Overcoming Obstacles to Mobility for Apprentices and Other Young People in Vocational Education and Training Final Report
June 2007
This document acts as the final report of the ‘Study on the obstacles to transnational mobility faced apprentices and other young people in initial vocational training and on ways of overcoming them’ also referred to as the MoVE-iT project. The report was financed and prepared for the use of the European Commission, Directorate-General for Education and Culture under contract nr 2005-4579/001 PIL-PILOTP. Its content reflects the opinions of its author only and does not necessarily represent the official position of the European Commission.
Content Final report Overview of outputs of the MoVE-iT project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2
IVET mobility in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3
Benefits of and obstacles to mobility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4
Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5
Support mechanisms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
6
Sustainable strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7
Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8
Legal and administrative obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
9
Recommendations and action plans for stakeholders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Colofon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Overview of outputs of the MoVE-iT project The MoVE-iT study has resulted in this Final Report, in a number of supporting studies, as well as a large number of products to support actors in developing mobility for apprentices. A number of organisations have committed themselves to enhance the level of attention to the specific needs of apprentices and other young people in VET; their position papers have been added to the reports. All materials are available on the project website, at: http://www.europe-move-it.eu. Go to the page ‘Final reports’. Below we have listed all the supporting studies and materials that were produced in 2006 by the MoVE-iT consortium.
MoVE-iT: Supporting Studies MoVE-iT: a comparative study on mobility in IVET in 33 European Countries (the Refernet survey) Country reports on IVET mobility in 33 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy , Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, The Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland , Turkey, United Kingdom. Synthesis report of the comparative study in 33 countries l
Legal barriers and solutions
l
Awareness and Communication: a brand plan
l
Use of portals for match-making mechanisms
Case studies on alternative programs for mobility l
Bilateral Exchange Programs in VET
Sector studies l
Sector study: Mobility in the Tourism sector
l
Sector study: Mobility in the Chemicals sector
l
Sector study: Mobility in the Arts & Crafts sector (with focus on SMEs)
Studies on mobility outside Europe for comparative purposes
MoVE-iT Final report
l
Country reports on IVET mobility outside Europe: Canada
l
Multilateral agreement for mobility in VET: Red Seal (Canada)
3
Stakeholder perspectives l
Stakeholder views: The will to support mobility at EU level
l
Stakeholder views: Perspectives from CEE
l
Stakeholder views: Statement EUNEC
l
Stakeholder views: Statement EfVET
l
Stakeholder views: Statements from various sources
Inventories of existing tools and literature l
Summary literature review on mobility obstacles and recommendations
l
Overview good practices
l
Overview EU supported tools
l
Overview existing guidebooks for apprentices, enterprises and VET-providers
l
Overview websites on placements and mobility support
Survey reports l
Survey: VET providers views
l
Survey: Views from apprentices and other young people in VET (based on several surveys)
MoVE-iT: Blueprints for solutions
4
l
Toolkit for VET-providers (schools, training centres)
l
Toolkit for Enterprises
l
Toolkit for Apprentices
MoVE-iT Final report
List of Abbreviations AER
Arbejdsgivernes Elevrefusion/Danish employers' reimbursement scheme for apprentices
APEL
Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning
UEAPME
Assemblé Permanente des Chambres des Métiers/ European Association of Craft, Small and Medium-sized Enterprises
CEDEFOP
European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training
CLIL
Content and Language Integrated Learning
COLO
Vereniging Kenniscentra Beroepsonderwijs Bedrijfsleven
DAAD
Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
EBU
European Broadcasting Union
ECTS
European Credit Transfer System
ECVET
European Credit (Transfer) System for Vocational Education and Training
EfVET
European Forum of Technical and Vocational Education and Training
EUNEC
European Network of Education Councils
ERDF
European Regional Development Fund
EURES
European employment services
ERYICA
European association of Youth Information and Counselling Associations
ETF
European Training Foundation
EVS
European Voluntary Service
EVTA
European Vocational Training Association
IFA
Internationale Fachkräfte Austausch
IVET
Initial Vocational Education and Training
LdV
Leonardo da Vinci programme
LLP
Lifelong Learning Programme
OBESSU
Organizing Bureau of European School Student Unions
OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
PIU
Praktik I Udlandet/ placements abroad
R3L
programme Regional Networks in Lifelong Learning
ReferNet
European network of reference and expertise (Cedefop)
REIM
Reseau Européen Initiative Métiers
SMEs
Small and Medium Sized Enterprises
VET
Vocational Education and Training
WTO
World Trade Organization
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1 Introduction Twenty years of European IVET mobility programmes like Leonardo da Vinci and its predecessors has resulted in a stable, but relatively low percentage of all IVET-participants in Europe going abroad as part of their education. So far, increases in the number of beneficiaries seem mainly related to increases in budgets; evidence of a ‘multiplier’ effect is lacking due to the absence of a comprehensive monitoring system. Over the last 10 years the annual demand for mobility was about four times higher than the available budget. Each year budgets are fully utilized. One of the core questions for debate is whether and up to what level the European Commission should go on spending public money in order to stimulate mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. If mobility of apprentices has to be fostered and demand is higher than the available EU budgets, alternatives to enhance mobility in IVET need to be identified and developed. In order to boost both quantity and quality of mobility in Europe and to complement the activities of the Commission’s Leonardo da Vinci programme, the European Parliament voted a special line in the 2005 and 2006 budgets earmarked for the mobility of apprentices and young people in IVET. This budget line financed 1
three major studies carried out in the years 2005-2007: Move-It , which identified 2
and analysed barriers to transnational mobility in IVET; and ECVET Connexion and 3
Reflector , which analysed the conditions for the introduction of a joint European recognition scheme for mobility in IVET. Further, the European Commission in 2006 4
launched a call for proposals for 12 pilot projects , which were to build on the recommendations of the three studies and translate these into concrete tools and practices. In a special call for tender, the Commission at the same time looked for scientific expertise to accompany and support the 12 projects both in the 5
development and the dissemination phases .
Objectives of the study 6
The general objective of the study, as set out in the terms of reference , was as follows: “To foster the development of transnational mobility leading to qualifications as an integral element of vocational training pathways at European level, by identifying all the obstacles to such development and by implementing concrete solutions for overcoming them.”
1 2 3
http://www.europe-move-it.eu/ http://www.ecvetconnexion.com http://www.ecvet.net
4 5 6
http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/calls/4506/index_en.html http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/calls/4406/index_en.html Source: EAC/34/05 (2004) Study of the obstacles to transnational mobility of apprentices and other young persons in initial vocational training and of how these obstacles can be surmounted
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The specific objective of the study was described as follows: “To analyse existing vocational training systems in Europe and existing mobility practices in order to identify clearly the obstacles to the more general uptake at European level of transnational mobility leading to qualifications as an integral element of vocational training pathways, culminating in concrete proposals for solutions to the obstacles identified.”
Overview of methodology The methodology of the study was developed during the initial stage and further developed throughout the study, with guidance from the Steering Committee. Although the explorative nature of the study does not translate itself into ‘fixed’ stages, the general outline of the study can be described in seven stages with a number of activities in each stage: 1. Establishment of a conceptual model for the study; 2. Identification of obstacles (desk research, surveys, interviews); 3. Prioritisation of obstacles (stakeholder interviews, desk research, expert panel); 4. Formulation of recommendations (expert panels, network consultations); 5. Identification of examples of best practice (desk research, surveys); 6. Development of solution models (expert team); 7. Dissemination. In this study we have enhanced quality of the results by applying the principle of triangulation. Multiple sources of evidence used during the study include the following: 7
l
Document analysis ;
l
Expert consultations and stakeholder interviews ;
l
8
9
‘ReferNet survey’ in 33 European countries (a survey among national IVET experts on present mobility policies and practices);
l
System descriptions of IVET in 33 European countries;
l
Four surveys among IVET participants (one on attitudes towards work/learning experiences abroad, one on experiences abroad, one among young people in the tourism sector and one among young people in IVET)Surveys (apprentices 10
who went abroad as well as other young people in VET) ;
7 8
11
l
VET-providers’ survey ;
l
Sectoral studies on Arts & Crafts, Tourism and Chemicals;
Source: MoVE-iT (2006) Literature review obstacles and recommendations for mobility. Appendices available on: http://www.europe-move-it.eu/ See: MoVE-iT: reports on workshops, expert consultations and stakeholder views on http://www.europe-move-it.eu
9 10
See: MoVE-iT: a comparative study on mobility in IVET in 33 European Countries, appendices included in this report These 4 surveys included: 1) survey on attitudes towards work/ learning experience abroad 686 responses, 2) survey on experiences abroad, for those who went abroad 496 responses were received, 3) survey amongst young people in the Tourism sector - 210 responses, 4) pilot survey amongst young people in VET - 596 responses 11 See: MoVE-iT report on institutional survey on http://www.europe-move-it.eu
8
MoVE-iT Final report
The MoVE-iT study has been an intensive attempt to provide a comprehensive insight into the reality of IVET mobility, in and beyond European programmes, and how this might be shaped by policies, strategies, stakeholder involvement and influences. The analyses, interviews, questionnaires, consultations and surveys have given us a richness of information, data, opinions and visions on mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. Notwithstanding the different ‘quality guarding measures’ in the diverse surveys, it has to be concluded that the data found have to be interpreted with the necessary caution. Even though we have attempted to ensure high quality data, data are often not very robust. The lack of a monitoring system for quality, reliable and comparable data on IVET transnational mobility has been a hindrance. In the ReferNet survey in 33 European countries the researchers succeeded in collecting data for all 33 countries; quantitative data on actual numbers and qualitative data on policies and programmes. The surveys among IVET participants and VET providers present results that may not be representative because of limited response, but they highlight trends in important factors which impact the decision to take a work placement abroad. The sectoral case studies in Arts & Crafts, Tourism and Chemicals provide us with the most current data on the mobility practice in these sectors. Several papers and presentations were developed in consultation with experts (i.e. Legal obstacles, Web based solutions for match making) that can serve as a basis for the development of solutons.
Definition of terms We developed operational definitions of the key terms in the context of the study, based on the review of literature and Trans-European definitions for terms and concepts in vocational education and training which are being developed within Cedefop’s Terminology of Vocational Training Policy. Key terms and concepts that we need to define in the context of the MoVE-iT study are mobility; apprentices and Initial Vocational Education and Training (IVET).
Mobility
Firstly, we are dealing here with “transnational mobility” – mobility which crosses national borders. Secondly, we will use the term for the purposes of this study in the same sense as the Commission, i.e. as a denomination for the actual geographical activity of crossing borders, rather than as a competence in individuals (“the ability to move”). Thirdly, we will make a distinction between “transnational mobility” and “transnational migration”. “Migration” is concerned with geographical moves of a more or less permanent character, when someone gives up the residence in the home country and moves his or her abode to another country/Member State. Mobility is therefore temporal, i.e. it is from the onset designed with a specific duration in mind.
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In Cedefop’s “Terminology”, mobility is defined as “the ability of an individual to move and adapt to a new occupational environment. Mobility can be geographical or “functional” (a move to a new function in a company or to a new occupation). Mobility enables individuals to acquire new skills and thus to increase their employability”. The last sentence adds an important aspect to the phenomenon: that a stay away from the usual environment can hold an important learning potential. A definition of mobility as stays in another country of specified duration is still too wide for the purposes of this study, since it does not distinguish between placements and ordinary tourism. Here we have to introduce another criterion, namely that of intent. Transnational mobility will, for the purposes of this study, be defined as stays abroad organised explicitly for purposes of learning. The criterion of intent also excludes periods of working abroad, if the main purpose of this is financial gain. However, in some cases (sometimes known as “work stays”), the remuneration is not the main issue, but primarily a means to finance the stay in the country. Nearly all transnational mobility in a VET-context takes place as work placements, whereas school-based stays (especially of longer duration) are very rare indeed (Kristensen, 2004). There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, the differences between VET-systems in Europe are very profound, even in countries adjacent to one another. The level of compatibility is consequently not very high, and it can be extremely difficult to have periods abroad recognised in the home country. Secondly, the foreign language proficiency of the target group is relatively low, as foreign language teaching is not integrated in VET across the board in the same way as in general upper secondary education. Contrary to curricula, however, work processes in companies within the same areas of industry and commerce are to a large extent identical across borders, and it is always possible to identify relevant tasks for a trainee from abroad. Compatibility is therefore higher here, and language generally does not play the same pivotal role as is the case with theoretical instruction. In addition to this, all European VET-systems – also in countries where it is predominantly school-based (e.g. Sweden, France) – have the possibility for doing work placements as an integral element, and many are open to placements abroad. This pattern is likely to persist in the future, and in accordance with our intention of relevance of the obstacles treated, we therefore intend to focus the study primarily on transnational mobility in the shape of work placements abroad.
Apprentices
The target group for the study is defined in the Terms of Reference as “apprentices and other young people in IVET”. The first term presents us with relatively few difficulties, as this is a well known and well defined concept throughout Europe. Cedefop defines it as “systematic, long-term training alternating periods in a school or training centre and at the workplace; the apprentice is contractually linked to the employer and receives remuneration (wages or allowance). The employer assumes responsibility for providing the trainee with training leading to a specific occupation”.
10
MoVE-iT Final report
IVET
‘IVET participants’ have been defined as those enrolled in vocational education and training programmes at upper secondary level (in terms of the International Standard Classification of Education, ISCED level 3). This is irrespective of whether participants are enrolled in school-based vocational education or in work-based or alternance pathways. On the one hand, this clearly delineates IVET from vocational programmes in higher education (tertiary level); the MoVE-iT study was clearly intended to focus on stimulating mobility in initial vocational education and training and not higher education, which has its own mobility fostering programme. On the other hand, by focusing on IVET participants, in principal all learners enrolled in IVET are included in the study and not only a particular group, e.g. apprentices. This is of particular importance, given that apprenticeship type IVET is highly underdeveloped or even hardly existent in most of the 33 countries included in the study. Though this definition of IVET participants does not provide age boundaries, most of those enrolled in IVET as included in the statistics, will be in the age range of 16 (typical age of transition from lower to upper secondary) to 21 years old. The structure of this report is as follows. Chapter 2 gives an overview of mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. This chapter presents in a nutshell the research done in 33 countries; for full details we refer to ‘MoVE-iT: a comparative study on mobility in IVET in 33 European Countries’ (the ReferNet survey report). Chapter 3 outlines evidence collected for the key obstacles and recommendations. Chapters 4 until 8 outline the key obstacles and recommendations. Chapter 9 provides an action plan for stakeholders. The current report presents in a nutshell the research done under MoVE-iT. Apart from the current report, the following documents are published: l
MoVE-iT: obstacles and recommendations, Summary report;
l
MoVE-iT: a comparative study on mobility in IVET in 33 European Countries (ReferNet survey);
l
Supporting studies on various topics (i.e. Legal obstacles, Matchmaking mechanisms, Bilateral programs, Good practices, Branding and communication);
l
Toolbox, with examples of practical solutions, for actors involved in mobility;
l
Website, which can serve as a resource for mobility (research) projects to come;
l
Dissemination materials, i.e. several presentations, newsletter in 19 languages;
l
Statements of commitment by a number of key stakeholders, in which they give a formal response to our recommendations and suggestions for action.
MoVE-iT Final report
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2 IVET mobility in Europe The MoVE-iT study represents the most exhaustive and comprehensive collection of information on transnational mobility in IVET yet undertaken in Europe. Focusing 12
directly on transnational mobility in IVET and comprising 33 countries , the researchers involved in the study have conducted several European-level surveys, carried out extensive document research and interviewed a great number of other experts, actors and stakeholders. However, far from giving the ultimate overview of transnational mobility in IVET in Europe, the study has above all served to point out the many lacunae that still exist with regard to data on transnational mobility, both at qualitative and quantitative level. Statistics on transnational mobility in Europe are only available for Leonardo. Apart from these figures, data is generally unreliable, and for some countries virtually non-existing. The following represents a short overview on transnational mobility in IVET in Europe and is to be read as a general introduction to the ensuing chapters. It therefore focuses mainly on qualitative issues, but a more extensive overview – including available statistical information – can be obtained from the synthesis report of the ReferNet-survey.
A short history “Journeying abroad provides for every person a school of training and experience of the most manifold nature and is for the craftsman and tradesman all the more indispensable in that only through his own observation of alien conditions and circumstances can he make comparison with such as are familiar to him, thereby forming a correct perception of truth, beauty and usefulness and at the same time educating himself as an individual and craftsman. Exemption from the obligation of journeying may only be granted on the most imperative grounds”. The above could almost read as a preamble to a modern-day text about mobility, but is, in fact, and extract from the draft of a ”General Crafts and Trades Law” passed by the German Crafts and Trades Congress in Frankfurt and presented to the Constituent National Assembly in the St. Paul’s Church on August 15 1848 for “attentive scrutiny and examination”. In medieval times, the transfer of knowledge and experience in Europe happened through the so called “travelling journeymen” (German: Fahrenden Gesellen) – craftspeople who often travelled long distances in Europe to look for employment and possibilities to sharpen their skills. This practice was acknowledged as an important part of a craftsperson’s learning process; and according to the statutes of many guilds nobody was allowed to set up as a master craftsman in their territory unless he had travelled and worked abroad with his trade for a prescribed 12 And an additional two, i.e. Switzerland and Canada as an example of a third country.
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period of time – usually between 2-3 years. The advent of other methods for transferring knowledge – notably the printing press and mass literacy, and later also ICT – obviated the need for travel, but the practice never died out, and there are still organisations in a number of European countries offering this opportunity to young journeymen (“Le compagnnonage” in France and Belgium, “Naverne” in Denmark, and several crafts organisations in Germany). However, vestiges actually still endure in Northern Europe and France/Belgium (Fahrende Gesellen/Naver/ Compagnonnage), but the numbers involved are 13
negligible . After the Second World War, a number of youth exchange programmes were set up in order to bring about reconciliation; the idea being that contact among young people across borders would prevent the emergence of national chauvinism and xenophobia. These programmes and initiatives mostly targeted general and higher education, and not initial vocational education and training (IVET). However, in 1980 Germany and France signed an agreement concerning the exchange of young people in IVET, and a programme was created to fund and promote such exchanges. The Franco-German Secretariat for exchanges in IVET in Saarbrücken in 14
Germany has since financed app. 29.000 exchanges of young people in IVET alone . A separate case study on this bilateral exchange program is included in the annexes. Kristensen (2004) summarized the main developments in mobility by highlighting four different “schools of thought” (or discourses) on mobility in a VET-context in Europe: 1. Placements abroad as a means for achieving intercultural understanding – is about learning how to live peacefully together in Europe and in the world and develop a sense of “European Citizenship” as opposed to a strictly nationalist outlook (corresponding to the initial thoughts of e.g. Jean Monnet when forging the European Coal and Steel Union in 1951 - as a means to promote peace and understanding in a war-torn Europe). Latterly, this discourse has also been used in connection with the fight against racism and xenophobia. An example refers the activities of the Franco-German Youth Office. 2. Placements abroad as a method for promoting the free movement of workers in Europe – is concerned with learning how to live and work in another country, how to become a “migrant worker” willing and able to move across borders and thereby allay skills shortages in other Member States (corresponding to the thoughts in the Treaty of Rome from 1957 creating the European Economic Communities, where the free circulation of labour across borders was seen as an essential element in the economic development of Europe). An example is the “Young Workers’ Exchange Programme” from 1964. 3. Placements abroad as an activity linked to internationalisation of education and training in Europe. In this discourse, placements abroad are the response of national educational systems to the perceived negative effects of globalisation. At the level of the individual, it enables the future workforce to acquire foreign 13 14
14
Kristensen, 2004 See: www.dfs-sfa.org
MoVE-iT Final report
language skills and intercultural skills so that they can deal with increased foreign contacts at the workplace. At systemic level, it allows national educational systems to fill in temporary gaps in training provision by sending trainees abroad to where such opportunities exist. 4. Placements abroad as a method for acquiring “new basic skills” and developing “employability”. Within this discourse, the rationale for the activity lies in the use of placements abroad as a didactic tool to equip participants with so called “key skills” that enable them to cope with the constant changes in occupational profiles, work organisation and career paths arising as a consequence of globalisation and technological change. This corresponds to a focus on education and training as a motor for economic growth, and the aims of the Lisbon-declaration concerning the creation of a “Europe of knowledge”. Even though these discourses can be placed as individual points on a time-line stretching from the end of the 2nd world war to the present time, they are all “live” in the sense that they are still being used to underpin and defend current mobility activities. Kristensen argues that this has led to a “compartmentalisation” of mobility activities in Europe, where the proponents of each discourse form their own communities of practice and carry out activities without taking into account developments in other areas. Each of these communities is too small in itself to reach a “critical mass”, and therefore the area has been slow to develop and expand.
European programmes The single most important driver of transnational mobility in IVET in Europe has for over a decade been the European Commission. The first dedicated transnational mobility programme was the Petra II programme, which was launched in 1992. 15
That year, some 8.500 placements were grant-aided ; a figure which had risen to 35.000 by the end of the programme in 1995 for the then 12 Member States. The Petra-programme was superseded by the Leonardo da Vinci programme, which is now ending its second phase and starting a new programme period under the Lifelong Learning Programme (2007-2013). The country studies (the ReferNet survey) as part of the MoVE-iT study, provide an overview of the total number of participants in IVET transnational mobility (table 2-1). Table 2-2 gives a further breakdown of transnational mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme and transnational mobility under other programmes. It is doubtful whether these figures provide the complete picture of transnational transnational mobility in IVET. Various countries report more programmes for stimulating transnational mobility in IVET being in place, then for which they report participation numbers. Moreover there are clear indications that sectoral 16
programmes are run in some European countries .
15 This figure covers both apprentices, young people in IVET and young workers 16 It has been attempted to get data on participation figures through sectoral and employer organisations, however, such organisations could not provide this data, due to a lack of monitoring.
MoVE-iT Final report
15
2002 17
2003
2004
2005
528
554
698
962
CZ
973
905
2096
2061
DK
-
-
1530
1825
DE
4129
6389
8023
8319
EE
91
82
79
74
483
382
-
-
2211
2199
2184
2797
1598
-
-
-
IE
1799
2135
3047
4188
IT
7792
8187
7499
8555
CY
40
53
169
199
LV
156
137
212
257
LT
142
155
287
263
LU
59
78
127
145
HU
371
745
861
1159
MT
-
22
6
120
NL
973
1236
1388
2589
AT
-
575
1000
1333
PL
1799
1885
5120
5657
PT
866
1051
945
1342
SI
323
364
525
724
SK
483
483
961
1094
FI
3680
4570
4080
4480
SE
-
-
1680
1439
UK
-
2817
3417
4555
IS
55
22
64
70
LI
-
-
11
18
NO
490
738
671
376
BG
229
250
545
722
R
326
311
356
330
HR
-
-
-
-
TR
-
-
281
1572
CH
125
133
167
138
29,721
36,458
48,029
57,363
BE
18
EL
ES FR
19 20
Total
21
Table 2-1: Total number of participants (IVET) in transnational mobility (past four years)
17 Figures for Belgium are based on the filled out questionnaire for the Flemish speaking community and on statistical data obtained via the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency for the French speaking community. 18 Figures for Greece are based on statistical data obtained via the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci agency (only VET students; data for 2004 and 2005 not available). 19 Figures for Spain are based on a statistical publication obtained via the website of the National Leonardo da Vinci Agency. 20 France indicated that it could not provide participation figures. Figures for 2002 are based on newsletters published on the website of the National LdV Agency. The estimation for 2006 (based on granted requests) is 2282 participants. 21
16
This table is based on figures collected from the ReferNet survey. The full report contains a separate table with data from the Commission database on Leonardo.
MoVE-iT Final report
For the year 2006 (which is the final Leonardo year in the present phase), an estimated number of 84.500 apprentices and other young persons in IVET will have 22
participated in transnational mobility activities grant-aided by the programme . This number is spread over a total of 31 countries which are now participating in the programme. 2004 Leonardo da Vinci
2005
Other programmes
Leonardo da Vinci
Other programmes
BE
698
962
CZ
1,419
677
1,567
494
DK
330
1074
513
1393
DE
5,854
2,274
6,255
2,118
EE
79
74
EL
NA
NA
ES
2,184
2,797
FR
NA
NA
IE
436
2,611
538
3,650
IT
2,144
5,355
2,733
5,822
CY
169
199
LV
212
257
LT
287
263
LU
127
145
HU
861
MT
6
NL
1,175
213
2,464
125
AT
942
58
1277
56
PL
5120
5657
PT
945
1342
SI
525
724
SK
886
75
1,012
74
FI
632
3448
600
3880
SE
480
1,200
500
939
UK
3,417
4,555
IS
64
70
LI
11
18
NA
850
309
120
NO
485
BG
545
722
RO
356
330
HR
-
-
TR
261
20
1337
235
CH
35
132
38
100
14,508
5,894
16,817
7,733
Total
186
260
116
Table 2-2: Total number of participants in IVET transnational mobility under Leonardo da Vinci and under other programmes 22 Leonardo da Vinci Programme: Performance and Impact. EAC B5/JD D(2006) REG 5211, May 5th 2006
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We have collected data on the proportion of the total number of IVET participants in a country that actually takes part in transnational mobility (see table 2-3). Calculating proportions eliminates the influence of the size of the country and of the size of the IVET population as such and makes data more comparable between countries. What becomes very clear is that, notwithstanding the differences in the relative “strength” of the IVET system (be it school-based or work-based) in comparison with general upper secondary education, and the differences between countries in the size of their (IVET) population, the proportion of IVET participants that actually goes on a transnational placement is very small and –with three exceptions- does not exceed 1%. Given this, it cannot be concluded on the basis of this study that system characteristics such as “strength” of the IVET system or the extent to which it is work-based or school-based or other characteristics, influence transnational mobility in IVET. % of IVET
% of IVET
% of IVET
students in
students in
students in
transnational
transnational
transnational
mobility
mobility
mobility
AT
0.3
FI
3.3
MT
0.03
BE
< 0.01
FR
0.2
NL
0.5
BG
0.3
HR
-
NO
0.5
CH
< 0.01
HU
0.8
PL
0.3
CY
4.2
IE
0.02
PT
0.4
CZ
0.4
IS
0.01
RO
0.01
DE
0.4
IT
< 0.01
SE
0.9
DK
1.0
LI
0.02
SI
< 0.01
EE
0.2
LT
0.6
SK
0.2
EL
< 0,01
LU
0.5
TR
0.2
0.2
LV
0.5
UK
0.4
ES
25
23
24
Table 2-3: Percentage of IVET students participating in transnational mobility
23 For France the estimated number of IVET transnational mobility participants in 2006 has been the basis for the calculation of the proportion. 24 Though Ireland hardly has any IVET within the educational system, people can and do apply with FETAC (the national qualification authority) to have there qualifications assessed and accredited. The estimation is that on an annual basis this concerns about 185,000 people. This figure has been used as the basis for the calculation. 25 For Spain the annual average of IVET transnational mobility participants over the period 2000-2005 has been used for the calculation of the proportion.
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The three exceptional countries (with participation rates in IVET transnational mobility at 1% or well above 1%) are Denmark, Finland and Cyprus. Denmark has a strong IVET system with a strong work-based component (about two thirds of total curricular time). Finland is characterised by a relatively high participation rate in IVET, but a weakly developed apprenticeship system. Cyprus has neither a high participation rate in IVET (on the contrary: it is low with only about 14% of all upper secondary students) nor a strong apprenticeship system. The relatively high proportion of IVET participants going on a transnational placement in Denmark, seems to a large extent to be due to the national PIU programme, which is financed by the employers, through the ‘Employers’ Reimbursement Scheme for apprentices and people in IVET, and through which on an annual basis about € 2,5 million is spent on mobility. A possible explanation for the relatively high participation rate in IVET transnational mobility in Finland can be the combination of a rather active policy with regard to transnational mobility (see also next chapter) and the fact that all (EU) mobility programmes are organised and administered by one central organisation, called CIMO. This means that there is a central drive for fostering mobility in IVET and in education in general. Moreover, it means that there is one central organisation that registers and monitors all mobility figures (at least at national level) and that therefore, Finland is probably in the position to provide the most accurate figures. At the same time, Finland has seen a ‘dip’ in participation numbers in 2003. Finland’s own explanation for this development is as follows: “decrease explained by the significant reduction of the government subsidy for international mobility for 2003. The government subsidy has been the most important instrument for enhancement of international mobility in vocational education. At this moment Leonardo da Vinci is the biggest source. Changes in the number of institutions covered by the statistics may also explain changes in the mobility numbers. The reduction in the statistics is partly explained by grounds of different methodologies adopted”. Where Cyprus is concerned a straightforward explanation for the high proportion of IVET participants going on a transnational placement is less easy to provide. One explanation could be that the budget available for Leonardo da Vinci transnational mobility has about tripled if 2005 is compared with 2003.
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National, regional and sectoral programmes The Leonardo da Vinci-programme may be the biggest, but it is certainly not the only player in the field. In some of these countries, transnational mobility in IVET under other programmes is substantially higher than the number of IVET students participating in transnational mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme. As table 2-2 indicates, in countries like Denmark, Finland, Sweden, the number of participants in mobility that go abroad with other programmes is higher than those who go under Leonardo da Vinci. In the case of Denmark, Finland and Sweden, the other programmes mainly concern national programmes and the Nordic NordPlus Junior programme, in which the Nordic countries participate. Finland is the only country that also provides data for the numbers of IVET participants that go on an international placement through own funding. In Switzerland, transnational mobility outside Leonardo da Vinci mainly takes place under other (European) initiatives that are funded by the cantons and mobility funded by companies (often operating on a transnational level). Besides the Franco-German programme referred to above, Germany has similar bilateral agreements concerning exchanges of young people in IVET with a number of other European countries (Poland, the Netherlands, Norway, the UK, and the Czech Republic). The Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland and Iceland) have set up a transnational mobility programme to promote exchanges in upper secondary education, including IVET (Nordplus junior). Several countries have moreover set up national programmes to promote transnational mobility in IVET. In Denmark, the PIU-programme provides funding for long-term placements abroad for (young) people in IVET. In Denmark, placements abroad are automatically recognised in IVET, provided the host companies fulfil certain quality criteria, and funding is provided as a matter of course. Some 1200 apprentices avail themselves of this opportunity annually. In Sweden, a similar programme (albeit on a much smaller scale) has been set up: the APV-U programme. The Netherlands had set up a programme to promote the internationalisation of VET (“Onbegrensd Talent”), which focused on developing internationalisation strategies in VET institutions. Finally, at regional level a number of initiatives exist, mainly between border regions. Some of these have been financed through the Interreg-initiative under the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF), with additional regional co finances. In the Czech Republic a number of regional initiatives exist, like for instance in the Plzen region, where the regional authority funds mobility projects in VET-schools. In Italy, the Region Emillia-Romagna finances transnational mobility projects for VET students for training periods in Europe, with a substantial budget of 1 Mln. The country reports contain detailed information about specific programmes; a separate overview is given of all programmes beyond the European programmes that support transnational mobility in IVET. This list contains 79 national, regional, 26
sectoral or company programmes that promote and support mobility .
