity and making difference between verbs and nouns.
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Item (5) in the second set of questions is the superlative adjective “ cleverest”. /ˈklevərst / The test yielded (36) correct responses and (14) correct responses. This
means that (72 %) of the students succeeded to use primary stress successfully; only (28 %) of them provided the wrong answer, due to the familiarity of this word among the students at university.
Item (6)
The word “ pronunciation ” / prəˌnʌnsiˈeɪʃn /
is a long word and
consists of four syllables . Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (29) and (21), respectively. They are equal to (58 %) and (42%). This result is due to the fact that students are familiar with this word. Item (9) The word “ centre ” / ˈsentə / is yielded (27) incorrect responses which is equal to (54%). (23) correct responses are recorded which is equal to (46 %). The difficulty
is that in Kurdish, the primary stress falls on the last syllable of
simple words. Fatah (1980: 187)
4.3.2 Compound words In this section the items (2, 4, 6 ,7 , 8 , 15) in the first set of questions and items ( 2,4,8,13 ) of the second set of the questions are taken into account. The purpose is to measure students’ performance in using primary stress in compound words. The averages of students’ correct and incorrect responses are (19.4545455) and (30.5454545). The averages percentage of errors and correct responses are (0.610909091) and (0.389090909). The results indicate that a large number of Kurdish EFL university students are unable to use primary stress in compound words which is (61.0909091 %).
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Table (17) Numbers and Percentages of Compound Words, Subjects’ Performance Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses
Responses
Responses
2
20
30
0.4
0.6
4
25
25
0.5
0.5
Question
6
24
26
0.48
0.52
One
7
19
31
0.38
0.62
8
22
28
0.44
0.56
15
22
28
0.44
0.56
2
15
35
0.3
0.7
4
19
31
0.38
0.62
8
24
26
0.48
0.52
13
12
38
0.24
0.76
15
12
38
0.24
0.76
Test
Question Two
Average
Item Number
Percentage of Errors
19.4545455 30.5454545 0.389090909 0.610909091
First Set of Questions: Item (2) “ overflowed ” / ˌəʊvəˈfləʊd / in the first set of questions is a compound word ( preposition + verb). The students’ correct and incorrect responses are (20) and (30). This shows that (60% ) of the students are not able to use primary stress at the level of recognition. Only (40 % ) of the students are able to use primary
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stress in compound words successfully. This negative result could be attributed to the influence of Kurdish in which the primary stress falls on the last syllable of the first element of compound words Ahmad (1986 :80- 81) cited in Ahmed (2010) Item (4) “ bad tempered” / bæd ˈtempəd /
is a compound word (adj. +adj. ) .
The students correct and incorrect responses are
(25 ) and (25 ) which equals to
( 50 % ) of the students are able to use primary stress in this kind of compound word. And
(50% ) of the students are not able to recognize primary stress
adequately in this item. The students’ inability to recognize the exact part of the word that carries primary stress could be attributed to unfamiliarity of the word by the students. Item (6) “ copybook” / ˈkɒpibʊk /
is a compound word (N.+ N. ) . Students’
correct and incorrect responses are (24 ) and ( 26 ) which equal to ( 48% ) and (52% ). This result could be attributed to the fact that the word is common among the students. Item (7) “ photography” / fəˈtɒɡrəfi / is a long compound word. Students‟ correct and incorrect answers are (19) and (31), respectively. That is, (62 %) of the participants provide wrong responses. More than half of the students were unable to recognize the primary stress properly. The difficulty behind this could be partly attributed to the fact that students use this word as Kurdish, because the same word is used in Kurdish and in Kurdish pronunciation. Item (8 ) “ crossword ““/ ˈkrɒswɜːd / is a compound word ( V. + N. ). Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (22) and (28). The result shows that ( 56% ) of the students are not able to recognize the right answer and only (44% ) are able to use primary stress in this kind of compound word. This negative result could be
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partly attributed to the influence of Kurdish, because the final syllable of a compound word receives the primary stress. Kadir (1983:79). Item ( 15 ) “ mother- in- law ” / ˈmʌðə- ɪn - lɔː /
is a compound word consists
of three elements . Students’ correct and incorrect responses are ( 22 ) and ( 28 ). This means that (56% ) of the students failed to recognize the correct answer properly . Only ( 44% ) of the students could recognize the right answer. The difficulties behind this could be attributed to the influence of Kurdish language in which the primary stress falls on the last part of compound words. (Ibid )
Second Set of Questions: Item (2) in the second set of questions the word “ overlooked” / ˌəʊvəˈlʊkt / . Is a compound word (preposition + V. ) .The test yielded (35) incorrect responses and (15) correct responses. This means that (70 %) of the students failed to put the primary stress on the word correctly. Only (30%) of them provided the right answer. The difficulty, then, stands behind the influence of Kurdish language. Item (4) the word “well meant” / £wel'ment / is a compound word ( adj. + pp. ) . Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (19) and (31), respectively. They are equal to (38 %) and (62%). This negative result is due to this compound word is not common . Item (8) “ blackbird” / ˈblækbɜːd / is a compound word ( adj. + n . ) , yielded (26) incorrect responses which is equal to (52 %) and (24) correct responses are recorded which is equal to (48 %). The result shows that more than half of the students were unable to use primary stress at the level of production .The result
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could be attributed to the influence of Kurdish language in which the primary stress falls on the last syllable of compound words Fatah (1980:184-187) .
