3

]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw cmk-_-‘-\hpw

Nn{Xw I≠-t√m. GsXms° km[\kma{Kn-I-fmWv ChnsS D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øn-bn-cn°p-∂Xv? cmhnse Fgp-t∂‰v kvIqfn¬ FØp-∂Xphsc Fs¥ms° hkvXp-°ƒ \n߃ I≠p? Fs¥ms° D]-I-c-W-߃ \n߃ ssIImcyw sNbvXp? Btem-Nn®p t\m°q. GsX√mw ]Zm¿Y- ß ƒ sIm≠mWv Ch- s b√mw \n¿an- ® n- c n- ° p∂Xv? ]´n-I-s∏-Sp-Øm-at√m? sshhn-[y-am¿∂ ]Zm¿Y-ß-fpsS temIØmWp \mw Pohn-°p-∂-Xv. hyXykvX khn-ti-j-X-I-fp≈ CØcw ]Zm¿Y-ßsf√mw D≠m-bn-cn-°p-∂-Xv aqe-I-ß-fpsS IqSn-t®-c-ep--Iƒ sIm≠m-sW∂p \n߃ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠v. ]Zm¿Y\n¿an-Xn-bnse ASnÿm\LS-I-ßfmWv aqe-I-߃.  ]©- k m- c - b nse LS- I - a q- e - I - ß ƒ

CXp-t]mse at‰sXms° kwbp-‡-ßfnse aqe- I - ß ƒ \n߃°p ]cn- N n- X amWv? ]´n-I-s∏-Sp-ØpI. kwbp‡w

$ Pew

LSI -aq-e-I-߃

................................

$ $ ]´nI 3.1

F.Un. 1800 Ifn¬ tIhew ap∏Xp aqe-I߃ am{X-amWv Adn-bs - ∏-´n-cp-∂X - v. F.Un. 1860 Bbt∏m- t g°pw AXns‚ Cc- ´ ntbmfw aqe-I-߃ Is≠-Øn. XpS¿∂tßm´v IqSp-X¬ aqe-I-߃ Is≠-Øm\pw NneXv Ir{Xn-aa - mbn \n¿an-°m\pw a\p-jy\p Ign-™p. aqe-I-ßfpsS Hcp ]´nI F´mw Xc- Ø nse "ASn- ÿ m\imkv { X- Ø n¬' \n߃ ]cn-N-b-s∏-´n-´p-≠v.

GsXm-s°-bmWv?  F{X aqe-I-߃ AXn¬ {Iao-I-cn-®n-

´p≠v?

`uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 25

 GsXms° coXn-bn¬ Ah Xcw-Xn-cn-

KpW- ß - f n¬ {]I- S - a mb hyXym- k - ß ƒ ImWn-°p-∂XpsIm≠m-bn-cn-°p-at√m aqeI-ßsf hn`n∂ {Kq∏p-I-fmbn XcwXncn-®ncn-°p-∂-Xv.

®n-´p≠v?

 teml-ß-fmtWm Atem-l-ß-fmtWm

teml-ß-fpsS Imcy-sa-SpØp t\m°q. Ahbv°n-S-bn¬ KpW-ß-fn¬ kmayap≈-hbpw hyXym-k-ap-≈-hbpw ImWp∂pt≠m?

IqSp-X¬?

IqSp-X¬ aqe-I-߃ Is≠-Øn-b-tXmsS Ah-bpsS khn-ti-j-X-I-sf°p-dn-®p≈ ]T\- ß fpw AXns‚ ASn- ÿ m- \ - Ø n- e p≈ h¿Ko- I - c W{iahpw imkv { X- t em- I - Ø p kPo-h-am-bn.

Nne teml-aqe-IßfpsS kz`mhw \ap°v ]cn-N-b-s∏-Smw (]´nI 3.2). CXnse km[y-amb cmk{]h¿Ø-\-߃ So®-dpsS klm-b-tØmsS sNbvXpt\m°q.

aqe-I-߃ h¿Ko-I-cn°m-\p≈ BZy-Ime-{ia߃°v XpS- ° - a n- ´ Xv {^©v imkv{X- ⁄ \mb emthm- k nsb Bbn- c p- ∂ p. 1789 ˛¬ A∂-dn-b-s∏-´n-cp∂ ap∏Xp aqe- I - ß sf At‚m-bn≥ emthm-knsb At±lw teml-߃ F∂pw Atem-l߃ F∂pw XcwXncn®p. teml-ß-fpsS s]mXp-Kp-W-ßfpw Ateml-ß-fp-sS s]mXpKpW-ßfpw \n߃ a\ n- e m- ° n- b n´p≠v . GsXms°bmWh? Hm¿Øpt\m°q.

kam\kz`m-hß - ƒ ImWn-°p∂ aqe-Iß - ƒ GsXm-s°-bmWv?

Atem-l-߃ XΩnepw KpW-ß-fn¬ CØc-Øn-ep≈ hyXymkw ImWn-°mdp-≠v. DZml-c-W-Øn\v, HmIvkn-Ps‚ kz`m-h-Øn¬ \n∂v F{Xtbm hyXy-kvX-amWv Im¿_Wns‚ kz`mhw. F¶n¬ aqe-I-ß-fpsS h¿Ko-I-c-W-Øn\v IqSp-X¬ sa®-s∏´ km[y-X-Iƒ At\z-jnt°-≠-X-t√? aqe-I-ßsf°pdn-®p≈ ]T-\-Øn¬ tPm¨ Umƒ´s‚ (John Dalton) At‰m- a nI kn≤m¥w Hcp hgn-Øn-cn-hm-bn-cp-∂p. Hmtcm aqe- I - Ø n- s ‚bpw B‰- Ø n\v \n m- c - s a¶nepw \n›n- X - a mb amkv Ds≠∂v

Pe-hp-am-bp≈ {]h¿Ø\w

t\¿∏n® Bkn-Up-am-bp≈ {]h¿Ø\w

tkmUnbw

Xo{h-amb -{]h¿Ø\w

Ccpºv

temlw

{Zh-Wm¶w

km{µX

Xo{h-amb {]h¿Ø\w

980C

0.97g/cm3

XWpØ Pe-hp-ambn -{]h¿Ø-\-an√

kmh-[m-\-Øn¬ {]h¿Øn®v ssl{U-P≥ D≠m-Ip∂p

15370C

7.87g/cm3

s]m´m-kyw

Xo{h-amb {]h¿Ø\w

Xo{h-amb {]h¿Ø\w

640C

0.86g/cm3

kn¶v

{]h¿Ø\w Zriy-am-Ip-∂n√

ssl{U-P≥ hmXIw D≠m-Ip∂p

4190C

7.1g/cm3

kn¬h¿

{]h¿Ø-\-an√

{]h¿Ø-\-an√

9620C

10.5g/cm3

]´nI: 3.2 - m-kv{X-߃ 26 `uXn-Ii

Umƒ´¨ Is≠-Øn. CXv km[m-cW coXnbn¬ Af∂p I≠p-]n-Sn-°m≥ Ign-bm-Ø{Xbpw sNdp-Xm-Wv. F¶n¬, Fß-s\-bmWv B‰-Øns‚ amkv {]kvXm-hn-°p-∂-sX∂p t\m°mw.