26 See: Annex V: IVET mobility promoting programmes beyond EU funding, Overview of results, collected through the MoVE-iT Refernet survey in 33 European countries
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Other non-dedicated programmes In addition to these programmes, however, we also have a number of non-dedicated programmes and initiatives, where transnational mobility is not the main purpose, but where it is just one of the possibilities that can be supported. An example is the German Xenos-programme; a programme which has been set up to combat xenophobia and racism, and which has been used to finance transnational placement activities for apprentices and young people in IVET. Also, the Austrian “Begabtenförderung” can be mentioned here – extra funding made available to the most promising apprentices, and which can be used to finance a stay abroad. Finally, we have transnational mobility activities that are undertaken outside of programmes and initiatives. Some companies are running their own mobility schemes for apprentices employed by the company. Sometimes these companies apply for funding under a programme, but in many instances they carry the costs themselves. Examples are Coop, Rieter, Rosch, Novartis, BMW, BASF, and Deutsche Bahn. There are also examples of young people in IVET undertaking a placement abroad completely at their own initiative and costs – the so called “spontaneous” mobility. This might be particularly prevalent in countries where the possibility of undertaking a placement abroad has been officially enshrined in VET-legislation – e.g. Germany, Austria and Denmark, but we have only anecdotal evidence to go by. Overall, it can be stated that the extent to which countries stimulate transnational mobility in IVET through other programmes, in particular national, bilateral or other programmes, does increase the absolute numbers of participants in IVET transnational mobility. In some countries, mobility under those other programmes outweighs mobility under the Leonardo da Vinci programme, while in other countries the reverse is the case.
Financing of mobility EU programmes and funding initiated and stimulated mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET since 17 years. In 2006 the annual budget is more than 48 Mln. Euros. In 2004 the budget was 34 Mln, with 27.333 participants in a placement abroad supported by Leonardo da Vinci budget. EU funding has played and still plays an essential role in promoting and facilitating mobility in IVET. In some countries EU funding through the Leonardo da Vinci Programme is the main and only source. In other countries national, regional and sectoral funding exists (see text above). The annual budgets of these programmes vary from 20,000 Euro in the Plzn region in the Czech Republic to 2,5 Mln. Euro for the PIU program in Denmark. In terms of the effectiveness of all these funds and measures to promote mobility, it is important to understand how they are distributed. The administrative burden involved in acquiring and using funds can be an important obstacle in itself.
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The distribution of funds differs per source and per country. The fact that grants are given on an annual basis in the Leonardo da Vinci programme is perceived as a barrier for SMEs (and intermediary organisations working on behalf of SMEs), since it precludes any long-term planning and involvement with mobility activities. Having to apply on a year to year basis and the insecurity this implies may make many SMEs shy away from the investment in planning and preparing a transnational mobility project. National, regional and sectoral programs and projects sometimes have more simple application procedures, with less administrative burden. An analysis of three bilateral programs shows a simple procedure for applying can be a real benefit. All three programmes offer a straightforward and flexible procedure to apply for and settle the grants. Some participants in the evaluation positively mentioned the comparably lower administrative requirements of the national or regional programmes. This may be partially due to the flat-rate funding model, which reduces administrative requirements. The programmes offer a high degree of freedom, allowing the partners to customise the projects to their specific needs. Several co-financing programs exist, for example in Slovak Republic, where the government co funds mobility in VET. Co-financing off EU-funded mobility projects with other European funding programs is not allowed.
Research and development on transnational mobility Generally, it is not possible to get an overview of the numbers of apprentices and young people in IVET who participate in transnational mobility activities in any given year. The only statistics we have available at European level are those from the Leonardo da Vinci programme. These may be supplemented with statistics of dedicated programmes at bi-national and national programmes, but nobody has as yet compiled an exhaustive overview of such programmes in Europe and systematically gathered statistics on these. When it comes to transnational mobility in non-dedicated programmes, or mobility undertaken by companies outside of the programmes and on “spontaneous mobility”, there is no reliable evidence. Only two Member States – the Netherlands and France – have set up dedicated national observatories on transnational mobility in education and training. Of these two countries, the Dutch BISON-monitoring system is the oldest and most 27
comprehensive , whereas the French observatory is of more recent date, and hasn’t published any figures yet.
27 However, it doesn’t offer complete coverage, as it is based on reports from VET institutions. Mobility activities undertaken by companies are thus not registered.
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Apart from a lack of quantitative monitoring and research data, there is only little research and development work going on that is concerned with qualitative issues of mobility. The subject has so far not proved to be very attractive to researchers, and the research we have is mostly evaluative research – i.e. research undertaken as part of the evaluation of a programme of project. The purpose of such work is to determine the success (or otherwise) of a specific programme or project according to some predefined parameters, and those who pay for the evaluation are often the programme ‘owners’ who need specific evaluation themes as arguments in a political debate. This limits the scope of the exercise, and little of this research is concerned with learning processes as the central issue and with proving the causality between specific interventions and learning outcomes. What is especially lacking is research that follows a cohort of participants over a longer period of time – so called longitudinal studies – which can tell us something about the potential long-term impact of participation in transnational mobility projects on later career trajectories. Many practices in relation to mobility projects are thus based on the “gut feelings” of promoters rather than on solid evidence emanating from research. They therefore remain the personal knowledge of the individual, and “die” when he or she leaves the field. Development projects treating aspects of transnational mobility are almost equally scarce. Out of more than 3000 pilot projects undertaken in the first phase of the Leonardo da Vinci programme (1995-99), only 57 dealt with mobility related issues – and many were concerned mainly with “engineering aspects” (e.g. recognition) 28
rather than learning aspects .
28
Unpublished Cedefop survey 2001. No survey has as yet been made on the projects in the second phase.
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3 Benefits of and obstacles to mobility Introduction The present study is not the first of its kind. ‘Mobility’, and in particular ‘obstacles to mobility’ has been a theme as long as mobility has been an issue. However, very few studies have thus far been conducted that focus (explicitly) on mobility or 29
obstacles to mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET . The Commission’s Green Paper of 1996 addressed in particular the obstacles to mobility, including those encountered in IVET. Kristensen’s (2004) study dealt in particular with mobility in IVET (including mobility of apprentices) and did, as a part of that, also deal with the issue of both benefits of and obstacles to mobility, though it was not the prime focus of the study. At the same time, mobility in IVET has grown -especially since the mid-1990s- with the introduction of the first Leonardo da Vinci programme. In tandem with this, work on dismantling barriers has been undertaken both at European and at national level, and the overall framework conditions for mobility within IVET have changed. Whereas under the PETRA II programme (early 1990s), the annual average take up of mobility among IVET participants was about 8,500 apprentices and young people, this has increased to an annual figure of 40,012 (estimation 30
since definite figures are not yet available).IVET participants under the Leonardo da Vinci II programme (or LdV II programme). The aim is to increase this participation figure to 80,000 apprentices and other young people in IVET by 2010. More in general, enhancing mobility in terms of transnational placements will have to contribute to reaching the overall aims of the LdV strand within the new lifelong 31
learning programme (2007-2013) : l
“Support participants in…the acquisition and the use of knowledge, skills and qualifications to facilitate personal development, employability and participation in the European labour market;
l
Support improvements in quality and innovation in vocational education and training systems, institutions and practices;
l
Enhance attractiveness of vocational education and training and mobility for employers and individuals and to facilitate the mobility of working trainees”.
Given these ambitions, it is important to provide insight in both the (potential) benefits of transnational mobility in IVET as well as the obstacles for this mobility which are encountered today. The objective of this chapter therefore is to provide a state-of-the-art overview (of presently available knowledge) both the benefits of and obstacles for transnational mobility in IVET.
29 For a list of previous studies on obstacles to mobility, see Annex A Bibliography 30 Commission Staff Working Paper: Progress towards the Lisbon Achievements Objectives in Education and Training; Report based on indicators and benchmarks, 2005 31 As stated in the General Call for Proposals for the DG EAC/Lifelong learning Programme of December 20th 2006 (C113/42)
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Benefits of transnational mobility The next section subsequently deals with the (potential) benefits of transnational mobility in IVET from the perspective of respectively employers (including branch and employers’ organisations), VET institutions and IVET participants. We use the word ‘potential’ here in brackets, since the benefits of transnational mobility in IVET (in terms of placements abroad within an enterprise) has until now been hardly subject of systematic research and evaluation, both at European and at national level (cf. Kristensen, 2004). Indeed, Hannigan (2001) states that: “in all the literature on effects of practical experience, virtually no research has examined overseas practical experiences”. As far as ‘research’ on the benefits of transnational placements in IVET is available, it is rather fragmented, focusing often on one or a few particular branches in a specific country. Slightly more seems to be known on effects of transnational placements on an individual level, but this often is of a more anecdotal 32 nature, e.g. ‘individual student stories . The third section of this chapter deals with the obstacles for transnational mobility, again respectively from the perspective of employers, VET institutions and IVET participants.
The European/national (policy As indicated in the introduction, transnational mobility in IVET has been highly level) perspective stimulated from the level of the European Union over the last two decades. An important rationale for this is that the transnational mobility of young people contributes to one of the building blocks of the EU strategy to increase stability and social cohesion. The expectation is that more exposure to other countries will contribute towards intercultural awareness and a better understanding of host countries and cultures. Examples can be found in bilateral programmes; e.g. in the BAND programme (Netherlands-Germany), an exchange programme for IVET 33 participants since 1998. Evaluation (EIM, 2005, Neugebauer, 2005 ) has shown that the quality of vocational education has improved on both sides, that tolerance between German and Dutch young people has improved and that cooperation between German and Dutch schools and enterprises has been strengthened. At the same time, transnational mobility among IVET participants can help the European as well as the national economies to adapt to the challenges of an ongoing globalisation. Mobile learners learn about foreign enterprises, markets, business methods and work processes; they learn skills (languages, intercultural awareness) that enable them to operate in an international environment; they facilitate and consolidate relationships with foreign partners. Important and relevant is that they bring this knowledge and skills to their (regional) labour market and contribute to the development of the (small and medium sized) enterprises. Moreover, it is worthwhile to invest in transnational mobility in IVET. The total number of participants in upper secondary vocational education and training is 34 estimated to be around 25 Million young people across the European Union . Though participation rates vary substantially between Member States (varying from as low as 15% up to 80% of all young people enrolled in upper secondary education), it will be clear that even a slight increase in the percentage of mobile IVET participants, will have a substantial impact on the absolute numbers of IVET participants involved. 32 A full list of student stories collected and analysed is available at the project website. 33 Neugebauer, U. (2005) Evaluation der bilateralen Austauschprogramme in der beruflichen Bildung zwischen Deutschland und Frankreich, den Niederlanden und Großbritannien 34 Source: Eurostat data
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Benefits from the perspective of employers Benefits of transnational IVET mobility from the perspective of employers
In general, fairly little is know about the benefits for employers of participating in transnational placements in IVET; at least on a research-evidence base. Employers are intended to define benefits of such transnational placements, primarily in terms of ‘personal gains’ for the individual IVET participants. Even enterprises hosting or sending IVET participants on transnational placements do not see any immediate pay-off for themselves and few of them see economic benefits as a likely outcome of participating in transnational placement projects. SMEs in particular seem to participate little in transnational placements for IVET participants, whereas SMEs constitute the major employment ‘sector’ for IVET graduates. Also, SMEs presently operate fairly little on an international scale, though it is expected that this will increase. Though there are differences between sectors with regard to the extent of internationalisation, transnational placements can help develop (international) skills and competences of future employees that are important for operating successfully on the international market (as well as for the economic development in Europe). These skills concern (among others): learning to learn, information processing, decision making skills, communication and foreign language skills, creative thinking and problem solving skills, self-management and self-development and flexibility. However, benefits of transnational placements for employers do not only refer to competence development of future employees. Other benefits for employers, lay in the area of: valuable multi-cultural experiences and a potentially further internationalising labour force, getting an international touch within the company, new impulses, ideas and knowledge of new markets, possibility of students brining in new approaches and new (working) methods, improved language attainment of staff, greater cultural awareness and technical understanding, and increasing the profile and attractiveness of the particular sector. Potential benefits may also concern addressing skill shortages in particular sectors or regions and the transfer of (new) technologies and know-how. An importance issue remains, nevertheless, to further investigate, identify and communicate the benefits of transnational placements in IVET, in order to motivate employers, and in particular SMEs to receive and sent IVET participants on such placements.
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Transnational mobility as a tool to deal with internationalization
Internationalisation can be seen as a process that develops along a line from export to more widespread ways of internationalisation. shows that most of the internationalising companies are only at the beginning of the internationalisation process. However, it is anticipated that the internationalisation of SMEs will be extended to more advanced forms as having their own sales offices abroad in the 35,36
future
, but, the pace at which this will take place is not (yet) clear.
Import - only form 18%
Export - only form 6%
Non-internationalised 63%
Subsidiary abroad or more than 1 form of internationalisation 13%
37
Figure 3-1: The prevalence of different forms of internationalisation amongst SMEs
Importing and exporting are the most common forms of internationalisation of European SMEs. At present however, the majority of SMEs is not operating on an international scale. In addition, the ENSR 2003 Enterprise Survey shows that almost 60% of the non-internationalised SMEs do not even consider operating internationally. If on top of the bargain these companies buy their supplies from national outlets only, and do not employ any staff with a different ethic or national background, their exposure to internationalization is virtually nil. To a certain extent, smaller countries appear to be more internationalised than the bigger EU countries as is shown in figure 3-2. It should be noted however that this is a somewhat biased picture since one SME may have both a foreign supplier and export. Company size is another aspect which has its influence on the degree of internationalisation. Research shows that larger companies are more internationalised than their smaller counterparts.
35 Hessels, J.S.A, M.J. Overweel and Y.M. Prince, Internationalisering van het Nederlandse MKB. Bestaande en gewenste inzichten, EIM Onderzoek voor Bedrijf & Beleid, March 2005 36 Observatory of European SMEs.2003/4 Internationalisation of SMEs. European Commission 37 Source: Observatory of European SMEs.2003/4 Internationalisation of SMEs. European Commission
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Luxembourg Liechtenstein Ireland Switzerland Iceland Austria Belgium Greece Netherlands Norway Spain Germany Sweden Denmark Portugal Italy United Kingdom France Finland 0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
Exports
Foreign supplier 38
Figure 3-2: Percentage of SMEs with foreign supplier or exports
Little is known with respect to difference in internationalisation in relation to sectors on a European scale. The MoVE-iT case studies give some indications that there are important differences between sectors. This is also endorsed by a CEDEFOP study, which points out that internationalisation and international skills essentially 39
apply to the following occupations (not to be regarded as exhaustive) : l
Forwarding agent
l
Travel agent
l
Specialised catering/hotel employee
l
Chef/cook
l
Wholesale and foreign trade clerk
l
Industrial clerk
l
Banking clerk
l
Digital and print media designer
l
Service agent/air traffic
l
Service agent/rail and road traffic
As said, it is anticipated that more and more SMEs will expand internationally in the coming years, either by starting to operate internationally or by more intensive modes of internationalisation. Sectors mainly represented in this group of international operating SMEs are the manufacturing, trade, transport and construction sectors, mainly investing in sales organisations, production and innovation and development. At this moment the SMEs are primarily focused on neighbouring EU countries, though most probably there will be a shift to the new acceded EU countries.
38 Source: Observatory of European SMEs.2003/4 Internationalisation of SMEs. European Commission 39 Peter Wordelmann, Early recognition of international qualifications for SMEs. Extract from: Early identification of skill need in Europe by S.L. Schmidt, K. Schömann, M. Tessaring. Cedefop Reference Series; 40. Luxenbourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2003.
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Transnational mobility as a tool to enhance skills and competences and employees Competencies as foreign language proficiency, intercultural understanding, self-reliance, tolerance, innovative thinking, flexibility and adaptability as well as vocational or professional competencies are often mentioned as an important spin-off from transnational mobility. At the same time, such competencies are considered important for enterprises to maintain their international competitiveness and for their international expansion. And this is not restricted to the higher professional level workers and managers. Wordelmann (2000), for instance, indicates that in an international setting skilled workers with vocational training should be able to communicate and cooperate with foreign partners, should have knowledge of foreign markets and cultures, should think and act beyond one’s borders and should adapt quickly to changes in international business. However, a recent survey (2004) indicated that, whereas the general (societal) benefits of the placements were widely acknowledged (making IVET more attractive, motivating apprentices for further learning), few companies saw any 40
direct benefits accruing to the company from the participation . This survey was carried out by the research institute for vocational training in the crafts sector at the University of Cologne among companies with experience with placements abroad for apprentices thus indicated that whereas the general (societal) benefits of the placements were widely acknowledged (making IVET more attractive, motivating apprentices for further learning). 41
Nevertheless, skills that can be developed during a placement abroad , and that 42
are perceived by experts as crucial for the economic development in Europe , concern (among others): l
learning to learn
l
information processing
l
decision making skills
l
communication and foreign language skills
l
creative thinking and problem solving skills
l
self-management and self-development
l
flexibility. 43
A recent Dutch study shows that nine out of ten of the surveyed SMEs indicate ‘communication’ as a key factor of success in internationalisation and that more than 80% sees knowledge of foreign countries and considering cultural aspects as crucial in having success abroad. Moreover, companies with international experience point out those cultural differences (i.e. manners, language and hierarchy within companies) often fall short when doing business abroad.
40 41
www.dhi.zdh.de/fileadmin/user_upload/themen/DHI/1_Auslandspraktika_2.pdf See e.g. Kristensen: Learning by Leaving – placements abroad as a didactic tool in the context of vocational education and training in Europe (Cedefop, 2004)
42
E.g. Hätonen: Skillful staff – now and in the future. MET Helsinki , 1998 (quoted in ENSR (the European Network for SME Research): Competence development in SMEs (2003), p. 11. 43 S.R. van Woelderen, Internationaliseringsperspectieven voor het MKB. Ervaringen in drie Europese regio’s. Economisch Bureau ING, februari 2006
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Specific benefits of IVET transnational mobility for employers Though not its prime focus, the MoVE-iT study has in its different parts paid attention to the issue of benefits of transnational mobility in IVET. In the so-called ReferNet survey (see introduction) one section contained questions with regard to this issue. What becomes clear from the results of this survey is that, where benefits for employers (both those receiving IVET participants on a transnational placement or those hiring graduates with a transnational placement experience) as well as branch organisations, are concerned:: l
Evidence (and in particular research-based evidence) with regard to benefits for employers and branch organisations is scarce (a substantial number of the 33 participating countries could not answer these questions on benefits, due to a total lack of data);
l
On average the benefits of transnational mobility for employers and branch organisations are considered moderate of even low (see also the separate synthesis report of this study).
This does not mean that there are no benefits for employers and/or branch organisations. Benefits that were mentioned concerned (among others): Employers receiving IVET participants on a transnational mobility placement Benefits that this group might have are: l
Use of qualified workforce;
l
Acquisition of valuable multi-cultural experiences with a potentially further internationalising labour force;
l
Value added to the daily work;
l
Get an international touch into the company;
l
New impulses, ideas and knowledge of markets;
l
Improved language attainment level of staff;
l
Increased EU-dimension and international cooperation within the firm;
l
Possibility of students bringing in new approaches and new (working) methods;
l
Enhancement of the profile of the employer.
Employers hiring employees with transnational mobility experiences Potential benefits mentioned for this group of employers concerned: l
Bringing in international experience;
l
Better skilled workers with practical experience;
l
Better language competencies of staff;
l
More diverse professional skills;
l
Being better able to meet the wishes of international customers;
l
Experienced and competent workers.
Branch organisations The last group of potential beneficiaries of IVET transnational mobility concerns branch organisations. Benefits mentioned for these organisations are:
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l
Chance to exploit foreign know-how and experiences;
l
Exchange of good practices;
l
Networking;
l
Improved recruitment to the sector/branch/trade;
31
l
International project experience;
l
Improved competitiveness due to international competences;
l
Being able to send well experienced staff to companies since being partner in international projects.
Concerning more sector specific benefits (see also the MoVE-iT sectoral case studies), Kristensen, et al. (2006) indicate that little is known about benefits of transnational mobility in the arts and crafts sector (mainly SMEs), but that in general SMEs appear to be reluctant to participate in transnational placement schemes for IVET participants. Nevertheless, in their opinion, it can be expected that SMEs can reap off substantial benefits from IVET transnational mobility as well. Competences as foreign language proficiency, intercultural understanding, self-reliance, tolerance, innovative thinking, flexibility and adaptability etc. are, of course, also important for the SME in the crafts sector. Internationalisation in one form or another is also affecting this, albeit not (as yet?) to the same extent. But perhaps even more pertinent here is the rapid development of technologies, which may render concrete, technical skills obsolete more or less overnight. Building and construction is a case in point, where prefabricated elements have almost entirely superseded traditional building methods other than in niches (like the restoration of old houses). In tandem with this, it becomes necessary to change and adapt initial vocational training courses to take into account such shifts in technology, and to instil in apprentices and young people in IVET an ability to cope with such changes. Those that obstinately cling to traditional methods and technologies may very well find themselves redundant on a labour market, where survival depends on constantly being able to retain one’s employability, rather than possessing a strong vocational identity. Accomplishing an apprenticeship is no longer any guarantee for possessing a technological “capital” which will last a lifetime. Rather than being a once-and-for-all proposition at the beginning of one’s career, education and training is now a constant activity that needs to be exercised continuously (lifelong learning). “Learning to learn” thus gains in importance compared to concrete technology in the formative period of one’s life – a thing which speaks in favour of incorporating a stay abroad in the apprenticeship phase. This is a message that needs to be relayed to all SMEs both in as well as outside the crafts sector. It is not an easy message to “sell”, and therefore it is important that it comes from the organisations that are close to the relevant SMEs rather than e.g. from the national agencies of various mobility programmes.
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MoVE-iT Final report
Example of good practice in the field of SMEs An example of good practice in this respect is the website set up jointly by the German Zentralverband des deutschen Handwerks (ZdH - the German confederation of skilled crafts), the French Assemblée Permanente des Chambres des Métiers (APCM - the permanent assembly of skilled crafts chambers), and the l’Union Européenne de l’artisanat et des petites et moyennes entreprises (UEAPME - the European association of crafts and small and medium-sized enterprises)
44
. Here, they inform both apprentices and other young people in IVET and their
employers about the benefits and the possibilities of a stay abroad as part of their course. A follow-up on this is the result of a transnational network project supported by the Leonardo da Vinci programme, initiated by the Assemblée permanente des chambres de metiers (ACPM) in France and 9 partner organisations from several European countries (www.euronaver.net). The network created a tool, where already existing experiences relating to different aspects of mobility could be shared and disseminated among promoters of mobility all over Europe. Euronaver.net helps practitioners – i.e. organisers of transnational placement projects – to enhance the learning outcome of their efforts. The website offers access to a European platform of expertise and the exchange of good practice about mobility, integrating the specific needs in the field of apprenticeship and initial professional training within skilled crafts and SMEs. Platform users have the opportunity to promote their experience and those of hosting and sending firms and benefit from others’ European experiences. On the platform access is given to: l
a database about “mobility within skilled craft” enhanced by examples of “good practice”;
l
examples of tools accompanying mobility pathways and specific project results significant for organisation mobility;
l
a handbook about quality process and useful links at European and national level.
Rolfe (2006) indicates for the chemical sector that overall mobility for apprentices and trainees is very small, even though the sector is characterised by relatively large and often international firms. Nevertheless, those firms that do have (some) experience with transnational mobility for apprentices and trainees, mention the following (potential) benefits: l
Providing technicians with a broader perspective on working methods and practices,
l
In particular providing apprentices and trainees with the opportunity to see a similar task performed in a different way, due to differences in work organisations in plants in different countries. This stimulates the perception of work organisation as something flexible and open to choice, rather than fixed and technologically determined. A broader view on production processes and ways of working has a potential impact on technological skills as well.
l
Preparation for lifelong learning (through an intense period of learning abroad and new experiences);
l
Greater cultural awareness and technical understanding;
l
Exchange of good practices, in particular in health and safety;
44 See www.chance-europa.de. The website only concerns mobility projects between France and Germany, however.
MoVE-iT Final report
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l
Sharing of training facilities and expertise; sharing particular training facilities, such as ‘mock plants’ and with that sharing the considerable costs of these specific training facilities;
l
Making the industry more attractive.
The last ‘benefit’ refers to the particular problems the chemical industry is encountering with the recruitment of new employees, due to image problems of the sector. Transnational mobility serves as a tool to address skill shortages in certain sectors and regions As indicated above, transnational mobility can -potentially- help to overcome skill shortages in particular sectors. A recent study by The Social and Cultural Planning 45
Office of the Netherlands shows that companies do use placements as a recruitment instrument as well as to fulfil short term labour gaps. This study, however, warns for a potential negative effect, when employers only hire trainees as ‘cheap labour’, without implementing proper systems for guidance and mentoring. The regional level is significant since important regional variations can be observed in labour market performance across Europe, where in many countries, regions with highly performing and regions with poorly performing labour markets co-exist (see Regional Unemployment Disparities, Eurostat). The regional level is very relevant for transnational mobility of VET learners as well. Specific bilateral exchange programmes and regional education and labour market projects show that schools and enterprises in border regions can have a common interest in market trends, knowledge needed etc. Some governments even focus on regional mobility of learners, placements across the most nearby borders. ‘Internationalisation by bike’ as one of the former Dutch ministers of education called it. Placements as a tool for technology and know-how transfer Technological change and globalisation are both phenomena that have profound implications for the need of specialised labour in the production process. Technological change in particular has been skill-biased, shifting the demand for labour towards highly skilled workers. This development may lead to temporary shortages that could be met through mobility, at least as long as not all countries and regions are equally affected. While the time for adaptation to key technologies is becoming shorter (owing to the speed of technological change and increased competition), mobility of employees as well as IVET participants can facilitate a fast diffusion of knowledge. Though, to a certain extent this might seem to be contradictory with was has been indicated above with regard to the ‘half life’ of vocational or professional specific skills in the context of benefits for SMEs, we can derive indications from some of the MoVE-iT case studies undertaken, that attention for developing these vocational or professional specific skills in transnational placements is important. In the chemical sector, transnational placements are seen as a potential mean to improve the knowledge and skills of technicians (through the improvement of the 45 Bronneman-Helmers, R. (2006). Duaal als ideaal? Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau
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MoVE-iT Final report
quality of the training). Within the tourism sector, it is expected that the more ‘normal’ transnational placements will become, the more ‘critical’ participants will become with regard to the quality of their placement, in particular with regard to the extent in which a placement allows them to develop professionally. From this particular case study it appeared that presently the opportunity to develop professional competences during placements is not always sufficient (Portegies et al., 2006). From the evaluative case study of some bilateral exchange programmes in VET, it becomes clear that a strong focus on professional development and the transfer of professional knowledge forms the ‘unique selling point’ of the programmes at stake (Neugebauwer, 2006).
Benefits from the perspective of vocational schools and training centres
Even though the merit of transnational mobility perhaps first and foremost lies in the acquisition of vocational, international and personal skills as well as the development of European citizenship by individual students and apprentices, it is also possible to identify a number of institutional benefits from engaging in transnational placement activities. These benefits accrue both from the direct experience of hosting and sending participants and from the international contacts that are generated through transnational mobility activities. In the ReferNet survey, for instance, a question was included with regard to the possible benefits for VET institutions to participate in transnational mobility (in particular in terms of sending their participants on a transnational placement). Nearly all 33 countries ranked these potential benefits as being high. Specific benefits that were mentioned concerned: l
Students that participate will better meet the educational standards;
l
Chances to exploit foreign know-how and experience;
l
Greater openness of the school towards the professional environment, including the international labour market;
l
Exchange of ideas and experiences in different European programmes;
l
An increase of the personal competences of young people;
l
Encouragement of personal and professional development;
l
Improvement of the recruitment for those study areas in which foreign placements are offered;
l
Adaptation of curricula to the needs of the global labour market;
l
Internationalisation (school and curriculum);
l
Increased awareness of the management of the importance of international cooperation;
l
Enrichment of training programmes;
l
Improved professional skills of IVET students.