Item (13) “front door” / £frʌnt 'dɔː / is a compound word (adj. + N.). Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (12) and (38) which are equal to (24 %) and (76 %), respectively. The result indicates that (76%) of the students failed in using primary stress in this kind of compound word at the production level. The difficulties may belong to unawareness of the students of phonological rules in English language.
Item (15) “ seaside” / ˈsiːsaɪd /
is a compound word ( N.+N. ).
(12) of the
students provided correct responses which equals (24 %), and (38) students provided incorrect responses which equals (76 %). The result shows that the majority of the students were unable to use primary stress in this kind of compound word. The difficulty behind this could be attributed to the influence of Kurdish language , the primary stress falls on the last part of compound words. Ahmad(1986: 84-86)
4.3.3 Phrasal verbs Two items from the whole test are phrasal verbs. Item (3) in the first set of questions and item (3) in the second set of questions are phrasal verbs. The averages of students’ correct and incorrect responses are (29) and (21), respectively. The averages percentage of errors and correct responses are (0.44)
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and (0.56) respectively. The results show that the majority of the respondents are able to use primary stress in phrasal verbs. Table (18) clarifies these results.
Table (18) Numbers and Percentages of Phrasal Verbs, Subjects’ Performance
Test
Question One Question Two
Item Number
Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses Responses Responses
Percentage of Errors
3
28
22
0.52
0.48
3
30
20
0.6
0.4
29
21
0.56
0.44
Average
First Set of Questions: Item (3) in the first set of questions “switched off” / £swɪtʃt 'ɒf /
is a phrasal
verb. Students’ correct responses are (28), equal to (56 %) and incorrect responses are (22) which equal (44%). The results show that more than half of the students are able to use primary stress in this kind of phrasal verb. Most of the students are familiar with this word.
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Second Set of Questions: Item (3) in the second set of questions is “ give up” / ɡɪv !Up/ . Students’ performance in providing correct and incorrect responses are (30) and (20) which equal (60 %) and (40 %), respectively. That is, more than half of them were able to use primary stress correctly. The result could be attributed to the influence of Kurdish language, the last syllable receives the primary stress. Kadir (1983:79)
4.3.4 Words with suffix endings (8) words with suffix endings are taken into account. Items (10, 11,12, and 13) from the first set of questions and items (7, 10,11,12 of the test are explained. The analysis aims at measuring students’ ability in using primary stress in words with suffix endings. Averages of students’ correct and incorrect responses are (17.125) and (32.875). The averages percentage of errors and correct responses are (0.6575) and (0.3425), respectively. So, only (34.25 %) of the students could provide correct responses. This means that (65.75 %) of the students provided incorrect responses.
