Field Visit Report

Muthurajawela Sanctuary

A research report submitted in partial fulfillments of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science in Environmental Science and Natural Resources Management Research student, Mr. M.H.A. Wickramanayake, 03/AS/094, EP-279, Department of Natural Resources, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya,

Acknowledgements I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my internal supervisor Dr. P. A. D. E. Kodituwakku and Dr. Sunethra Gunathilake for his assistance, encouragement and generous support during the period of work. Finally, I would like to thank The Ranger and all the members of the staff of Muthurajawela Sanctuary, Sri Lanka for their comments and suggestions to improve the quality of this research work and my thanks are due to all the people who help me in different ways to end up my project work successfully.

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Contents Title

Page No.

Acknowledgement Content List of Figures and Tables Chapter 01 Introduction Chapter 02 Bio Diversity 2.1 Environmental Condition 2.2 Fauna 2.2.1 Mammals 2.2.2 Birds 2.2.3 Reptiles 2.2.4 Amphibians 2.2.5 Fish 2.2.6 Other Fauna Species 2.3 Flora Chapter 03 Uses of Muthurajawela Marsh and economic values 3.1 Economic Value 3.2 Natural Gases Production of Muthurajawela Marsh Chapter 04 Issues in Muthurajawela Sanctuary 4. 1. 1 Land Construction 4. 1. 2 Water pollution 4. 1. 3 Sound pollution 4. 1. 4 Destruction of the natural mangrove 4. 1. 5 Environmental Pollution Control Systems References

1 2 3 4-5

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6 - 11 7-8 9 - 11 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 - 13 12 13 14 - 17 14 15 15 15 16 – 17 18

List of Figures and Tables Figures

Page No.

Figure 01 – Map of Muthurajawela Figure 02 – Land Use Zoning Plan Figure 03 – Monkey Figure 04 – Bat Figure 05 – Bee – Eater Figure 06 – Purple Heron Figure 07 – Python Figure 08 – Salt Crocodile Figure 09 – Tree Frog Figure 10 – Dwarf Toad Figure 11 – Red Snapper Figure 12 – Finned Eel Figure 13 – Lantern Figure 14 – Butterfly Figure 15 – Dutch Canal Figure 16 – Mangrove Fern Figure 17 – Prawns Cultivation Figure 18 – Land Construction Figure 19 – Garbage Figure 20 – The Main Product – and Solid - Waste

5 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 14 14 17

Tables

Page No

Table 01 – Economic Value of Muthurajawela Table 02 – Chemical Composition of Biogas

12 13

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Chapter 01: Introduction Country: Sri Lanka Coordinates: 7°03'N, 79°55'E; Location: Between Hendala and Ja-Ela, 10 km northeast of Colombo, Gampaha District, Western Province. Area: 2,429 ha. Altitude: Near sea level. Biogeographically Province: 4.2.1. Wetland type: 07, 08 & 15. Description of site: A large area of brackish marshes, mangrove swamps and freshwater marshes on the coastal plain of the wet zone, northeast of Colombo. The wetland merges into Negombo Lagoon (site 32) to the Northwest. The main marsh is traversed by a navigational canal (the Hamilton Canal). In 1767, the first reclamation project commenced on the orders of Iman William Flack, the then Governor of Ceylon. Several attempts have since been made to reclaim the area, but mostly with little success because of the acid sulphate soils. Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate; in the low country wet zone. Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps and grassy marshes. Land tenure: The wetland is state owned; surrounding areas are privately owned. Conservation measures taken: None. Conservation measures proposed: As one of the few marshes in the Colombo area which has not yet been reclaimed for agriculture or filled in for development, Muthurajawela Swamp should be protected, not only for the benefit of wetland fauna and flora, but also as a recreational area (Hoffmann, 1987). There is now a movement by local NGOs to have at least essential portions of the marsh protected. Land use: In historic times, the wetland was used for paddy cultivation, but salt intrusion has led to the abandonment of cultivation. Possible changes in land use: The Greater Colombo Economic Commission has put forward a proposal to fill the marsh for housing developments and industrial estates. Disturbances and threats: The principal long-term threat is reclamation for urban and industrial development. Present disturbances include heavy shooting pressure, the cutting of mangroves for poles, over-fishing and illicit manufacture of liquor. Fauna: An important area for a wide variety of water birds, including many herons and egrets, Anastomus oscitans, Dendrocygna javanica and wintering ducks (mainly Anasquer quedula and A. acuta). Waterfowl recorded during the mid-winter censuses in January 1987 and January 1988 included Phalacrocorax carbo, Ixobrychus sinensis, I. flavicollis, Ardeola grayii, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta intermedia (250), Ardea cinerea, Dendrocygna javanica (120), Porphyrio porphyrio, Vanellus indicus and Gallinago stenura. Flora: Mangroves, canals and other species The name Muthurajawela has been derived from Sinhalese language which the majority of Sri Lankans use to communicate. The meaning can be translated in to English simply as “Swamp of Royal Treasure”. Treasures of kings in olden days are believed to be buried in that area. The boundaries span from Negombo lagoon which also helps to create a costal eco system, and 4