Moreover, there are also indications that –at a system level- transnational mobility can improve the attractiveness of IVET and in particular of the apprenticeship system (cf. Neugebauer, 2006; Rolfe, 2006). Such benefits, as mentioned above, can be categorised a follows: Creating an international environment within the institution Hosting students and apprentices from abroad creates – together with the presence of own students and apprentices returning from stays abroad – an
MoVE-iT Final report
35
international atmosphere, of which the whole institution can benefit. In particular those IVET participants and or teachers and trainers who did not go abroad themselves may thus sample a whiff of the outer world and become inspired to introduce an international dimension to their own individual training pathways. The presence of foreign students may also bring direct benefits, e.g. language learning. Rolfe (2006) in this context, providers two examples of exchange programmes in the chemical sector, that underline the enriching potential of experiencing different models of training and workplace culture. Increasing and broadening competencies of trainers and mentors For teachers and trainers (as well as mentors in host companies) incoming mobility represents a challenge to develop both linguistic and intercultural skills. This may in turn lead to an increased involvement also with the sending aspects of mobility – motivating and preparing young people from their own institution or enterprise to spend a period abroad in an enterprise or a vocational training centre. Some teachers and trainers have furthermore become inspired by these activities to get mobile themselves, and availed themselves of the opportunities in e.g. the Leonardo 46
da Vinci programme for grant-aid for short stays (1-6 weeks) abroad for this target group. In workshops undertaken in the MoVE-iT project, the importance of (mobility of) teachers and trainers for fostering mobility of IVET participants was underlined. Attracting students to the institution At the present time, only comparatively few VET-institutions offer a stay abroad as a real possibility and as an integrated element in their training programmes. Those that do, however, may in some cases have a slight competitive edge over other institutions within the field or in the region. The fact that it is possible to go abroad as part of one’s training course indicates a modern and vibrant institution, and may be the factor that triggers the decision in favour of a particular vocational school or training centre. This aspect becomes increasingly important as new methods of public governance mean that VET-institutions in many European countries no longer receive block grants, but are funded according to the number of students they manage to attract. Benchmarking of course contents and pedagogic practices Through the contact with students and apprentices from other countries, or by sending their own students and apprentices on placements in companies abroad, VET-institutions have the possibility to compare and match their performance both concerning delivery and output of training against performances and expectations in other countries. Transnational mobility projects as a launch pad for transnational partnerships and for a pro-active internationalisation strategy and policy Many VET institutions establish partnerships with similar institutions abroad in order to carry out mobility projects. Short term mobility projects are comparatively easy to implement, once the contact has been established, and in many cases the collaboration continues and expands if the initial experiences have been positive. For many vocational schools and VET-institutions mobility projects have been the 46 http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/leonardo/mobility/useful_en.html
36
MoVE-iT Final report
first step in an internationalisation process, which later has resulted in more extensive collaboration projects - e.g. Leonardo da Vinci pilot projects, or bigger mobility schemes involving more people and longer durations as well as the development of an international policy and strategy for the own institution. In some of the MoVE-iT workshops the importance was underlined of developing such a policy and strategy for successful cooperation and for further enhancing the mobility of IVET participants. Strengthening the institution’s role as a regional knowledge centre The role of VET-institutions is changing from the traditional “school”, which merely delivers standardized skills packages to enterprises in the area, to that of a regional knowledge centre, which engages directly with enterprises and creates tailored training courses and participates in development activities. As internationalisation – or globalisation – since long has been a household byword for business and enterprise, VET-institutions need to reflect that reality too in their array of competences and skills. There are examples of VET-institutions which have helped enterprises in their area to make contact with partners abroad through the network they have developed as part of their transnational placement activities. The perspective of apprentices and other young people in IVET As one of the major impacts of the mobility strand aimed at apprentices and young people in IVET (Action 1 a)of the first phases Leonardo da Vinci programme, the evaluators (Deloitte & Touche, 2000, p. 86) identify that “Leonardo is perceived to enhance the employability of participants”. In the glossary attached to the Commission’s Memorandum on Lifelong Learning (2002), employability is defined as “the degree of capacity an individual demonstrates to find a job, keep it, and update occupational competence”. This definition is interesting, in that it signals more than just employment, i.e. getting a job. “Employability” also implies the ability for keeping it, and, as a key element here, the ability to update vocational and personal skills. Inherent in this definition is the notion of change. No-one can expect lifelong employment: in the knowledge economy, skills requirements change constantly, and sometimes whole occupational profiles disappear and new ones are created almost overnight. 47
Other evaluations and studies – both at European and national level – have gone more into detail with the acquisition of skills and competencies (or rather, the potential for this), and have provided extensive descriptions of possible benefits accruing to an individual through his or her participation in a placement or study period abroad. Basically, the skills and competencies identified in these studies can be grouped under 3 headings: l
the acquisition of concrete vocational skills; though the acquisition of concrete vocational skills, or rather the lack in doing so, often is for enterprises a reason not to participate in international exchanges, there is ample evidence that international placements can be a good tool for acquisition of these skills. The earlier cited study of Rolfe (2006) in the chemical sector gives examples. Research in Switzerland shows that transnational placements are used to ‘top up’ the apprenticeship training received in Switzerland itself, where the placements as such serves for further developing vocational skills, gaining
47
See: Appendix Q Literature review MoVE-iT, available on http://www.europe-move-it.eu and Appendix B Bibliography
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experience and enhance personal CVs (thus also contributing to better employment perspectives upon return). l
the acquisition of so called international skills; Evaluations and studies of placements abroad have consistently highlighted the gains of the participants in terms of foreign language proficiency and insight into culture and mentality of other countries. Especially for apprentices and young people in IVET, a placement abroad may be much more efficient than other types of language learning because it happens mainly through the object of their chosen vocation (CLIL content and language integrated learning) and because of the near-to total immersion in a foreign language, culture and mentality that a stay abroad potentially offers. The acquisition of such international skills is corroborated by the MoVE-iT case studies.
l
the acquisition of personal skills and competencies. It concerns personal skill and competencies such as self-reliance, initiative, entrepreneurship, conflict management, empathy, adaptability, confidence etc. There is substantial evidence from various studies (including the surveys and case studies conducted within the MoVE-iT project) that transnational placements contribute to developing these skills and are actually a very effective and efficient tool for this (Deloitte & Touche, 2000; Kristensen, 2004).
The ReferNet survey also showed that IVET participants are considered to be the most important beneficiaries of transnational placements. All countries indicated that IVET participants benefit highly from participating in transnational placements. Particular benefits that were considered concerned: l
Improved language competences;
l
Improved self-confidence;
l
Personal development;
l
Enhancing/improving professional skills (in relation to their study);
l
Get to know how to live and work in a foreign country;
l
Improvement of practical knowledge;
l
Improved ability to work autonomously;
l
Key skills;
l
Improved opportunities on both the domestic and the international labour market;
l
International experience.
Similar types of ‘individual’ benefits come forward in the different MoVE-iT case studies: l
Increased personal and social skills;
l
Learning about another culture;
l
Personal development;
l
Learning another language;
l
Knowledge and awareness of cultural differences and of alternative ways of working;
38
l
Increased self-confidence;
l
Improved communication skills.
MoVE-iT Final report
IVET participants themselves, who have participated in transnational mobility, mention benefits like: l
Increased cultural awareness;
l
Increased language ability;
l
Increased self-confidence;
l
Willingness to go again;
l
Understanding other countries in Europe;
l
Improved communication skills;
l
Work relationships;
l
Personal relations;
l
More motivated to complete the study;
l
Increased interest in other people;
l
Expected positive impact on career opportunities;
l
Improved vocational knowledge.
Obstacles to mobility Obstacles to transnational IVET mobility from the perspective of employers
The core focus of the MoVE-iT study, concerned the obstacles to mobility (as experienced by employers, VET institutions and IVET participants). In order to get an insight in the obstacles experienced by employers, several methods have been used; e.g. direct consultation with European organisations representing employers, sectoral studies, literature review, direct contact with intermediary organisations (Chambers of Crafts, Commerce), experts consultations and the MoVE-iT ReferNet survey. One of the key methodological problems is that only a very small percentage of companies have experience with trainees from abroad. Asking companies with no experience in this field is to a certain extent risky; answers will be based on subjective perceptions. However, at the same time, this can give an indication of the reasons why so many enterprises do not want or consider taking on international interns. In the ReferNet survey a question was included with regard to the obstacles for international mobility. One particular cluster of obstacles that was considered to be important concerned the ‘obstacles related to the wider environment of VET’. Obstacles in this group concerned the lack of interest, support, promotion and stimulation from the side of the branch organisations and the social partners and the fact that employers do not see the benefits of transnational placements and do not seem to know how to handle transnational placements. Lack of quality placements was also mentioned as an obstacle. Although ‘assuring quality’ of transnational placements is not the sole responsibility of employers or their representing organisations, one could say that to a certain extent, social partners in general, but employers and their organisations in particular, at least partially bear the responsibility for quality placements and the recognition of qualifications obtained abroad.
MoVE-iT Final report
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Awareness of (the benefits of) transnational mobility Awareness in the context of IVET transnational mobility has two dimensions. On the one hand, being aware of the possibilities for transnational mobility (either sending own apprentices or receiving apprentices or trainees from other countries), as well as of the existence of (inter)national or sectoral programmes that can financially support transnational placements. On the other hand, being aware of the (potential) benefits enterprises can have of participating in IVET transnational mobility. 48
Concerning the first dimensions, research by PwC shows that the EURES programme is unknown by a lot of companies and it can be expected that this is no different for programmes as the Leonardo da Vinci. This is confirmed by the UEAPME which points out that the imago of the Leonardo da Vinci program within the SME market of Europe is limited; only a limited number of organisations is 49
aware of the existence of this program. Being not familiar with these funding opportunities can be an obstacle, since these funds can provide a solution for one of the obstacles of mobility, namely money. Companies aware of the existence of such programmes may be more willing to offer foreign apprentices an internship. Sending organisations experience an extra obstacle since they continue to pay the 50
apprentices without a direct benefit for them sending company. ,
51
A recent study on IVET mobility in the trade sector, shows that 39% of the interviewed enterprises said, when asked for the reasons for not hosting foreign interns, that ‘it just did not occur’, where another 46% indicated that international internships where not considered relevant for their business. Whether or not enterprises find international placements relevant depends on a number of factors. Firstly, it probably depends on the extent to which enterprises are involved in doing international business or obliged to do so. Kristensen et al. (2006) state that the motivation for SMEs to send or receive apprentices abroad is to some extent directly proportional with their involvement in international activities. As indicated earlier, such international involvement is still very low among SMEs. They therefore state that it will be more likely that international placements will be more quickly considered by enterprises where direct contact with customers from abroad is commonplace and where foreign language proficiency is consequently a premium. This also holds for SMEs that are or become involved in international business activities. However, also large enterprises with an international orientation might consider international placements less relevant. Rolfe (2006) indicates that in the chemical sector few large companies operate or participate in transnational mobility schemes for apprentices and trainees, whereas mobility schemes for high level professionals and managers are rather common in this sector. The main reason
48 49
PricewaterhouseCoopers, Mobility matters (2006). UEAPME, Meeting for an exchange of views on the studies steaming from the EP’s budget line on “ERASMUS for apprentices”, 23 February 2006
50 51
UEAPME, UEAPME position on mobility in the framework of the proposal for the new integrated lifelong learning programme, 20 November 2005. UEAPME concept paper on Measures for improving mobility of apprentices in the framework of the Leonardo da Vinci programme 2007-2013 and of the studies undertaken by the European Commission with the budget line “Guy-Quint” on an “Erasmus style” programme for Apprentices
40
MoVE-iT Final report
here is that these enterprises consider this as not being relevant since mobility is not seen as part of the career development for employees at this level. Secondly, enterprises might find international placements less relevant since enterprises do not see the benefits of such placements. Neugebauer (2006) indicates that enterprises see international exchanges as almost exclusively beneficial for the personal, social, intercultural and professional skills of the participants and are therefore reluctant to send participants on (bilateral) exchange programmes. Moreover, few of the involved enterprises in such bilateral exchange programmes see economic benefits as a likely outcome of these programmes; they do not see an immediate pay off. Kristensen et al. (2006) come to similar conclusions. Even though SMEs constitute an important factor in the European economy (they account for 99% of the total number of enterprises and more than two thirds of the European workforce is 52
employed in SMEs) , participation of SMEs in transnational mobility programmes is very low and many SMEs in the arts and crafts sector are actually opposed to participating in such programmes. They oppose, and not just for practical reasons (though this may be an important factor). The coordinators of mobility activities from Danish VET-institutions (who in many areas coordinate placements abroad on behalf of local enterprises through the PIU-programme) often encounter strong resistance from SMEs in the crafts sector to the idea of sending their apprentices abroad, on the grounds that the owners/trainers see no reason for such 53
54
“holidays” . Other research confirms these findings . Neugebauer (2006) in this context, clearly states that in order to stimulate enterprises to taken on international apprentices and trainees, it is adamant to be able to make clear what actually the benefits for enterprises are, but that it requires further investigation in order to determine what these benefits are at enter[rise level. It is, in his opinion also important to know how enterprises (but also VET institutions and IVET participants) not involved in such exchange programmes, perceive the (potential) benefits of transnational placements. Costs Costs can be considerable obstacles for both sending and receiving apprentices and trainees on an international placement. This appears to be especially the case for SMEs. The reason for this is that apprentices in many SMEs are more deeply integrated in the economic activities of the company: they represent an important link in the work processes and it can be very difficult to go without them for any extended period of time. It may be that the employer will have to employ extra staff in the period where the apprentice is absent. At the same time, however, he/she is contractually obliged to pay the wages of the apprentices also during the stay abroad. Taken as a percentage of the total turnover, the financial strain of sending apprentices abroad on a (long-term) stay is therefore often considerably harder on the SME than on a larger enterprise.
52
Observatory for European SMEs (http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/enterprise_policy/analysis/observatory_en.htm)
53 54
Information received from the national coordination centre of the programme DUO research
MoVE-iT Final report
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However, these costs are not the only obstacle. Receiving apprentices and trainees on an international placement, brings also costs for supervision of the apprentices and trainees. Depending on the kind of enterprise and the production and/or work processes, support and supervision requirements can be high (e.g. due to risk-advanced production processes, but also to customer service demands), which only adds on to the costs (Rolfe, 2006). Overall, costs are a particular problem if enterprises are not convinced of the benefits of investing in transnational mobility in IVET. Administrative procedures to apply for funding Structural decisions and administrative procedures have made it in particular difficult for SMEs to participate directly in such programme activities. On the one hand, these complaints concern the amount of ‘red tape’ in connection with applying for funding as well as reporting. On the other hand, it concerns the impossibility for applying for individual funding. As Kristensen et al. (2006) indicate, since applications have to concern at least a group of 10, this effectively debars SMEs from direct participation. They have to rely on mediating organisations, such a vocational schools, exchange organisations and chambers for commerce and industry, for instance. This also means that SMEs have little control over issues such as target country, starting time or length of stay.
Obstacles to transnational mobility from the perspective of VET institutions
The obstacles that pertain to the VET institutions, as they came forward from the ReferNet survey, concerns obstacles like the lack of strategies or policies with regard to transnational mobility and/or the lack of capacity in managing international projects. Up to a certain level, one can hold VET institutions themselves responsible for the lack of networks for exchanging knowledge and experiences with transnational mobility. As professional institutions, they should be capable of organising this. At the same time however, lack of managerial support for transnational projects as well as the day-to-day obligations stemming from their primary tasks and from legislation and regulation can further impinge such professional capacity. The MoVE-iT survey amongst VET institutions shows that financial resources are (very) problematic for almost 2 out of 5 institutions; 38.2% of the VET institutions found ‘insufficient financial resources to fund IVET participants’ (very) problematic, whereas 37.1% found ‘lack of financial means to cover own institutional costs’ (very) problematic. Finding suitable enterprises for VET participants is (very) problematic for 27.4% of the VET institutions.
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MoVE-iT Final report
No
A little
problem
proble-
at all
matic
Insufficient financial resources
Neutral
Proble-
Very
Not appli-
matic
proble-
cable
matic
9.7
29.0
18.3
17.7
21.5
3.8
11.3
31.2
15.1
18.8
18.3
5.4
18.8
31.2
18.8
16.1
11.3
3.8
26.3
22.0
23.1
11.3
8.6
8.6
32.8
24.7
16.7
15.1
4.8
5.9
22.0
33.3
14.0
19.9
6.5
4.3
39.8
22.6
16.1
10.2
4.3
7.0
37.1
29.0
15.1
10.8
4.3
3.8
27.4
27.4
24.2
13.4
2.2
5.4
to fund VET participants Lack of financial means to cover own institutional costs Lack of suitable enterprises for VET participants Lack or low quality of accommodation for foreign VET participants Lack of interest of VET participants to work abroad Finding staff members for assistance/guidance/ advice of incoming/outgoing VET participants Lack of interest transnational mobility of key persons at the central level of the institution Problems of communication with partner institutions Insufficient competencies of incoming/outgoing VET participants To what extent have you encountered significant problems with regard to sending VET participants abroad on work placements / internships (%, N=186) Table 3-1: Results of the survey among VET institutions, question on problems related to sending VET participants abroad
Another obstacle that got a relatively high score as being (very) problematic, concerns ‘finding staff members for assistance/guidance/advice of incoming/outgoing IVET participants (26.4% of the VET institutions). In addition to the survey among VET institutions, the MoVE-iT project teamed up with both EVTA (VET-training centres) and EfVET (VET-schools), to do further consultation. With EVTA, a conference in Bucharest was used to consult with 30 experts, early in the project. They validated the list of 40-obstacles, and brought it 55
down to their ´top 7´list of obstacles : 1. lack of communication between beneficiaries (and stakeholders); 2. sustainability of quality companies for placements; 3. transparency of qualifications; 4. employers don’t see advantages; 5. institutions do no have a strategy on international mobility 6. benefits are not clear; 7. cultural differences. 55 See workshop report in the annexes
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EfVET was consulted later in the project; they managed to do a network wide consultation, before writing an official reaction on the November 2006 edition of the draft final report. From this statement it becomes clear that few EfVET members see legal and administrative obstacles as a serious barrier, whereas raising awareness of mobility opportunities (among all stakeholders involved) was thought important. EfVET members in this context explicitly addressed the need to address teachers and trainers, since they are considered to be a crucial factor in the multiplier effects towards students.
Obstacles to transnational mobility from the perspective of apprentices and other young people in IVET
From the ReferNet survey it appeared that there are also obstacles on the individual level. This group of obstacles concerns the lack of finances for placements abroad, the lack of language skills and the restrictions stemming from the home situation (jobs, family, and friends). Even though situated on the individual level, these obstacles are clearly related to the policy level (with the exception of the restrictions experienced due to jobs, family and friends). The table below shows the outcome of a consultation with OBESSU (Organising 56
Bureau of European Secondary School Student Unions ), a European-level NGO organising national school student unions in general and vocational secondary education with 20 European countries as members. The consultation was carried out during a European level OBESSU conference on student mobility, and participants were asked to discuss 10 obstacles to mobility and score them in order of importance. The outcome was as follows: Lack of obstacle
Rank
Financial means
1
Awareness on benefits of mobility
2
Language and cultural skills
3
Positive reinforcement for going abroad
4
Communities of practice
5
Integration within and between actors
6
Pedagogical know-how on learning in placements
7
Sustainable strategies
8
(Access to) placements abroad
9
research and statistics on mobility
10
In addition, within the MoVE-iT project several surveys were carried out focusing on the perspective of apprentices and other young people in IVET on obstacles for transnational mobility. The results of the first survey (conducted by PwC) shows that general barriers included ‘do not have the money’ (22%), ‘my family or friends’ (23%), ‘my friend won’t come with me’ (8%), ‘it cannot be combined with school’ (17%), ‘foreign language’ (13%), ‘looking for work abroad by myself’ (18%), ‘nowhere to stay’ (27%), not enough information on how to arrange this kind of thing’ (34%), ‘too much red tape’ (8%), ‘there is nobody to help me’ (17%), and ‘I
56 Includes IVET
44
MoVE-iT Final report
do not want to work abroad’ (2%). 15% of respondents indicated that ‘nothing would prevent me’ 57
The second survey was designed to access individuals who had taken up a study/work placement, allowing to investigate the factors considered in their decision making process which led them to accept the opportunity shows that there may be gender differences for some of the obstacles. Female
Male
I don’t want to work abroad
83.3%
16.7%
My friend won’t come with me
66.7%
33.3%
It can’t be combined with school
61.8%
38.2%
My family or friends
61.0%
39.0%
Too much red tape
59.0%
41.0%
Nothing will prevent me, as I’m going to go anyway
58.4%
41.6%
Don’t have the time
57.8%
42.2%
Don’t have the money
50.1%
49.9%
Nowhere to stay
48.5%
51.5%
Foreign language
46.1%
53.9%
There’s nobody to help me
46.0%
54.0%
Not enough information about how to arrange this kind of thing
39.9%
60.1%
What prevents you from gaining experience abroad? (more than one answer is possible) N=369 Table 3-2: Results of the survey among individuals, question on obstacles
Overall, the main obstacles (listed according to score, from highest to lowest) are: l
Not enough information;
l
Nowhere to stay;
l
Family/friends;
l
Not enough money;
l
Cannot combine it with school;
l
There’s nobody to help me;
l
Foreign language;
l
Friend won’t come;
l
Too much red tape.
Of all respondents, 15% stated that nothing would prevent them from going abroad, whereas another 18% stated that they were looking for work abroad themselves. Another source refers to the stories by apprentices. These stories were found through the MoVE-iT ReferNet survey on the one hand, and on-line search engines using search criteria as ‘apprenticeship experiences’, ‘stories’, on the other hand. A large proportion of this group mentions no obstacles at all. Insurance, visa and working permit, finance and funding and tutoring or mentoring are not mentioned as obstacles. In a minority of the stories, reference is made to language
57 conducted by the Cranfield School of Management)
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preparation (7%), travelling experience (5%), leaving family and friends (3%), housing (1%), communication (1%) and accreditation (2%). If we look at the obstacles mentioned during the apprenticeship, then language is mentioned as the biggest obstacle (25%). Climate and culture (13%) are the second most appearing obstacle. Furthermore, social life (3%) and tutoring and mentoring (2%) and housing (1%) are mentioned. Also this figure shows a large percentage of ‘no obstacles mentioned’. Obstacles according to the stages in transnational placements Another angle for defining obstacles from the perspective of apprentices and young people in IVET, consists of using the phasing or stages around a transnational placements: preparation (before leaving) during the transnational placement and after returning from a transnational placement. Analysing the different data and information sources collected during the MoVE-iT study to identify obstacles from the perspective of apprentices and young people in IVET, we can provide the following summary of obstacles encountered: Before leaving l
A large number of young people want to go abroad and/or have some experience of working abroad. Information about the opportunities, pitfalls and preparations for a mobility experience is available on many different websites. Most of the IVET participants that want to go, know someone abroad, but only a bout one quarter of them know organisations that help
l
Worldviews and previous international experience are significant factors in the attitudes and behaviour that young people have towards transnational mobility. A previous experience widens the worldview of people. A family context in which several cultural identities mingle shapes a certain worldview. And this worldview shapes the perception of family, study and travel experience.
l
Schools often do not provide sufficient information about mobility opportunities, especially where foreign internships are concerned. Those to that would like to go are interested especially to hear experiences from friend, acquaintances, teachers, or family members. Even though from the PwC survey it became clear that the majority of respondents think it should be possible to go on a foreign internship, they do no think it should be compulsory.
l
Different subgroups should be distinguished among young people. From ‘first timers’ to very mobile VET participants. Educational institutions increasingly deal with people who go abroad within the context of their studies. Expectations and quality requirements of foreign experiences mature. But also the choice of destination, i.e. in or outside Europe, become an issue for every stay abroad, and are attributed a specific role in the biography of the learner.
l
Acquiring visas/permits was not considered an issue for the majority of respondents.
l
It appears that tourism and hospitality students as well as VET institutions hardly think in terms of obstacles. Language and cultural skills for example, are seen as a challenge rather than an obstacle.
l
The lack of placements abroad was not anticipated as a very relevant obstacle. From the discussion it became clear that our participants expected it to be easy
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to find places abroad if a person is really motivated. The participants indicated that finding a placement itself is not the most difficult part, but making the arrangements needed (in time) to go for a placements abroad is the hardest part. l
Apprentices spend in the initial phases of planning their stay abroad quite some time on searching on the internet or in evaluations of previously done placements. The organizers in the different schools are early with pointing out the trajectory of the planning process. Apprentices tend to wait long before deciding to jump on the train of this planning process. Fear of missing out on the ‘best’ placements usually gets them on board in time.
l
The preferences for channels of communication for mobility opportunities, seem to differ, according to gender and age. Most popular channels are Internet and personal contact with peers.
l
Access to information on mobility opportunities for both teachers and apprentices is limited.
During the stay l
Support while on placement is an area where improvements could be made; in particular ensuring the availability of a dedicated mentor while on placement may improve the experience for young people.
l
The potential impact on maintaining relationships (family and romantic) was considered important and could prove a barrier to mobility. The location and nature of the placement was also considered important and for a small number taking a placement was perceived as risky and would cause concern for their personal safety.
l
The participants indicate that regular contact (once a week) with the company coach is necessary. Another striking result is that contact with the schools counsellor seems less important. It appears that especially friends are important persons to keep contact with.
l
The more going abroad is considered “normal”, the more learners become critical of the organization and quality of their foreign experiences. Apprentices expect that receiving organizations (placement companies or exchange partners in education) know about their context and aims. They also expect the sending institution to be well aware of what experiences they had/are having while abroad.
l
Quality of educational experiences abroad is expected to become more of an issue as institutions move ahead in their internationalisation process. It will be a challenge for mobility policies and programmes to remain proactive on that issue. An international mindset of lecturing and supporting staff will not be sufficient in the future. Students and placement companies will want to see a better match with their needs.
l
Apprentices wish to learn relevant skills in addition to the personal development component; they want to feel prepared for their working career. Apprentices also expect their educational institutions to use and reflect upon their experiences abroad. A stronger commitment to contracts and “promises” made to them by companies and schools will be expected.
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After the placement abroad l
The period after the placement abroad gets fairly little attention until now. Kristensen (2004) indicates that in the scarce literature about placements abroad as part of learning processes in IVET this issue is not addressed. From the point of view of sustaining learning achievements from the placements abroad it is important to provide participants with opportunities and platforms to discuss their experiences. This will help them to incorporate these learning experiences into their learning biography in a meaningful way and to help them.
Perspective of the European and/or national (policy) level
Apart from the obstacles mentioned in the previous section from respectively the perspective of employers, VET institutions and IVET participants, there are also obstacles that stem from the European or national level, some of which have (implicitly) already been mentioned above. A first obstacle concerns the ‘red tape’ in dealing with applications and reporting for European or national programmes that intend to stimulate transnational mobility in IVET. At a European level, in particular the Leonardo da Vinci programme was mentioned. In order to enhance transnational mobility in IVET, application, reporting and accounting procedures should be made simpler and less bureaucratic. Moreover, it should be made possible to apply for just one or a small number of IVET participants (in particular important for SMEs) and it should be possible to apply for longer periods than just one year. To a certain extent these ‘criticisms’ also apply to other European programmes that fund transnational mobility of IVET participants as well as national programmes (Kristensen et al., 2006). A second obstacle concerns the lack of national policies with regard to mobility in IVET. In some countries such policies are until now lacking (apart from participating in European programmes such as Leonardo da Vinci), whereas in other programmes the fading away of policy attention for IVET transnational mobility over the last years (after a period in which it did get a certain policy attention) is regarded as problematic. Given the complex structure of IVET and IVET funding in most countries, involving various Ministries, the lack of cooperation between ministries in developing policies and programmes with regard to transnational mobility in IVET was also considered problematic.
Conclusions: towards a top 10 of Obstacles Initially, a large number of sources have been consulted, and a long list of over 400 58
obstacles has been drawn up. The aim of this exercise was merely an enumeration of the obstacles, and not an assessment of their relevance. The long list therefore comprises all obstacles encountered in any of the above contexts, and makes no difference between large and small, relevant and irrelevant, old or new. The various research activities undertaken within the MoVE-iT project (surveys, case studies, workshops, (part of the) focus groups) as well as consultations with (national) experts, discussion within the project team and discussion with the 58
48
See: Appendix U Literature review full version
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European Commission and the steering committee, served to reduce this long list to a more concise and manageable list of obstacles to mobility in IVET. Obstacles on the long list were, for example, excluded if they did not pertain in particular to IVET, if they were considered to be no longer relevant, because apparently solved or were considered to be difficult to influence by (European) policy making. This resulted in a reduced list of obstacles (see below). Obstacles l
l
Problems of legal nature, like: permits, visa, social security
l
l
Vet institutions meet too much
l
Lack of interest and stimulation of transnational mobility by social
Lack of information about finding
bureaucracy in handling procedures l
Employers do not see the
l
Employers do not know how to
knowledge of and experience
handle an transnational
with mobility
placement l
Mobility is not a priority of the
l
Lack of cooperation between
Lack of autonomy of VET
A general lack of interest among IVET participants
l
IVET participants do not have enough language skills
l
IVET participants lack finances for a placement abroad
transnational mobility l
IVET participants lack courage for placements abroad
l
VET institutions do not have a strategy or policy on
IVET participants do not see the benefits of transnational mobility
partners l
benefits of transnational mobility
Lack of networks for exchange of
ministries l
l
Problems with international
national policy in IVET l
transnational mobility by branch organisations
handling of procedures
l
Lack of quality placements
l
work placements, financing and l
l
rights and taxes coverage of insurances l
Lack of promotion or support of
l
IVET participants are restricted
Little emphasis on language
institutions to make decisions on
by obligations at home like: jobs,
learning in IVET
transnational mobility
family and friendships
l
Lack of recognition of qualifications obtained in another
Vet institutions lack capacity on managing transnational mobility
country
projects l
Vet institutions don’t know what can be learned from transnational mobility
l
A placement abroad does not fit in the home school curriculum
Table 3-1: Intermediate deliverable: Long list of obstacles used in questionnaire ReferNet
After further analysis of the available data and information gathered throughout the MoVE-iT study, further discussion within the project team and further discussion with the European Commission and an expert group meeting at European level, this list has been further reduced to a top 10 list of obstacles. This list as such has been agreed upon with the European Commission and the steering group for the study, and has bee the basis for developing recommendations and solutions.
The ‘Top 10’
In the ideal situation, where prioritised lists exist for all major stakeholders, actors and experts are available, we may arrive at a Top 10 list of obstacles by simple triangulation: placing the lists next to each other and giving each obstacle points in accordance with its position on the lists. Ultimately, we may then add up all the points scored by the individual obstacles and thus quickly arrive at the ten most
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important ones. Unfortunately, this is not possible, and for a number of reasons. Firstly, the problems of representativity and reliability means that we cannot take the prioritised lists at their face value, as they may in fact give a spurious picture of the situation. Secondly, it might be argued that some sources are more important than others, and should therefore receive a positive weighting when calculating the final Top 10-list. Finally, closer analysis may reveal that some obstacles stand in a causal relationship to each other, and that what it seen as a comparatively minor obstacle in the overall picture, may in fact have a trigger effect on others, which per se are deemed more important. An interesting case in point is the absence of research and reliable statistics on transnational mobility in Europe, which by some experts is seen as a crucial barrier to the further development of the theme both in qualitative and quantitative terms, but which by most actors and stakeholders is seen as relatively insignificant (see e.g. diagram of OBESSU-consultation above). Because nobody has any overview of the numbers involved and no longitudinal studies of the effects of participation have been carried out, mobility is bound to receive little attention in an age where policies have to be evidence-based in order to have any clout. Once we have this information, other obstacles will become much easier to tackle – according to (some) experts. Given these difficulties, it is important to arrive at any “objective” list of the 10 most important obstacles to transnational mobility for apprentices and young people in IVET in Europe. We can only offer an approximation. At the end of the exercise, a short list was drawn up, containing the following 10 obstacles (NB! They are not listed in order of importance): Lack of quality placements Placement organisers as well as young people themselves spend a lot of time trying to find placements in companies abroad. But it is difficult to find placements for a target group of apprentices and young people in IVET due to their youth and lack of experience. Many projects have to be abandoned because no placements can be found, and many have to make do with inferior placements, where the learning potential is low. This is not a unique problem for mobility; also on the national and local market VET-providers and participants invest a great deal in finding placements. Lack of knowledge on the benefits of mobility Many companies still view placements abroad as a kind of holiday experience, and are therefore unwilling to send their own apprentices out or receive apprentices from abroad on placements. It needs to be made a lot clearer what they stand to gain, both in the long and the short run, in order to involve them more actively. Lack of pedagogical know-how on learning in placements (quality) Organising placements abroad is still overwhelmingly seen as a practical exercise: securing funding, getting placements, finding accommodation, making travel arrangements, ensuring social security coverage, obtaining insurance etc. The learning process is often neglected, and this makes many actors and stakeholders insecure about the value of placements abroad: how can they be made to interact with the other elements of the curriculum in IVET?