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Table (19) Numbers and Percentages of Words with Suffix Ending, Subjects’ Performance
Test
Item Number
Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses Responses Responses
Percentage of Errors
10
15
35
0.3
0.7
Question
11
21
29
0.42
0.58
One
12
13
37
0.26
0.74
13
15
35
0.3
0.7
7
23
27
0.46
0.54
Question
10
21
29
0.42
0.58
Two
11
11
39
0.22
0.78
12
18
32
0.36
0.64
17.125
32.875
0.3425
0.6575
Average
First Set of Questions: Item (10) “ Japanese ” / ˌdʒæpəˈniːz / is a word with suffix ending {-nse }. Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (15 ) and ( 35 ). The results reveals that (70 %) of the students responses are incorrect. Only (30% ) of the students were able to recognize the correct primary stress in this kind of words. The difficulties may belong to consider this word as a simple word not a complex
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word by the students and putting primary stress on the first syllable instead of the last one. Item (11) “ proverbial ” / prəˈvɜːbiəl / is a word with suffix ending { – ial } . Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (21) and ( 29 ) which equal (42% ) and ( 58 %) . The results show that (58% ) of the students were unable to recognize the primary stress and only (42% ) were able to recognize primary stress in words ending with suffix { –ial
}. The difficulties belong to the lack of
knowledge by the students of English stress rules since the suffix changes the primary stress to the last syllable of the root. Roach (2011: 84)
Item (12) “ powerless ” / ˈpaʊələs / reveals that (74 %) of the students i.e. 37 students provided wrong responses and only
(13)
students provided correct
responses which equal to (26% ) . The results indicate that the majority of the students were able to recognize primary stress in words ending with suffix {- less } successfully . The result could be attributed to the familiarity of the students with the word and because the word is commonly used. Item (13) “ wonderful ” / ˈwʌndəfl / is a word ending with suffix {-ful}. Students’ correct and incorrect responses are ( 15 ) and ( 35 ) . This means that (30 %) of the students were able to choose the right answer of primary stress in words ending with suffix { – ful } at the recognition level. But (70% ) of the students were not able to recognize the right answer. The difference between correct and incorrect responses, however, is big. The difficulty could be related to consider this word as a compound word instead a complex one by the students .
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Second Set of Questions: Item (7) “ economic ” / ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk / in the second set of questions is a word ending with suffix {-ic }. Students’ correct and in correct responses are ( 23 ) and ( 27 ). The results show that ( 46 % ) of the students were able to provide the right answer at the production level and (54% ) of the students were not able to provide the right answer. This means that more than half of the students were unable to use primary stress in words ending with suffix { -ic } at the production level. This belongs to the fact that in Kurdish the stress remains on the last syllable of the root. Fatah ( 1980:187 ) Item (10) “ lemonade ” / ˌleməˈneɪd / is a word ending with suffix {- ade} . Students’ correct and incorrect responses are (21) and (29). The percentage of errors and correct responses are (58 %) and (42 %), respectively. The negative result may belong to the fact that most of the students are unaware of this kind of English derivational suffix which attracts the primary stress on itself. Yavas ( 2011:166 ) Item (11) “ reflexive” / rɪˈfleksɪv / is a word ending with suffix {- ive }. (39) of the respondents provided incorrect responses which equal (78 %). This means that only (11) of them provided correct responses which equal (22 %). The difficulty may be related to that the word (reflexive ) is not common and in Kurdish the suffixes attract stress. Item (12) “ refusal ” / rɪˈfjuːzl / is word ending with suffix {- al } shows that (64 %) of the participants provided wrong responses. Only (18) of the participants provided correct responses which equal (36 %). Most of them failed to use primary stress in words ending with suffix { - al }. The difficulties may belong to the stress rules of Kurdish language.
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4.3.5 Words with Prefix Item (14) in each of the two sets of the questions of the test are words with prefix. The aim of this part is to measure Kurdish EFL university students’ ability in using primary stress within words with prefix. The averages of students’ correct and incorrect responses are (14.5) and (35.5). The averages percentage of errors and correct responses are (0.29) and (0.71), respectively. So, only (29 %) of the students could provide correct responses; (71 %) of the students provided incorrect responses. In the following table students’ correct, incorrect, percentage of errors and correct responses are shown.