Bt]-£nI At‰m-anI amkv Hcp hkv X p- h ns‚ \ofw IW- ° - m °m≥ Fs¥ms° am¿K- ß - f mImw? ¢mkv a pdnbnse Ukv ° ns‚ \of- a - f - ° m≥ t\m´v _p°ns‚ \ofw D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Ømtam? t\m´v _p°ns‚ \ofw Hcp bqWn‰v Xmc-Xay-\ofw F∂p IW-°m°n ¢mkvapdn-bnse Ukv I n- s ‚bpw a‰p hkv X p- ° - f psSbpw \ofhpw hoXnbpw IW-°m-°m-w. CXp-t]mse Xmc-Xay `mc-߃ D]-tbm-Kn®v sNdnb hkvXp-°-fpsS `mchpw Is≠-Øma- t √m. Cßs\ Hcp hkv X p- h n- s ‚tbm AXns‚ \n›nX `mK-Øn-s‚tbm amkpambn Xmc- X ayw sNbv X v a‰p- ≈ - h - b psS amkv {]kvXm-hn-°p∂ coXn-bmWv Bt]£nI amkv (relative mass). B‰-ß-fpsS amkpw Cßs\ {]kvXm-hn-°m-w. CXns\ Bt]-£nI At‰m-anI amkv F∂p ]dbp∂p. B‰-ß-fn¬ G‰hpw sNdpXpw amkv Ipd™Xpw ssl{U-P≥ B‰-am-Wv. CXns‚ amkns\ Hcp bqWn-‰mbn ]cn-K-Wn-®p-sIm≠m-bn-cp∂p ap≥Ime-ß-fn¬ a‰p aqe-I-ßfpsS Bt]-£nI At‰m-anI amkv {]kvXmhn-®n-cp-∂-Xv. CX-\p-k-cn®v HmIvkn-P≥ B‰Øns‚ amkv ssl{U- P ≥ B‰- Ø ns‚ amkns‚ GXm≠v 16 aS-ßm-sW∂v I≠p. (Nn{Xw 3.1 Hcp {]Xo-ImflI Nn{XoI-cWw).

Hcp O B‰w

16H B‰w

At‰m-anI amkv bqWn‰v (Atomic mass unit) imkv { Xo- b - a mb Imc- W - ß - f m¬ C∂v Im¿_¨ - 12 B‰Øns‚

1 12

`mK-amWv

bqWn‰mbn kzoI-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂X - v. CXmWv Hcp At‰m-anI amkv bqWn‰v Ct∏mƒ CXns\ bqWn-ss^Uv amkv [unified mass (u)] F∂mWp hnfn-°p-∂-Xv. HmIvkn-Ps‚ Bt]-£nI At‰m-an-Ia - mkv 16 F∂p {]kv X m- h n- ° p- ∂ - X n- \ ¿Yw HmIvknP≥ B-‰-Øns‚ amkv Im¿_¨ -12 B‰Øns‚ amkns‚

1 12

`mK-Øns‚

16 aSßv F∂m-Wv.

Nne aqe- I - ß - f psS At‰m- a nI amkv G‰hpw ASpØ Zimwi-kwJy/ ]q¿WkwJymcq]-Øn¬ Xmsg sImSp-°p-∂p. {_m°-‰n¬ bYm¿Y At‰m-anI amkv sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂p. aqeIw

At‰m-anI amkv (u)

ssl{U-P≥

1 (1.008)

Im¿_¨

12 (12.011)

ss\{S-P≥

14 (14.007)

HmIvkn-P≥

16 (15.999)

tkmUnbw

23 (22.99)

t¢mdn≥

35.5 (35.45) 24 (24.3)

sa·ojyw ]´nI 3.3

`qcn-]£w aqe-I-߃°pw H∂n-e-[nIw sFtkm-tSm-∏p-I-fp≈Xn\m¬ sFtkmtSm-∏p-I-fpsS icm-icn amkmWv Bt]£nI At‰m-anI amkmbn IW-°m-°p∂-Xv. At‰m-anI amkns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn-¬ aqeI-ß-fpsS h¿Ko-I-cWØn\p≈ {ia-amWv imkv{X⁄¿ ]n∂oSp \S-Øn-b-Xv.

Nn{Xw 3.1 `uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 27

sUm_ssd\-dp-sS {XnI-߃ (Triads) emthm-kn-sb°v tijw h¿Ko-I-c-W-Øn\p≈ {][m\ Nph-Sp-hbv]v \S-Øn-bXv F.Un. 1829 ˛¬ P¿a≥ imkv{X-⁄-\mb sUm_-ssd-\¿ (Dobereiner) BWv. aqeI--ßsf kam\KpW-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Øn¬, aq∂v aqe-Iß - ƒ - hoX-aS- ß - nb sNdp -{Kq-∏p-I-fm-°msa∂ Bi-b-amWv At±lw Ah-X-cn-∏n-®-Xv. Chbv°v {XnI-߃ (Triads) F∂v t]cpan´p. sUm_-ssd-\¿ Is≠- Ø nb {XnI- ß ƒ Xmsg sImSp-°p∂p. sUm_-ssd-\¿ (1780˛1849)

(At‰m- a nI amkmWv Hmtcm- ∂ n- \ pw t\sc sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂-Xv).