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Lack of sustainable internationalisation strategy Many vocational schools and training centres do not have a detailed internationalisation strategy. Activities – like mobility projects – are therefore often the result of personal initiatives by dedicated individuals, who spend a lot of energy fighting the system’s inertia to get their projects up and running. Due to the lack of back-up, they burn out after a while and leave the field, taking a lot of valuable experience with them, as there is no framework to collect, analyse and disseminate this in the organisation. Lack of research on mobility In spite of the numbers involved, there is only very limited research activity around transnational mobility – in particular placements abroad. We are still working on the basis of hypotheses rather than sound, empirically based evidence. This means that our arguments do not carry the necessary force of conviction vis-à-vis politicians and other decision-makers. Neither do we have reliable statistics on transnational mobility in Europe. All we have is data from the dedicated programmes (e.g. Leonardo da Vinci), but it would seem that this is only the tip of the iceberg. We need to develop indicators which can help us get a more accurate overview of the quantitative scope of mobility in Europe. This will give better leverage when dealing with the dismantling of other obstacles at political level. Lack of communities of practice for placement organisers Placement organisers often work alone within their organisation. They should have the possibility for meeting other organisers to exchange experiences and develop their knowledge base. This should also be possible across borders. Legal and administrative barriers The lack of a recognised status for (young) people doing placements abroad in Europe gives rise to a number of problems of a legal and administrative nature. When they are very young (under 18) they face additional obstacles. A further obstacle in this field refers to the difficulties in connection with obtaining residence visas for placements in the EU for participants coming from non-EU countries. Lack of interest among young people Many people in IVET are young and have no previous experience with stays abroad (except, maybe, for package holidays). To go abroad and live among the natives for a while is therefore seen as a threat to be avoided rather than an opportunity to be eagerly seized. Lack of linguistic and cultural background knowledge Many among the target group only have a limited knowledge of languages and cultural features of other countries. Lack of recognition Please note that the issue of recognition is not part of this study, even though it ranked high on most informants’ lists of prioritised obstacles. This obstacle was deliberately removed from the Top 10, since it forms the subject of two separate
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projects (ECVET Connector and Reflector), and is not included in the remit for this 59
study .
The ‘Top-5’
The final list is different in nature from the short list (the “Top 10”). The short list is in fact only meant as one instrument out of several to guide the selection of obstacles for the final list. The aim of the study is not merely to point out the most important obstacles, but also (and more importantly) to make recommendations and develop solution proposals as to how these can be overcome. Whereas the establishment of the short list may be said to represent an academic exercise, the final list is operational: it points out where we should focus our (limited) energy and resources in the battle to dismantle barriers to mobility. The final list is therefore made on the basis of the short list, but not exclusively on this. Other important criteria concern the possibility to develop practical solution proposals, and the resources and the jurisdiction of the executive power behind the study, the European Commission, to implement these. The final list has therefore been established in close collaboration with the European Commission and with the steering committee of the study and have been validated at a series of expert and stakeholder workshops held in November 2006, as well as at a special conference of EUNEC (the European Network of Education Councils) in the same month. It concerns the following obstacles: l
Lack of quality in mobility (quality in relation to framework conditions, practical aspects and pedagogical interventions);
l
Lack of awareness of mobility (more publicity surrounding mobility, creating a positive image, information spread, communities of practice for the exchange of knowledge and experience on mobility activities);
l
Lack of sustainable strategies (inducing vocational schools to adopt long-term commitment to mobility schemes);
l
Lack of support mechanisms (funding arrangements, placement finding, service provision for SMEs);
l
Legal and administrative obstacles (lack of status for apprentices and young people in IVET on placements abroad; visa-requirements for non-EU participants);
These five obstacles (or rather: clusters of obstacles) thus form the starting point for the development of recommendations and solution proposals.
59 Moreover, the obstacle of recognition of professional qualifications has been overcome at EU level through adoption, on 7 September 2005, of Directive 2005/36/EC on the mutual recognition of professional qualifications. This directive, which must be implemented in Member States by 20 October 2007, consolidates, modernises and simplifies 15 existing directives adopted between 1975 and 1999. This directive is the only instrument applicable for the recognition of professional qualifications with a view to access to a regulated profession. Where this directive is applicable Member States cannot apply other non binding instruments in parallel such as the European Qualifications Framework.
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4 Quality Unfortunately, for almost as long as transnational mobility has been an item on the European agenda, the focus has been on quantity rather than quality. Success criteria are often quantified in terms of numbers of participants, but such “head counts” are near-to meaningless if they are not bolstered up by quality awareness and assurance. A major step in the right direction was taken this year, when the European Council of Ministers adopted nine quality criteria for transnational mobility in the EU. Even though the criteria were very general, at least the adoption of such a list sent a strong signal to all those concerned that quality is of paramount importance as a parameter in the discussion on mobility. ”Quality” is an elusive concept. There are many ways of defining it, depending on the context in which we are operating. In a very general way, we may say that we perceive it as “quality” when a product or artefact lives up to the expectations we have to it. There are certain problems when applying this definition to the issue of transnational mobility. “Mobility” – in the shape of work placements or study periods abroad – cannot really be said to constitute a product in its own right: the fact that 1000, 10,000 or even 100,000 (young) persons have spent a period of time abroad in connection with their initial vocational training programme is not important per se. What is important, however, is the skills, attitudes and competences they acquired through this experience, and how this can contribute to personal and societal developments in all aspects of both public, economic and private life spheres. In this perspective, it would be more correct to talk about mobility as a process rather than a product – a process which will hopefully lead to a quality product. What is it, then, that we expect this process to produce? The mere fact of living and working or studying in another country than one’s own will not automatically bring about positive results in terms of skills acquisitions and personal development. A stay abroad can also be a stressful and disturbing experience, and at times it may have results that more or less go in the opposite direction than the ones expected: participants may return with prejudices confirmed instead of dispelled, and with a sense of defeat and limitations rather than a feeling of having opened up to new horizons. A full quality system for mobility should ideally encompass three dimensions: I.
Quality awareness: creating an awareness of quality among actors and stakeholders;
II. Defining quality: describing what quality is (establishing quality criteria); III. Quality assurance: facilitating quality at a hands-on level by applying operational versions of quality criteria to individual projects. The following recommendations address these three dimensions of a quality system.
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Recommendation 1 Transform generic quality criteria to specific quality assurance strategies Which obstacles will be addressed?
60
The European Economic and Social Committee believes that mobility is a positive factor, provided it ties in with the qualitative elements of the programmes. The aim of tripling the mobility programmes must therefore include qualitative features. In view of the above, and in the present phase up to 2010, mobility of citizens currently at work contains such qualitative features and has a major contribution to make in order to achieve the Lisbon objectives. Quality awareness The fact that a set of European quality criteria for mobility are discussed and agreed upon by the European Commission, the Council of Ministers and the European Parliament is itself a strong signal to everybody concerned with mobility that “quality” is an important issue. But to boost quality in mobility, it is not enough to define quality criteria. Organisers and stakeholders must also become aware of quality as an issue in order to becoming motivated for implementing these in their activities. Until recently, it seems justified to say that the focus was on quantity 61
rather than quality , and that the success or otherwise of a programme or project was first and foremost stated in numerical terms. However, since the late 90s, the quality issue has figured more prominently in discussions on mobility, and various awareness-raising events have been organised. There are three major benefits accruing from increased quality awareness with regard to mobility: 1. The incentive to improve skills acquisition in mobility projects. Genuine disasters are, fortunately, few and far between, but there is little doubt that skills acquisition in many mobility projects is not at its optimum. The distance between the actual outcome and what could have been the outcome if the project had been better planned, implemented and followed up, is simply too big. In other words, we could have achieved more value (or learning) for our money if more focus had been placed on the quality issue. 2. There is a strong connection between quality and quantity, and one of the ways to improve quantity is undoubtedly to improve quality. Quality is the key to involving more (young) people in mobility activities, especially the so-called disadvantaged groups, which are at present underrepresented in the programmes. Mobility organisers do not feel confident enough to include people from this target group in their activities because they fear for the consequences of sending them abroad and away from direct supervision – even though the 62
potential benefits for this target group are perhaps the biggest . 3. Recognition. Many of the skills acquired during a stay abroad are not of kinds that lend themselves to direct measurement. We may have a very strong impression that a participant’s self-confidence has increased as a result of the transnational experience, but we cannot translate this impression into quantifiable terms. The same is true of important aspects of language learning: 60 Opinion of the European Economic and Social Committee on the Proposal for a Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing an integrated action programme in the field of lifelong learning 61 See e.g. Kristensen, S.: Learning by Leaving, Luxembourg (OPOCE) 2004, p. 77ff 62 See Cedefop ”Disadvantaged groups in placements abroad” (Kristensen, S, Thessaloniki 2004)
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we may be able to measure the increase in vocabulary and fluency, but we cannot e.g. measure the degree of motivation for continued language learning that may come about as a result of even a short-term stay abroad. If we want to incorporate such experiences into the process of lifelong learning and make them count, we must therefore go about the recognition issue in a different way. Since we cannot measure the product, we must focus on the process, making sure that mobility projects are carried out according to criteria that we know will ensure quality, even though we may not be able to measure this in the individual participant. Defining quality When discussing quality in connection with mobility we should be careful of two things. Firstly, it is impossible to set up inflexible and immutable norms for quality in mobility due to the complexity of the phenomenon. The many different permutations of target groups, hosting and sending country, length, learning goals, resources available etc. make it impossible to talk about absolute norms. We cannot e.g. say that any transnational mobility project should be accompanied by at least two weeks of preparatory language tuition. This may be far too limited for some groups, and superfluous for others. What we can say, however, is that language preparation is an important element which should receive due attention in any mobility project. What “due attention” precisely means, however, must be decided by the individual project organiser on the basis of an informed and balanced judgement. It thus makes sense to speak of “criteria” rather than “norms” in this context. Secondly, we should distinguish between “selection criteria” and “quality criteria”. All programmes are ultimately the result of political compromises and decisions, and often pursue other goals alongside that of promoting mobility as such. Project selection is therefore often motivated by other (extrinsic) considerations rather than by an assessment of merits for mobility. A quality assurance system should therefore have a general theoretical basis rather than being grounded in the rationale and practices emanating from a particular programme. We distinguish between three aspects of quality in relation to mobility projects. When establishing a set of quality criteria for mobility projects, all the following three aspects should be represented: 1. Framework conditions: This concerns issues like choice of host country, length of stay, mode of mobility (e.g. school stay or placement): do these issues correspond to the nature of the target group and the declared learning aims of the project? 2. Practical aspects: This concerns issues like travel, accommodation, social security and insurance for the individual participants. Are these practical arrangements satisfactory, so that participants are not unduly stressed or at risk to an extent which will endanger the learning process during the stay abroad? 3. Organisation of the learning experience: This concerns the motivation, selection, preparation, monitoring, mentoring/tutoring and debriefing of participants: how is this done with a view to establishing the best possible
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conditions for the acquisition of skills, knowledge and competences within the framework of the project? Quality assurance “Quality assurance” refers to the process of rendering quality criteria operational by relating them to concrete activities. This implies two things: firstly, the set of generic criteria must be developed to cover the full range of constituent elements in a given mobility project. Secondly, since it is not possible to work with absolute norms in mobility projects, the exact meaning of the criteria must be determined in relation to a specific project. This should be done for all three dimensions of a mobility project; i.e. the framework conditions, the practical aspects, and the organisation of the learning experience. We illustrate this in relation to organisation of the learning experience. Here, the generic criteria refer to a number of elements to be put in place before, during and after a stay abroad (e.g. linguistic preparation, mentoring, debriefing and evaluation etc.). Fully developed, these might be represented as a quality assurance system comprising the following elements: Before
During
After
l
Motivation
l
Monitoring
l
l
Selection
l
Tutoring (here: a person in the
l
Preparation —
Linguistic preparation
—
Cultural preparation
— —
—
sending institution who follows
(both intended and non-intended) l
Clarification (discussion of experiences)
the learning process) l
Evaluation of learning outcomes
Mentoring (for placements: a
l
Recognition and certification
Practical preparation
person at the host enterprise who
l
Reintegration
Pedagogical preparation
follows the learning process)
l
Guidance (helping the participant
(elaboration of learning plan)
act on new skills, insights and
Psychological preparation
competences acquired during
(dealing with psychological
the stay abroad)
problems associated with being away from home) Table 5-1: Elements of quality assurance system
These are the elements that constitute the basis for a successful learning experience, and which consequently should be used as the basis for a quality 63
assurance strategy . The second step, then, consists in applying these criteria to a specific and concrete project (or type of project), and making them operational (measurable) in relation to this (e.g. how many hours of linguistic preparation, how much time for mentoring, which access to guidance afterwards etc.). This is perfectly in accordance with industrial quality assurance systems (e.g. ISO 9002 for the service industry).
63 According to Kristensen, S. :Mobilitet – en udfordring til vejlederen (2006). See http://www.ug.dk/Videnscenter%20for%20vejledning/Forside/Virtuelt%20tidsskrift/2006%20nr%207/Mobilitet.aspx
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What has been done?
Quality awareness The major vehicle for raising the quality awareness has undoubtedly been the Leonardo da Vinci quality awards for mobility projects. The first awards were conferred on the initiative of the Austrian LdV National Agency, who in 2001 initiated a national competition for excellence in mobility project grant-aided under the LdV-programme. The Austrian initiative was copied by a number of other Member States (initially, Belgium (fl.), Spain, the Czech Republic and Hungary) until the Commission in 2004 made it a European-wide event and staged the first European LdV-award ceremony for quality in mobility in Norway. In 2006, the second event 64
was organised by the Austrian National LdV-Agency in the city of Graz . As another initiative to promote high-quality mobility projects, 21 so-called “mobility ambassadors” have been appointed in connection with the European quality award ceremony in Graz. The ambassadors are participants in high-quality mobility projects, who are used as role-models for others, who might wish to emulate their 65
experience. A leaflet with all the individual stories has been produced . Defining quality In recent years, several attempts have been made to define what “quality in mobility” is. Several Leonardo da Vinci pilot projects have tackled the issue from the practitioner’s (or stakeholders) view, and come up with suggestions for definitions and criteria. Even though they focus right on mobility for (young) people in initial vocational training, they usually take an even more narrow perspective, 66
and see it in relation to a specific sector , or from the viewpoint of specific actors 67
(e.g. guidance counsellors ). At the level of programmes, both in the Leonardo da Vinci and the Erasmus programmes, a quality dimension has been incorporated in 68
69
the shape of a “quality commitment ” and an “institutional charter ”, which individual project partners and sending/hosting institutions respectively have to sign before they are able to receive funding from the programme. The most comprehensive attempt at defining quality criteria for mobility, however, was drafted by a working group in the framework of the “Work programme on the objectives of education and training systems in Europe” (“Education and training 70
2010”) and adopted by the Council of Ministers in May 2006. This Quality Charter 71
for Mobility in Education and Training is made up of 10 generic quality criteria, which are applicable to all types and kinds of educational mobility. The charter is intended for use as guidelines and on a voluntary basis, however, it is not foreseen as binding rules. The 10 criteria concern: 1. Provision of information and guidance 2. Learning plan 3. Recognition and certification 4. Preparation 64 http://www.leonardodavinci.at/article/articlegallery/476/1/8 65 See http://www.leonardodavinci.at/article/articlegallery/476/1/8 66 67 68
E.g the Reseau Europeen Initiative Métiers (REIM): www.euronaver.net E.g Ergo-in-Net: www.ergoinnet.net See www.ciriusonline.dk/Files/Filer/leonardo/Afrapportering/ansrunde%202006/PR_6_Partnership_Comm.DOC
69 70 71
See www.eacea.ec.europa.eu/static/Bots/docbots/Documents/ERASMUS/IC2002/Charter/EUC_print_en.pdf COM(2001)501 (final) http://www.europarl.europa.eu/omk/sipade3?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A6-2006-0255+0+NOT+XML+V0//EN
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5. Linguistic preparation and assistance 6. Mentoring 7. Logistical assistance 8. Debriefing and evaluation 9. Assistance with re-integration 10. Commitments and responsibilities Generic quality criteria have been produced in a number of contexts. All promoters of Leonardo da Vinci mobility project thus receive a “partnership quality 72
commitment” document as an annex to the contract, which they are obliged to comply with as part of their contractual obligations. These criteria are on the whole sensible and relevant, but the document operates at a fairly abstract level and does not give many concrete hints on how to develop a comprehensive quality strategy. It is therefore recommended that this aspect receives further attention. Examples of initiatives to promote quality in mobility Quality Impact Scan
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Several tools exist, that can be used by mobility organisers, to assess the quality level of their organisation. One 74
example is the ‘Quality Impact Scan’, and the project SAETO, both based on the EFQM model . Schools and mobility organisers complete a simple to use self-assessment questionnaire, which then forms the basis for discussion and improvements. 75
Partnership Quality commitment Partner organisations that cooperate in exchange of mobile apprentices, can agree on certain quality standards. Several models exist. Quality indicators for mobility projects Since many National Agencies have the role to select mobility projects, their experience is often made explicit in quality criteria, which are very instructive for mobility organisers. The NA in Slovakia for example uses 26 quality indicators. Quality Charter for Mobility in Education and Training The Quality Charter for Mobility in Education and Training76 is made up of 10 generic quality criteria, which are applicable to all types and kinds of educational mobility. The charter is intended for use as guidelines and on a voluntary basis, however, it is not foreseen as binding rules. Leonardo da Vinci Mobility Quality awards The European Commission is promoting quality in mobility by awarding a prize. The National Agencies (NA), shortlist projects for the LdV-award. There are no explicit common criteria, but the NAs have to write a citation on 77
the merits of each candidate .
72 There are numerous examples of partnerships agreements, however they are often not part of an overall quality assurance system (i.e. along the lines of EFQM or ISO) 73 See: http://www.workplacement.nl/media/0/94/Kwaliteitsinstrument%20I-BPV.pdf and http://www.workplacement.nl/site/college/beleid/best_practices/ 74 http://www.saeto.com/ 75 www.ciriusonline.dk/Files/Filer/leonardo/Afrapportering/ansrunde%202006/PR_6_Partnership_Comm.DOC 76 77
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http://www.europarl.europa.eu/omk/sipade3?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+REPORT+A6-2006-0255+0+NOT+XML+V0//EN http://www.leonardodavinci.at/article/articlegallery/476/1/8
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What can be done?
The solution proposal concerns the elaboration of a quality assurance manual (in line with the already existing administrative and financial manual) which offers concrete advice and examples that can be copied or adapted for use in the projects. The manual should be made available on-line to allow for constant adaptation and extension.Grant allocators could impose tighter rules for quality assurance. Furthermore, existing quality assurance systems (like ISO, EFQM, Investors in People) can be implemented by mobility organisers, with a specific component on internationalisation and mobility.
Recommendation 2 Ensure quality in mobility is monitored and recognised Which obstacles will be addressed?
Successful mobility experiences share a common feature: they are based on mutual trust between schools, employers and mobile young people. Establishing this level of trust often depends on personal relationships in smaller networks or consortia. Irrespective of the question whether ‘mobility for the masses’ is needed, one can argue that mobility in quantitative terms can only increase, when the level of trust between actors in Europe increases. Transparency in levels of quality is one of the means to increase trust. Without a ‘quality stamp’, which is recognized by schools, employers and participants of mobility experiences increased levels of mobility are not likely.
What has been done?
Sectors can play an important role in establishing quality levels and accompanying labels. In Tourism for example, the World Tourism Organization has established TedQual (Tourism Education Quality). This a methodology aimed at improving the quality and competitiveness of Education, Training and Research specialized in Tourism and Hospitality to meet the needs of the Tourism administrations and industry. In terms of facilitating mobility, it helps schools to establish links with schools abroad that have a recognized level of quality. Specific instruments to audit the quality of internationalisation in VET-schools have 78
been developed, for example based on the EFQM model . These instruments can be used by National Agencies and schools to improve the quality of internationalisation and mobility experiences. In Higher Education, the Commission supports the setting up and testing phase of transnational quality evaluation. Two European quality labels were launched in March 2006 (engineering and chemistry). Four new labels will be tested in 2006/2007 and launched in 2007/2008 (engineering, chemistry, business studies, 79
music, e-learning, life sciences and rural environment and informatics) .
78 See: http://www.workplacement.nl/media/0/94/Kwaliteitsinstrument%20I-BPV.pdf and http://www.workplacement.nl/site/college/beleid/best_practices/ 79 ENQA GENERAL ASSEMBLY, Brussels, 21 September 2006, Address by Peter van der Hijden, Acting Head of Unit, on behalf of David Coyne, Director of DG EAC of the European Commission
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Initiatives to increase transparency in quality in VET Tourism Education Quality label The TedQual label is awarded to those institutions that meet certain standards in quality. Universities, business schools, training centres and research institutions with permanent tourism programmes, wishing to certify any of them can voluntarily submit them to the World Tourism Organisation. Although the label is not specifically aimed at internationalisation and mobility, in practice it makes it easier for school to develop partnerships with other schools in the world. European Network on Quality Assurance in Vocational Education and Training This network was established in 2005 by DG EAC. The Network’s overall aim is to give appropriate follow-up to the Council conclusions of May and October 2004, and in particular by, l
Promoting the use of the Common Quality Assurance Framework on a voluntary basis
l
Fostering cooperative, inclusive and voluntary networks, at all levels.
The Network provides a platform for regular exchanges of experience, debate and consensus-building on concrete proposals at European level. It allows for blending and connecting developments at both national and European levels and brings sustainability to the process of European co-operation in the field of quality assurance in VET.
What can be done?
Several scenarios for improving the transparency and quality of the mobility experience can be envisaged. In the most extreme case, the European Commission could act as the issuer of a quality label only, without financing mobility projects. The EC could appoint agencies or intermediaries responsible for maintaining a register of recognised institutions that are capable of organising mobility that leads to qualifications. The European Commission currently monitors projects under Leonardo da Vinci, with a specific monitoring tool. The reporting guidelines also mention the quality aspect of mobility; however to a limited extend. Currently, mobility projects under the Leonardo da Vinci program are monitored using the following options: l
Mobility is an integral part of a recognised training cycle with or without Europass
l
Mobility is an optional part of a recognised training cycle with or without Europass
l
Mobility is not part of the training cycle: certification of attendance from host organisations or any other way
l
There is no validation/ accreditation
In the near future, these indicators for quality should be expanded and improved.. For example for longer stays abroad, one could require the use of ECVET. Another option is to award an ECVET label at European level to institutions and VET providers. The ECVET label will give to VET users a quality guarantee regarding principles and rules of ECVET. It will raise the fame of the provider as a transparent and reliable partner in European and international cooperation.
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Recommendation 3 Address lacunae in knowledge of mobility projects by building complete databases of good practice Which obstacles will be addressed?
Mobility as a phenomenon is not the most well-documented and well-researched area, and especially for mobility within the context of vocational education and training, the lacunae are plenty. There are at present many lacunae in the knowledge available on several aspects of issues related to the quality assurance process of mobility projects. This goes in particular for the debriefing aspects of the pedagogical model; i.e. the aspects that lie after the homecoming of the participant. Therefore we are often thrown back on so-called “examples of good practice” when we discuss quality in mobility, but these examples are in most (if not all) cases nothing more than descriptions of a practice that worked for a specific target group at a specific moment and under specific circumstances. Due to this specificity, they are difficult to transpose to other target groups and circumstances, and they therefore often fail to have any impact. In order to establish their transfer value, they must be described by means of a set of common concepts and situated in a coherent framework, which allows us to see how the individual parts are related to one another and how they alone or in combination affect the final outcome. Whereas both the definition of quality and quality criteria and the development of a quality awareness to a large extent is a top-down process, the quality assurance process must necessarily involve the practitioners, since it is concerned with the concrete “translation” of generic criteria into measurable elements of an operational strategy in relation to a concrete project (or type of project). In order to transform generic criteria into a concrete quality assurance strategy, however, a practitioner must have (access to) the necessary knowledge and experience that allows him or her to do this in the most effective and cost-efficient manner. It is not enough to state that e.g. cultural preparation is important – the promoter/operator must also be able to come up with a plausible methodology and resource allocation that ensure that the stipulated goals can be met. Experienced promoters may have their own ideas on how to do this. However, not so experienced operators will need an input of knowledge from the outside. The way this input of knowledge is most frequently conveyed to the operator is through so-called “examples of good practice”. As stated above, however, this concept is not necessarily a straightforward one. It is not sufficient merely to assess whether a given action “worked” or not, for practices that have yielded results for a particular target group under particular circumstances and at a particular junction in time are not necessarily “good”. To obtain this label, they must first and foremost be transferable: the analysis must address the effectiveness of practices in relation to different variables, i.e. the conditions necessary for application must not be so exclusive that they cannot be replicated by others. Secondly, they must be realistic and viable in terms of resources (expertise and money). To decide whether a given practice deserves the epithet “good” in our context we must therefore first conduct an analysis which investigates three aspects:
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1. whether the example does indeed address the relevant issue and target group and whether there is a clear connection (causality) between the practice and the outcome; 2. whether is has transfer value in a wider context; 3. whether it offers a realistic and viable solution.
What has been done?
A number of compilations of “examples of good practice” exist, which can be 80
consulted for inspiration and advice . Their usefulness to practitioners is in most cases limited, however, since they merely consist of raw descriptions of projects. There are no less than four major problems with this. Firstly, there is a difference between “project” and “practice”. A project consists of many different practices, some of which may work very well and others which may not work quite so well. What is interesting to other practitioners are the practices, and not the project as such – they will want to hear something about how e.g. the issue of pedagogical preparation was tackled, or how the evaluation of learning outcomes was handled after the homecoming, rather than reading a bland, 10-line description of the project. Secondly, the analytic part is entirely missing, which means that it is often impossible to judge whether a given practice is transferable or not. Because of this, practitioners – and especially those who try their hand at organising a project for the first time – are often left in the lurch and have to muddle through their project by means of a trial-and-error process, which is both risky and time-consuming. Thirdly, these databases are very difficult to search for specific practices, because they merely consist of an enumeration of projects according to e.g. year of completion, strand of programme, or nationality of the promoter. Fourthly, and finally, there are often significant lacunae in these databases, where some practices are represented by numerous projects, whereas others are not represented at all (this goes especially for everything that takes place after the homecoming of the participants). Because of the lack of an organising principle, no care has been taken to see to it that all dimensions and aspects of the quality assurance process are covered.
80 http://ec.europa.eu/education/programmes/llp/leonardo/mobility/projects_en.html
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Examples of databases of good practices Globalbestpractices.com Although not aimed at mobility and education, the concept of this website has proved to be very valuable for sharing good practices. The entire website is based on a common framework, describing 13 core processes of any organisation. Around these processes, benchmarking information is provided. This information consists of self-assessments, examples of good practices in organisations and research reports. The entire website is linked to various peer networks and communities of practice. Intranet systems in VET schools An example of an effective small scale solution are the internal websites of VET schools that provide that provides all internal actors in the school with information on mobility, instruments, products, check lists, practical stories by mobility organisers and students, names of colleagues to consult etc.
What can be done?
The solution proposal concerns a new, central database, organised on the basis of practices, and not projects. The organising principle should be a model of quality assurance for mobility projects that corresponds to the one outlined in the proposed quality assurance manual, in order to achieve a fruitful interplay between the two tools. The entries should furthermore be fewer, but more extensively described, and an analysis of the transferability potential and the viability in terms of resource-consumption and/or expertise required should be included as an integral part. It is recommended that a particular effort be made to fill gaps in knowledge. The solution model concerns the implementation of targeted research and development projects, which address the areas where knowledge is not at hand. A good model here could be to start up development projects in the shape of practical mobility projects, where special emphasis is placed on the relevant areas, and accompany these projects by experienced researchers, who investigate practices and actively help improve these during the implementation (“action research”).
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5 Support mechanisms Once a strategy is formulated, it needs to be implemented at an operational level. At this operational level, the different actors involved face different challenges. At this operational level, different stakeholders need different support structures. This chapter outlines the support measures which are expected to bring the largest improvement in mobility.
Recommendation 4 Make funding available to individual young people Which obstacles are addressed?
It has often been pointed out that it is a weakness of the Commission’s Leonardo da Vinci programme that it only allows group projects, and cannot handle applications by individuals (as e.g. is the case with the Erasmus-programme for 81
students in higher education) . This lack of flexibility has consequences both in a qualitative and a quantitative perspective: prospective participants are not able to choose destination and placements themselves, but have to join an established project, where destination and contents have been decided by others (i.e. the placement organiser, which in most cases is a vocational school). For the same reason, apprentices and young people in IVET in vocational schools (or companies), which do not organise projects, are effectively debarred from going on a placement abroad (or at least from benefiting from programme funding). There are, of course, significant differences between apprentices/IVET-students and then students in higher education. The major argument here turns around age: students in higher education are older and thus more capable of coping with a situation where they are on their own in a foreign country. Apprentices/students in IVET will need the support of a group when abroad, as well as a more thorough preparation and debriefing, and this is most effectively organised in groups, at least from a financial perspective. Moreover, higher education programmes are generally more flexible, and it is thus easier to organise and recognise stays 82
abroad for individuals – also because of the system with ECTS-points , which are transferable across borders and which greatly facilitate mobility. In IVET, this is more complicated, and the work in connection with recognising (long-term) placements or school periods abroad is time-consuming. Finally (so another argument runs), contractual procedures and documentation demands in the Leonardo da Vinci-programme are so complicated that individuals have no chance of coping – this has to be done by competent persons with the necessary knowledge and resources.
81 E.g. by the European association for small and medium sized enterprises, UEAPME 82 European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System; a scheme whereby credits for courses and examinations can be transferred between educational establishments across borders within higher education
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What has been done?