Table ( 20 ) Numbers and Percentages of Words with Prefix, Subjects’ Performance
Test
Question
Item Number
Students'
Students'
Percentage
Correct
Incorrect
of Correct
Responses Responses Responses
Percentage of Errors
14
19
31
0.38
0.62
14
10
40
0.2
0.8
One
Question Two
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First Set of Questions: Item (14) “ unfair ” / ˌʌnˈfeə /
is a word with prefix { un- }. Students’ correct
and incorrect responses are ( 19 ) and ( 31) which equal (38 %) of the students provided correct responses and (62 %) of them provided incorrect responses. The results show that the majority of the students were unable to use primary stress in words with prefix at the production level. The negative result belongs to the influence of Kurdish rule stress on the students, since
prefixes in Kurdish
language receive the primary stress on the contrary to prefixes in English which do not receive the primary stress. Ahmed (2010: 121)
Second Set of Questions: Item (14) “ incorrect” / ˌɪnkəˈrekt / in the second set of questions is a word with prefix {in-}. Students’ correct responses are (10) which equal to (20 %) a. On the other hand, ( 40) of the students’ responses are incorrect. This means ( 80% ) of the students were not able to use primary stress in words with prefix correctly. This negative result could be attributed to the students’ unawareness of English stress rules. Depending on the statistical measures that have been explained so far, the researcher concludes that using primary stress in words with prefix are the most difficult ones followed by words with suffix ending , compound words ,phrasal verbs and simple words. This means that simple words are the easiest of all. In the following table and figures averages of participants’ correct and incorrect responses and averages percentage of errors and correct responses are summarized.
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Table ( 21 ) Students’ Results Obtained at simple words, compound words, phrasal verbs, with suffix ending, and words with prefix
Average of
Average of
Average
Types of
Students'
Students'
Percentage of
Words
Correct
Incorrect
Correct
Responses
Responses
Responses
30
20
0.6
19.45454545
30.54545455
29
21
0.56
0.44
17.125
32.875
0.3425
0.6575
14.5
35.5
0.29
0.71
Simple Word Compound Words Phrasal Verbs
Average Percentage of Errors
0.4
0.389090909 0.610909091
Words with Suffix Ending Words with Prefix
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Figure ( 8 ) Averages of Correct and Incorrect Responses/ Types of Words
Figure ( 9 ) Percentage of Correct Responses and Errors Percentage of Types of Words
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4.4 Average Percentage of Correct and Incorrect Responses of the types of Words: Recognition and Production Levels Depending on the statistical measures the average percentage of correct responses in( simple words, compound words , phrasal verbs ,words with suffixes and words with prefixes ) at the recognition level are (0.68, 0.44 , 0.52 ,0.32 and 0.38 ) . The average percentage of incorrect responses at the recognition level are ( 0.32 ,0.56 ,0.48 ,0.68 and 0.62 ). This means that the majority of the students in using primary stress which equal (68 %) are better in simple words than (compound words , phrasal verbs, words with suffixes and words with prefix ). The following table shows the above information. Table (22 ) The Average Percentage of Correct and Incorrect Responses at Recognition Level
Average Types of Words
Percentage of Correct Responses
Average Percentage of Errors
Simple Words
0.68
0.32
Compound Words
0.44
0.56
Phrasal Verbs
0.32
0.68
0.3425
0.6575
0.38
0.62
Words with Suffix Ending Words with Prefix
102
At the production level the average percentage of correct responses in ( simple words , compound words , phrasal verbs , words with suffixes and words with prefix ) are ( 0.54 , 0. 328, 0.60 , 0.365, 0.20 ). The average percentage of incorrect responses in simple words, compound words , phrasal verbs , words with suffixes and words with prefixes are ( 0.46, 0.672, 0.40, 0.635, 0,80 ). The result shows that the students in using primary stress in phrasal verbs are better than the other types of words and the majority of students are worse in words with prefix than the other types of words mentioned above. The following table shows that. Table (23 ) The Average Percentage of correct and Incorrect Responses at Production Level
Average Types of
Percentage of
Words
Correct Responses
Simple Words Compound Words Phrasal Verbs
Average Percentage of Errors
0.54
0.46
0.328
0.672
0.60
0.40
103
Words with Suffix Ending Words with Prefix
0.365
0.635
0.20
0.80
104
Chapter Five Conclusions, Recommendations, and Suggestions 5.1 Conclusions Based on the data analysis, the study has come up with the following conclusions: 1- The students do not have enough knowledge on stress patterns and phonological structure of words in English. This means during their period of study, the students paid more attention to the words themselves not to the syllables they contain. So the mother tongue has influenced their ability in using word stress. This validates the first hypothesis of the study. 2-The students level of success is low at both recognition and production levels. But the students are better in recognition level than production level. This means the Kurdish EFL learners’ ability in using primary stress in words is weak due to the influence of the first language , lack of knowledge of stress patterns and the limited courses on stress at university to recognize and produce words correctly. 3- Most of the students are better in using primary stress in simple words rather than the other types of words i.e. phrasal verbs , compound words ,words with prefixes and words with suffix ending at the recognition level. 4- The students are better in using primary stress in phrasal verbs than simple words , words with suffix ,compound words , and words with prefix at the production level. 5- The students are worse in using primary stress in words with prefix rather than phrasal verbs, simple words, words with suffix and compound words.