Li

7

Ca

40

Na

23

Sr 87.6

Br

80

K

39

Ba 137.3

I

127

Cl 35.5

{XnI- ß - f n¬ H∂m- a - s Øbpw aq∂m- a sØbpw aqe-Iß - f - psS At‰m-anI amkns‚ GI- t Ziw icm- i - c n- b mWv a[y- ` m- K Øv hcp∂ aqe-I-Øns‚ At‰m-anI amkv. AhbpsS kz`m-h-Ønepw CØ-c-samcp _‘w At±lw Is≠-Øn. A∂-dn-b-s∏-´n-cp∂ F√m- aq-e-I-ßsfbpw CØ-c-Øn¬ {IaoI-cn-°m≥ Ign-bm-ØXv sUm_-ssd-\-dpsS h¿Ko-I-c-W-Øns‚ Hcp t]mcm-bva-bm-Wv.

ck-X-{¥-Ønse kwKoXw Cw•ojv ck- X - { ¥- ⁄ - \ mb tPm¨ \yqem≥Uvkv (John Newlands) aqe-Iß - ƒ At‰m-anI amkns‚ Btcm-l-W-{I-a-Øn¬ hn\y-kn®t∏mƒ F´m-aXp hcp∂ Hmtcm aqe-Ihpw KpW-ß-fn¬ BZy-tØ-Xns‚ Bh¿Ø-\-am-sW∂p Is≠-Øn. At±lw s]s´-t∂m¿Øp t]mbXv kwKo-X-Ønse k]vXkzc-ßsf-bm-Wv. k, cn, K, a, ], [, \n, k..... F´mw kzcw BZy-tØ-Xns‚ Bh¿Ø-\w. AXp-t]m-se-bmWv aqe-I- m-kv{X-߃ 28 `uXn-Ii

ßfpsS kz`m-h-߃! CXv AjvSI\nbaw (law of octaves) F∂- d n- b - s ∏- S p∂p. \yqem≥Uvkns‚ aqeI {Iao-Ic - Ww t\m°q. 1 H

2 Li

3 Be

4 B

5 C

6 N

7 O

8 F

9 Na

10 Mg

11 Al

12 Si

13 P

14 S

15 Cl

16 K

17 Ca

hfsc°pd®p aqe-I-߃ am{Xta CØ-cØn¬ {Iao-I-cn-°m≥ Ign-bp∂p≈psh¶nepw At‰m-anI amkn\-\p-k-cn®v aqe-I߃ {Iao- I - c n- ° p- t ºmƒ Bh¿Ø\ kz`mhw ImWm≥ Ign-bp∂psh∂Xv aqeI h¿Ko-I-c-W-Øn\v ]pXnb Znim-t_m[w \¬In.

hcp-∂q... ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ! djy≥ imkv{X-⁄-\mb Znan{Xn Chm-t\mhn®v sa≥U-en-tb^v (Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev) BWv aqeI h¿Ko-Ic - WØn\v Iptd-°qSn IrXy-amb kw`m-h\ \¬In-bXv. ck-X{¥]T-\-Øn\v imkv{Xo-b-amb ASn-Ø-d-sbm-cp-°nb ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfns‚ D]-⁄m-Xm-hmWv sa≥U-en-tb^v. F.Un. 1869˛¬ A∂-dn-b-s∏-´n-cp∂ 63 aqeI-ß-sf-∏‰n ]Tn-°p-Ibpw Ah-bpsS t]cpw At‰m-anI amkpw khn-tij kz`mhßfpw hyXykvX Im¿UpIfn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-ØpIbpw sNbvXp. kam-\kzm`mh-ap≈ aqe-Iß-fpsS Im¿Up-Iƒ Hcp {Kq∏m°n h®p. Ah-bpsS At‰m-anI amkpIƒ Xmc-X-ays∏- S p- Ø n. Aßs\ h¿j- ß - t fmfw \o≠p\n∂ kq£va]T-\-Øn-eqsS At‰manI amkv IqSp-∂-Xn-\-\p-k-cn®v aqe-I-kz`m-h-߃ {Ia-ambn Bh¿Øn-°p∂ Imcyw At±lw Dd-∏n-®p. CXns‚ ASn-ÿm-\Øn¬ aqe-I-߃ h¿Ko-I-cn-°p-Ibpw ]ncntbm-UnIv tS_n-fn\v cq]w \¬Ip-Ibpw sNbvXp. aqe-I-ß-fpsS {Iam-h¿Ø\ {]hWX Is≠-Ønb sa≥U-en-tb^v 1869 ¬ ]ncn- t bm- U nIv \nbaw (periodic law) {]kvXm-hn-®p.

Group

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

Oxide Hydride

R2O RH

RO RH2

R2O3 RH3

RO2 RH4

R2O5 RH3

RO3 RH2

R2O7 RH

RO4

Periods

A

B A

B A

1

H 1.008

2

Li 6.939

Be 9.012

B 10.81

C 12.011

N 14.007

O 15.999

F 18.998

3

Na 22.99

Mg 24.31

Al 29.98

Si 28.09

P 30.974

S 32.06

Cl 35.453

4 First K Ca ............ series 39.102 40.08 Second Cu Zn ............ series: 63.54 65.37

B A

B A

B A

B A

B

Transition series

Ti V Cr Mn Fe 47.90 50.94 50.20 54.94 55.85 ............ As Se Br 74.92 78.96 79.909

Co Ni 58.93 58.71

5 First Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd series 85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 99 101.07 102.91 106.4 Second Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I series: 107.87 112.04 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90 6 First Cs Ba La Hf Ta series 132.90 137.34 138.91 178.49 180.95 Second Au Hg Ti Pb Bi series: 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.98

W 183.85

Os 190.2

Ir Pt 192.2 195.09

sa≥U-en-tb^ns‚ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ

$ aqe- I - ß - f psS KpW- ß ƒ Ah- b psS At‰m-anI amkns\ B{i-bn-®n-cn-°p∂p. $ At‰m-anI amkns‚ Btcm-l-W-{I-aØn¬ aqe-I-߃ {Iao-I-cn-°p-tºmƒ Ah-bpsS KpW-߃ Hcp {Ia-amb CSth-f-bv°pti-jw Bh¿Øn®p hcp-∂Xmbn ImWp-∂p. ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ IpØ-s\-bp≈ tImf-ßsf {Kq∏p-Iƒ F∂pw hne-ßs - \-bp≈ \nc-Isf ]ncn-b-Up-Iƒ F∂pw ]d-bp-∂p. sa≥U-en-tb^ns‚ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfn¬ aqe-I-h¿Ko-I-c-W-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm\w At‰m-anI amkm-sW∂v ]´n-I-bn¬ \n∂p a\- n-em-°m-at√m.  apºv \n߃ ]cn-N-b-s∏-´Xpw kam-\-

Kp-W-߃ ImWn-°p-∂-Xp-amb aqe-I߃ AWn-\n-c-°p-∂Xv Fhn-sS-bmWv? {Kq∏ntem ]ncn-b-Untem?