At the national level there are several examples of mobility programmes in IVET, where individual participation is a possibility. An example is provided by the PIU-programme from Denmark: The Danish PIU-programme (PIU = Praktik I Udlandet/placements abroad) annually sends out app. 1200 apprentices from Denmark on long-term placements in other European (EU+EEA) countries. The programme has existed since 1992, where there were problems in providing the necessary placements to VET-students in Denmark. Consequently, it was decided to allow students to look for placements also outside the borders of Denmark, and through AER (Arbejdsgivernes Elevrefusion/Danish employers’ reimbursement scheme for apprentices) funds were made available to those in initial vocational education and training, who were undertaking all or parts of their placement periods abroad. The PIU-programme is no longer seen as a remedy for those who fail to find placements within Denmark, but has become one of the pillars of the overall internationalisation strategy of vocational education and training in Denmark. It has subsequently been opened to include also apprentices who already have an apprenticeship contract with a Danish enterprise. Participation in the programme is open to any person enrolled in an IVET-programme, provided that he or she has found a host company which fulfils certain quality criteria in terms of the learning process of the individual. The 83
relevant trade committee decides whether this is the case or not on the basis of a detailed questionnaire, filled in by the proposed host enterprise. Once this recognition procedure is successfully accomplished, the apprentice can receive funding from the AER. AER funding will cover expenses for travel, preparation, certain costs in connection with moving and settling, as well as a monthly amount for living expenses. It is a condition, however, that the apprentice is paid the going wages for apprentices in the relevant country by the host company. In principle, it is the VET-student/apprentice him- herself who is responsible for the entire procedure in connection with his or her placement abroad: from identifying a relevant host company to finalising the necessary paperwork and organising travel and accommodation. In reality, however, the overwhelming majority of the placements abroad have been organised by the vocational schools which he/she attends (or, in some cases, by the Danish company with which he/she has an apprenticeship contract). Typically, vocational schools have networks of other vocational schools or enterprises abroad, on which they rely to identify proper placements. The schools will then also carry out preparation courses before departure as well as debriefing events after homecoming. There are several analogies between the Erasmus-programme and the PIU-programme. Both are built on individual participation, but even though both allow so-called “free movers” (participants who organise and implement their stay abroad on their own and outside of established networks), the majority of participants in both programmes undertake their stay abroad within an already established network of educational establishments abroad (and, in the case of PIU, 83 A partial organ composed of representatives from employers ‘ associations and trade unions within a given sector/trade and which is responsible for form and contents of IVET-programmes as well as recognition and exams
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also of enterprises). The schools/universities thus play a pivotal role in the quality assurance of these stays, and they enter as an integral part of the internationalisation strategy of the institution. In the Erasmus-programme, universities apply for a batch of mobility grants, which they can distribute to students for mobility within the framework of their partnership. Also, a special grant is available for the institution for the organisation of mobility (OM-grant). This can be used for the establishment of partnerships, the organisation of preparation courses etc. In the PIU-programme, the grants are accorded directly to individual students/apprentices, but a special grant is made available to institutions for establishing contacts and partnerships with vocational schools and enterprises abroad (network establishment). The PIU-programme is of course not the only possibility to obtain grant-aid for mobility activities within IVET in Denmark. There is also the Leonardo da Vinci-programme and the Nordplus-Junior programme (for mobility activities within the Nordic and Baltic countries). Both these latter programmes cater for groups, however, and there is hereby an interesting symbiosis between these and the PIU-programme, which means that both groups and individuals have access to funds and assistance.
What can be done?
It is recommended to create possibilities for individual mobility. As a solution, it is proposed to allocate batches (or “packages”) of mobility grants to partners in already established partnerships of vocational schools and/or enterprises, which meet certain criteria for quality and transparency, count at least 7 institutions in 3 countries. The institutions/enterprises then decide themselves when and to whom it will allocate these grants within the contract period. Each “package” is covered by one contract between the partnership/network and the grant allocator. The receiving institution/enterprise then makes individual contracts with each participant.
Recommendation 5 Create shared service centres for placement organisers and SMEs Which obstacles are addressed?
Larger enterprises often have a shared service centre for mobility matters (i.e. for expats). For small and medium sized enterprises, such a centre is not available, or the visibility for enterprises and apprentices can be improved.
What has been done?
Many support structures exist, either for companies of for education institutions. If we look at the broader issues around mobility and migration, many specific bodies exist, that could extend their services to apprentices and other young people in VET. The European Commission has set up several support centres for specific target groups. The European Network of Mobility centres, also known as ERA-MORE (European Research Area-Mobile Researchers), made up of organisations which provide concrete assistance to researchers and their families before, during and after their move abroad. Since its launch in June 2004, the ERA MORE network has helped thousands of researchers through its 200 mobility centres.
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Also the EURES support centres provide assistance, in mobility, primarily for workers and unemployed. They have an obligation to take into account the needs of vocational training in their region and the EURES cross-border partnerships should seek a close involvement in other European programmes and initiatives (e.g. INTERREG, EQUAL, Leonardo da Vinci, etc.). Examples of support centres for mobility The Austrian organisation IFA (= Internationale Fachkräfte Austausch) is an organisation set up by the social partners (employers) to help enterprises (especially SMEs) to participate in mobility activities. One of the things they do is to organise mobility projects, where apprentices from SMEs can join. In this way, it becomes possible for SMEs to send their apprentices out, even though they cannot themselves send out a full group. Besides this, they also produce information material on various aspects of mobility (i.e. on legal and administrative problems when hosting apprentices from abroad). Website: http://www.ifa.or.at
What can be done?
Several (existing) support centres and intermediary organisations could be involved in mobility for apprentices. These support centres should adhere to the following criteria: l
Attractive and accessible for the target audience;
l
Sound knowledge of mobility matters;
l
Can be build on existing support centres for educational institutions, enterprises and students;
l
Should facilitate local networks that have experience with schools, enterprises and work experience abroad;
l
Aims to increase awareness and capacity of local actors to manage mobility (i.e. providing information to larger business on EU programs.
Before a ‘new’ centre is established, we recommend that a review should be performed of the operation of the existing bodies that are involved in providing information both to migrant and cross-border workers.
Recommendation 6 Use web innovation to spread information and enable match-making Which obstacles are addressed?
Our surveys show that the majority of VET participants find the information provided 84
by their schools about placements abroad insufficient . For VET providers finding opportunities for placements in companies (abroad) can be a daunting task; once they succeed the relationships with companies are guarded carefully. Many of the existing guidebooks and websites that should support mobility are not real match making tools, i.e. they provide a lot of information around mobility, but they do not support the access to placement opportunities directly.
84 Buitenland binnen bereik [Going abroad as an opportunity for all]. Lava legato 2005
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The current variety of existing (partial) solutions does not support the entire process which apprentices, placement organisers and enterprises need to go through when organising a placement abroad. A thorough analysis of both websites and guidebooks for mobility shows that: l
Real match making between three parties (enterprise, VET provider, apprentice) is lacking;
l
Direct support for organising mobility drafting a contract, ensuring accreditation is lacking);
l
The more succesful and sustainable websites target job seekers and employers, not young people seeking a placement.
The core issue with actually the vast majority of these websites is that they only facilitate the relationship between two parties. Job vacancy sites are capable of matching demand (i.e. vacancies posted by employers) with supply (i.e. the CVs of jobseekers). They are not built to let third parties (like certification bodies and schools) intervene in the process. Partnership websites manage relationships between placement organisers in a peer-to-peer network, without empowering individual apprentices to find a placement abroad. And finally databases with accredited companies manage mainly the relationship between enterprises offering placements and the quality controllers. Often apprentices and young people in IVET are not allowed to contact these companies directly. The main challenge of a ‘match making engine’ in the field of placements for apprentices is to expand the ‘dual’ relationship to a system which facilitates a tripartite structure. At least three parties are involved: placement seekers, those who offer a placement and institutions that monitor/ recognise the quality (for example the school/ VET provider, or sectoral body). All three need to have sufficient trust, before a placement is organised. An employer wants to feel comfortable about the apprentice. Relying solely on a CV is not sufficient. Schools, or sectoral organisations, want to make sure that the enterprise is capable of providing a placement of sufficient quality. Schools also do not want their students to go anywhere in the world. Often schools want to be able to visit the student on 85
the spot (i.e. during the placement abroad) .
85 Many schools therefore put restrictions on the geographic spread of their apprentices and young people in IVET (i.e. not further than 500km as one internal stage coordinator told us). This is surely a sound habit in terms of quality control, however it inhibits the accessibility for apprentices and young people in IVET to go on a placement abroad.
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Quotes from other research on using the web Quite a number of reports on mobility have stressed the possibility of using internet technology to improve the 86
provision of information to all stakeholders. Some quotes from a variety of reports : l
A B4Umove.com website should be established. A one-stop cross-border mobility information website should be established – B4Umove.com – which would provide comprehensive and easily accessible information on key 87
aspects of jobs, learning opportunities and living conditions on both sides of the border . l
Develop appropriate measures to link Ploteus und Eures.
l
Help to enable people interested in mobility to have easy access to any useful information concerning opportunities for studying, training, volunteering, or providing teaching or training in the other Member States, by extending the work of the National Academic Recognition Information Centres, the European Network of Information Centres and Europe Direct.
l
“Youth exchange bureaus” – national centres dispensing information on all mobility programmes. Setting up a “clearing house” at European level to collect information on mobility activities in Europe and dispense this to national youth exchange bureaus, authorities and others88.
l
Taking part in the work on the creation of a database on jobs and learning opportunities, in the context of decentralised procedures and taking full advantage of existing structures and mechanisms such as the European Employment Services (EURES).
l
In Europe, one must consider not only placements within companies but also the possibilities that exist within government bodies and non-profit organisations. With the help of the latest technology, all parties throughout Europe who have an interest in the issue should have access to the necessary information.
What has been done?
Various good practices exist to make it easier for individuals to arrange a work placement abroad, i.e.: 89
l
Guidebooks for going abroad ;
l
A ‘contract generator’ for designing a contract with a foreign employer;
l
Intermediary organisations that deal with the administrative procedures.
Currently, many different websites exist on mobility and placements. These are maintained by a large variety of stakeholders, i.e. European Commission, national authorities, regional bodies and VET-providers. Many schools maintain information about placements on their intranets. In total, we identified approximately 80 websites, which to various extents seems relevant for those who are seeking support for a placement abroad. Only very few of them offer the ‘complete package’ to support apprentices throughout the entire process. The existing website roughly can be categorized according to their main functionality:
86 87
See: MoVE-iT Literature review PricewaterhouseCoopers (2001). Obstacles to labour mobility in Ireland
88 89
Barriers to youth mobility See also the inventory made by MoVE-iT: Overview of guidebooks and websites
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l
90
Job vacancy sites . These target the general audience with job vacancies, with large database of job offerings and CV databases.
l
91
Placement vacancies . A number of websites are specifically designed for placements, for students of all levels of education.
l
92
Sectoral company registers . In some countries, like the Netherlands, there is a legal obligation to have a public database with all accredited companies for stages. A minority of these contain contact details of companies abroad.
l
Country marketing for students. Many countries have a ‘marketing’ website to attract foreign students. These often contain information about the attractiveness of education and factual information about contacts and education opportunities. Many of these sites seem to focus on higher education.
l
European and National Leonardo agency websites, with information on mobility programs, links to national VET providers, guidebooks for placement organisers and publications.
l
Education system description. Website like Ploteus and Euridyce contain descriptive information on the education system in a certain country.
l
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‘How to overcome administrative barriers’ . A number of websites (i.e. GetVisable) contain detailed information about the requirement for getting admitted to a certain country, or the legal and taxation issues. Some of these sites are quite advanced, i.e. giving tailored information based on sending-receiving countries. 94
l
Communities of practice for placement organisers .
l
Partner search websites . Websites to support (European) networks to find
95
partners for specific projects. l
Qualification and accreditation. A number of websites contain information on where to get information on qualification and accreditation, for specific sectors.
l
VET institutions. Estimations about the number of VET institutions in Europe differ. In our search on ‘Yellow pages’ of all the Member States, we found more than 7000 contacts of VET institutions. Many of them have their own homepages nowadays.
l
96
Knowledge networks for educational content . Websites targeted at schools, teachers, students that contain a wealth of educational content (provided by authorities, commercial publishers and users).
Positive exceptions form the so-called registers of placements companies, which are required by law in the Netherlands. These give an overview of all companies that offer placements, linked to a certain level of skills and the type of sector. However, only a small number of these registers give access to companies abroad (notably agriculture, trade, healthcare and tourism).
90 Examples: Monsterboard, Jobsite 91 Examples: http://www.placement-uk.com/pages/index.php, Eurostage, Europlacement 92 Examples: Kenniscentrum Handel, OVDB, Acquor, Workplacement 93 Example: The European Researchers Mobility Portal is a single entry point for researchers wishing to work in another country, as well as for organisations wishing to recruit the most talented European and non-European researchers. The European Portal is furthermore relayed at national and in some cases local levels by national/local portals. 94 Examples: Mobstacles network, Leonet, EAIE, European Training Village 95 Examples: eTwinning 96 Examples: Kennisnet
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Examples of matchmaking mechanisms Europlacement The aim of Europlacement is creating a European digital marketplace for placements and placements. Furthermore Europlacement thanks its success to the revolutionary synchronous multi-language support of the site. This means that all profiles and all pages on the website are available in 6 languages. Europlacement has a structure which supports several satellite internet sites for her partner organizations. Together with these satellite websites, Europlacement forms a network of the most important placement websites within Europe. Sportello Stage, Italy Sportello Stage’s objective is to promote placements for students and arrange interns for companies. Sportello Stage was set up in November 1998 and has over 5 years of experience in the “placement market” in the meantime they have arranged over 4500 placements, for more than 1000 customers and they have an average of 40,000 student CV’s in their database. Furthermore they cooperate closely with education providers and public authorities within Italy. The function of Sportello Stage as a partner is to make its network of governments, companies, schools and students aware of Europlacement.
What can be done?
Through the use of a portal the simplicity, timeliness and quality of the process of finding and doing a placement abroad can improve. We believe that it is possible to think of match making tools that can useful and beneficial for all stakeholders (i.e. apprentices and young people in IVET, schools and enterprises). The portal helps stakeholders to find each other and offers communication functionalities 97
before, during and after the placement . Benefits for schools: l
Reduced costs for VET schools to arrange placements. Currently finding and arranging placements (abroad) is often the work of a few enthusiastic people in the school;
l
Transparency of the quality of placements, i.e. both apprentices, schools and employers can rate the quality of a placement experience;
l
Integrated electronic process flow, that supports all steps in organising the placement (i.e. contacting, contracting);
l
Selling point for schools towards apprentices and young people in IVET.
Benefits for enterprises l
Additional recruitment tool;
l
Facilitating access for both apprentices and employers to a wider pool of opportunities;
l
Increased visibility of placements abroad as an opportunity.
Benefits for apprentices l
Broad search, indexing, and categorisation of content, thus facilitating access for both apprentices and employers to a wider pool of opportunities;
l
Integrated electronic process flow that supports all steps in organising the placement (i.e. contacting, contracting).
97 A separate plan, including specifications for a portal, was developed as part of MoVE-iT. The full plan is available on the website of MoVE-iT
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We are not proposing to build another single pan-European portal, specifically for all IVET participants in Europe that want to go abroad. We do propose to facilitate the development and improvement of websites for placements. Finding, accessing and re-using information about placements at a central location (note: central can mean the intranet of a VET school) will increase access and make it easier for apprentices to arrange placements. New developments in web technology (referred to as Web 2.0) will make it feasible to let users develop their own content. Examples are Wikipedia, YouTube and Hyves. If we apply these technologies to (a) web portal(s) on placements for apprentices, one can forecast some of the features that will be useful: l
Web content related to placements (i.e. guidebooks, contracts, information on legal issues) can be maintained by a much larger and dispersed group of authors, thus creating both a localised and central point of access.
l
All players involved (i.e. placement organisers, trainees, enterprises) can create their own networks based on their own needs. The technology supports the creation of the networks, without forcing a ‘top-down’ approach.
l
Profiling information on placement opportunities (i.e. employers offering a placement) can be linked to certification and accreditation agencies, thus ensuring trust for placement seekers (i.e. CVs of apprentices) and those responsible for the quality of education.
In our view, the EC should facilitate these developments, by taking the following actions: l
Develop websites that combine information about mobility with information to support action on mobility. We explain more about this in the section on ‘match making mechanisms’.
l
Do not try to build a pan-European one stop shop portal for mobility. Instead make use of existing databases and websites and implement the latest Web 2.0 technology to link these (i.e. like EURES).
l
Identify existing channels/ websites that are trusted by schools and the target audience, with sufficient levels of traffic and sustainable income. Stimulate these existing websites to expand their solutions towards placements abroad.
l
Create an environment which partnerships, schools, apprentices and young people in IVET can use to create their own portals on placements (abroad). National agencies, as well as other mobility experts, could be assigned the role of ‘first authors’ and reviewers (see Wikipedia model).
l
Stimulate existing websites to expand their solutions towards placements abroad.
Several examples of similar technology exist in other areas that can serve as 98
inspiration . The development of these match making mechanisms requires a thorough understanding of the technology, the way information will be provided, the way it will generate income. Requirements of such a tool: l
Schools should be able to tailor the tool to their own situation, i.e. using data only related to certain regions, countries or sectors and using own branding.
l
Sectoral organisation should be capable of putting a ‘quality stamp’ on the database with enterprises that meet the requirements of the sector.
98 See MoVE-iT Business plan on a Go abroad portal for apprentices. Available at: http://www.europe-move-it.eu
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l
Enterprises should be able to get a subscription to the database, based on their needs and criteria.
l
Since many parties need to be able to provide confidential information, constructions should be developed that guard the interests of those who own the information.
A full plan for a web based match making solution, including a detailed list of the requirements is available on the project website. Also, an assessment of existing web sites was made.
Recommendation 7 Support and create communities of practice Which obstacle is addressed? Transnational mobility for apprentices and young people in IVET has been supported by European action programmes since the early 90s. From humble beginning with the Petra II-programme till today, the practice has grown exponentially, but the overall quality of the mobility projects does not seem to have increased pari passu with the increase in quantity. One of the explanations might be that practitioners (mainly organisers and promoters of mobility projects) mostly function on their own, and have not formed so called “communities of practice”, where they can share and develop knowledge. As a consequence, individual organisers of mobility projects have to start from scratch, building up their own experience and knowledge base, instead of using and further developing already existing expertise. The term “community of practice” was introduced into the world of learning by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger in 1991. They argue that communities of practice play an indispensable role in any “culture” (in the broadest sense of the word) for the transfer and perpetuation of knowledge within that framework. “Communities of practice” is not an exotic and exalted phenomenon: they exist all around us, and we all participate in many “communities of practice” – in our structured leisure time activities (e.g. sports clubs), at work, within our profession, and also as members of a distinct national culture. Through our participation, we help define what passes as “knowledge” within that field and to relay this through our interaction with others. Newcomers to the community learn from older, more experienced members, until they themselves gradually move to the centre of their community. Apprenticeship is a classical example of this process. Young people are apprenticed to a master craftsman within a profession and gradually learn from him until they become accepted as full members of the community by passing their journeyman’s test. This is an example of a community of practice that has over time become highly formalised; but most communities of practice are usually of an informal nature with a low degree of organisation. Yet whatever the formal status without the community of practice, important aspects of knowledge creation and transfer may not take place.
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Traditionally, communities of practice form spontaneously through the personal interaction of people sharing the same “practice”. Usually, they are therefore tied to a specific location, where “members” can meet frequently – e.g. the guild of weavers in a medieval town, or repairmen of photocopiers within a large company. It might be argued that one of the problems with “transnational mobility”, when viewed as a specific activity or “culture”, lies with the lack of interaction between actors in the field. Because of the geographic dispersion of actors (promoters of mobility projects), no community of practice has formed, and hence the knowledge and experience accumulated by the individual actor is not passed on. Any newcomer to this group must thus spend time “reinventing the wheel” - i.e. developing his or her own body of knowledge – and he/she takes that knowledge with him/her later, when he/she retires or moves on to other challenges. Knowledge is personal rather than embedded in the community – it “belongs” to a single person and it not passed on and shared. As a consequence, no real knowledge development takes place, and the “craft” of organising learning experiences via transnational mobility becomes stuck at the level of elementary practical organisation, rather than moving on to more sophisticated methods of pedagogic practice and quality assurance. In the era of globalisation, many practices are no longer tied to a specific geographical location, but dispersed over a large area. However, with the possibility of cheap travel and virtual interaction by means of the new information and communication technologies, there are new ways of both forming and ensuring the coherence of communities of practice.
What has been done?
Several countries have been experimenting with forming – or at least helping along – such communities of practice at national level. The German National Agency responsible for the mobility actions of the Leonardo da Vinci programme (InWent) thus organises an annual conference, which brings together all promoters of LdV mobility projects. Here, they listen to invited speakers and form workshops to discuss pertinent problems; but more importantly they have the opportunity to meet other promoters informally and exchange experience. A similar annual event is organised in Denmark by Cirius (also National Agency for the Leonardo da Vinci programme). The organisation of such an event is very costly, however, and it does not really address the transnational issue because only promoters from one country are gathered. It can be argued that a true community of practice within this field should comprise actors from both the sending and the receiving side. “Communities of practice” in the sense described by Lave and Wenger (and later by Wenger) are based on physical interaction, but with the advent and widespread availability of ICT-tools, communities of practice might also emerge (or at least function) in cyberspace. An example is afforded by e.g. youth subcultures around fantasy games that largely (if not exclusively) are nourished through the internet. These communities of practice, however, are “organic” – i.e. they emerge spontaneously out of a perceived need among users. The question is whether (and to what extent) it is possible to call such communities of practice into being “top-down” (rather than “bottom-up”). The European Centre for the Development
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of Vocational Training (Cedefop) has since 2003 tried to establish such transnational communities of practice in Europe via its “European Training Village” website for a number of VET-related issues in Europe (unfortunately, transnational mobility is not one of them). The experience of Cedefop with their virtual communities seems somewhat mixed. Despite 3 years of operation, the number of registered members for the individual communities is not overwhelming, and a large percentage of the users only visit the community once or twice. For many of the communities, the number of active users – i.e. users who log in at least once a month – is surprisingly low. One of the lessons seems to be that very strong moderation and “animation” is needed in order to keep such a community alive and thriving. A further ingredient conducive to success is the possibility of using “real” encounters among members/users to bolster up and underpin virtual activities. The expertise involved in setting up and vitalising these virtual communities is therefore not primarily technical. State-of-the-art web board technology and project management tools as well as expertise for technical setup and maintenance are readily available and affordable. More important, however, is extensive knowledge of the field and the communicative competences of the experts who will be moderating and “animating” the discussions. Examples of Communities of Practice Many examples of communities of practice exist, virtual, physical and blended. A few examples that can be used as inspiration are provided here. SWING (Stages, Workplacements and Internships) SWING is a community of practice of people responsible for organising placements abroad. The board meets on a regular basis and the members at least once a year during the conference of the EAIE. In the past the emphasis has been on Higher Education. However, due to the set up of the integrated Life Long Learning Program, there is increased attention for the lessons learned in VET. Specifically on topics where VET is traditionally strong: cooperation with enterprises and organising placements. Project leader meetings BAND Project leaders of the bilateral BAND program meet each other on an annual basis. This provides a platform for sharing knowledge and experience about mobility. “Selling” Peer-to-peer networks 99
A couple of companies specialise is setting up and ‘selling’ peer-to-peer networks , for example Executive Development Network. They focus on specific target groups, bringing them together both virtual and in real life. Relationships between peers are stimulated by organising meetings, events, on-line opinion polls and peer-to-peer advice on topics of interest to the network.
99 http://edanetworks.com/networks.aspx
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The next generation of the Web New technology enables users to contribute to a much larger degree to networks and information resources. Instead of centrally designed websites, users will get much more possibilities to construct websites together. Examples of this ‘Web 2.0 generation’ are YouTube and Wikipedia. Whereas these websites are still mainly used to submit content (i.e. videos or encyclopaedic articles), the next application will evolve around peer groups. A recent example is the 100
Disney family website
What can be done?
, a platform for parents, where they can share their experiences with other parents.
In analogy with the German and Danish examples, it is of potentially great value to organise national/regional gatherings of organisers of mobility projects. Such gatherings could be arranged e.g. within the umbrella of a programme like the Leonardo da Vinci-programme (as is the case in Germany), but might also profitably be extended to any other mobility programmes that operate in a VET-context. In the example of Denmark, it is thus both organisers of placements under the PIU-programme, the Leonardo da Vinci programme and the Nordplus Junior programme that are invited (in many cases they are coordinated and/or carried out by the same persons at institutional level anyway). Transnational mobility is an activity that by definition always concerns actors in at least two countries (sending and hosting). It is therefore also necessary to incorporate this transnational dimension into the communities of practice as well. Just as there is already a number of European virtual communities set up for a number of issues in connection with vocational education and training by Cedefop, it would therefore seem self-evident to set up such a platform for mobility as well. Since the necessary technical expertise as well as soft- and hardware are already in place, Cedefop would be an obvious choice to host this community. Preferably, neither of these initiatives should exist in isolation, but engage and feed on each other in a constant interplay, where themes and issues brought up in one forum can be transferred, disseminated and discussed in the context of the other. This admixture of a “live” element may thus help to promote the interactivity of the European virtual community. Conversely, the discussions and input on the European forum can enrich discussions at national level and be used as the basis for inputs and presentations at the national conferences.
100 http://family.go.com/
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6 Sustainable strategies The lack of coherent and sustainable strategies is still perceived as a major obstacle to the development of mobility activities not just in the context of the Leonardo da Vinci programme, but also in a general perspective. Projects are organised on an ad hoc basis by idealistic individuals, rather than as a concerted effort by teams of actors in a long-term and sustainable perspective. Many of the obstacles faced by apprentices, VET providers and national administrations can only be solved increased coordination higher up in the hierarchy.
Recommendation 8: Develop strategic frameworks and make funding dependent on an action plan Which obstacles will be addressed?
Many (if not most) mobility projects are conceived as ad hoc or “one-night-stands” rather than stable relationships. At organisational level, institutions and enterprises carry out mobility projects only with long and erratic intervals and on a limited scale, and fail to incorporate mobility as a stable and sustainable activity. As a result, knowledge and experience is lost in the meantime, and every new project must more or less start from scratch. This makes them costly and time-consuming, and unable to benefit from neither past experiences nor “economies of scale”. Rather than dealing with things on an ad hoc-basis, strategies are characterised by seeing them in a long-term perspective, and making arrangements for the exploitation of knowledge and experience. Mobility is a transversal phenomenon that involves a variety of actors and stakeholders. Any mobility activity is a concerted effort rather than an individual initiative, and in order to succeed, all of these must be made to pull in the same direction. Especially at EU- and national level, it is evident how different DGs or ministries are involved in different aspects of mobility, and how it is important that all of these are involved in a coordinated effort when building strategies for boosting mobility. At national level, ambitious mobility programmes by the ministry of education involving third country nationals will thus run into difficulties, if the ministry of foreign affairs at the same time operates with very strict visa regulations. At institutional level, a strategy for mobility will involve all the concerned departments (including financial department, the directorate etc.) and not just the one undertaking the activity.
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What has been done?
Since the conclusion of the first phase of the Leonardo da Vinci programme, efforts have been made at all four levels to try and elaborate long-term strategies for mobility, but the lack of strategy remains a barrier, especially at the national and institutional levels. The European Union (Commission, Council and Parliament) constitutes the single most important actor and stakeholder with regard to mobility, but has no or limited jurisdiction over a number of areas related to mobility. It therefore cannot impose full-scale strategies, but must use “soft” options like action programmes or recommendations
101
to stimulate the elaboration
of mobility strategies at national, sectoral and institutional level. Several initiatives to stimulate longer term commitments of actors in the field of mobility have been implemented in the context of European programmes. Under the Erasmus programme, educational institutions involved in sending and receiving mobile students are obliged to sign an Institutional Charter. This is based on an assessment of the European Policy Statement, which is a strategy document signed by the rector of an educational institution. In the field of employment, national administrations are stimulated to draw up National Action Plans for employment and National Reform Programs. These often contain paragraphs on Lifelong learning. Since a couple of years, DG EAC involved in reviewing these NRPs. Furthermore, DG EAC is responsible for the Joint Education Council/Commission Report on the implementation of the Education & Training 2010 work programme. This document also addresses mobility. With regard to mobility, this document concludes: ‘All countries consider it important to increase participation in mobility in education and training from primary to higher levels, including mobility of teachers and trainers as part of their professional development. However, despite some promising initiatives, for example as concerns quality of mobility, there are not enough national strategies’ Some national administrations require VET providers to develop longer term strategies on internationalisation. An example is the ‘Onbegrensd Talent’; which led to a high percentage of VET providers developing strategies. A number of guidebooks exist, developed by National Agencies, to assist VET in the development of longer term strategies in the field of internationalisation. These are often available only in the local language.
101 Like e.g. the Recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of 10 July 2001 on mobility within the Community of students, persons undergoing training, volunteers and teachers and trainers (2001/613/EC), which calls on the Member States to make a concerted effort to eliminate legal and administrative barriers to mobility
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Examples sustainable strategies Inclusion of mobility in the apprenticeship training path One of the means to approach mobility at a strategic level is to include it as a mandatory element in the training pathway. The Building Trade Apprentice Training Centre (CFA-BTP) in Orléans (approximately 900 apprentices in 13 trades) has made mobility a part of the apprenticeship process with the creation of a European Mobility Apprentice Section. The goals of the new section are to promote the integration of young people into the building trades, help apprentices to acquire additional trade skills in a partner country, develop mobility and adaptability as ways to boost employment, include the concept of European citizenship in apprenticeship programmes and promote the building trades by providing innovative, effective training. European internships at the Orléans CFA target young people between the ages of 16 and 25 who are in the process of earning a Vocational Training Certificate (CAP) or a Technical School Certificate (BEP). Apprentices complete two internships; one during the first year of training and one during the second year. The placements are three weeks long and must be completed in a participating host country (currently Germany, Spain, Denmark, Finland or Portugal) that has established a partnership with the Orléans CFA. Mobility projects (teaching objectives, the setting up of partnerships, the terms and conditions for the internships, etc.) were planned and managed directly by the CFA in coordination with European partners. Therefore, the existence of a network and support from all partners, including the companies that hosted apprentices, were key factors in the organization, completion and effectiveness of the mobility projects. As part of a pilot project six European training organizations worked together to create a “Eurotutor” training tool for use by the companies that host apprentices. The tool sets forth the specific tasks and duties of tutors, which are to orient, guide, train, monitor and evaluate apprentices. A practical guide for the implementation of European Mobility Apprentice Sections (SAME) was also created. The guide that was designed for training directors and managers, European project managers and CFA trainers, includes a series of practical tips, in particular on the logistical and educational preparation of apprentice exchange programmes as well as on evaluating apprentices. http://www.cfabtp-orleans.com Quality-Impact scan The Dutch Quality-Impact scan is an instrument that supports applicants for Leonardo mobility funding to imbed their project in a larger mobility strategy in their organisation. It stimulates awareness on the importance of internationalisation strategic policy, it promotes and supports professionalism on more sustainable strategies and it avoids ‘stand-alone’ and incidental mobility projects.
What can be done?
At present, the funding for mobility in the Leonardo da Vinci programme is given to individual projects, with an application deadline once per year. This means that organisations in the participating countries where the Leonardo da Vinci 102
programme constitutes the major source of funding for mobility in VET
are forced
to think about mobility in short-term strategies, since they can only plan one year ahead. It is therefore suggested to introduce the possibility for larger, consolidated projects within transnational networks of three years’ duration (or more).