Kelaniya River situated at the northern tip of Colombo. Muthurajawela is in close proximity to Colombo. Muthurajawela bears staggering species of flora and fauna. Numerically 192 flora and 209 fauna, excluding 102 species of birds have been discovered. Some indigenous floras and faunas have also been found in Muthurajawela marsh. Visitors may see water birds such as herons, egrets in abundance in the lagoon and the marsh. It is also a residence for 40 different species of fish, of which 15 falls under the category of indigenous fauna. The nocturnal animal, slender Loris, which is believed to be endangered, can be seen once in a blue moon. Muthurajawela marsh has been declared as s sanctuary by the government in 1996 due to its vast bio diversity. Visitors may be assisted by the Muthurajawela marsh centre. The centre educates people about the importance of Muthurajawela.

Figure 01 – A Map of Muthurajawela 5

Chapter 02: Bio Diversity Muthurajawela wetland, located as the west coast of Sri Lanka is the largest coastal peal bag of the island. At present, the biodiversity of Muthurajawela is threatened by unplanned development activities and growing human population. Therefore, an ecological survey was carried out in order to assess the present status of biodiversity in Muthurajawela, and also to identify critical habitats for the conservation and substance of biodiversity. Field monitoring of fauna and flora was carried out at fortnightly intervals, using scientifically accepted rapid biodiversity assessment techniques (fauna - line transects; flora - plots, Braun-Blanquette cover), the data was analyzed using ecological indices (diversity/species richness), and critical habitats were identified using avifauna as a correlate of biodiversity. Ground truthing of vegetation maps was carried out to document changes of major vegetationcommunities. The study enabled to identify 192 species of flora, distributed over seven major vegetation communities at Muthurajawela marsh, lentic flora, reed swamp, short grassland, scrubland, stream bank flora and mangrove swamp. The vertebrate fauna documented included 40 species of fish, 14 species of amphibians, 31 species of reptiles, 102 species of birds and 22 species of mammals. Among the total vertebrate species documented, 17 are endemic, 26 are considered as nationally threatened, while 36 are new records to Muthurajawela. The selected invertebrate species documented consisted of 48 species of butterflies and 22 species odonates, the latter which turned out to be a useful indicator of habitat quality. The threats documented included direct exploitation (poaching, cutting of trees), habitat degradation/modification (land reclamation, dumping of garbage, and clearing of natural vegetation, pollution and eutrophication) and the spread of several alien invasive species (including unmanaged domestic animals). The northern part of the marsh serves as an ecotone, with a mixture of the above plant communities/habitat types which were relatively undisturbed. Analysis carried out using ecological indices highlighted the northern region as a high biodiversity zone, which is critical for the conservation and future sustenance of biodiversity at Muthurajawela. Ground truthing of vegetation maps, supported with results of the vegetation survey showed that the composition of dominant flora has changed over a period of 10 years, in most places in the Muthurajawela Wetland, as a result of human disturbances. Data on the avifauna also highlighted a considerable decrease in migrant birds at Muthurajawela, possibly due to habitat deterioration. The findings have important conservation and management implications, in particular greater emphasis need to be placed on the more critical areas of the marsh. An important policy implication would be the need to avoid any conversions of these critical habitats which harbour rich biodiversity.