aqe-I-ß-fpsS ]´n-Ibv°v {Iam-h¿Ø\ ]´nI (periodic table) F∂ t]cp h∂Xv F¥p-sIm-≠m-bn-cn°pw? Bh¿Ø\\nba-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn Nn¥n-®p-t\m-°q.

ta∑-Ifpw t]mcm-bva-Ifpw $ At‰m-anI amkv IqSnhcp∂ {Ia-Øn¬ aqe- I - ß ƒ hn\y- k n®v kam- \ - K p- W ßfp≈ aqe-IßfpsS -{Kq-∏p-Ifm°n am‰m-\mWv sa≥U-en-tb^v {ian-®-Xv. CXn-\mbn Nne aqe-I-ß-fpsS At‰manI amkv At±-lw Xncp-Øp-I-Xs∂ sNbvXp. Hcp-Zm-l-cWw t\m°q. s_co- e n- b - Ø ns‚ A∂- d n- b - s ∏- ´ n- c p∂ At‰m-anI amkv 14 Bbn-cp-∂p. s_coenbw cmk- ] - c - a mbn sa·o- j yw, Im¬knbw F∂o teml- ß - f p- a mbn `uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 29

$ sa≥U-en-tb^v ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfn¬ At‰m-anI amkns‚ Btcm-l-W{Iaw IrXy-ambn ]men-°p-∂pt≠m? Co, Ni, Te, I F∂nh ]cn-tim-[n-°p-I. Co 58.93

Ni 58.69

Te 127.6

I 126.9

Btcm-l-W-{Iaw sX‰n-®Xv F¥n-\m-bncn°mw? At‰m-anI amkns‚ Btcm-l-W{I-a-tØ-°mƒ {]m[m\yw cmk-Kp-W-ßfpsS kmay- Ø n\p \¬In- b - X p- s Im≠mtWm? $ kam\kz`m- h - a p≈ aqe- I - ß ƒ Htc {Kq∏n¬ hc- W - s a- ∂ p- ≈ - X p- s Im≠v Xs∂ sa≥U-en-tb-^n\v ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse Nne I≈n-Iƒ Hgn-®n-tS-≠Xmbn h∂p. Hgn™ I≈n-I-fn¬ s]SptØ≠ aqe-Iß - ƒ C\nbpw Is≠-tØ≠-h-bm-sW∂pw `mhn-bn¬ Ah Is≠Øp-sa∂pw At±lw {]h-Nn-®p. Aepan-\n-b-Øn\pw knen-°Wn\pw Xmsg Hgn™ I≈n-I-fn¬ aqe-I-ßsf bYm{Iaw GI Aep-an-\nbw, GI knen°¨ F∂mWv At±lw hnfn-®-Xv. ChbpsS kz`mhw IqSn {]h- N n- ° m≥ At±lw ss[cyw ImWn-®p. sa≥U-en-tb^v Bh¿Ø-\-\n-baw {]Jym]n® 1869 \p tijw Bdp-h¿jw XnI-™t∏mƒ "GI Aep-an-\nbw' I≠p-]n-Sn-°s - ∏-´p. aqe-I-Øns‚ ]pXnb t]cv tamtU¨ ]ncntbm-UnIv tS_nƒ t\m°n a\- n-em-°q. GI Aep-an-\n-b-Øns‚ {Zh-Wm-¶sØ-°pdn®v sa≥U-en-tb^v ]d-™Xp t\m°q: ""Rm\-sXs‚ ssIbn¬ ]nSn-®m¬ aXn. AXv DcpIpw.'' Kmen-b-Øns‚ {Zh-Wm¶w

- m-kv{X-߃ 30 `uXn-Ii

30.2 0C BWv . \ΩpsS ico- c Xm- ] - \ ne 370C bpw. F{X IrXy-amb {]h-N\w!

Bh¿Ø\\nbasØbpw ]´n- I - s bbpw AwKo- I - c n- ° m≥ aSn- ® p- \ n∂ A∂sØ imkv{X-tem-IsØ Cu {]h-N-\-Øns‚ IrXyX A¤p-Xs - ∏-Sp-ØpI Xs∂ sNbvXp. sa≥U-en-tb^v]ncn-tbm-UnIvtS_nƒ IqSpX¬ Adn- b - s ∏- S m≥ XpS- ß n- b - t XmsS AXnse Nne \yq\-X-Ifpw {i≤n-°-s∏-´p. {Kq∏v˛1 ¬ hn\y-kn® aqe-I-߃ t\m°q. (]´nI 3.4). {Kq∏v˛1  Ch- s b√mw kam\KpWA B ߃ D≈-h-bmtWm?  Hcp Atem-lamb ssl{U-

]ncn-bUv

kmayw ]pe¿Øp-∂p. AXn-\m¬ Chsb Htc {Kq∏n-em°n s_co-en-b-Øns‚ At‰manI amkv ]p\¿-\n¿Wbw sNbvX-t∏mƒ 9 F∂p Is≠-Øn. CXp icn-sb∂v ]n∂oSp sXfn-bp-Ibpw sNbvXp.

1 H

Ps\ Cu {Kq∏n¬ Dƒs∏2 Li Sp-Ømtam?  t k m U n - b - Ø n - s ‚ b p w 3 Na

s]m´m-ky-Øn-s‚bpw AtX {Kq∏n¬ tIm∏-dn\pw kn¬h- d n\pw ÿm\w \¬In-bXp icn-bmtWm? Ah-bpsS kz`m-h-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn hni-I-e\w

4 K

Cu

5 Rb Ag 6 Cs Au ]´nI 3.4

sNøq.

\nK-a-\-߃ kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏Sp-Øp-I. sa≥U-en-tb^v At±-lØns‚ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ Ah- X - c n- ∏ n® ImeØv Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ t]mepw I≠p-]n-Sn-°s - ∏´n- c p- ∂ n- √ . F∂n- ´ pt]mepw ASp°pw Nn´bp- a n- √ mØ ASp- ° f sa≥U-en-tb^v t]msesb∂v A∂v (1834˛1907) hnti-jn-∏n-°-s∏-´n-cp∂ ck- X - { ¥- ] - T - \ - Ø n\v imkv { Xo- b - a mb ASn-Ø-dsbmcp-°m≥ sa≥U-en-tb^v ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn\p Ign-™p. At±l-tØm-Sp≈ _lp-am-\m¿Yw 101˛mw aqeI-Øn\v sa≥U-en-tb-hnbw F∂p \maI-cWw sNbvXn-´p-≠v.

`uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 31

Actinones

Lanthanones

teml-߃

D]teml-߃

At‰m-anI \º¿ t]cv {]XoIw At‰m-anI amkv Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw

INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS

TRANSITION ELEMENTS

Ateml-߃

kqN\

B‰w LS-\bpw tamtU¨ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw

\n߃°p Is≠-Øm-\m-hpI? \nK-a\ - ß - ƒ kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.

B‰-Øns‚ LS-\-sb-°p-dn-®p≈ ]pXnb Is≠-Ø-ep-Ifpw Adn-hp-Ifpw aqe-I-kz-`mhsØ kq£va-ambn ]cn-tim-[n-°p-∂-Xn\v If-sam-cp-°n. CXp {]tbm-P-\-s∏-Sp-Øns°m≠v ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fnse aqe-Iß-fpsS ÿm\sØbpw Ah-bpsS kz`m-hsØbpw Ipdn®v tamkven \S-Ønb ]T-\߃ aqe-I-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm\KpW-߃ At‰m- a nI \º- d n- s \- b mWv , At‰m- a nI amkn- s \- b √ B{i- b n- ® n- c n- ° p- ∂ - s X∂ Is≠Ø-en-te-°mWp \bn-®-Xv.

tamtU¨ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ ]cn-tim[n®v Xmsg- ]-d-bp∂ Imcy-߃ Is≠-Øq.  ]ncn-b-Up-I-fpsS FÆw F{X?  {Kq∏p-I-fpsS FÆw F{X?

tamtU¨ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw sa≥Uen-tb^v ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw Xmc-Xayw sNbvXpt\m°q. Fs¥ms° kmay-ßfpw hyXym-k-ß-fp-amWp Is≠-Øm≥ Ign-bp∂Xv? Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm°n ¢mkn¬ AhX-cn-∏n-°q.

sa≥U-en-tb^ns‚ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfns‚ ]cn-jvI-cn® cq]-amWv C∂v \mw D]tbm- K n- ° p∂ tamtU¨ ]ncn- t bm- U nIv tS_nƒ.

Hcp aqeIsØ kw_-‘n-°p∂ Fs¥ms° hnh-cß - f - mWv tamtU¨ ]ncn--tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ \n∂v \ap°p e`n-°p-∂Xv? ]qcn∏n-°q.

sa≥U-en-tb-^ns‚ Bh¿Ø\\nb-asØ tamkven CXn-\-\p-k-cn®v ]cn-jvI-cn-®p.

DZm-lWw : enYnbw At‰m-anI \º¿ {]XoIw t]cv At‰m-anI amkv Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw

 aqe- I - ß - f psS KpW- ß ƒ Ah- b psS

At‰m- a nI \º- d ns\ B{i- b n- ® n- c n°p∂p.  At‰m-anI \º-dns‚ Btcm-l-W-{I-a-

Øn¬ aqe-I-߃ {Iao-I-cn-°p-tºmƒ Ah-bpsS KpW-߃ Hcp {Ia-amb CSth-fbv°p tijw Bh¿Øn®p hcp-∂p. aqe-I-ß-fpsS KpW-߃ Ah-bpsS At‰manI \º-dn-s\-bmWv B{i-bn®ncn-°p-∂-Xv F∂ {]kv X m- h - \ - b p- a mbn _‘- s ∏´v Fs¥ms° \ymbo- I - c - W - ß - f mWv

]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ Hcp `mKw sImSp- Ø n- c n°p∂Xp {i≤n-°q.

1

H ssl{U-P≥ 1 3

Be

enYnbw 2, 1 11

2, 8, 1 19

- m-kv{X-߃ 32 `uXn-Ii

4

Li Na tkmUnbw

B‰-ß-fpsS cmk˛-`u-XnI kz`m-h-߃°v Ah-bpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-hp-ambn _‘-ap-s≠∂v \n߃ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p≠v. aqeI B‰-߃ XΩn¬ kwtbm-Pn-°ptºmƒ _mly-Xa sj√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpI- f mWv (hme≥kv Ce- I v t {Sm- W p- I ƒ) AXn¬ ]s¶-Sp-°p-∂-Xv.

6

9

2

He loenbw 2 10

5

C

s_dn-enbw 2, 2

B

N

O

F

Ne

t_mtdm¨ 2, 3

Im¿_¨ 2, 4

ss\{S-P≥ 2, 5

HmIvkn-P≥ 2, 6

^vfqdn≥ 2, 7

\ntbm¨ 2, 8

Mg

12

Al

Si

P

S

Cl

Ar

sa·ojyw 2, 8, 2

Aep-an-\nbw 2, 8, 3

knen-°¨ 2, 8, 4

t^mkv^d- kv 2, 8, 5

kƒ^¿ 2, 8, 6

t¢mdn≥ 2, 8, 7

B¿tKm¨ 2, 8, 8

20

K

Ca

s]m´mkyw 2, 8, 8, 1

Im’yw 2, 8, 8, 2

13

14

7

15

8

16

17

18

 Hmtcm ]ncn-b-Unepw At‰m-anI \º¿

IqSp∂ {Ia-Øn¬ hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{SmWp-I-fpsS FÆhpw IqSp-∂pt≠m?  \n›nX CS-th-f-Iƒ°p tijw _mly-

sj-√n¬ Htct]mep≈ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw Bh¿Øn- ° p- ∂ pt≠m? H∂pw c≠pw {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ aqe-I-ßfpsS Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ]cn-tim[n-°q. 1 -˛mw {Kq∏v

Htc {Kq∏nse aqe-I-߃ kam-\-Kp-W-߃ ImWn- ° p- ∂ - h - b m- b - X p- s Im≠v Ahsb aqeIIpSpw-_-ß-fmbn ]cn-K-Wn-°m-dp-≠v. Ch-bpsS t]cv ]´n-I 3.6 ¬ t\m°n a\- nem-°p-I. ]´n-I-bn¬ Dƒs∏-Sp-tØ≠ a‰p hnh-c-ßfpw N¿®-bn-eqsS ]q¿Øn-bm-°m≥ {ian-°q.  Hmtcm {Kq∏n-sebpw hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{Sm-

Wp-I-fpsS FÆw ]´n-I- 3.6 ¬ tcJ-s∏SpØnt\m°q. {Kq∏v \ºdpw hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆhpw XΩn¬ Fs¥-¶nepw _‘w Is≠-Øm≥ Ignbp-∂pt≠m?