102 I.e. nearly all participating countries
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The characteristics of such a network would be: l
All the members of this network have a common goal(s) for organising, facilitating or supporting mobility for VET (e.g. a sectoral approach);
l
All mobility activities are organised on the basis of a shared strategic plan;
l
Networks comprise at least 6 member organisations (VET institutions, enterprises, exchange organisations etc.) in 3 different European countries;
l
Adherence to clearly defined quality criteria for mobility activities;
l
The network can distribute funds to individuals, not just groups;
l
The network can apply for a period of 3 years or longer.
In the proposed networks for mobility the support from Europe goes to the transnational network based on the following criteria: 1. Common goal to improve mobility in VET. The network has a common interest in mobility for VET. This common goal is expressed and specified in a Network Membership Agreement, signed and submitted by all members of the network (i.e. compare Erasmus Institutional Charter and European Policy Statement). 2. The demand side should be an integral part of the network. The needs of sectors (i.e. EU level sectoral organisations
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and parties involved in sectoral
social dialogue) should be addressed by the network. Support should only be granted to networks that serve the needs of the demand side. Organisations that represent sectors and groups of enterprises, that are co-financing the project, are clear signs of demand-side involvement. 3. The transnational network organises receiving and sending. The network and its members are prepared and equipped to support each other in all the elements relevant in hosting, i.e. preparation of the foreign trainees, coaching, evaluation, dialogue with local companies. Quality will only increase when there is a mutual interest of both sending and receiving schools and companies. Therefore there should be a minimum amount of VET providers that provide their company contacts for the entire network. 4. Longer-term commitments should be made by parties involved. Support should only be granted to networks that intend to organise mobility for at least 3 years. This will give the networks the opportunity to build up policy and strategy. 5. National support has to be integrated simultaneous and complementary with the European Support. The member of the network will receive at national level complementary supports (complementary to the EU support) which will allow the member to design, implement and monitor its VET mobility policy at the level of his organisation and local context. The national support will assure that the information coming from its members present in the different transnational networks is translated for mainstreaming in own national or local policy. For example integration in qualification frameworks, organisation of VET or integration of mobility experience in curricula. 6. EU support is complementary. The EU creates the conditions to make structural collaboration possible between actors in Mobility at European and transnational scale. The support is financial support but also support on the level of knowledge about the benefits, the results of the activities/projects. For. I.e. a resource database with useful tools at the disposition of users of mobility (trainees, teachers, companies) 103 http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_dialogue/sectoral_en.htm
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7. Networks are required to deliver benchmarking data and qualitative information. Networks will offer the necessary information to the EU to facilitate benchmarking on the different relevant qualitative and quantitative dimensions. In summary we recommend the following actions: l
Linking grants for mobility to the existence of long-term strategies in schools, enterprises and organisations
l
Providing multi-annual grants for networks to ensure long-term commitment
l
Encourage National Action Plans for mobility in VET by making it a condition for block grants for mobility under the LLL-programme
l
Linking grants for mobility to the existence of long-term strategies in schools, enterprises and organisations
Example of mobility within networks Under the Leonardo da Vinci program, several projects are aimed at building sustainable networks and mutual co-operation of schools and firms in a wide variety of activities. One of the examples comes from the Slovak Republic, where the main idea of the project is reciprocity in placements. In the first stage the projects involved exchange of students, later on, the exchanges of teachers was part of the project
104
.
Recommendation 9 Connect and enthuse key-decision makers to raise capacity Which obstacles will be addressed?
Evaluations of Leonardo da Vinci
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show that National Coordination Units are
capable of reaching a large number of different actors. What remains unclear is whether these activities create a sustainable change within the organisations of VET providers, trade unions, sectoral organisations and employers. Many interviewees state that the level of internationalisation efforts is highly dependent on the opinion of the key decision makers. Some of the most successful mobility projects involve a conscious effort to establish links between employers, authorities and VET-providers. Apart from the ‘traditional’ actors that organise mobility for apprentices, also ‘new’ actors should be able to play an important role in supporting mobility. 106
The New Integrated Programme for Lifelong learning
offers new opportunities to
deal with this issue under the transversal programme. The transversal programme constitutes one of the major innovations in the Integrated Programme. It provides the Community with a more effective instrument for pursuing activity that cuts across two or more “traditional” fields of activity, notably across the sectoral programmes. The Education and Training 2010 process also promotes partnerships plus cooperation between relevant stakeholders, particularly to enhance governance.
104 See: http://www.saaic.sk/leonardo/htm_leonardo_ii/projekty/02/K2002/htm_eng/en_frame.htm 105 Evaluation of Leonardo Second phase, Ernst &Young September 2006 106 The Parliament, on 25th of October 2006, has adopted a Lifelong Learning Programme, bringing together the current Comenius, Erasmus, Leonardo da Vinci and Grundtvig schemes
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What has been done?
Several successful initiatives at European level exist, that aim to raise awareness and capacity amongst key-decision makers. In the area of employment, the EC launched a programme called ‘Employment Incentives Measures’, with the objective to strengthen the ties between local, regional, national and EU level public civil servants. The EIM program is based on the conviction that a complex matter as the European Employment Strategy demands greater research and concerted dissemination. The key issues range from lifelong learning, inclusiveness of labour market and equal opportunity, to the business environment, restructuring and employment in new accession/acceded countries. These core topics were translated into programme activities within EIM in the format of studies, seminars, publications, mutual learning, observatories, statistical indicators and (web) networks. The programme is now extended and called ‘Progress’. 107
Another approach, adopted also by DG Enterprise , is called benchlearning. Benchlearning relates to peer-to-peer exchanges among comparable public agencies on sophisticated indicators of impact. Benchlearning differs from good practice exchange in that the extent of involvement in individual agencies is deeper and more demanding on participants. The resulting data is a product of the process and did not necessarily exist in the first place. Benchlearning differs from benchmarking in that it explores sophisticated impact indicators that are not yet mature for benchmarking. In the EU25 context, benchmarking is based on comparable indicators across the Member States and on harmonized data collection. Typically, benchlearning results include descriptions of process (“how this project worked”) – as well as descriptions of barriers – (“how we overcame barriers”). The ultimate goal of Benchlearning is to accelerate the implementation and take-up of mobility services across the European Union. Examples of connecting key decision makers 1 Mln. job vacancies on EURES: output from a mutual learning programme organised by the EC As early as in 1998 the Commission Communication ‘Modernising Public Employment Services to Support the European Employment Strategy’ called for concerted action of EU MS in modernizing PES as a contribution to the EES. The EC responded by implementing a series of seminars and training events, aimed at both senior and middle management. This meant that all senior and middle managers came together in separate meetings twice a year. One of the seminars focussed on services to employers examining employer needs. The seminar targeted the following issues identified as vital by seminar participants and organizers: l
IT solutions to broadcast vacancies, i.e. self-service systems both in the public employment offices and over the web;
l
Ensuring high quality standards in the delivery of services to employers; and
l
The possibility of cooperation with private employment agencies
The cooperation that emerged from these seminars led to a very clear and visible output: the EURES website, posting all vacancies in Europe, based on a real time connection with the PES databases in the various Member States.
107 http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/enterprise_policy/cip/index_en.htm
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What can be done?
The Commission stimulates national authorities to develop national policies and funding programmes for mobility in IVET. Starting point can be an EU supported systematic and consistent monitoring system for measuring mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. An annual or bi-annual monitoring action concerning mobility organised by training institutions or sectors/employers and financed by European programmes, sectoral funding, and private funding. Based on these data countries (ministries, sectors, the VET providers) can design tailor made policies and programmes to promote, fund and increase mobility. To bridge the gap between levels of authority, we believe the EC should facilitate the emergence of platforms where good practices are shared and capacity of actors is raised. We believe that such programmes have several benefits. It will be easier to share learning experiences and develop partnerships. Also, the program can be an example for National Agencies to implement similar events in their national context, aimed at developing for example partnerships between schools and schools and enterprises. It empowers people to put the topic of internationalisation higher on the agenda of the decision makers, and in some ways it can influence decision makers directly. Furthermore, we suggest considering the following means for connecting key decision makers: l
Promote benchlearning as a mechanism to ensure maximum benefit of lessons learned across Europe. European Union Member States can compare themselves with other Member States and public agencies, share useful approaches and solutions to delivering mobility services for different target groups like workers, unemployed and apprentices. Good practice exchange actions can also foster the exchange of know-how in terms of service preparations, design and development. Benchlearning requires full involvement of facilitators helping the administrations analyse their internal processes and their interaction with their constituencies.
l
Ensure that training courses and documentation is available to mobility organisers, to avoid that knowledge on mobility gets personalised in individuals and therefore vulnerable
l
Set up stakeholder fora at national and regional level where concerned parties (vocational schools/training centres, social partners, public administration) get together to discuss problems pertinent to mobility activities
l
Create a mutual learning program for senior civil servants in the public administration (i.e. ministries of Education, Economic affairs, Foreign affairs) including peer reviews and thematic reviews of action plans.
l
A recurring training program for the National Coordination Units of Leonardo da Vinci, with a basic and advanced module for middle and senior management, on how to manage and market mobility projects
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7 Awareness In almost all reports, interviews and surveys, one recommendation keeps popping up: we need more information and increased awareness on the benefits of mobility. Communication and creating awareness is not an easy task, in the context of Europe. The EC identified a number of generic weaknesses in an 108
assessment of their communication efforts : l
Continuous fragmentation of communication activities by insufficient coordination and planning, therefore loosing efficiency.
l
Messages reflecting political priorities but not necessarily linked to citizens’ interests, needs and preoccupations: current campaigns focus on the political elite and media and fail to portray the benefits and consequences for day-to-day life in a direct and understandable manner.
l
Inadequate implementation: The strategies adopted in the past by the Commission were too focused on financing campaigns rather than on dialogue and proactive communication.
In the White paper on Communication, a follow-up of this action plan, the European Commission outlines a new approach: ‘The European Commission is therefore proposing a fundamentally new approach a decisive move away from one-way communication to reinforced dialogue, from an institution-centred to a citizen-centred communication, from a Brussels-based to a more decentralised approach’ This same White paper refers to programmes like Leonardo da Vinci as best practice example for closing the gap between Europe and its citizens. There are however reasons, why we have put ‘raising awareness’ in our top list of recommendations. The European Commission itself is critical about the progress 109
made in disseminating results : The good results achieved under the programmes are not well disseminated. Disseminating the outcomes of actions supported under the programmes, whether these be products or co-operation processes, and spreading good practice is a hard task made more difficult by the need to overcome national cultural and structural barriers. Again, progress has been made in this area compared with the first phase, with the establishment of a team within the administration of Leonardo da Vinci dedicated to dissemination and utilisation of results, and with the inception of specialised dissemination projects within Socrates. But the evaluation clearly demonstrates that these efforts do not go far enough and that there remains substantial potential resulting from the actions supported under the programmes that is not widely known or acted on.
108 Action Plan to improve communicating Europe by the Commission, Brussels, 24 August 2005 (29.08). (OR. fr) 109 Proposal for a DECISION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL establishing an integrated action programme in the field of lifelong learning
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Furthermore, in many countries, successful communication campaigns to boost mobility have taken place or are currently being implemented. These campaigns deserve to be expanded to other countries. An in-depth evaluation of 160 projects, under a transversal programme run by DG 110
EMPL , showed that three elements combined were a key factor for successful dissemination: content, networking and communication. The evaluation found that the most successful projects developed within networks, focused on quality content and had effective mechanisms for communication and dissemination of outputs.
Network
Content
Communication
Table 8-1: Essential elements of successful dissemination projects
Recommendation 10 Develop a publicity campaign and use mass media to communicate to target groups Which obstacle is addressed? When we want to accelerate the diffusion of an innovation, we can adopt several strategies
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that basically need to adhere to the following five principles of
successful innovations: relative advantage, complexity (limited), observability, compatibility, triability. Some of these principles are particularly challenging in relation to mobility of apprentices. Relative advantage means that pupils need to experience a benefit from a placement abroad that is bigger than the advantage that they would experience in a placement at home. Many initiatives are undertaken now to highlight this relative advantage: for example the Europass and ECVET to make sure that experiences abroad are values by official bodies. Observability refers to strategies whereby potential adopters of an innovation see clearly what the innovation is. Stories by mobile apprentices and young people in IVET on websites, presentations by peers who experienced a work placement abroad and all kinds of marketing material are used to increase the observability. Quite a number of apprentices and young people in IVET who go on a work placement abroad have seen an example from a close friend or relative (i.e. an uncle in Spain who owns a garage), in which case the visibility of work abroad is high.
110 Mid-term evaluation of the EIM programme. DG EML 2006 111 Everett Rogers (1963, 2006). Diffusion of Innovations. Free Press.
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Compatibility refers to the need for an innovation to fit within an existing context, in order to be successful. If schools do not recognize the value of a work placement abroad, in terms of credits gained, there is a clear lack of compatibility. The current efforts for accreditation and recognition are meant to increase compatibility between education systems, thus facilitating mobility. Compatibility for mobility also means that the timeline of a work placement should be in line with the timelines of the school system. In countries where schools have strict regulations and calendars, pupils have less flexibility to plan a placement abroad. Complexity means that innovations should be easy to use and reduce complexity. Currently organising a placement abroad is a complex issue, involving the search for an placement, the contractual side, travel and housing arrangements etc. Solutions that reduce complexity will potentially have a positive impact. Triability refers to the possibility of ‘getting a flavour of the product’ and trying the innovation in a safe environment, without any costs or risks involved. This strategy is used a lot in advertising and marketing (i.e. sample of shampoo in a magazine, food served in a supermarket, free test-drive with a new car etc.). Triability, i.e. actually giving people the chance to try-out the placement abroad is often lacking. ‘The fear of the unknown plays a role in withholding students to go on transnational VETs. It could be a factor of stress being away from your family and friends for some time. Recommendations are: organise student meetings with students who had a successful and pleasant stay. Organise meetings with students of the other country before students make a decision. Let them get acquainted with the other 112
language and culture ’.
What has been done?
The European Year of Mobility of Workers’ has produced quite a number of ideas on how to improve the visibility of working abroad as an opportunity for all. Also, a number of National Leonardo da Vinci agencies have developed communication materials, guidebooks and tools for placement organisers and apprentices and young people in IVET. In Germany, a media campaign was launched at bill boards in railway stations. In the Netherlands, a ‘Taskforce Youth Unemployment’ launched a large (radio, web, television) campaign to create 10.000 placements for unemployed, which led to 40.000 placements. The European Economic and Social Committee has a specific opinion on this aspect, with regard to the New Integrated Lifelong learning program: The European Economic and Social Committee considers that the communication aspect is a significant issue in terms of European citizens’ engagement with the integrated programme. In this regard, the EESC would also point out that the term “integrated programme” does nothing – including from the communication point of view – to present the programme in a positive way. Consequently, it is proposed that the term “integrated programme” be replaced with one which is both accessible and descriptive. The EESC believes that “Athena” – the ancient Greek goddess of knowledge and wisdom – could be an appropriate title.
112 Obstacles to mobility of transnational VET in France and Germany (Summary in French)
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It’s questionable whether apprentices and other young people in (I)VET would associate ‘Athena’ with mobility; however we do think that branding is an important issue to (re)consider. 113
A project in the UK showed that attracting people to ‘work experience’ projects , was much more successful, than attracting people to ‘placements within a company’. This shows that, even if the outcome is quite similar, the wording and ‘branding’ chosen is a key to the success. We do not propose a big ‘branding’ project or a large communication campaign about Leonardo da Vinci. We do think that placements abroad can attract a lot of (young) people, when the branding is 114
done right . Initiatives from the private sector also show that there are different ways to communicate about the possibilities for placements (abroad), for example the tourism sector. The tourism sector could become an important intermediary organisation in organising mobility, also for other sectors. The Holiday 2016 report, released earlier this year by Thomson Future Forum, predicts strong growth in international commuting (living in one country, and working in another), and even a new categorization of time off into ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ holidays – ‘hard’ being the traditional escape, ‘soft being a mix of time off with work (even if it is done from the beach). One specific category of tourism that will grow is ‘holiday training’, either as a career break or as leisure. 115
Short term placements are offered by companies like Vocation Vacations . They offer short working holidays as anything from a pet detective to a car critic, from a cattle rancher to a chocolatier. The motto of Vocation Vacations (‘Test-Drive your dream job’) underlines the market orientation of these companies. The service has drawn an enormous amount of media attention already, supported by a professional approach to marketing and Public Relations. Although one can easily ignore these services as being meant for leisure, maybe cooperation agreements between these companies and traditional VET-suppliers and sectoral bodies will increase the quality and quantity of placements abroad 116
even further . We have not identified yet a major cooperation agreement between the tourism sector operators and other sectors, but it might be an option worth considering.
113 Leonardo Thematic Action Project: European Vocational Standards of Competence Quality Project, interview with Marta Jacyniuk, Cambridge Professional Development 114 A draft ‘Brand plan’ was developed by MoVE-iT as part of the toolkits 115 http://www.vocationvacations.com. Their service is only available in the UK and the US, but it’s not hard to imagine that they will grow 116 This could also lead to unintended side-effects, i.e. top trainers who are now employed by public VET institutions, being employed by private companies who sell their training hours to privileged groups who can pay for their own training.
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Job fairs where employers give information about their companies, or programs where recruits are put together in one room to do a business cases, are examples of strategies to give people a chance to try a new job. For work placements abroad, this can be difficult to organise. Many education institutions that have a large population of apprentices and young people in IVET, who went abroad, organise social events for newcomers to the program. Here they can ask their peers everything they want to know. Currently quite a number of websites display video reports of apprentices who went abroad. This comes close to giving newcomers a flavour of the experience. Also, the awards for Leonardo da Vinci, with biographies of those who went abroad, have a similar purpose. However, one can argue that all these information campaigns are just not ‘the real thing’, i.e. a placement abroad in a company or organisation for the purpose of learning. Short visits to another country, either on holidays or through school, should ideally be combined with a visit to a foreign company. An inventory of existing communication campaigns organised by National Leonardo agencies and projects shows a wide variety of actions to increase awareness amongst stakeholders and potential participants. Many of these initiatives focus on reducing complexity and trying to convince stakeholders that placements abroad have a relative advantage. All kinds of forms (i.e. short stays, stages in duos) are invented to increase compatibility. Examples of communication campaigns combined with strong networks Chance-Europe Chance- Europe is a project within the framework of the information campaign on mobility of the European Commission. This Franco-German project aims to stimulate mobility by proposing tools for promotion and information for apprentices and companies. It acts in particular to promote the mobility of the apprentices and paid workers in small and medium-sized undertakings and to inform them on the possibilities and the advantages of a training course or a stay in another European country. Goals are: development of professional competences, the knowledge of languages and intercultural development for the employees. Junior Achievement - Young Enterprise Europe’ (JA-YE) JA-YE is a network of member organisations in 41 European countries. In large number of programmes, from primary school through to early university, JA-YE teaches enterprise, entrepreneurship, and ‘economic literacy’. The programmes focus on the importance of market-driven economies and the role of business in the economy. The goal is to increase the number of young people JA-YE reaches with its business and enterprise education programmes from the present 1.7 million a year to more than 5 million.
What can be done?
One strategy that closely matches the purpose of ‘triability’ is making sure that those ‘who have been there’ communicate directly with potential candidates for a placement abroad. As the Action Plan for communication emphasises, representations in the Member States, should put a particular emphasis on cooperating with well-known personalities (“ambassadors”), from the cultural, business, sport or any other areas of interest to target audiences.
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l
Other means of creating ambassadors which we recommend are:
l
Cooperation with ambassadors from the sectors, showcasing successful representatives that made a career in the sector, after gaining work experience abroad. I.e. Jamie Oliver in the food business.
l
Each National Agency could make an inventory of ‘famous’ nationals, who took part of their education abroad.
l
The selected Mobility Ambassadors could be given a full year program in which they contribute to awareness raising campaigns. They could also lead an ‘ambassador network’ at VET institutions in their country
l
International placement coordinators within VET institutions play a key role in facilitating access to mobility programs for participants. Several VET councils and National agencies organise meetings for this group. A specific information package/ module could be developed on ‘Communication planning on mobility’ within the institutional framework. This package can include an overview of EU/ national services in this field.
l
Develop innovative ways for ‘triability’ i.e. simulation, or gaming tools through which young people can go through the entire process of finding a placement and working abroad. This simulation may include existing components, like searching for a placement on the web, using a contract template, completing Europass, sending a letter to the employer in a foreign language etc.
l
Short group visits to companies close to school, that offer possibilities for placements abroad and visits to schools/ companies across the border in the same region (‘Internationalisation by bike’)
l
Video reports (i.e. for example instead of written reports) of those who went abroad to be published on YouTube
Recommendation 11 Use existing channels for mass media coverage Which obstacle is addressed? Awareness of the possibilities and benefits of going abroad in VET can be increased. Currently information is fragmented and spread over many different channels. In order to significantly increase the level of mobility, many more potential ‘candidates’ need to go through a process depicted in from awareness to advocacy.
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Figure 7-1: Six steps to advocacy
Advocacy Loyalty Satisfaction Conversion Consideration
“You MUST go o a placement abroad”
“It’s really made a difference to my life - I’m looking at what other training I can do in the future” “This placement is even better than I’d hoped - I’m really enjoying myself, I’m learning lots and I’m going to get a qualification that’s going to get me a better job”
“This is a lot easier than I’s expected - I’ve found and interesting and genuine placement. I’m excited and I can show my parents it’s safe and worthwhile” “Hey...it looks like other people like me are having a great time and getting better paid and more interesting jobs as well”
“MoVe-IT sounds like a fun international training thing, but what’s in it for me?”
Awareness
I’ve got a job - it’s not very exciting but I now have my own money and I’m having fun with friends
What has been done?
The European Commission has established many channels for communications that currently have or potentially have a link with mobility of apprentices and other young people. Since communication is a two way process, one can distinguish channels to listen to citizens and channels to communicate with citizens. In terms of understanding and listening to citizens, the Eurobarometer has grown into an important instrument. Last year the survey focussed on mobility and several 118
reports on the opinions of EU citizens were published . This gives important insights into the rationales and barriers for mobility. Furthermore, the EC has funded independent social research on European issues (350 multi-national projects since 1994). In terms of understanding mobility of apprentices, there has been a lack of systematic research. In Erasmus, the University of Kassel has investigated mobility data for years, leading to relatively accurate estimates of 119
mobility patterns . The VET systems study, completed as part of this MoVE-iT study, is a first comprehensive data collection exercise to get a clearer picture of the overall situation in VET. In terms of communicating to citizens, the EC has various types of contact centres, physical or telephone/virtual centres, and others where people can drop in: the Europe Direct information relays and European Documentation Centre, the Euro Info Centre, Eurojus, Citizens Signpost Service, Solvit, FIN-NET, EURES, European Consumer Centre (Euroguichets), ADR clearing houses, national contact points for the Sixth Framework Programme, Urban Forum for Sustainable Development, Business and Innovation Centre (BIC), Innovation Relay Centre, Media Desks and Antennae, IPR-helpdesks, Gate2Growth networks, Socrates national agencies and the OLAF anti-fraud communicators network, etc.
117 Source: Mike Ward, The Brand Inside, http://www.thebrandinside.com 118 European Foundation: series of 4 working papers and popular version of Eurobarometer report 119 Eurodata: Student mobility in Europe.
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Apart from the Socrates national agencies, a number of these have a links with mobility, i.e. Cross Border Connect (within BIC) for small and medium sized enterprises, EURES for advice on mobility, Solvit for legal issues. As the White paper concludes, more could and should be done to ensure that the EU institutions work in parallel to improve communication. The EU institutions and bodies participating in the Inter-institutional Group on Information should help decentralise EU communication – ‘going local’ – and encourage Member States to be more active in informing citizens about EU affairs. Examples of successful communication campaign in VET TEAMstages Although not aimed at mobility, a recent television show about placements in VET shows that the attention for the issues around placements can be raised significantly. Not through government funding, but by a commercial company. This has potentially a positive impact on the involvement of employers and availability of quality placements. TEAMstages is a mutual initiative of a VET school and a commercial company, which owns a large television production company and many theatres in Europe. TEAMstages involves ten teams of VET participants that do placements in ten different companies. The entire experience is shown as a ‘docusoap’. Worldskills
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WorldSkills is a not for profit membership association open to agencies or bodies which have a responsibility for promoting vocational education and training in their respective countries/regions. Although Worldskills advocates a very specific form of mobility (i.e. only the best in class are allowed to travel to a national, European or World competition), they do a very good job in promoting vocational education. Their approach is very similar to the Olympic Games. This event and brand not only attracts a lot of public attention globally, it’s also an event with which high level politicians feel connected. EuroSkills EuroSkills is partly inspired by the concept of WorldSkills, but it is another organisation with some significant differences. The mission of EuroSkills is to offer organisations within the European member states (such as governments, industry organisations, educational institutions and subsidy providers) a platform for jointly improving the quality, the results and the attractiveness of vocational education and vocational skills. Currently 20 countries are participating and EuroSkills has a strong connection with representatives from these countries, who have a mandate for promoting vocational education in their own countries. EuroSkills too uses vocational competitions. However, the emphasis is on the performance of teams, instead of individuals. It’s not the bricklayer building the brick wall that competes with other bricklayers; it’s the teams that are constructing a house. Furthermore, not only ‘hard-core’ technical trades are included. European trades that are qualified for the competitions and presentations vary from natural resources to technology and from transport to commerce, service & administration. Although transnational mobility is not the primary goal, EuroSkills management expects that schools participating, will show higher levels of mobile staff and students also after the event. Before, during and after the contest, school staff and participants gain experience with mobility, through a special school program. EuroSkills pays for travel expenses to a certain extend. A Public Relations company with offices in all 20 countries supports EuroSkills in raising awareness.
120 http://www.worldskills.org/site/public/index.php
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What can be done?
In order to reach the target of 80.000 placements abroad, many more people need to be reached. This can only be achieved through conscious planning of communication and cooperation with existing channels. l
Develop, in cooperation with DG Communication, a communication plan for mobility, as part of the new integrated program. Ensure close cooperation with the National Agencies.
l
Establish a working group on communication within the network of National Agencies. Co-develop, together with the National agencies, templates and examples of communication tools used for mobility. These can be targeted at businesses, placement organisers and participants. MoVE-iT identified many examples of existing guidebooks, that can be distributed through a larger network
l
Write a support pack for existing European contact centres (i.e. EURES, Solvit, and EuropeDirect).
l
Publish a small booklet on mobility in Europe, together with a major publisher.
l
Advertise in free newspapers like Metro and Spits
l
Prepare items for international associations of broadcasters such as the European Broadcasting Union (EBU), the Association of Commercial TVs, the associations of regional and local TVs (CIRCOM international) the association of 121
international TVs (group of Bruges), City-TV s . l
Coordinate efforts with the Europe Direct contact centre (which will be developed into a fully-fledged citizens’ hotline service to promote a one-stop-shop access for citizens).
l
Cooperate with the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, in arranging regional and local discussion of European issues, involving civil society.
l
The Regional networks for lifelong learning (R3L programme), set up by the Commission and the Committee of the Regions, is an example of dissemination and development of lifelong learning in Europe.
l
Investigate opportunities for ‘co-branding’, i.e. using existing successful brands like WorldSkills to highlight the benefits of placements abroad.
l
Investigate opportunities to interest tourism organisations to offer work experience abroad as a ‘special package’ for specific target groups.
l
Stimulate educational institutions to pay attention to ‘Europe Day’, with a specific focus on what Europe does for education.
121 Radio Kraków SA, radio program entitled ‘Catch a job’. This is a programme specially addressed to those who intend to take up lawful employment in EU countries in the near future.
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8 Legal and administrative obstacles The issue of legal and administrative obstacles to mobility is one which has been well investigated in an EU-context. A major study was thus carried out under the Petra programme (1991-1995) in order to identify such obstacles and develop proposals for their solution. This work was later updated and included in the 1996 Green Paper “Education, training, research: The obstacles to transnational mobility”. The 1996 Green Paper covered all types of mobility, whereas the present 122
study only is concerned with that of apprentices and young people in IVET . The Green Paper of 1996 identified the lack of a clearly defined social and legal status of (young) people on placements abroad as the major obstacle to mobility in a VET-context. Apprentices and young people in IVET have a defined and recognised social and legal status in their home country; i.e. the status of worker (apprentices with a contract issued by a company) or student (young people attending full-time initial vocational training at a training centre or vocational school). Each particular status confers certain rights and obligations and ensures that individuals are covered against certain risks through the provision of social security and accident and liability insurance at the workplace or the training centre. However, the individual’s status in the country of origin is defined by the laws of that particular country, and is not automatically maintained when participating in a transnational placement project.
Recommendation 12 Consider legal status for apprentices Which obstacles will be addressed?
As a result of the 1996 Green Paper, it was proposed to amend the regulation 123
1401/71
on social security, so that also students (and not only workers and
self-employed persons) were covered by this. This happened with the Council 124
Regulation 307/1999 of February 8th, 1999 . This regulation extends the coverage to “any person other than an employed or self-employed person or a member of his family or survivor within the meaning of this regulation who studies or receives vocational training leading to a qualification officially recognised by the authorities of a Member State, and is insured under a general social security scheme or a special social security scheme applicable to students”. This means that participants in transnational placements will now be able to retain social security coverage – including coverage for industrial injuries and work-related illnesses provided they are covered by the social security scheme of their home country.
122 The present overview is based on the outcomes of the Petra-study, the 1996 Green Paper and our own study on legal and administrative obstacles, of which a summary can be found in Appendix C (Legal and administrative obstacles). It furthermore draws on the conclusions of a workshop held in Brussels in June 2006, where a group of VET experts on legal and administrative issues from the EU were gathered to discuss the theme. A number of legal and administrative barriers have been identified. 123 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31971R1408:EN:HTML 124 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31999R0307:EN:HTML
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The introduction of this amendment to the Council Regulation 1408/71 does not solve all problems concerning the social and legal status of apprentices and (young) people in IVET on placements abroad within the EU. The problem here is rather complex, and stems from the fact that in terms of Community law, two 125
notions of employed persons are to be distinguished : In the EC Treaty and in Regulation 1612/68, a “worker” is defined as any person who performs work against remuneration for another person and under the direction; even if this is short term and the remuneration offered is insufficient for subsistence. Council Regulation 1408/71, on the contrary, merely defines workers as persons who are insured or covered under a social security scheme for employed persons, regardless whether he or she is in actual employment or not. This inconsistency in EU law means that the amendment of Regulation 1408/71 only solves part of the problem; namely that related to social security issues. The consequences of this can be briefly summed up as follows: If the mobility project is organised as a stay in a vocational school or training centre, the participant obtains a student status; if the mobility project is organised as a work placement in a private or public company and is remunerated, the participant is conferred the status of an employee (worker). However, if the stay is organised as a work placement and the participant does not receive any remuneration, he or she has no clearly defined social and legal status in relation to some crucial issues at any workplace (see below). This last form of transnational mobility means that the participant is considered neither a student nor an employee in relation to certain crucial aspects. In some Member States, national legislation has provided some form of legal protection for this group. In most European countries, the absence of a clear legal status to govern the links and relations between the participant and the hosting company can give rise to two particular problems. l
Residence
l
Health, safety and liability insurance at the workplace
Existing European legislation provides the right to every EU citizen to stay in another Member State for education/training, work or do a work search or tourism, for up to three months. If the person intends to stay for longer than three months, he or she must apply to the authorities of the host Member State for residence. To qualify for residence, they must in most cases present a work contract with a company in the host country/a certificate of enrolment in an educational establishment here, as well as evidence of adequate resources and sickness insurance cover. Due to their lack of status, the participants may not be able to come up with such documentation.