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2.1 Environment Condition The Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon a coastal wetland, 6,232 ha in extent, is situated along the west of Sri Lanka, just north of the capital of Colombo. This is situated in JaEla divisional secretariat in Gampaha District of the Western Province of the country. The Muthurajwela and Negombo Lagoon is a wetland ecosystem with many special characteristics. This wetland ecosystem has served multiple uses including fishery, agriculture, trade and shipping and habitation from the past. But during the recent past there has been visible degradation of the ecological complex due to unplanned development. This situation was recognized by the government of Sri Lanka in 1989 and the President issued a directive to prepare a master plan for Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon in order to manage it through an integrated planning process. Based upon this directive, the Greater Colombo Economic Commission now called as Board of Investment (BOI) prepared two technical documents i.e. Environmental Profile and Master plan for Muthurajawela & Negombo Lagoon in 1991. The main management strategy in the plan was the identification of three zones, namely conservation zone, buffer zone and mixed urban zone. The Central Environmental Authority gave the strength to the Master Plan further by identifying Muthurjawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon as a wetland which requires more attention from relevant stakeholders and prepared a Conservation Management Plan in 1994 for the conservation zone and the buffer zone with a view to manage it more sustainable manner while conserving its bio diversity. Conservation zone consists of two parts, i.e.; (1) Negombo Lagoon, which is managed by the Department of Fisheries and (2) the Marshy Area, which managed by the Dept of Wild Life Conservation as a Wild Life Sanctuary. The mixed urban zone is allocated for development. The Buffer Zone is situated between the conservation zone and mixed urban zone. The Buffer Zone, of which extent is 285.422 hectares, plays an important role as a wetland acting as a flood retention area as well as a buffer, which prevent the spread of industrial, residential activities into the conservation zone. The buffer zone consists of vegetation types such as grasses, reeds, sea grasses and cattails and tree species like Anona glabra. It also provides a good habitat for numerous species of fish, birds (both resident and migrant) and mammals. Recognizing this fact, Central Environmental Authority (CEA) decided to declare it as an environmental protection area in order to manage it with more environmental friendly manner. As such, CEA has declared the Buffer Zone as an ‘Environmental Protection Area’ in the gazette (extra-ordinary) No1358/16 dated 15.09.2004, under the section 24C and 24D (1) of the National Environmental Act No.47of 1980 and thereby taking the planning authority in the buffer zone. The Central Environmental Authority is now preparing the management guidelines for the Buffer Zone.

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Where the “Buffer Zone” or the “Environmental Protection Area” (B) has been indicated in green colour.

Figure 02 – Land Use Zoning plan for the 8

2.2 Fauna 2. 2. 1. Mammals The mammals of Muthurajawela consist of 34 species belonging to 14 families, which represent nearly 25% of the island's mammalian fauna. Among them are four nationally threatened species and one endemic species. There are live monkeys and some species of mammals like squirrels, painted bat, slender loris, otter, fishing cat, rusty spotted cat and mouse deer. Two other species the toque macaque and the fruit bat Rosettes seminude are endemic to the island.

Figure 03 – Monkey

Figure 04 – Bat

2. 2. 2. Birds There are important areas for both resident and migratory water birds. The Purple Heron, Cormorants, White Breasted Waterhen, Bee - Eater and the Pied Kingfisher A 1990-91 survey indicated that Muthurajawela is home to 85 resident birds of which four - the reef heron, greyheaded fishing eagle, blue-breasted banded quail and the black-capped kingfisher are threatened. Of the 40 species of migratory birds recorded at the marsh, the Common tern and Indian cormorant are listed as threatened. This area is a vital wintering ground for these species as it is located at the south-western terminus of the three main migratory routes of northern, nonbreeding birds: the Western and Eastern Trans-Indian routes and the Andaman Islands Route. .

Figure 05 – Bee-Eater

Figure 06 – Purple Heron 9

2. 2. 3 Reptiles The reptile population of Muthurajawela boasts of 37 species belonging to 18 families. 14 are threatened including all five endemics - two species of skinks and three snakes. The water monitor lizard is protected under the Wildlife Ordinance of 1979, as is the estuarine crocodile. Monitor lizards and Sri Lanka's largest snake - the Python, is also found here. There are six endemic species while nine are nationally threatened. Interestingly a breeding population of the Estuarine Crocodile and Indian python too occurs in the Northern are of Muthurajawela.