2˛mw {Kq∏v

H Li

Be

Na

Mg

K

Ca

]´nI 3.5  Htc {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ aqe- I - ß - f psS hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆØn¬ F¥p {]tXy-I-X-bmWp ImWp∂Xv?

aqe-Iß - f - psS kwtbm-Pn-°m-\p≈ Ign-hmWv hme≥kn. hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆ-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn-¬ CXp \n¿Wbn-°p-∂Xv Fß-s\-sb∂p t\m°mw.  _mly-Xa sj√n¬ c≠v Ce-Ivt{Sm¨

hcp∂ B‰w ÿncX ssIh-cn-°m≥ F¥mWp sNøp-∂Xv? _m[-I-am-bXv (9) sNøp-I.

 a‰p aqe-I-{Kq-∏p-I-fpsS Imcy-Ønepw

CXp _m[-I-amtWm? ]cn-tim-[n-®pt\m°q.

c≠v Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn´psImSp-°p∂p. c≠v Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ kzoI-cn-°p-∂p.

 F¶n¬ Htc {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ aqe-I-ß-

Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn´p-sIm-Sp-°p∂p. fn¬ kam-\-Kp-W-߃ Bh¿Øn-°m\p≈ Imc-W-sa-¥m-bn-cn°pw? N¿® sNbvXv kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏Sp-Øp-I. {Kq∏v \º¿

Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ kzoI-cn-°p-∂p.

hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp hme≥kn I-fpsS FÆw

aqeIIpSpw-_-Øns‚ t]cv

1

1

B¬°en teml-Ip-Spw_w

2 13 14 15 16 17 18

B¬°sse≥ F¿Øv temlIpSpw_w t_mtdm¨ IpSpw_w Im¿_¨ IpSpw_w ss\{SP≥ IpSpw_w HmIvkn-P≥ IpSpw_w lme-P≥ IpSpw_w D¬IrjvS hmXIIpSpw_w

1

]´nI 3.6 `uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 33

 Ggv Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hcp∂ B‰tam?

$ {Kq∏n¬ kam\ kz`m-h-߃ ImWn°p∂p.

CØc-Øn¬ hn´p-sIm-Sp-°p-Itbm kzoI-cn°p-Itbm ]¶p-h-bv°p-Itbm sNøp∂ CeIvt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS FÆ-am-Wt√m hme≥kn. Hmtcm {Kq∏n-sebpw s]mXp-hmb hme≥kn ]´n-I- 3.6 ¬ FgpXnt\m°q.  X F∂ aqe-I-Øns‚ At‰m-anI \º¿ 6 BsW∂p Icp-Xp-I. F¶n¬ Xmsg ]d-bp-∂h Is≠-Øq. (X aqe-I-Øns‚

bYm¿Y {]Xo-I-a-√).

3 apX¬ 12 hsc {Kq∏n¬ hcp∂ aqe-Ißsf kw{I-a-W-aq-e-I-߃ (transition elements) F∂p- ] - d - b p- ∂ p. Ch- s b√mw

teml-ß-fm-sW∂v ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ ]cn-tim-[n-®m¬ ImWm≥ Ign-bpw. CXn¬ F{XsbÆw \n߃°p ]cn- N - b - a p≠v ? FgpXnt\m°q.

]ncn-b-Up-I-fn-eq-sS...

Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ˛ .............................

tamtU¨ ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ ]cn-tim[n®v ]´nI 3.7 ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.

{Kq∏v \º¿

˛ .............................

 G‰hpw sNdnb ]ncn- b Uv GXmWv ?

hme≥kn

˛ .............................

CXn¬ GsXms° aqe-I-ßfp≠v? ]´nI 3.6¬ GsXms° {Kq∏p- I - f mWv Dƒs∏-SmØXv? ]cn-tim-[n-°q.

]´nI-bn¬ Dƒs∏SpØnb aqeI {Kq∏p--Isf {]mXn- \ n[yaqe- I - ß ƒ (representative elements) F∂mWp hnfn-°p-∂-Xv. AhbpsS Nne {]tXy-I-X-Iƒ t\m°q. $ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-Øns‚ {Iamh¿Ø\w ImWn-°p-∂p. $ teml-߃, Atem-l-߃, D]-tem-l߃ F∂n-ßs\ hyXykvX hn`m-KØn¬s∏´ aqe-I-ßfp≠v. $ hyXykvX `uXn-ImhÿIfn¬ ÿnXn sN-øp∂ aqe-I-ßsf {]Xn-\n-[o-I-cn°p∂p. ]ncn-bUv \º¿

 ]ncnbUv

\ºdpw sj√p- I - f psS FÆhpw XΩn-ep≈ _‘sa¥mWv?

 Hmtcm ]ncn-bUpw Ah-km-\n-°p-∂Xv

GXp aqe-I-Øn-se∂p t\m°q. ChbpsS {]tXy-IX F¥mWv?

Bdpw Ggpw ]ncn-b-Up-Iƒ {i≤n-°p-I. Bdmw ]ncn- b - U n¬ e≥Ym- \ - Ø n\v (57La)tijw hcp∂ 14 aqe-Iß - sf B \ncbn¬Øs∂-bmtWm {Iao-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂Xv? CXp-t]mse Ggmw ]ncn-b-Un¬ BIvSo-\nb- Ø n\v ( 89Ac)tijw hcp∂ aqe- I - ß sftbm?

Hmtcm ]ncn-b-Unsebpw Hmtcm ]ncn-b-Unepw hcp∂ B‰ BsI sj√paqe-I-ßfpsS FÆw -Ønse sj√p-Iƒ GsX√mw IfpsS FÆw

1

2

K

1

2

8

K, L

2

3 4 5

]´nI 3.7 - m-kv{X-߃ 34 `uXn-Ii

Ch bY-m{Iaw em≥Y-t\m-Wp-Iƒ F∂pw BIvSn-t\m-Wp-Iƒ F∂pw Adn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. ]n- c n- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f n¬ Ch- b psS ÿm\w {i≤n-°p-I. A¥ w{I-aW aqeI- ß ƒ (inner transition elements) F∂mWv Chsb s]mX-psh hnfn-°p-∂Xv. BIvSn-t\m-Wp-Ifn¬ IqSp-Xepw Ir{Xna aqe-I-ß-fmWv. At‰m-anI \º¿ am{X-a-dn-™m¬ Hcp aqeI- Ø ns‚ ]ncn- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f nse ÿm\hpw kz-`m-hhpw \n߃°p {]h-Nn°m≥ Ign-bptam? DZm-l-c-W-ambn, At‰manI \º¿ 17 hcp∂ aqe-I-Øns‚ {]tXyI-X-Iƒ FgpXnt\m°q.  CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\-ymkw  ]ncn-bUv \º¿

aqe-I-Øns‚ khn-ti-j-X-Ifpw ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfpw ]ncn- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f n¬ aqe- I - Ø ns‚ ÿm\w amdp-∂-Xn-\-\p-k-cn®v kz`m-h-Øn¬ Fs¥- ¶ nepw am‰w kw`- h n- ° p- ∂ pt≠m? {Kq∏nepw ]ncn-b-Unepw \ne-\n-ev°p∂ Nne khn-ti-j-X-Iƒ ]cn-tim-[n-°mw.