125 The following is a summary of the argument in Schuler, R.: Questions on the status of the young volunteers, in Sieveking, K. (ed.): European Voluntary Service for young People, Frankfurt am Main 2001, p.200-201.
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In principle, participants from non-EU countries coming into the EU, and young people from the EU going to non-EU countries to take part in mobility projects have to apply for a visa or entry into the relevant host country. Young people resident within an EU Member State who are holders of a non-EU nationality/passport might also need a visa to enter another EU Member State. Problems of residence can also arise for persons wishing to undertake a non-remunerated work placement in another European country for a period longer than three months. The existing limitations for undertaking a placement longer than three months could be a barrier for growth of longer term placements, thus limiting the impact of a mobility experience. This problem has been raised in connection with the European Voluntary Service (EVS) in the Youth programme, where participants complain about difficulties of obtaining visas, especially for participants from non-EU Member States, as well as about lengthy procedures and high prices for visa. This may be because most placements organised under e.g. the Leonardo da Vinci-programme are of duration under three months, where the problem does not appear to the same extent. However, if the duration of these stays abroad is lengthened, it may become a real problem here too, especially for the participants coming from third countries. In the Leonardo da Vinci programme, work placements are foreseen for longer periods than 3 months, so the barrier may well be a pertinent one here, too. Our study shows that there is an emphasis on short placements in Europe (less than 6 weeks or 6 to 12 weeks), though there are differences between countries. The Czech Republic, for instance, shows a steady growth in longer placements (3 to 6 months or even more than 6 months). In Germany longer placements also seem to gain importance, which is mainly an effect of particular national or bilateral programmes (German data for 2004 and 2005 do not include placements under the Leonardo da Vinci programme). A similar growth in longer placements can be seen in Austria, Poland, the Slovak Republic, and Finland. In Denmark long placements (even of over 1 year) are in particular stimulated by the national PIU programme, which accounts for the largest part of IVET transnational mobility. Detailed data for 2005 are not yet available, but it is expected that the pattern will be the same as for 2004 (about two thirds of IVET participants going on a placement under the PIU programme taking a placement of more than 6 months, which would be the case for about 900 participants).
What has been done?
Rules and procedures for the granting of visas are the responsibility of the individual Member States, so the scope for intervention at supra-national level is limited. In the “Recommendation of the European Parliament and the Council of 10 July 2001 on mobility within the Community of students, persons undergoing 126
training, volunteers and teachers and trainers” (2001/613/EC) , the council and the parliament urge Member States to simplify and accelerate visa applications for the target groups in question as much as possible. 126 http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/JOIndex.do?ihmlang=en
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The European Committee of Legal Cooperation under the Council of Europe has published a study “Good practices relating to the movement of persons between 127
the Council of Europe Member States” (CDCJ (2005) 2) , which lists practices concerned with the simplification and/or abolition of visa procedures between the countries of Europe. Likewise, the Youth Forum/Forum Jeunesse (association of national youth organisations and international NGOs in the field of youth in Europe) has launched a campaign: “GetVisable”
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to lobby for the simplification or the
abolition altogether of visa procedures between European countries. At a more practical level, the European Commission has set up an SOS Volunteers 129
helpdesk for participants in the European Voluntary Service (EVS) . As part of the services offered by this helpdesk, participants and prospective participants can consult a directory of visa procedures of all countries associated with the EVS on 130
official webpage of the Youth programme . The Commission also offers to issue a letter of support to all participants to facilitate visa application
What can be done?
131
The potential solutions regarding legal issues are complex; therefore a separate 132
paper has been produced on this topic . The main conclusions regarding what can be done are: l
Consider specific legal status for apprentices across the EU, based on a common definition. Until this is feasible, a solution could be to be able to export for a limited time one’s status under the legislation of the country of provenance (including labour law), and remain under its scope except for rules of public order in the host country. A compulsory agreement between sending and receiving organisations would provide the necessary mutual information.
l
Cover the situation of apprentices in EC provisions on the right to stay. Until there is an EC-wide common definition, contemplate the wide variety of possibilities. The fact that apprenticeship is remunerated or not. The place where the apprenticeship is carried out (educational or training establishment as opposed to typical work environment, e.g. a company) could be a determining factor to include them, either in rules for workers or in rules for students, could also be a criterion.
l
Surveillance of the correct implementation of the following rules under EC law: – apprentices, if assimilated to (or eventually brought under) the same rules as
students for the right to stay, need not prove, but just declare sufficient resources; – residence permits are not compulsory for EU citizens anymore, including for
apprentices of all kinds; – work permits are abolished for all EU citizens and do not normally apply,
even under the effect of post-enlargement transitional restrictions in access
127 Can be consulted at http://www.getvisable.org/index.php?section=25 128 www.getvisable.org 129 Under the European Voluntary Service, young people in Europe are given the possibility to undertake work placements of a duration between 3 weeks to 12 months in organisations offering non-profit-making, unpaid activity of benefit to the local community under a voluntary service project recognised by the European Commission. The participants receive pocket money, but no actual salary for their efforts. The EVS is a strand of the Commission’s Youth programme. 130 http://ec.europa.eu/youth/program/sos/vh_mobility_en.html 131 See the document ”General recommendation for visa/residence permit application for the benefit of the youth programme participants”, p. 5. The document can be consulted at http://www.getvisable.org/index.php?section=25 132 See: Appendix C: EU Transnational Mobility for Apprentices and Other Young Persons in VET: legal barriers and solutions.
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to job markets, to apprentices. Here a distinction could be made to maintain work permits to some categories, e.g. free moving remunerated apprentices; l
Clarify if necessary, for instance through a Commission communication, that third country workers, if posted on apprenticeship to a company in another member state, fall under the existing rule that work permits may not be requested in the country where posting is taking place.
l
In EC co-ordination of social security in the area of unemployment benefits, the condition of residence should be lifted, if the purpose of the stay abroad is not to look for work but to undergo apprenticeship, if in the country of provenance apprenticeship is not exclusive of unemployment benefits. A specific E form for apprentices or an extension of the scope of form E 303 could be envisaged.
Recommendation 13 Develop measures for dealing with health, safety and liability insurance at the workplace Which obstacles will be addressed?
Existing EU and national legislation deals with health and safety issues as well as employers’ liability at the workplace. These provisions apply to workers generally, but as the definition of “worker” in relevant EU legislation as well as national legislation in most European countries is linked to remuneration, they will not – with the exception of a few Member States – apply to participants in non-remunerated work placements from abroad. Or at least these will fall into a grey zone, where coverage is uncertain. As a result of this, participants’ coverage is either uncertain (or not existing), or they will have to take out expensive private insurance to ensure that they are covered. Of course, this would not be necessary in the cases where it is possible to negotiate a salary for the participant. However, many companies are not willing to pay a salary to young people in IVET on short-term placements. If they agree to that (and thereby to according the status of worker to the participant) he or she will in many cases have to be remunerated according to the official minimum wage for workers, which makes the option unattractive to most companies. Hence most placements are unpaid. In the lack of a clearly defined social and legal status, the aspects governing the relationship between the participant and the host company must be regulated through a specific contract. In this contract, responsibilities and duties for all concerned parties in relation to problematic issues (e.g. employers’ liability, health and safety at the work place, working hours etc.) must be clearly defined. For the individual placement organiser in a vocational school or an enterprise, this can be a daunting challenge, considering what is at stake – especially if there is no legal expertise in the organisation which can assist in this task. Many organisers have tried their hand at making their own contracts, but the validity of such contracts is often doubtful.
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What has been done?
Several development projects and involved stakeholders have tried to make template contracts, which placement organisers may download from the internet for use (either directly or in an adapted version) to ensure that participants are covered by the same health and safety regulations as well as rules for liability as the regular workforce. However, most of these contracts are developed with a specific target group or placement situation in mind, or for use in particular countries only, and may be problematic to use by others unless adapted and checked by legal experts.
Examples Contract templates for placements An example of a generic contract template, developed by the Danish organisation Cirius for use with the PIU-placement programme, can be found at http://www.ciriusonline.dk/Default.aspx?ID=596. A version for agricultural placements, developed by a transnational partnership in the framework of the Leonardo da Vinci-programme, can be consulted at http://www.rouffach.educagri.fr/mobility-eu/ Agreements with insurance companies Another way of mitigating risks is making agreements with insurance companies, for study abroad purposes. Many VET schools already apply this. For apprentices that are ‘on their own’, a similar model as used in the in the European Voluntary Service (EVS) could be applied
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. There the EC made an agreement with a private insurance
company.
In the European Voluntary Service, the specific problem of liability has been tackled in a different fashion. Here, an agreement has been made with a private insurance company, which has put together an insurance package which offers a 24-hour liability insurance (as well as several other insurance services) in connection with the stay abroad. This package is paid for by the European Commission and offered free of charge to the individual participant; the only 134
condition being that he fill in and sign a special form provided by the purpose .
What can be done?
As the problem ultimately stems from a failure to bring (young) people on unpaid placements abroad under the definition of “workers” in relevant Community legislation, it is recommended that work on extending this coverage by amending the existing regulations should be carried out as swiftly as possible. As this may be a difficult and time-consuming task, however, it is furthermore recommended that the Commission takes steps towards a more regulated use of contracts to govern these issues. A solution proposal could consist of letting legal experts at both European and national level scrutinise the templates presently used, and elaborate guidelines for use by the individual placement organiser. These could e.g. be made available on the website of the Leonardo da Vinci programme. These guidelines might be accompanied by templates for contracts, but great care should be taken to make these as simple and user-oriented as possible, in order to enhance transparency.
133 http://www.ec.europa.eu/youth/program/insurance/volunt_guide_evs2003_en.pdf 134 For further information on the insurance scheme, see www.ec.europa.eu/youth/program/insurance/volunt_guide_evs2003_en.pdf
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Too lengthy and complicated contracts may also deter enterprises from taking trainees from abroad on placements. Other solutions we propose are: l
Until there are a common status and specific rules in EC co-ordination of social security systems, ensure that apprentices (like students incidentally) will never fall short of being insured, in particular for health care, in neither the country of provenance or the host country, due to the confrontation of different systems. There could be a dedicated E-form for apprentices (and students) allowing them to export their health insurance, if any, for the duration of their training, but this would imply that one is already registered as apprentice (or student), or able to register in the home country when undertaking apprenticeship (or studies) directly abroad, which calls for more flexibility than there is today.
l
Central insurance packages for participants as in the EVS-programme
l
In parallel to the development and use of model agreements, encourage member states to provide minimum standards for all apprentices (including volunteer workers) in the area of accidents at work and work-related illness. For apprentices coming from countries where there is such protection, temporary exportability of the social status would solve the problem.
l
Incite Member States to maintain social advantages and tax advantages for supporting parents (even non migrant themselves) in respect of someone undergoing apprenticeship in another Member State, where this is not the case.
l
Incite Member States that have not done so in their bilateral tax agreements, to take into account the situation of paid international apprentices for the purpose of avoiding double taxation.
l
Develop practical risk and controls checklists for health, safety and liability insurance
l
Establish insurance packages for apprentices abroad
Recommendation 14 Improve access to existing information Which obstacles will be addressed?
In addition to the problems related to residence and health, safety and liability at the workplace, participants in placements abroad may encounter other problems related to legal and administrative issues – e.g. in connection with housing, crime, banks etc. These may not apply to only few participants, but can nevertheless prevent a formidable obstacle both before and during the mobility experience. As they are often idiosyncratic in nature, it is not possible to tackle these in a general fashion other than by providing information on where information and advice can be found. The problem here is not really the provision of information, but the location and accessibility of the relevant information – especially for young people from other countries, who have only very limited prior knowledge and who may experience difficulties with the language.
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What has been done?
Most European countries have so called “Youth Information Centres”, which are special information centres for young people, which function as a “one-stop-shop”, where they can go with practically any information need. They are specifically designed to respond to the needs of young people, and are open to all young people without exception and without an appointment .They provide information on a wide range of subjects, in a variety of forms, prepared both for young people in general and for groups of young people with special needs. When necessary, they refer the user to a specialised service. Further information on the characteristics of Youth Information Centers can be 135
found in the European Youth Information Charter . The information these centres provide could be linked to portals like Ploteus and EURES. Many of these youth information centres have developed a special expertise on young people from abroad and the specific problems and information needs these may have in relation to e.g. authorities. Participants in mobility projects can therefore use these centres to get information and advice on any problem they may have. Before departure, they can consult a website set up by the European association of Youth Information and Counselling Associations (ERYICA), which can help them get information on a lot of practical issues as well as giving the locations of youth information centres in the host country and links to their 136
websites . The youth information concept is not equally prevalent in all European countries, however, and coverage is therefore uneven. Examples of websites for young people on legal and administrative issues ERYICA 137
Youth Information Centres
, (ERYICA
138
) European association of Youth Information and Counselling
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Associations GetVisable
The Youth Forum/Forum Jeunesse (association of national youth organisations and international NGOs in the field of youth in Europe) has launched a campaign: “GetVisable” to lobby for the simplification or the abolition altogether of visa procedures between European countries.
What can be done?
It is recommended that more efforts be made to promote the idea of youth information and youth information centres in connection with youth mobility in Europe.
135 http://www.eryica.org/WebPortal/DesktopDefault.aspx?Alias=Rainbow&TabID=33&Lang=en 136 www.infomobil.org 137 www.infomobil.org 138 http://www.eryica.org/WebPortal/DesktopDefault.aspx?Alias=Rainbow&TabID=33&Lang=en 139 http://www.eryica.org/WebPortal/DesktopDefault.aspx?Alias=Rainbow&TabID=33&Lang=en
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A solution proposal could be to provide grants for increasing the presence of youth information on the net; either by translating and adapting already existing national websites or by further developing the European website. Other solutions can be: l
Promote the value of Europass in the area of apprenticeship and examine the feasibility of making the release of a Europass certificate compulsory, on request of the apprentice, under bilateral agreements. In any case, make it an ingredient of model agreements proposed to organisers of apprenticeship.
l
National Europass Centres are already implemented. It must have a value for individuals. Promote value of Europass.
l
Provide grants for increasing the presence of youth information on the net.
l
It is proposed to set up a webpage with information on the current visa procedures of the countries involved in the Leonardo da Vinci-programme, in analogy with what has been done for the European Voluntary Service under the Youth programme. As the procedures are similar, this is possible without any great outlay in terms of resources.
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9 Recommendations and action plans for stakeholders Measures and actions for each actor This chapter identifies what recommendations and actions can be adopted by actors within each level. However, it is critical to point out that none of these recommendations or actions in themselves will boost mobility, but a concerted effort, involving all the stakeholders and actors is required to produce an increase of mobility among apprentices and other young people in IVET.
European Institutions, Sectors Two main actors are identified within the European level, the European and Networks Commission and the EU-level social partners. In the following section we examine the role that each set of actors can play in supporting mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. In identifying the key obstacles to mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET, it is clear that each actor has different views and experiences. What is important or not is of course dependent on who you ask – different groupings have different priorities, and the discrepancy between the European and the national level also plays a role: what is perceived as a very serious obstacle in one country may be seen as a minor one in others. If we limit the scope to ‘Europe’ in general, and the European Commission specifically, the main challenges are found in the interfaces between actors and pillars. The MoVE-iT research has identified and confirmed a number of weaknesses that need to be addressed in order to boost mobility. The European Commission The European Commission can play a role in stimulating mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. The EC can take the following steps: l
Provide more finances to promote mobility in countries where no national or sectoral finances exist currently;
l
Include a specific (earmarked) budget for apprentices in the new program for Lifelong Learning (2007-2013);
l
Ensure that quality in mobility is assessed and recognized with EU wide accepted tools (i.e. Europass and when adopted EQF and ECVET) and make funding dependent on this;
l
Collect data on mobility progress and trends identified through a sound monitoring system across Europe, addressing all mobility, not only EU-funded programs;
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Promote national policy making on IVET mobility in European countries through agreements in the Council;
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Initiate joint policy making between DG Education , DG Markt and other DGs;
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Stimulate social dialogue on mobility;
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Develop tools to mitigate risks for those involved in the mobility experience (i.e. insurance, support letters, legal bases);
l
Synthesize and disseminate results of mobility experiences (tools, good practices).
Social partners at European level Social partners are well positioned to support the drive to encourage mobility among apprentices and other young people in IVET. The joint document compiled by the EU level social partners entitled, ‘Feedback from the European Social Partners as Part of the Consultation on the Commission’s Memorandum on Lifelong Learning’ indicates that the social partners are very aware of the key 140
position they hold . The social partners could be more proactive and in particular, the sectoral organisations at European level could support the mobility of apprentices and young people in IVET by undertaking the following initiatives: 141
l
Agenda setting and promoting social dialogue on IVET mobility ;
l
Initiate and finance research on benefits, on potential future profit on mobility in sectors and branches;
l
Start monitoring to bring sector funded mobility figures on to the table;
l
Develop a strategic action plan on IVET mobility, together with and regarding the key sectors;
l
Collect and spread good practices, instruments and products from the branch and sector practice reality.
National ministries
In addition to supporting the initiatives of the EC, National authorities can also play a role in stimulating mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET, mainly by: l
Develop strategic policies on IVET mobility (a national action plan), sending a 142
strong signal to all actors involved ; l
Create national programmes and national funding;
l
Coordinate and streamline activities and take joint initiatives from relevant ministries (i.e. Education, Employment, Economic Affairs) involving relevant players from the world of VET providers and employment;
l
Promote a legal basis for inclusion of transnational placements in VET-curricula. Part of this concerns a regulation concerning the recognition, validation and certification for competences and learning outcomes in countries, sectors and branches where these currently do not operate;
l
Conduct research on benefits, obstacles and solutions for mobility;
l
Implement a monitoring database, which can be used to report on progress for example in the National Reform Program;
l
Establish zones of mutual trust between different national intermediate bodies and establishing memoranda of understanding between different countries.
140 Feedback from the European Social Partners as Part of the Consultation on the Commission’s Memorandum on Lifelong Learning (2001). Supporting Document to the Communication from the Commission Making A European Area of Life Long Learning a Reality. Directorate General Education and Culture and Directorate General Equality and Social Affairs. 141 As was done during the Mobility event 14th of September 2006 in Brussels: http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_dialogue/sectoral_en.htm 142 The European National Education Councils have indicated to include mobility in VET in their action program for 2007 onwards. See their position paper in Appendix N.
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Institutions: Enterprises and VET Providers
Actors within this category include enterprises and employers, VET providers and also intermediary organisations such as branch and sectoral networks, employment services and chambers of commerce. The following introduces each set of actors. Enterprises and Employers Assuming that action will be taken at this intermediate level, employers have a role to play. They can support mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET, by: l
Collaborating with partners from education and sectoral organisations involved in mobility programmes and projects;
l
Forming strategic alliances and networks with providers of education and other enterprises, in order to improve the quality and availability of placements;
l
Implementing sustainable financial support measures, for example grants, loans, investments in quality assurance and other investments;
l
Developing competencies of workplace instructors to guide apprentices from abroad (e.g. by training or sending instructors abroad for short periods);
l
Creating, supporting and/or expanding shared service centres for placements (abroad);
l
Developing a structured dialogue with services in charge of individual validation and certification of trainees in order to recognize the learning outcomes obtained during their training (including the mobility experience).
VET-providers Europe is characterised by a wide variety of education and training systems. Differences range from the average age of apprentices, through the length and structure of IVET courses, to the number of participants enrolled in IVET, to the range and number of IVET courses offered. Also, the way in which VET-providers are organised differs to a large degree. However all countries in Europe are confronted with similar challenges, i.e. a lack of industry training positions and a lack of interest among capable young people to undergo IVET. The role of VET as an actor is to help create a competitive and cohesive society, by producing a highly-skilled workforce that is able to respond to the demands for adaptive skills in the knowledge economy. VET-providers can play an important role in stimulating mobility. Their main contributions lie in: l
Developing an internationalisation and mobility strategy, linked with internal quality infrastructure and adequate stable funding (public, private, self funding) of a number of core activities;
l
Improving the competence of staff organising mobility as well as teachers, trainers and tutors involved;
l
Investing in long-term transnational partnerships, creating a formal basis for cooperation and exchange among learners and companies for quality placements;
l
Implementing a quality assurance system for placements, monitoring content and recognising the acquired skills abroad;
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l
After adopting EU wide acknowledged tools like ECVET and Europass, to increase transparency and quality of the learning programmes offered;
l
Directing pro-active communication towards learners, raising awareness among students that placements abroad are an opportunity for all.
Intermediary organisations
An intermediary organisation can serve as a link between schools and employers. It can be a single organisation, a newly created non-profit, a commercial company or a collaboration between several institutions in a community. They can provide face-to-face contact and advice, or mainly provide service on-line. The role of the intermediary can be to connect schools, enterprises, youth organisations with workplaces and community resources. The following structures serve as examples of intermediary organisations: existing transnational networks and partnerships of VET providers and employers, branch and sectoral networks and national agencies (in a revised role from the current situation). Examples from the world of employment include; Chambers of skilled crafts and chambers of commerce, training centres, structures responsible for managing training funds, business organisations, national agencies, job vacancy websites, temporary work agencies and Public Employment Services. It has to be defined on a case by case basis, according to the Member State context. Some of the benefits of arranging mobility through intermediary organisations are an accumulation of knowledge on European mobility, improved professionalism, and an increased number of transactions at lower costs (cost reduction or even profit making) and a ‘single contact point’ for different stakeholders. Intermediary organisations can support the mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET, mainly through: l
Administering placements and organising support for apprentices and other IVET participants on a placement abroad;
l
Assisting in organising mobility, in all phases (orientation, preparation, during stay, evaluation and debriefing);
l
Helping to find and pull together complementary resources;
l
Acting as a shared service centre for small and medium sized enterprises, who cannot build up this expertise in-house;
l
Developing and maintaining websites on mobility opportunities and match-making websites that address the needs of apprentices, schools and employers alike;
l
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Creating communities of practice for organisers of mobility.
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Key Recommendations and actions The following section discusses in turn each of the five main obstacles to mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET which our research identified. A number of recommendations are presented to address each obstacle. Additionally, specific actions which related parties should take to process these recommendations are highlighted.
Quality
In particular, as pointed out in the Main Obstacles section above, three issues affect the quality of apprenticeships and placements abroad, these are: a general lack of quality awareness; difficulties in defining quality and the issue of quality assurance. The following recommendations aim to tackle these issues. Quality - Recommendation 1: Transform generic quality criteria to specific quality assurance strategies Some mobility projects already use generic quality criteria as a formal part of their contractual arrangements with providers. However, these tend to be abstract rather than practical and give providers little help in developing strategies that allow them to create a working quality assurance system. The EC is currently working to develop EU-wide recognition of learning outcomes acquired in one country as part of a VET qualification abroad. Once ECVET is adopted, this
can serve as the backbone for a quality assurance system. For the short term we propose that a quality assurance manual is developed that provides practical tips and insights which providers can adapt and apply to their own projects. Quality - Recommendation 2: Ensure quality in mobility is monitored and recognised Irrespective of the question whether ‘mobility for the masses’ is needed, one can argue that mobility in quantitative terms can only increase, when the level of trust between actors in Europe increases. Transparency in levels of quality is one of the means to increase trust. Without a ‘quality stamp’, which is recognized by schools, employers and participants of mobility experiences increased levels of mobility are not likely. Quality - Recommendation 3 – Address lacunae in knowledge of mobility projects by building complete databases of good practice Greater uptake of effective quality assurance requires greater awareness. To address these gaps in knowledge, suitably experienced researchers should be employed to follow the development of particular projects, focusing on the areas of quality assurance that need more information.
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Action Plan to Increase Quality in Mobility Quality Action A (EU level initiative): Seek cooperation with DG Enterprise and DG Education and Culture to launch a benchlearning project in the field of vocational training which includes internationalisation and mobility as important components. The project can be supported by a new database on ‘examples of good practice’ organised on the basis of practices and processes, rather than projects. This initiative may be coordinated under the peer review exercises discussed under the Action Plan Addressing Strategy Obstacles, above. Quality Action B (EU level initiative): Develop a quality assurance manual in the form of an on-line resource, the manual could be expanded and amended as new insights arise from other emerging projects. Quality Action C (EU level initiative): Establish an observatory to monitor mobility in education. This may be done by strengthening existing monitoring networks such as ReferNet. An alternative would be to appoint a few research centres with the responsibility of designing a monitor instrument (based on existing national instruments) researching and monitoring internationalisation in VET. Although research in itself will not boost mobility collecting and presenting mobility figures may serve as an important tool for policy makers to create adequate policies and strategies. Our assessment in 33 countries revealed that the number of mobile apprentices and other young people in IVET is much higher than the official figure compiled under the Leonardo da Vinci Programme. Quality Action D (Intermediary organisation level): Both schools and enterprises may be reluctant to host an apprentice and IVET student from abroad, due to a lack of knowledge on differences in levels of qualifications and education. Intermediary organisations can play a role here to give information to schools and enterprises about the differences and commonalities. Quality Action E (VET Provider level): Provide tools, training and monitoring services to employers and schools, for improving the quality of placements. Several sectors such as tourism and hospitality have established a common framework for skills and competencies across Europe. Call upon VET-providers to strengthen these partnerships, in combination with employers’ organisations.
Support mechanisms
A strategy may be powerful and compelling but without successful implementation it will remain of interest at the theoretical level only. We have devised a number of recommendations that aim to address operational challenges which may arise. Support - Recommendation 4: Make funding available to individual young people. Leonardo da Vinci does not allow direct applications from individual young people. Although there are sound reasons for funding only on a group basis, chiefly the likely age of the participants, the present rules effectively deny many young people the chance to acquire skills, knowledge and experience from a work placement in another country. We would recommend making a proportion of current funding available to individuals, but without direct application to a central EU programme. A package of grants should be administered to established vocational partnerships, operating cross-border, which could then sign a contract with individual participants. Support - Recommendation 5: Create shared service centres for placement organisers and SMEs Large multinational companies have extensive systems in place to manage their own mobility matters. Smaller businesses are unlikely to have the same level of
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support available or the time and resources to manage similar systems. However, SMEs have a vital role to play in creating mobility opportunities for vocational and educational training because SMEs tend to employ more apprentices than is the case in large companies and they also stand to benefit from widening their resource base and understanding of mobility issues. To help them achieve this, we recommend the development of shared service centres for mobility matters that would help to disseminate information and create support mechanisms for linking potential participants, educational institutions and companies. This could also provide information on the practical, legal and administrative issues that are likely to be encountered in providing mobility opportunities for vocational training and education. Finally, such a shared service centre could help companies in arranging placement projects. Support - Recommendation 6: Use web innovation to spread information and enable match-making A number of measures could be taken that could greatly enhance the usefulness of present information sources on the web. In particular, taking advantage of the ability of users to generate and manage their own content could increase the relevance and usefulness of the information provided while ensuring that information is updated by relevant user groups. The web can be used to match seekers to opportunities. There are many different sites that offer direct matches between employers and prospective employees. However, whereas in an employment relationship there are only two parties to consider, the nature of vocational training introduces another, supervisory, layer that makes life more complex. Match-making sites in this context therefore have to manage a number of considerations and interactions. The design of a tool like this would need to reflect different standards – e.g. from local and national bodies as well as sectoral organisations – and would further have to be accommodated by educational institutions as specific policies about the requirements for the applicants under their supervision (e.g. distance from home, duration of opportunity and so on). It would also be necessary to provide relevant information to companies and project organisers and maintain high standards of security to protect confidentiality. Despite these challenges, a mechanism that matched information about opportunities to practical guidance to support action for mobility would plug a considerable gap in the present provision of information. Support - Recommendation 7: Support and create communities of practice Create a number of pedagogical programmes within national administrations to generate knowledge of and interest in VET issues and mobility. Organisations and individuals who coordinate mobility in apprenticeship tend to be relatively isolated. Therefore, organisers are generally starting form scratch with little or no shared experience or knowledge to guide them rather than being able to develop on good
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practices elsewhere. Ensure that staff within IVET institutions has experienced mobility and encourage experiments with mobility and placements abroad. Action Plan Addressing Support Mechanisms Support Action A (EU level initiative): We would recommend making a proportion of current funding available to individuals, but without direct application to a central EU programme. A package of grants should be administered to established vocational partnerships, operating cross-border, which could then sign a contract with individual participants. Currently, only groups can apply to the Leonardo da Vinci programme. This effectively debars SMEs from direct participation, since they cannot put together a group of 10 apprentices or more (which is often the minimum size) for participation. Additionally, grants are presently given on an annual basis by the Leonardo da Vinci programme which acts as a barrier for SMEs (and intermediary organisations working on behalf of SMEs), since it precludes any long-term planning and involvement with mobility activities. Support Action B (EU level initiative): Establish shared service providers between SMEs and other larger companies with established mobility systems for apprentices. Programmes such as Leonardo da Vinci tend to involve considerable administrative procedures which place heavy burdens on SMEs such shared service centres should alleviate this pressure. Support Action C (EU level initiative): Design a web based infrastructure that can be used by intermediary organisations, to match supply and demand in cross-border apprenticeships and placements. Support Action D (Intermediary organisation level): Stimulate sectors to form networks of accredited training providers at an international level. The EC can support this sharing of best practices through a bench learning project between sectors. Those sectors that are more advanced (i.e. agriculture, tourism) should receive some type of incentive to share this knowledge with less advanced sectors. Finally, coordinate a database company registers with accredited placements in VET made available to sectors. Support Action E (EU level initiative): Create a platform for exchange of experience and strategies among the relevant level of civil servants according to each Member State. Support Action F (EU level initiative): Exploit the community of practice which operates within the National Agencies of Leonardo da Vinci to initiate a debate on the changing role of mobility among apprentices and other young people in IVET and on how National Agencies can be more supportive centres for employers and VET providers.