Figure 08 – Salt Crocodile

Figure 07 – Python 2. 2. 4. Amphibians

Fifteen amphibian species are recorded in the wetlands with two of these the endemic greater hourglass tree frog and Atukorale's Dwarf Toad, narrow-mouthed frogs, aquatic frogs.

Figure 10 – Dwarf Toad

Figure 09 – Tree Frog 2. 2. 5 Fish

The fish at Muthurajawela consist of 40 species belonging to 23 families representing 45% of Sri Lanka's native inland fishes. Five species are endemic while five species were nationally threatened. These fish species include freshwater and marine migratory species like level, red snapper and big-eye- trivially. The brackish pools, finned eel, channels and the lagoon hold an array of some fish Species.

Figure 11 – Red Snapper

Figure 12 – Finned Eel 10

2. 2. 6 Other Fauna Species Lobsters, crabs and prawns sharks, Dugongs, stingrays and several species of giant turtles are living here. Dragonflies, Caterpillars, Lanterns, and Butterflies and Snails are some of insects in Muthurajawela.

Figure 13 – Lantern

Figure 14 – Butterfly

2.3 Flora The Muthurajawela has a variety of mangroves and other types of flora including medicinal plants and Canals. The wetland/marsh and lagoon areas constitute a complex ecosystem which is linked to the marine environment. The main habitat types include sea grass beds in the lagoon, mangroves, freshwater marsh and open water areas, In the marsh the vegetation is dominated by grasses, reeds, sedges and cattails, whilst in the open-waters are found mainly lilies and submerged aquatics. On the water margins are found various tree and shrub species. In the lagoon area, the mangroves and sea grass communities predominate. The Rhizophora, Avicennia, Excoecaria, Lumnitzera and Aegiceras, Acrostichum speciosum, the Mangrove Fern, and Nypa fruticans, the Mangrove Palm are some of mangrove genus. No rare endemic or threatened species are reported in the area, although the plant communities are important ecologically as fish breeding and nursery grounds.

Figure 15 – Dutch Canal

Figure 16 – Mangrove Fern

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Chapter 03: Uses of Muthurajawela Marsh and economic values 3.1 Economic Value This coastal wetland, situated at the doorstep of the most densely populated and economically important urban area of Sri Lanka, serves many uses and provides numerous services, both for people and for nature. Habitat for numerous plant and animal species            

Lagoon fishery supporting 3,000 household Nursery for coastal shrimp and fish Source of wood, vegetables, and medicines Anchorage (15% of Sri Lanka’s fishing fleet) Flood protection for the environs Green lung in the greater Colombo area Tourist area (>200 hotel room) Ecosystem research area Expansion area for housing and industry Safe approach and take off way for planes Sink for industrial effluent (>100 industries) Sink for urban waste (>200,000 people)

Figure 17 – Prawn Cultivation

The total economic worth of the estuarine system exceeds 1,000 million rupees annually. Clearly, Sri Lanka cannot afford to lose this valuable life support system; on the contrary: all users are benefited by its continuous and sustainable productive capacity. Without active management, however, the area will lose its worth quickly. Already encroachment, increased siltation and pollution show their negative effects on fish production and on animal and human health: fish skin ulcers are more and more common, and waterborne diseases thrive.

Table 01 – Economic Value of Muthurajawela 12

3.2 Natural Gases Production of Muthurajawela Marsh Natural gas is generated when bacteria degrade biological material in the absence of oxygen, in a process known as anaerobic digestion. Since biogas is a mixture of methane (also known as CH4) and carbon dioxide. Anaerobic digestion is basically a simple process carried out in a number of steps that can use almost any organic material as a substrate - it occurs in digestive system in Muthurajawela Marsh. Humans tend to make the process as complicated as possible by trying to improve on nature in complex machines but a simple approach is still possible. A biogas plant is the name often given to an anaerobic digester that treats farm wastes or energy crops. Biogas can be produced utilizing anaerobic digesters. These plants can be fed with energy crops such as maize silage or biodegradable wastes including sewage sludge and food waste. Landfill gas is produced by organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a landfill. The waste is covered and compressed mechanically and by the weight of the material that is deposited from above. This material prevents oxygen from accessing the waste and anaerobic microbes thrive. This gas builds up and is slowly released into the atmosphere if the landfill site has not been engineered to capture the gas. Landfill gas is hazardous for three key reasons. Landfill gas becomes explosive when it escapes from the landfill and mixes with oxygen. The lower explosive limit is 5% methane and the upper explosive limit is 15% methane. The methane contained within biogas is 20 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Therefore uncontained landfill gas which escapes into the atmosphere. The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic digestion process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 55-75%CH4. In some cases biogas contains siloxanes. These siloxanes are formed from the anaerobic decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During combustion of biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is released and can combine with free oxygen or various other elements in the combustion gas. Deposits are formed containing mostly silica (SiO2) or silicates (SixOy) and can also contain calcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphors. Matter