105
5.2 Recommendations In the light of the findings of the study, the following recommendations are put forward: 1-To improve their English pronunciation and to speak understandably, the students must have intensive courses on phonetics and phonology especially on stress placement and the students must have their daily programs, watching movies, listening to radio programs and CDs. 2- With the purpose of being perfect in using stress placement on words the students should be sent out of Kurdistan to speaking- English countries to make them mix with the English native-speakers and give the chance to make their pronunciation better by providing them with authentic materials and laboratories . 3- The teachers are also should be well-equipped on how to teach phonology, especially stress placement on words which is the most important element in pronunciation in order to get the message. 4-Additional courses of phonology should be given to the university students.
5.3 Suggestions for Further Studies To follow up the study, the following suggestions are put forward: 1- Investigating students’ ability in using word stress orally i.e. oral test. 2- Investigating on how stress placement has an effective influence on understanding and getting the message during communication while non-native speakers of English speak with the others.
106
References Abercrombie,D. (1967).Elements of General Phonetics. Cambridge: University Press ……………….. (1973). A phonetician’s View of Verse Structure In Phonetics in Linguistics. London: Longman.
Ahmad, A R. (1986). The Phonemic System of Modern Standard Kurdish. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan. Ahmed, M. O. (2007). Adjective Suffixes: A lexical-Morphological Approach. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Koya. Ahmed, R. Sabah. (2010). A Contrastive Analysis of Stress in English and Kurdish. Unpublished MA Thesis, University of Sulamani
Alkhuli, M. A. (2000). Methods of Teaching English. Jordan: Dar Al-falah. Ashby, M.and Maidment, J. (2005).Introducing Phonetic Science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Babu, S.S. (1987). A Contrastive Study of Standard English and Standard Arabic Syllable Structure. Unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Baghdad.
Bachman,L.(1990). Fundamental Consideration in Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press
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Baker, D . (1989). Language Testing :a Critical Survey and Practical Guide. Great Britain: Edward Arnold. Bauman-Waengler, J. (2009). Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology: From Concepts to Transcription.Boston:Pearson.
Behne, M.D. (1990). “Acoustic effects of combining phrase and focal stress in English”. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, Vol 88. 1.
Benua, L. (1997).Transderivational identity: Phonological Relations between Words. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, university of Massachusetts. Brase, Ch. and Brase, C. (2009). Understandable Statistics: Concepts and Methods. (9th edition). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Brosnahan, L. F. and Malmberg, B. (1970). Introduction to Phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, H . (2004). Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices. New York: Pearson Education, Inc.
-------------- (2005). Testing in Language Program: A Comprehensive Guide to English language Assessment. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. Carr,Philip. (2013). English Phonetics and Phonology An Introduction . (2nd edition ).UK: Wiley- Blackwell.
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Catford, J.C. (2001). A Practical Introduction to Phonetics. Oxford : University Press.
Collins, B. and Mees, I.M. (2008). Practical Phonetics And Phonology: A Resource Book for Students.London and Newyork: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Constable, J. (2010) The literary encyclopedia accent (Stress) Magdelene College, Cambridge. (http:///www.litercyc.com /php/stopice- php zrec= true 8 (IP=13). Cruttenden, A. (1997). Intonation. (2nd ed).Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (1992). An Encyclopedic Dictionary of Language and Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell.
--------------(2003). A dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics.(5th ed). Oxford: Blackwell. Dawson, C. (2002) . Practical Research Methods : A User –Friendly Guide to Mastering Research . United Kingdom : How to books Ltd. Falk, J. S. (1978). Linguistics and language: A Survey of Basic Concepts and Implications. (2nd ed). NewYork: John Wiley and Sons. Fatah, M. M. (1980). "On the stress System of Kurdish" ZANCO. the Scientific Journal of Sulaymaniyah University. Vol 6. No. 2, Ser B Humanities, University of Sulaimaniyah.