Sustainable strategies
As introduced in the Main Obstacles section of this report, there are a number of issues which result in a lack of sustainable strategies, for example difficulties in ensuring a longer term commitment to goals and obstacles and a lack of understanding amongst key decision-makers. The following recommendations aim to address these issues. Strategy - Recommendation 8: Develop strategic frameworks and make funding dependent on an action plan. The development of a coherent strategic framework would allow parties to combine their respective efforts, complementing and reinforcing each other to create a strong foundation from which to expand the opportunities available.
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Strategy - Recommendation 9: Connect and enthuse key-decision makers to raise capacity. Several successful initiatives at European level exist, that aim to raise awareness and capacity amongst key-decision makers. It entails bringing together experts from several Member States to examine the success of policies and to investigate the options, which can enable the introduction of policies in Member States who face similar challenges. Action Plan Addressing Strategy Obstacles Strategy Action A (EU Level initiative): Introduce a European VET Strategy with a component on mobility. EU Member States will develop national action plans which, in turn, should stimulate thinking about the relationship between the education system and Europe. In doing so, it likely to produce information sharing and knowledge transfer between national systems and thereby create a productive dialogue between policy makers and project organisers. This may also lead to the development of European-wide capabilities to monitor activity. Strategy Action B (EU Level initiative): Stimulate private and public sectors to allocate resources for mobility of apprentices and other IVET students within the framework of the European VET strategy and coordinated by the national action plans. This can include allocating ‘packages’ of mobility grants to local institutions/enterprises which then coordinate the allocation of grants within the contract period. Strategy Action C (intermediary organisation level initiative): Establish zones of mutual trust between different national intermediate bodies and sign memoranda of understanding between different countries. These relations should snowball to include other activities such as using the latest web technologies so that schools and networks can create their own portals on placements (abroad) and on supply and demand matching. Strategy Action D (intermediary organisation level initiative): Develop stronger networks between VET-providers so that they pool their information on placements abroad resulting in lower costs invested in locating, assessing and securing placements. Strategy Action E (intermediary organisation level initiative): Employers may require guidance on hosting apprentices and other IVET students. VET-providers can provide training and support for mentors in enterprises, to tutor them in the skills and considerations needed when working with apprentices and other IVET students from abroad.
Awareness
As discussed above, in the Main Obstacles section, two key difficulties arise when creating awareness in mobility among apprentices and other young people in IVET. The first is a problem of communication and dissemination. The second is weak networks and communities of practice. It is vital that maximum awareness is created through channels that will resonate and appeal to the appropriate target audiences. The following introduces three recommendations made to this end. Awareness recommendation 10: Develop a communication strategy based on real experiences Ambassadors for mobility should be drawn from a wide variety of activities and areas of interest. National agencies should identify individuals whose success can be partly attributed to a period spent abroad and whose profile would appeal to the target group. Their role would be to contribute to awareness raising campaigns that demonstrate the real benefits of training placements abroad.
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Awareness - Recommendation 11: Develop a publicity campaign and use mass media to communicate to target groups To reach the large number of potential candidates for work placements and similar opportunities, large scale campaigns across all media are essential. A communication/media plan should be developed by the Commission in consultation with national agencies so that the impact of particular campaigns can be maximised for each Member State. Action Plan Addressing Awareness Obstacles Awareness Action A (EU level initiative): Launch a EU-wide publicity campaign and provide financial support for a number of projects including: an annual conference for organisers of mobility projects in Europe; for teacher exchange programmes, for exchanges between work place instructors and for support for administrative staff running international offices or placement support offices. Awareness Action B (EU level Initiative): (Re)brand mobility of apprentices and other IVET students by developing a communication plan for mobility which could include the following initiatives; align communication with initiatives of DG COMM (White Paper on Communication, Action Plan for Communication); continue the annual Leonardo da Vinci Awards, and ensure that IVET students/ apprentices become ambassadors in the year after the contest (by school visits and meeting policy makers); establish a working group on communication within the network of National Agencies; design a support pack for existing European contact centres (i.e. EURES, Solvit, EuropeDirect); prepare items for international associations of broadcasters such as the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) and Investigate opportunities for ‘co-branding’, i.e. using existing successful brands like EuroSkills to highlight the benefits of placements abroad. Awareness Action C (intermediary organisation level): Advertise in free newspapers like Metro and Spits. Develop innovative ways for ‘triability’ i.e. simulation, or gaming tools through which young people can go through the entire process of finding a placement and working abroad. Awareness Action D (VET provider initiative): Experiment with mobility and placements abroad by introducing the following actions; arrange short group visits to companies close to school, that offer possibilities for placements abroad. In many border-regions, this can be arranged easily (‘Internationalisation by bike’). Schools can stimulate to take part of the courses at a school in another region (in the same country). Many films and student stories exist on the internet, which can be used during meetings with staff and trainees. Games and simulations that can be played within the classroom, or in peer networks of young people, which highlight the adventure, potential pitfalls and personal gains can also be used as ways to ‘try’ mobility.
Legal and administrative obstacles
As mentioned above, there are a number of overlapping laws and regulations that have an impact on the ability to pursue and provide cross-border apprenticeships and placements within the EU. These include issues relating to residency, health, safety and liability insurance in the workplace and other problems related to legal 143
and administrative issues . While apprenticeships and placements are highly regulated and well integrated part of the IVET system in most Member States, legal problems and inconsistencies concerning apprenticeships and placements only occur the moment borders are crossed, then the legal situation for young people engaged in apprenticeships and placements becomes complex. Some forms of placement are defined as employment, others as purely education. This means 143 See supporting study on Legal obstacles, Appendix C, available at the project website
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that creating and pursuing apprenticeships and placements can be a bureaucratic and legalistic process. Legal - Recommendation 12: Consider legal status for apprentices If the mobility project is organised as a work placement in a private or public company and is remunerated, the participant is conferred the status of an employee (worker). If the stay is organised as a work placement and the participant does not receive any remuneration, he or she has no clearly defined social and legal status in relation to some crucial issues at any workplace. For this reason, there is a need to provide a sufficiently broad definition of ‘worker’ so that insurance cover could be extended to apprenticeship work and placements. Legal - Recommendation 13: Develop measures for dealing with health, safety and liability insurance at the workplace Until a separate legal status for apprentices is feasible, other measures for dealing with the risks of having a foreign apprentice on a placement should be taken. Legal - Recommendation 14: Tailor existing information on residence and visa applications. Providing young people with access to information in one place, and in an easy-to-use format is essential to help them understand the possibilities for pursuing vocational training in other Member States. Much of this information already exists, but it is not available in one place, or of consistent quality. Action Plan Addressing Legal and Administrative Obstacles Legal Action A (EU Level initiative): Clarify the legal status of mobile apprentices and IVET students. The lack of a legal status (neither student nor worker) may result in a refusal of the required residence permit, in which case the stay must be limited to three months. In the Leonardo da Vinci Programme, work placements are foreseen for longer periods than 3 months, so there is clearly a discrepancy here. A useful interim measure would be the creation of contract guidelines and templates that employers and other organisations could view and download from a website. Provided that these were sufficiently user-friendly in format and easy to understand, they could make it significantly easier for employers to offer training opportunities. Contracts covering legal liability in the workplace would not require undertaking detailed legal advice on a case-by-case basis Legal Action B (EU Level initiative): Providing young people with access to information in one place, and in an easy-to-use format is essential to help them understand the possibilities for pursuing vocational training in other Member States. As a first practical step, establish a website that provides an overview of current visa procedures to help both applicants and employees to understand the steps that may be necessary to offer or pursue a specific opportunity in a particular Member State. Several websites exist, where citizens can find information on visa procedures for entering another country. Also, a couple of examples exist, specifically for apprentices. These websites can be tailored and linked to for example websites of national agencies.
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Financing of mobility in IVET Existing budgets at EU level are not sufficient to increase mobility in IVET significantly. The increase in mobility within Leonardo da Vinci in the past were directly linked to increases in budget and the multiplier effect so far is hard to find, given the lack of monitoring data. The current demand is in some countries four times as high as the budget available. If the goal is to increase levels of mobility substantially, other additional ways of funding need to be explored. One of the arguments that is brought forward by many mobility organisers, is the special nature of the target group. In contrast to for example students in Higher Education, who are more independent, they need personal coaching and guidance. This makes mobility in IVET expensive for both schools and enterprises. However, it would be too simple to argue that mobility in IVET will only increase if more money is invested. There are good examples of transnational permanent partnerships and networks of schools and employers, which provide work placements and guidance to each others apprentices and other young people in IVET without exchanging budget between them. Therefore, we describe number of alternative solutions to deal with the financial obstacles in organising mobility, some of which have been implemented already in some countries. Covering wages of apprentices during absence To increase the financial support for the mobility of apprentices (in case of dual learning, which does not apply for all young people in IVET) to cover their wages during the absence is hardly a tenable solution. Firstly, it would require a significant infusion of additional funds into mobility programmes already with the level of mobility of today; an enlargement which is not likely to occur within the present generation of programmes. Secondly, it may induce unscrupulous employers to speculate in taking “free” apprentices from abroad and use these as unpaid labour, rather than taking ordinary apprentices, to whom he must pay wages and who have specific (and enforceable!) requirements in terms of training contents. Payment of wages by the hosting company The sector study in tourism indicates that in this field of work it is quite normal that the participants in placements abroad get paid by the hosting companies, for travel as well as for living costs. This sector and its employers see and experience the 144
benefits of mobility and the employers are willing to pay for trainees from abroad . In the Danish PIU programme, participants who are sent abroad must be paid the going wages for apprentices in the host country by the hosting company. An employer in Germany who receives a Danish participant will thus pay him/her the same wages as he/she pays to the native apprentices in the company, and there is thus no incentive to take apprentices from abroad merely for the sake of obtaining free labour or for saving the wage costs of native apprentices. The funds of the PIU programme are then used to pay for “extras” (travel, removal costs, up to 50% of accommodation costs). Moreover, a special agreement has been reached with 144 See: Case study Tourism Sector
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some countries under article 17 of EC directive 1408/71, whereby the participant is exempted from paying social security costs in the host country. Technically, however, many of the participants are not apprentices, since they do not have an apprenticeship contract with a Danish company at the time they set out for the placement. After their return, they sign a contract with a Danish company, and the time spent abroad is then recognised as part of their apprenticeship, and the total length of the contract is shortened correspondingly. Yet the programme is also used by Danish companies, who send out their apprentices on placements abroad. These are then obliged to top up the wages of the apprentice in the cases where the apprenticeship wages of the host country is lower than for apprentices at the same level in Denmark. This wage difference is later refunded by the PIU programme, so that sending companies at the end of the day do not carry any wage costs in connection with the placement. The advantage of this model is that the employer does not pay any wages for the apprentice while he/she is abroad. The obvious disadvantage is the difficulty of finding host companies abroad that are willing to pay for having an apprentice from abroad. This takes more persuasion than normal, and it is usually only possible for long-term stays (i.e. more than three months). That it can be done is demonstrated by the PIU programme, which annually sends out nearly 1300 participants to other European countries on paid placements. Stimulating national policy and creation of national funding for IVET mobility The Commission stimulates national authorities to develop national policies and funding programmes for mobility in IVET. Starting point can be an EU supported systematic and consistent monitoring system for measuring mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. An annual or bi-annual monitoring action concerning mobility organised by training institutions or sectors/employers and financed by European programmes, sectoral funding, and private funding. Based on these data countries (ministries, sectors, the VET providers) can design tailor-made policies and programmes to promote, fund and increase mobility. Financial support by sectoral bodies The development of various measures for offering financial support (allowances, grants, subsidies and loans) by sectoral bodies should be stimulated by governments and representatives of enterprises. A few sectoral initiatives exist to stimulate mobility in IVET. The focus on the needs of local businesses and the lower level of administrative burden are attractive for employers. The sectors could do studies into benefits, economic opportunities, potential effect and impact of placements abroad and could inform, inspire, support the employers in the sector to cooperate in experiments with mobility and to contribute with funding. Stimulate organisations that distribute levy funds/ sectoral training funds to allocate part of the resources to internationalisation Since the mission of many of these funds is to improve the quality (and quantity) of education in a specific sector, budgets could be allocated to programs that focus on the acquisition of international skills, if the benefits for the sector are clear.
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Many of these organisations have excellent contacts with the sector, schools, employers and target audiences. Also they are well organised and they have substantial budgets. Consider opening European Social Fund for training abroad Currently ESF-budget is oriented on the creation of work and (better) qualification of (working or unemployed) people. This fund is less focused on initial vocational education and training. Furthermore, ESF does not allow spending budget across the border. Although, there might be differences per country: within the European Policy Framework countries can define specific national priorities, targets and target groups in order to connect ESF to national policies and the national employment strategy. It is recommendable that DG EAC initiates contact and discussions with DG Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities to discuss closer cooperation and strategic policies for promoting and increasing mobility of apprentices and other young people in IVET. A limitation here might be that co-finances from a European funded project cannot come from another European source. But opening up ESF for IVET mobility is worthwhile discussing. Tax relief The use of tax relief for frontier workers who may be liable for tax in two jurisdictions could be extended to apprentices. Many countries have special tax treatments for incoming employees with specific expertise, or outgoing employees. This treatment is sometimes applied to specific target groups, i.e. for example retired managers who go abroad, for Development aid projects. Other options are: l
Flat rate grants; greater use of flat rate grants and scales of unit costs.
l
Tax incentives; to encourage companies to welcome apprentices and others from abroad receiving training
l
Subsidies; reductions in public transport, financial assistance with accommodation and meals etc.
Limitations of co-financing Although various means of co-financing can be a worthwhile addition to European and national funding, there are limitations and risks involved. A review of funding sources in compulsory education, showed that countries can be divided into three groups with respect to how numerous permitted sources of private finance are, as follows: l
countries where schools are not permitted to obtain funding from private sources;
l
countries where the number of possible sources is severely limited, meaning that schools cannot rely on more than three private sources;
l
countries where schools have the option of drawing on a wider range of sources of private finance.
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Since schools in VET are an important driver for mobility projects, these limitations need to be taken into account. Portability of student loans Apart from the funding programmes, other means for covering the costs are applied, like tax incentives and measures to improve the portability of student loans. One example is a recent experiment in the border region (Belgium-Netherlands) were VET-learners can take their student loans with them to 145
Belgium, even if they are registered at a Belgian institution . Reciprocity One possible model consists in organising reciprocal and simultaneous exchanges of apprentices between enterprises operating in the same sector. In this way, the problem of an absent worker in the production process would be at least partially solved. Besides this, the model also ensures a better integration of the apprentice in the hosting company, since he/she is not supernumerary, but is actually taking the place of someone at the same level of him- or herself, who is away. The disadvantage with this model is mainly logistical (not only, it is far more a matter of quality offered to the trainee from abroad): it requires some coordination efforts and well-established relations between two enterprises to ensure reciprocity with full or partial overlap between the placements. To identify a suitable partner and to establish and maintain relations demands an initial investment in terms of visits and regular exchange of information, a task which may be beyond most SMEs. A mediating “broker” organisation (e.g. a vocational school) may therefore be necessary to identify suitable partner companies abroad and establish the contact. Simultaneous placements abroad might be worth an experiment, but it will not be a real solution and broadly applicable.
Tools and practical solutions The MoVE-iT consortium has been in contact with many examples of good practices and practical examples of how mobility of apprentices and other young people in VET is supported. Based on these examples, we developed three ‘toolkits’ that can be used as a basis for further development and dissemination. In our view, the National Agencies could play an important role in taking up these 146
examples and tailor them to their local markets . l
Toolkit for VET-providers (schools, training centres)
l
Toolkit for Enterprises
l
Toolkit for Apprentices
Several of the tools can be used for both enterprises and VET-providers. Furthermore, products like communication and awareness campaigns are targeted
145 Decision about change in legislation is expected in April 2007. Source: Proposal to the Parliament (Tweede Kamer, kamernummer 30933) “Wijziging van onder meer de Wet studiefinanciering 2000 in verband met uitbreiding van de mogelijkheid met studiefinanciering in het buitenland te studeren” [“Change of Law student loans 2000 in relation to extension of possibilities for studying abroad with student loans”]. 146 Since many of the examples are developed by practitioners and other players in the field of VET, the intellectual property rights prevent us from publishing these toolkits. We have advised DG EAC to investigate potential for further dissemination,, for example through intermediary organisations like National Agencies and Chambers of Commerce and Craft. Also, sectoral organisations can play a role here.
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at all three. Therefore, we describe the product ideas, that add to the existing tools, without reference to a specific audience or user. Mobility Benchlearning platform 147
A benchlearning platform
can be developed in several forms (handbook, website
or workshops). Basic idea is that good practices are structured around processes rather than examples of projects. The entire cycle for organizing mobility (preparation, implementation, and evaluation) is used as framework for describing good practices. The tool should be easy to use, understand and apply. For each step in the cycle, the product provides guidance, self-assessment tools, references to good practices and a benchmarking exercise. Furthermore, existing publications and information resources are linked to each of the steps of the framework. Checklists on key risk and controls We propose to develop risk and control self assessments on several areas related to mobility that can be used as a checklist by placement organisers. Examples of areas where a self-assessment can be helpful: crisis planning, funding of mobility, administrative procedures quality, communication with target audiences, governance and compliance. Quality assurance framework The basic product idea is to develop resources that can be used as a basis for a quality assurance framework, i.e. process description (what to do before, during and after a placement). Existing, fragmented, products on quality management can thus be integrated into single handbook. The benefit is that existing knowledge and tools about quality in mobility are disseminated more widely. Directory/phonebook of funding sources in Europe The basic idea is that it should be easier for both organisers and beneficiaries of mobility, to find (additional) funding sources. We identified more than 70 additional programs in Europe that somehow (co)-finance mobility of apprentices. A website should deliver a complete overview of the funding sources on student mobility with up-to-date information in order to stimulate mobility. Explore Abroad Portals: integrated and customized websites that connect three parties The basic product idea is that technology should be developed (further), to enable cooperation between schools, placement providers and internship seekers (apprentices). For this purpose, Web 2.0 technology is needed, that gives all parties the flexibility to share and maintain information. I.e. schools should be able to build their own customized web pages, companies should be able to offer placement and accreditation agencies should be able to accredit these placements. Benefits are: (1) Structured approach: complete workflow at one place; (2) overview of all internships including history (statistics); (3) management system for internships; (4) completeness: all internships at one place; (4) up-to-date: management by workflow, so status of all internships is always 147 See for an example: http://www.globalbestpractices.com
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up-to-date; (5) easily accessible; (6) increased trust, since placements are accredited or at least reviewed by a third party Board game on ‘How to go abroad’ for apprentices. To increase awareness and possibilities to ‘try’ mobility, we have proposed a plan for a game. Apprentices and young people in vocational schools can play the game, together with the placement coordinators (or teacher) in their schools. It stimulates direct communication between IVET participants and teachers on the topic of mobility and it conveys the message that participants need to be prepared. Basic features: (1) To be used in the classroom, as a game of maximum 1 hour. Includes obstacles and solutions and is fun to play, (2) Master game board can be adjusted, to include specifics of national situation. The objectives of such a game are: a) convey messages that placements abroad are a great opportunity to learn, b) create awareness in schools and among learners, about possibilities of sending/receiving apprentices, during placements, c) create opportunity to practice and try out the main steps in organizing mobility. Which organisations are best placed to organise mobility? Those who finance mobility want to know which organisations are capable organising mobility. A lot of experience exist, however it is not widely known what types of networks and partnerships are most likely to succeed. The basic idea of this product is to elaborate on criteria for selecting partnerships and networks at several levels, to ensure that grant allocators take into account lessons learned from other mobility projects (i.e. what would be important for EU level projects, what can be done at regional level). Objectives of this product are: (1) Increase quality of networks/partnerships and stimulate capacity building interventions, (2) Increase awareness, also at national/ regional level, about lessons learned from mobility projects, (3) Stimulate business sector to initiate partnerships and network, (4) Stimulate actors to use new/ existing intermediary organizations. Branding plan Mobility for Apprentices, aligned with DG COMM plans on communication A ‘branding plan’ to boost communication around mobility should contain the following components: (1) the basic steps how to strengthen the Leonardo brand by connecting brand-value-behaviour, (2) practical steps how to combine the existing modes of communication (3) plan for a TV campaign (4) plan how to use modern communication techniques (virus marketing & co- branding). Objectives are to: (1) create visibility that an apprentices when seeing the Leonardo brand linked to mobility (2) Inform the EU level and the national authorities together what they have to do to create loyalty, awareness and perceived quality. Letter of support from European Commission (Apprentice permission document) Apprentices, who want to go abroad, and face some obstacles, can go to the EC directly to receive a personalized letter of support. This letter empowers young people to arrange their own mobility experience. An official letter by the EC can persuade those involved to accept the wishes of apprentices to go abroad.
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Overview of Administrative procedures Basic idea is to provide web pages with links and downloads (e.g. training contracts, visa application forms, permits and so on) for the different target groups. Objective is to inform on the formal matters of internships abroad. Guidebooks A complete and high quality ‘EU guide’ with up-to-date information in order to stimulate apprentices and young people to become more mobile. Many guides with different goals, forms and content already exist on this topic, but practice shows that there is a need for a practical and all-inclusive document with information ‘from a to z’ on going abroad, specifically for the VET-sector. Docusoap and/ or Film Create a docusoap on IVET learners on placements abroad. Interest television and theatre makers, find investors and shoot a docusoap following a number of IVET participants from different countries. Interview them, their parents/friends, their school/teachers/ their foreign employers and colleagues. Show what they learn, what problems they meet and how they overcome these problems. As a starting point EC could collect existing movies and put these together.
Summary Action Plan for Mobility of Apprentices and other Young People IVET The following Action Plan introduces the key recommended actions. It states who is responsible for each action and it introduced a timeframe. Recommended Action
Responsible Party
Time Scale
Provide a sufficiently broad definition of ‘worker’ so that
EU
Long Term
insurance cover could be extended to apprenticeship and
(2010-2015)
work placements. Create legal contract guidelines and templates for
EU
Immediately
EU
Immediately
EU
Medium Term
employers to view and download from a website. Establish a website that provides an overview of current visa procedures, linked to IVET participants. Stimulate National administrations to report on strategies linked to mobility, under the Joint Progress report for
(2007-2010)
Education & Training 2010 (and beyond). Allocating ‘packages’ of mobility grants to local
EU
institutions/enterprises that operate in transnational
Medium Term (2007-2010)
networks with a clear VET mobility strategy. Establish zones of mutual trust between different national intermediate bodies and sign memoranda of understanding
Intermediary organisations
Medium Term (2007-2010)
between different countries.
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Recommended Action
Responsible Party
Time Scale
Develop stronger networks between VET-providers to pool
Intermediary organisations
Immediately
their information on placements.
and VET providers
Sectoral branch and VET-providers jointly arrange to train
Intermediary organisations
and support mentors in enterprises in the skills needed
and VET providers (using
when working with apprentices from abroad.
existing products of
Immediately
Leonardo projects in this area) Launch a bench learning project in the field of vocational
EU (DG EAC, DG EMPL and
training which includes internationalisation and mobility as
DG Enterprise)
Immediately
important components. The project can be supported by a new database on ‘examples of good practice’ organised on the basis of practices and processes, rather than projects. Develop and disseminate a quality assurance manual for
EU
mobility organisers. Establish an observatory to monitor mobility in education.
Medium Term (2007-2010)
EU and all EU Member
Medium Term
States
(2007-2010)
Where they do not currently exist at the sectoral and branch
EU and Intermediary
Medium Term
level, establish intermediary organisations as formal
organisation and sector and
(2007-2010)
recognising, validating and certifying bodies for
branch organisations
competences and learning outcomes. Provide tools, training and monitoring services to employers
EU (publishing good
Immediately (and
and schools, for improving the quality of placements.
examples throughout
on a continuous
Europe), Member States,
basis)
employers and VET providers Make a proportion of current funding available to individuals
EU, Intermediary organisation
Medium Term
without direct application to a central EU programme.
and VET providers
(2007-2010)
Establish shared service providers between SMEs and
Intermediary organisations,
Immediately
other larger companies.
sector/branch and VET providers
Design a web based infrastructure that can be used by
EU, sectors/branches at
Medium Term
intermediary organisations to match supply and demand in
European and national level
(2007-2010)
cross-boarder placements.
and other intermediary organisations and the VET providers
Stimulate sectors to form networks of accredited training
EU, sectors/branches and
Medium Term
providers at an international level.
VET providers
(2007-2010)
Create a mutual learning programme and training
EU
Medium Term
programme on the European dimension in education for
(2007-2010)
senior civil servants.
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Recommended Action
Responsible Party
Time Scale
Establish a recurring training programme for the National
EU
Immediately
EU
Immediately
EU
Immediately
Advertise placements in free newspapers, develop mobility
EU and intermediary
immediately
‘gaming tools’ and other means to bring the topic close to
providers
Coordination Units of Leonardo. Launch an EU-wide publicity campaign on mobility of apprenticeships and other young people in IVET. Rebrand mobility for apprentices and other young people in IVET by developing and introducing a communication plan for mobility.
apprentices and young people in VET. Experiment with mobility as a mandatory component of the curriculum in certain sectors
Sectoral organisations
Medium Term (2007-2010)
Table 9-1: Key recommended actions
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Colofon Contributors main report: Reinout van Brakel (PwC) Philip McDonagh (PwC) Berny van der Torren (PwC) Mattijs Maussen (PwC) Søren Kristensen (Techne) Jannie Roemeling (CINOP) Jittie Brandsma (CINOP) Pasqualino Mare (EVTA)
Views from CEE Arnost Marks
A seperate list with all the experts and organisations consulted is on the website.
Project leader Reinout van Brakel P.O. Box 30715 2500 GS Den Haag Contact:
[email protected]
Authors supporting studies MoVE-iT: a comparative study on mobility in IVET in 33 European Countries Jittie Brandsma (CINOP) Ceciel Bruin-Mosch (CINOP) Jannie Roemeling (CINOP) Legal obstacles Antoine Fobe (on behalf of ECAS) Claire.Damilano (ECAS) Canada country report and Case study Multilateral program Red Seal Marc L. Johnson, Martín Mujica (SOCIUS Research and Consulting, Canada) Tourism Ariane Portegies, Lars de Jong, E. Prent, M. van Dun (Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport/Strategic Centre for Internationalization), Paul. M. Peeters (NHTV) Chemical sector Heather Rolfe (NIESR) SMEs and Arts & Crafts Søren Kristensen (Techne) Peter Wordelmann Views from apprentices Dr Noeleen Doherty, Dr Tim Mills, Dr Michael Dickmann (Cranfield University, School of Management) Bilateral programs Uwe Neugebauer (UNIVE)
MoVE-iT Final report
Views from the EU policy level Verena Detzel (PwC) Project support Valari van Tusschenbroek (PwC) Anouk Olijve (PwC)
The MoVE-iT study is executed by a consortium of PricewaterhouseCoopers (project coordinator), CINOP and EVTA. The consortium comprises the following parties: 1. PricewaterhouseCoopers Advisory (PwC ). 2. CINOP. CINOP is the national Centre for the Innovation of Education and Training in the Netherlands. It is an expertise centre employing around 150 academic trained professionals in the sectors General and Further Education, Vocational Education and Training (VET), Adult Education, Education and VET research, ICT and business management training and capacity building in companies. 3. EVTA. The European Vocational Training Association is a vocational training network comprised of 18 members from 14 European countries, representing national training and, in certain cases, national employment services. One of the main contributors to the study is ReferNet, a network established by the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (CEDEFOP). It aims to meet the growing demand for comparable information across Europe in Vocational Education and Training (VET). ReferNet provides a decentralised approach to information exchange, and is based on national consortia in participating countries, made up of VET stakeholders. ReferNet was contracted as part of the MoVE-iT study to provide detailed information about mobility policies, obstacles and figures in each Member State.
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Bibliography A full literature review is available in the appendices. The following bibliography is a selection of the main sources and the specific studies that are mentioned in this final report. Most of the (public) sources used, are also available on the project website for further reading, therefore we have not included any web addresses here. l
Action Plan to improve communication Europe by the Commission, Brussels, 24 August 2005 (29.08).
l
Airey, D. & Tribe. J. (2005). An International Handbook of Tourism Education. Elsevier Science.
l
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l
BMBF (2001). In Einem Europa ohne Grenzen Mobilitat fordern - Hindernissen in der beruflichen bildung abbauen.
l
Brandsma, J, Mosch, C and Roemeling, J (2006) MoVE-iT: A study of mobility obstacles and solutions in Initial Vocational Education and Training, CINOP, Netherlands, October
l
Bronneman-Helmers, R. (2006). Duaal als ideaal? Sociaal Cultureel Planbureau.
l
CEPS (2004). A new European Agenda for labour mobility. 3, 8, 12, 20, 28 - 30, 33.
l
Chance-Europe, Thomas à Buchholz. Accessed at: http://www.chance-europe.de/fr/stories/storyd2.html
l
Commission of the European Communities, Commission’s Action Plan for Skills and Mobility, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2002) 72 final, (Brussels, 13/02/2002). http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/en/com/cnc/2002/com2002_0072en01.pdf
l
Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the commission to the council,the European Parliament, the Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Report on the Implementation of the Commission’s Action Plan for Skills and Mobility COM(2002)72 final, Brussels, 6.2.2004 COM (2004a) 66 final.
l
Commission of the European Communities, Proposal for a Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council on transnational mobility within the Community for education and training purposes: European Quality Charter for Mobility (presented by the Commission), Brussels, 23.9.2005 COM(2005a) 450 final, 2005/0179 (COD).
l
Commission of the European Communities, Report from the commission. Interim report on the implementation of the second phase of the Leonardo da Vinci Programme 2000-2006, Brussels, 8.3.2004, COM(2004b) 152 final.
l
Cort, P. (2002). Vocational education and training in Denmark. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Cedefop Panorama Series, The Danish Institute for Educational Training of Vocational Teachers.
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l
Cotton, P. (2001). Vocational education and training in Belgium. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Cedefop Panorama Series.
l
Council_of_Europe (1988). Barriers to youth Mobility.
l
Council_of_Europe (1997). Mobilitatshindernisse fur berufsorientierte deutsch.
l
Declaration of the European Ministers of Vocational Education and Training and the European Commission, convened in Copenhagen on 29 and 30 November 2002, on enhanced European cooperation in vocational educations and training. ‘The Copenhagen Declaration’.
l
Deloitte & Touche (2000). Evaluation on the first phase of the Leonardo da Vinci programme.
l
Dickmann, M. and Harris, H. (2005). Developing Career Capital for Global Careers: The Role of International Assignments. Journal of World Business, 40(4): 399-408.
l
ENSR (the European Network for SME Research): Competence development in SMEs (2003)
l
Ernst & Young (2004). Evaluation of Leonardo Second phase.
l
Esch, W. van , M. Giebels, E, Hümmels & A. Westerhuis (1999). De impact van internationalisering op het primair proces van de AOC’s.
l
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