B‰-Øns‚ hen∏w (Atomic size) B‰ßƒ AXn-kq£va IW-ß-fm-sW∂v \n߃°-dn-bmw. F√m aqe-I- B‰-߃°pw Htc hen-∏-amtWm? B‰-Øns‚ t_m¿ amXr-I-Iƒ hni-I-e\w sNøq (Nn{Xw 3.2).  {Kq∏n¬ Xmtgm´p t]mIp-tºmƒ sj√p-

I-fpsS FÆ-Øn-ep-≠m-Ip∂ hy-Xy- mkw F¥mWv?

 {Kq∏v \º¿  Dƒs∏-Sp∂ aqeIIpSpw_w

 AX- \ p- k - c n®v B‰- Ø ns‚ hen∏w

IqSm\mtWm Ipd-bm-\mtWm km[yX?  hme≥kn  temltam Atem-ltam  Atbm-Wns‚ Nm¿Pv 

 a‰v {Kq∏p- I - f nepw CtX {]h- W - X -

bmtWm? Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw ]cntim-[n®v Is≠-Øn-sb-gpXq.

  Hmtcm {Kq∏n-sebpw G‰hpw hen∏w

Is≠-Ømtam? A, B, C, D F∂o aqe- I - ß - f psS CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\-ymkw Xmsg- sIm-Sp-°p-∂p. (Ch bYm¿Y {]Xo-I-ßf√) A

-

2, 2

B

-

2, 8, 2

C

-

2, 8, 5

D

-

2,8

 Htc ]ncn-b-Un¬ hcp∂h GsXms°?

IqSnb B‰w Fhn-sS-bmWp ImWp-∂Xv? apI-fn¬/ Xmsg

C\n ]ncn-b-Unse {]h-WX hni-I-e\w sNømw.  ]ncnb-Un¬ CS-Øp-\n∂p he-tØm´p

t]mIp-t¥mdpw \yq¢n-b- nse t]mkn‰ohv Nm¿Pn¬ D≠m- I p∂ am‰w F¥mWv?

 Htc {Kq∏n¬ hcp-∂-htbm?  D¬IrjvSaqeIw GXmWv?

 sj√p-I-fpsS FÆw IqSp-∂pt≠m?

 C F∂ aqeIw GXp {Kq∏nepw ]ncn-b-

UnepamWv Dƒs∏-SpI? `uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 35

csenjlgiloer 1-co lcn;gilereLco; o 2-co o1 cor o-n'l o eLecDJ o oJ er 6 6crl g o s c 6ru od o c or5 a eocsn5

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J

gor

oroilo8 orac

s; ron'Jl o1 asr; cm cil.

1

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o

U

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2.5

i A Lta

2,1

2,6

2'7

Na

.lld-cNeret

c"rcmr'lgloi "jc
s3 c oror

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a

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teml-kz`m-hhpw Atem-l-kz-`m-h-hpw aqe-I-ß-fn¬ `qcn-`m-Khpw teml-ß-fmsW∂v \n߃ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠v. Ch ]ncn- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f ns‚ GXp `mKØmWp {Iao-I-cn-°-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂Xv? teml-߃

˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛˛

Atem-l-߃˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛-˛˛ teml-߃°pw Atem-l-߃°p-an-S-bn¬ c≠n-s‚bpw kz`m-h-߃ ImWn-°p∂ D]teml (metalloids) ßfpw ImWmw. AhbpsS t]cpw ÿm\hpw ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nƒ t\m°n a\ n-em-°p-I. B‰-߃ ]c-kv]cw tN¿∂m-Wt√m X∑m{X-Iƒ D≠m-Ip-∂-Xv. ÿncX ssIh-cn-°m\mbn B‰-߃ XΩn¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn´psIm-Sp-°p-Itbm kzoI-cn-°p-Itbm ]¶p-hbv°pItbm sNøp-∂p-sh∂v \n߃°-dnbmw. Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Isf BI¿jn-°mt\m hn´p- s Im- S p- ° mt\m D≈ aqe- I - ß - f psS Ignhv Htct]mse-bm-h-W-sa-∂n-√. X∑m{Xm-cq-]o-I-cW-Øn-epƒs∏´ CeIvt{SmWpIsf BI¿jn- ° m- \ p≈ AXXv B‰Øns‚ Ign-hns\ AXns‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\K-‰ohv kz`mhw (electronegativity) F∂p hnfn-°mw.

Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K‰ - ohv kz`mhw s]mXpsh Ipd™n-cn-°p-∂-h-bmWv teml-߃. kwbp‡-ß-fn¬ Ch t]mkn-‰ohv Atbm-Wp-Ifmbn \ne-\n-ev°m-\p≈ {]h-W-X-bmWv ImWn-°p-∂-Xv. Cu khn-ti-j-Xsb CeIvt{Sm-t]m-kn-‰ohv kz`mhw F∂p hnti-jn∏n-°m-dp-≠v. teml-߃ CeIvt{Sm t]mkn‰ohv kz`m-h-ap≈ aqe-I-ß-fm-Wv. CeIvt{Sm-s\-K-‰ohv kz`mhhpw CeIvt{Sm t]mkn-‰ohv kz`m-hhpw aqe-Ih - p-ambn _‘s∏´ ]e LS-I-ß-sfbpw B{i-bn-®n-cn-°p∂p. B‰Øns‚ hen-∏-Øn\v CXn¬ Imcyamb kzm[o-\-ap-≠v. CXv Fß-s\-sb∂p t\m°mw. cmk-{]h¿Ø-\t- h-fb - n¬ B‰ßƒ _mlyXa Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-sf-bm-Wt√m ssIam‰w sNøp-∂Xv. CXv AjvSI ]q¿Øo-Ic - W - Ø - n\m-sW∂v \n߃ a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠t- √m.  B‰-Øns‚ hen∏w IqSp-tºmƒ \yq¢n-

b- n\v _mly-Xa Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wn\ptaep≈ BI¿jW_ew IqSptam? Ipdbptam?  hen∏w IqSnb B‰-߃°v Ce-Ivt{Sm-