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Finch, G. K. (2005). Key Concepts in Languages and Linguistics. 2nd ed. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan. Fox, A. (2000). Prosodic Features and Prosodic Structure: The phonology of Suprasegmentals.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Fry, D. B (1973). Linguistic Theory and Experimental Research. In Phonetics in Linguistics, ed. Jones and Laver, London: Longman. Giegerich, H. J. (1992). English Phonology: An Introduction. CUP. Gimson, A. C. (1970). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Edward Arnold. Hancock, M (2003). English Pronunciation in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Heaton, J.(1988). Writing English Language Tests. England: Longman Group UK Limited. Hudson, G. (2000). Essential Introductory Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for Language Teachers. (2nd edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
James, C. (1980). Applied Linguistics and Language Study: Contrastive Analysis, ed, Canddin, C. N. Longman: Longman Group Ltd. Jones, Daniel . (1972 ). An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge: Cambridge
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Kadir, Sh. (1983). The Phonology and Phonetics of Kurdish: A Study of Sulaymani Dialect. Unpublished M.A thesis, University of Essex. University Press. Kahnemuyipour, A. (2009). The Syntax of Sentential Stress. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Katamba, F. (1989). An Introduction to Phonology. London and Newyork: Longman. Kelly, G. (2000). How to Teach Pronunciation. ed. Harmer. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited. Kenworthy, J. (1987).Teaching English Pronunciation. London: Longman. Khidhir, R. (2010). An Analysis of Student's Errors in Tenses. Unpublished M A Thesis: University of Sulaimani.
Kingdon, Roger. (1970). The Groundwork of English Stress. Longman. Kreidler, Charles, W. (1999). The Pronunciation of English: A course book in Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. -------------------- (2004). The Pronunciation of English: A Course Book. (2nd ed). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Ladefoged, P. (1982). A Course in Phonetics. (2nd ed). NewYork: Har court Brace Jovanovich. Ladefoged,Peter&Johnson, Keith. (2012). A Course in Phonetics. ( 6th edition).
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Lado, R. ( 1961). Language Testing . London : Longman. Laver, J. (1994). Principles of Phonetics. CUP. Lehiste, I. (1970). Suprasegments. Cambridge: The M.I. I. Press. Liberman, M. and Prince, A. (1977). On Stress and Linguistic Rhythm in Phonological Theory. ed. Goldsmith, J. A. 1999, University of Chicago: Blackwell. Mackey, A. & Gass, S. (2005).Second Language Research: Methodology and Design. New Jersy: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. MacNamara, T. (2000). Language Testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McMahon, A (2002). An Introduction to English Phonology, ed. Giegerich, H., Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Mousavi, S. (1997). A Dictionary of Language Testing . Tehran: Rahnama Publication.
Muhammad, H.A. (2005). "Stress Placement of Affixed Words in Kurdish" ZANCO the scientific Journal of Salahaddin University-Hawler. No. 26, Salahaddin University Press/Hawler. O’Connor, j. D. (1973) . Phonetics. Hazell Watson Viney Ltd. ………………. (1980). Better English Pronunciation. (2nd ed). Cambridge:
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Cambridge University Press. Prator, C. H. (1957). Manual of American English Pronunciation. Rev. ed. New York. Holt. Quirk, R., Gimson. A. C. and Warburg, j. (1962). The Use of English. London: Longman, 1962. Quirk, R. and Greenbaum, S. (1973). A University Grammar of Englsih. Essex: Longman. Richards, J. & Schmidt, R. (2002). A Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. (3rd edition). London : Pearson Education Limited. Roach, Peter. (2000). English Phonetics and Phonology. A practical Course. (3rd ed). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ------------------ (2010). English Phonetics and Phonology . (4th edition ). Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Saka, A. H. (1999). Complements and Objects in English. Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Baghdad. Taylor , G. (2005). “ Quantitative Research Methods.” In Taylor, G. (Eds.), Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Research . Lanham : University Press of America ,Inc. Teschner, R. V. and Whitley, M. S. (2004). Pronouncing English: A StressBased Approach with CD-ROM.Washington.D.C: Georgtown
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University Press. Trumbull , M. (2005) . “ Qualitative Research Methods.” In Taylor, G. (Eds.), Integrating Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in Research . Lanham : University Press of America ,Inc. Weir, C. (1993). Understanding & Developing Language Tests. UK: Prentice Hall Ltd. Yavas, Mehmet.(2011). Applied English Phonology . (2nd edition). UK: Wiley – Blackwell.