%

Methane, CH4

50-75

Carbon dioxide, CO2

25-50

Nitrogen, N2

0-10

Hydrogen, H2

0-1

Hydrogen sulfide, H2S

0-3

Oxygen, O2

0-2

Table 02 – Chemical Composition of Biogas 13

Chapter 04: Issues in Muthurajawela Sanctuary The wetland however, faces many environmental problems due to the changes in the catchment as previously described and by an increased external demand on the lagoon and wetland for other purposes related to the expansion of the urban area. Problems identified in the marshland relate to encroachments (land take), habitat degradation and pollution and in the lagoon to sedimentation and maintenance of tidal exchange related to human impact (mangrove plantation) in outlet area, habitat degradation by destructive fishing, industrial and human pollution (recipient of untreated waste) and oil pollution from vessels. Some 25 five acres of land adjoining the Muthurajawela environmental protection area have been earmarked to dump thousand of tons of garbage from Colombo city – amid warnings by residents and environmentalists that a dirty time bomb was being wired for the people of the area. In a bid to facilitate the disposal of garbage a special gazette notification was issued under the National Environmental Act. This Act excluded a 400-metre stretch of land running parallel to a water way which was previously reserved under the Muthurajawela environmental protection area. The extent of land to be set aside for garbage disposal was not immediately known, but it is likely to be not less than twenty five acres. The fate that residents fear might befall Muthurajawela if garbage dumping goes ahead. The following facts have been clearly visible by the victims, 1. Land Construction. 2. Water pollution. 3. Sound (noise) pollution. 4. Destruction of the natural mangrove. 4. 1. 1 Land Construction The building construction limit of the Muthurajawela area has been illegally extended by the construction of certain buildings and houses. Some platforms have been constructed by destroying the mangrove. These platforms have been directly constructed in the water area of the lagoon. Main purpose of these platforms is to held parties and weddings, resulting the waste to flow freely into the lagoon for disposal. Removal of sand, reclamation for housing and other building construction and industry have produced negative effects towards the integrity of Muthurajawela.

Figure 18 – Land Construction

Figure 19 – Garbage 14

4. 1. 2 Water pollution It is clearly visible that the drain of the waist water containing soap is directly connected to the lagoon where normally the birds and crabs reside. Many broken liquor bottles and washed waste water are dumped into the lagoon. Talking of low-income residential areas- the huge expanse of the Muthurajawela marsh has been continually subjected to illegal encroachment, despite it being a fairly hostile place to live. One of the main problems on the marsh is that the ground water there is unsuitable for drinking. An attempt was made to evaluate possible impacts of some selected trace contaminants in the lagoon ecosystem. Distribution pattern of Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu and Pb in the water, sediment and commercially exploitable fish species were studied during January to December 1993. The trace metals were analyzed using flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Inter metallic correlations between the tissues of fish species and the biologically available fraction of metals in the surface sediments was analyzed. Iron was found to be the most abundant trace metal in all fish species, sediment as well as in the water column. Despite variations in metal concentration of water and sediments from these areas, levels of metals in the muscle tissues of fish generally were similar among areas. The data also suggests the possibility of elevated Pb concentration in muscles from the basin. Furthermore, the metal concentrations in fish flesh were lower than that of invertebrates. Maximum concentration of each of the metals found in the fish lie within the range recommended by NRC (1980). The concentration factor (Kd) for Iron between sediment water was the highest (106) and the highest Kd between soft tissues and water was observed for Zinc (104). All the five metals analyzed were positively correlated in the fish, only a few combinations (Cu/Zn, Cu/Pb and Zn/Pb) were significantly correlated. Metal concentrations decreased in these species with high salinity and low pH. 4. 1. 3 Sound pollution As a result of the ceremonial and other party occasions the surrounding environment is highly polluted by sound. also the use of ceremonial fire crackers the existence of the wild animals are force to leave their natural habitats and are now hiding in surrounding homes and gardens. Also they are having regular music as to keep the hotel guests entertained, which is so loud the nearby resident can’t even listen to the TV or to have a conversation is even impossible. 4. 1. 4 Destruction of the natural mangrove The mangrove was cut and cleared gradually without making a sharp distinction to the authorities and filled with soil over the natural mud and water to gain land for the construction of the buildings.

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4.2 Environmental Pollution Control Systems Assessing site suitability is one of the most important procedures adopted by the CEA for nonprescribed activities which are not prescribed under the EIA regulations. All proposed industrial activities which are going to be sited outside the industrial estates approved under part IV C of the National Environmental Act those which are provided with proper environmental infrastructure facilities such as common waste water treatment systems etc. are required to adopt and manage with environmentally sound pollution control measures before the operational stage. Therefore all potential industrial sites or the establishment of new industrial activities which are not subject to EIA , particularly the small and Medium scale industries (SMIS) are advised to obtain environmental recommendation from the CEA for the proposed sites. In considering the suitability, the proposed sites are evaluated in terms of its compatibility with respect to the zoning plans of relevant local Authorities surrounding land use, provisions of buffer zones, and the capacity of the area to receive additional pollution load and waste disposal requirements. The main objective of the environmental recommendation procedure is to take adequate mitigatory measures in advance to abate or minimize the anticipated environment pollution arising from a proposed industrial activity. The Cleaner Production is not a new concept in Sri Lanka and it has been recommended in the Chapter 12, Section 12.3 of the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP-1998-2000). NEAP 2002-2006 is being developed by the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources with increase contribution towards Cleaner Production. Even, under the UNIDO, various waste minimization programmes have been carried out for selected industries. One of the important principles, which advocated by the National Industrial Pollution Management Policy Statement is “Pollution Prevention at Source”. Other Pollution Control System is Recycling garbage. Organic waste consists of materials that will naturally degrade within a reasonable time period. It can be composted or converted into methane (biogas), and some of it can be fed to animals. Paper and cardboard waste are essentially also a form of organic waste. When too dirty, they can be recycled or re-used (e.g. for rapping, as bags or envelopes, and for writing on the unused side). When dirty, they could be composed, but caution may be needed because of the printing ink.

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Figure 20 – The main product- and solid-waste

Glass can be recycled, and glass bottles can be re-used. Other silicate (stony) materials can be used in things like road construction, but might first need to be grinded. Most metals can be recycled. Care should be taken with dumping, as heavy metals can cause serious pollution. Plastics will degrade naturally, but only very slowly. Addition of certain materials during production can speed up this process. Some types of plastic waste (mostly PET, PE and PP) can be recycled mechanically, but will have to be sorted and cleaned. Tertiary (chemical) recycling of plastics is also possible, and can often handle more contaminated waste, but these techniques are not yet widely available. Detaining Awareness Programmes are the other Environmental Pollution Control System and they will provide the good attitude of human.

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References http://www.competitiveness.lk/eco/muthurajawela.htm http://www.info.lk/srilanka/srilankabirds/muturajawela.htm http://www.flickr.com/photos http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20030727/news.htm http://www.nationalgeography.nl http://cms.iucn.org/about/work/programmes/water/wp_resources/wp_resources_thematic/index.c fm http://www.dailynews.lk/2004/10/27/fea02.html http://www.unescap.org/DRPAD/VC/conference/bg_lk_5_mmn.htm http://www.efl.lk/pdf/Biosphere Vol 22 (2) - June 2006.pdf http://www.naturetrek.co.uk/dossiers http://www.cea.lk/muthubuffer.htm http://environmentlanka.blogspot.com/2006/07/destruction-of-mangrove-and-pollution.htm http://dw.iwmi.org/wetland/SriLankanWetland_Introduction.aspx http://en.wikipedia.org 

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