Zafarani, Zohreh and Mahkameh, Shkouhian.(2009). An Introductory Course in English Phonology. Theory to Practice (2nd edition ). Tehran.
Zamma, H. (2006). Categorical and Non-categorical Variation in English Stress Assignment. Kobe City University of Foreign Studies. Zisga, E. (2006). The Sounds of Language. In An Introduction to Language and Linguistics, ed. Fasold and O Connor-Linton, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Internet References Abed, Ahmed Qadury. Syllable and Syllabification. Retrieved November,2014 from http://www.slideshare.net/ahmedqadoury/syllable-andsyllabification English Club. Rules of Word Stress in English .Retrieved November25, 2014from https://www.englishclub.com/pronunciation/word-stress-rules.htm Trujillo, Fernando. Phonetics and Phonology. Retrieved November 29, 2014from http://www.ugr.es/~ftsaez/fonetica/stress.pdf
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Appendices
Appendix (A ) : The Students’ Test University of Suleimani Faculty of Physical& Basic Education School of Basic Education English Department Third year students Time: 40 minutes
A Test for 3rd Year Students Dear Students The study conducted by the researcher entitled “An Investigation of Kurdish EFL Learners’ Ability In Using Word Stress”. The aim of the study is to show your performance in using English word stress. The following test is carried out to investigate your ability in using English word stress. Your objective and confident answers enrich the findings of the research and your participation will be highly appreciated.
Researcher: Muhamad Ameen Hussein
115
Q1/ Choose the prominent part that carries the primary stress( ' ) in the following underlined words. 1. I can not decide which book to borrow. ( de . cide ) 2. The river overflowed it’s banks.
( over. flowed )
3. The electricity has been switched off.
( switched . off )
4. She gets very bad-tempered when she is tired. 5. Sparky is a very happy puppy.
( bad . tem . pered )
( ha . ppy )
6. Can you give me the copybook , please ? 7. I want to take a photography class.
( co . py. book )
( pho. to . gra. phy )
8. I have finished the crossword a part from 3cross to10 down. ( cross. word ) 9. Is there a university in this town?
( uni . ver . sity )
10.Jack speaks English and Japanese . ( ja . pa . nese ) 11.Let’s not count our proverbial chickens. 12.As children, we all feel powerless.
(pro .
( power.
verb. ial ) less )
13.We had a wonderful time last night. ( won . der . ful ) 14. It would be unfair not to let you have a choice. ( un . fair ) 15.Rosa loves her mother- in- law . ( mother . in . law )
116
Q2/ Write the prominent part of the following underlined words that carries primary stress ( ' ) . 1. Firefighters took two hours to release the driver from the wreckage. …… 2. He seems to have overlooked one important fact .
………….
3. Jack is going to give up smoking. ……………….. 4. His offer was well meant .
………….
5. Tom is the most cleverest boy in the class. ……………. 6. There is more than one pronunciation of ‘garage’. ………… 7. The government has a great economic policy in the country. …………… 8. Have you ever seen a blackbird ? …………… 9. The public library is the only center of education in the town. …………. 10.Rosa drank a glass of lemonade .
………………
11.In ‘He cut himself’, ‘cut’ is a reflexive verb.
………….
12.His refusal to discuss the matter is annoying. ………….. 13.There is someone at the front door.
………………..
14. His version of what happened is incorrect. ……………. 15.We enjoyed a day of vacation at the seaside. …………….
117
Appendix (B ) The sent letter to the Jury members University of Sulaimani Faculty of Physical and Basic Education School of Basic Education Department of English Language Higher Studies
To the Jury Members Name: ………………………………… Academic Level: ………………………………… The researcher intends to carry out a study entitled “An Investigation of Kurdish EFL Learners’ Ability in Using Word Stress”. The aims of the study are to investigate the ability of 3rd Kurdish EFL university students in using word stress and to find the difficulties which face them in performing primary stress of words. You are kindly requested to read and check the test items and give your advice on the adequacy of the items of the sample involved, whether the items are enough to cover the area of the study, whether the test does what it is supposed to. The study evaluates the students ability in using primary stress in ( simple words , phrasal verbs , compound words , words with suffix endings, and words with prefix at both levels : recognition and production. Your help is highly appreciated and any addition or modification will be highly regarded. Thank you for your cooperation and guidance.
Researcher: Muhamad Ameen Hussein
118
Appendix ( C ) Academic Qualification, Name and University of Jury Members 1. Prof. Dr. Anis Bahnam Naoum, university of Mosul. 2. Asst. Prof. Dr. Hoshang Farook Jawad , University of Sulaimani . 3. Lecturer Dr. Rauf Kareem Mahmood, University of Sulaimani 4. Asst. Prof. Dr. Ayad H. Mahmood, University of Diala
119
Appendix ( D): The Subject’s Performance in the Final Test No. of Students
Score of Q1 (30)
Score of Q2 (30)
Total out of (60)
Total out of (100)
Status
Student1
12
8
20
0.33
Failed
student2
10
16
26
0.43
Failed
Student3
8
8
16
0.27
Failed
Student4
10
16
26
0.43
Failed
Student5
14
14
28
0.47
Failed
Student6
16
14
30
0.50
Passed
Student7
16
16
32
0.53
Passed
Student8
26
10
36
0.60
Passed
Student9
14
14
28
0.47
Failed
Student10
4
8
12
0.20
Failed
Student11
20
4
24
0.40
Failed
Student12
10
12
22
0.37
Failed
Student13
24
22
46
0.77
Passed
Student14
20
18
38
0.63
Passed
Student15
18
14
32
0.53
Passed
Student16
18
8
26
0.43
Failed
Student17
20
14
34
0.57
Passed
Student18
22
10
32
0.53
Passed
Student19
26
18
44
0.73
Passed
Student20
10
16
26
0.43
Failed
Student21
12
16
28
0.47
Failed
Student22
10
14
24
0.40
Failed
Student23
18
14
32
0.53
Passed
Student24
6
10
16
0.27
Failed
120 Student25
12
12
24
0.40
Failed
Student26
8
14
22
0.37
Failed
Student27
6
18
24
0.40
Failed
Student28
18
8
26
0.43
Failed
Student29
12
14
26
0.43
Failed
Student30
18
14
32
0.53
Passed
Student31
8
8
16
0.27
Failed
Student32
12
12
24
0.40
Failed
Student33
16
8
24
0.40
Failed
Student34
10
10
20
0.33
Failed
Student35
10
12
22
0.37
Failed
Student36
10
4
14
0.23
Failed
Student37
6
10
16
0.27
Failed
Student38
6
16
22
0.37
Failed
Student39
10
12
22
0.37
Failed
Student40
8
12
20
0.33
Failed
Student41
12
12
24
0.40
Failed
Student42
12
4
16
0.27
Failed
Student43
16
14
30
0.50
Passed
Student44
22
8
30
0.50
Passed
Student45
20
14
34
0.57
Passed
Student46
10
14
24
0.40
Failed
Student47
16
12
28
0.47
Failed
Student48
18
12
30
0.50
Passed
Student49
18
8
26
0.43
Failed
Student50
12
10
22
0.37
Failed
121
Appendix (E ): The Subject’s Performance in the First Set of Questions/ Final Test ID X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 X11 X12 X13 X14 X15 1 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 5 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 6 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 7 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 2 0 8 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 9 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 10 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 11 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 13 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 14 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 15 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 16 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 17 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 18 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 19 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 20 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 21 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 22 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 23 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 24 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 25 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 26 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 27 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 28 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 29 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 30 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 31 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 32 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 33 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 34 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 35 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 37 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 38 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
122 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 2
2 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 2
0 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 0
0 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 0
0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 0
0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 0
0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 2
2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 2
0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 2
0 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2
123
Appendix (F ): The Subject’s Performance in the Second Set of Questions/ Final Test ID Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y7 Y8 Y9 Y10 Y11 Y12 Y13 Y14 Y15 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 4 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 5 0 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 6 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 7 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 8 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 10 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 11 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 13 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 14 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 15 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 0 16 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 18 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 19 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 2 20 0 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 21 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 22 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 23 2 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 24 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 25 2 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 26 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 2 2 0 27 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 28 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 29 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 30 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 31 0 0 2 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 32 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 33 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 34 0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 0 0 0 35 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 36 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 37 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 2 2 0 0 0 0 38 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 0 2
124 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 2 0
2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0
0 0 2 0 2 2 2 2 0 2 0 0
2 0 2 2 2 0 2 2 2 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2 0 2 2 0 0 2 2
2 2 2 0 0 2 2 2 2 2 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 0
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 2 2 0
0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2 2
2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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