Wns\ hn´p-sIm-Sp-°m-\mtWm kzoI-cn°m-\mtWm {]h-WXbp≠m-Ip-∂-Xv?

 temlhpw Atem- l hpw Xmc- X ayw

sNøp-tºmƒ GXmWv Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpIsf kzoI-cn-°m-\p≈ {]h-WX ImWn°p-∂Xv? Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-khpw ÿnc- X - b p- a mbn _‘s∏- S pØn Nn¥n®pt\m°q. F¥p \nK-a-\-ØnemWv FØm≥ Ign-bp-∂Xv? DNn-X-ambXv (9) sNøp-I.

 hen∏w Ipd-™-hbvt°m?  teml- B‰-ßfn¬ hen∏w IqSnbXn-

\mtWm Ipd™- X n- \ mtWm CeIvt{Smt]m-kn-‰ohv kz`mhw IqSp-X¬ D≠m-hp-I?

teml-߃ s]mXpsh Ce-Ivt{Sm Hmtcm {Kq∏nepw ]ncn- b - U n- e p- a p≈

Wp-Isf kzoI-cn-°p∂p/ hn´p-sImSp-°p-∂p/]¶ph-bv°p-∂p. Atem-lß - ƒ s]mXpsh Ce-Ivt{SmWp-Isf kzoI-cn-°p∂p/hn´p-sIm-Sp°p-∂p/]¶ph-bv°p-∂p.

CeIvt{Sm t]mkn-‰ohv kz`m-h-Øns‚, AYhm temlkz`m-h-Øns‚ {]h-WX F¥m-bn-cn°pw?  AXXv {Kq∏n¬ Xmtgm´v

`uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 37

 AXXv ]ncn-b-Un¬ CS-Øp-\n∂p he-

 kw{I-aWaqe-I-߃ GsX√mw?  D]-tem-la - m-Im≥ km[y-Xb - p-≈Xv GXv?

tØm-´v Atem-l-߃ s]mXpsh CeIvt{Sms\K‰ohv kz`m-h-ap≈ aqe-I-ß-fm-Wv. B‰Øns‚ hen∏w Ipd-bp-tºmƒ Ce-Ivt{Sms\-K-‰ohv kz`mhw IqSp-∂p.

 Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K-‰n-hn‰n G‰hpw IqSnb

B‰w GXm-bn-cn°pw?  temlobkz`mhw G‰hpw IqSp- X ¬

GXn-\m-bn-cn°pw?  ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-

K- ‰ ohv kz`m- h - Ø ns‚ {]h- W X F¥mbn-cn°pw?

 hme≥kn 4 hcp∂ aqeItaXv ?  A©v hme≥kv Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Ifp≈

aqeIw?

 {Kq∏n¬ Xmtgm´v 

$ B‰-Øns‚ hen∏w ...............................

IqSp-X¬ tNmZy-߃ Is≠Øn kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Fgp-Xq.

$ CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰ohv kz`mhw.............  ]ncn-b-Un¬ CS-Øp-\n∂v he-tØm-´v.

ck-X{¥]T-\-Øn¬ ]ncntbm-UnIv tS_nfns‚ {]m[m-\y-sØ-°p-dn®v Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm°n ¢mkn¬ Ah-X-cn-∏n°q.

$ B‰-Øns‚ hen∏w ............................... $ CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰ohv kz`mhw.............  Ce-Ivt{Sm-s\-K‰ - ohv kz`mhw IqSnb aqe-

I- ß ƒ ]ncn- t bm- U nIv tS_n- f ns‚ GXp `mK-ØmWp ImW-s∏-Sp-∂Xv? CS-Xp-`m-KØv Xmtg/he-Xp-`m-KØv apI-fn¬. ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ A]q¿W-amb amXrIbmWv Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. I≈n-I-fn¬ sImSpØXv aqe-I-ß-fpsS bYm¿Y {]Xo-I-߃ A√. aqe-I-ß-fpsS ÿm\- h p- a mbn _‘- s ∏- S pØn Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂h Is≠Ønt\m°q.  c≠mw ]ncnb-Unse G‰hpw sNdnb

cmk-_-‘\w (Chemical bonding) ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fns‚ Hcp `mKamWv Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. 3 Li

4 Be

5 B

6 C

7 N

8 O

9 F

11 Na

12 Mg

13 Al

14 Si

15 P

16 S

17 Cl

]´nI 3.8

CXn-ep≈ aqe-I-߃ tN¿∂p-≠mIp∂ GsXms° X∑m-{X-Iƒ \n߃°p ]cn-Nb-ap≠v? enÃn¬ Iq´n-t®¿°q.

B‰w GXv?  CeIvt{Sm t]mkn-‰ohv kz`mhw G‰hpw

O2, P4, NaCl, Cl2, MgO, Na2CO3, F2

IqSnb aqeItaXv?

1 1 A 2

2

13 14

B

G

15

H

J

3 C 4 D - m-kv{X-߃ 38 `uXn-Ii

16 17

K E

F

I

Chbn¬ aqeIX∑m- { X- I ƒ GsXm- s °bmWv? (9) sNøq. H∂n- e - [ nIw B‰- ß ƒ ]c- k v ] cw IqSn t®¿∂m-Wt√m CØcw X∑m-{X-Iƒ D≠mbn-cn-°p-∂-Xv. Cu B‰-ßsf ]c-kv]cw tN¿Øp\n¿Øp∂ BI¿jW_e-amWv cmk-_-‘\w. cmk-_-‘-\-Øn\v Hcp {]mtbm-KnI \n¿hN\w cq]o-I-cn-°q. kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.

c≠p aqe-I-ßfpw tN¿∂v IqSp-X¬ ÿncX-bp≈ NaF D≠m-Ip-tºmƒ \S-°p∂ am‰ßƒ Fs¥m-s°-bmWv? tkmUn-b-Øn\p kw`-hn-°p-∂Xv _

 Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ (e ) ......................................

(kzoI-cn-°p∂p/hn´p-sIm-Sp-°p-∂p).  ............................... Atbm¨ D≠m-Ip-∂p.

CXv ka-hm-Iy-cq-]-Øn¬ Fgp-Xn-bmtem? _ Na _ e → Na+ (B‰w) (Atbm¨)

Atbm-WnI_‘-\w (Ionic bond)

^vfqdn\v kw`-hn-°p-∂Xv

 ]´nI 3.8 ¬ CeIvt{Sm t]mkn-‰ohv kz`m-

 CeIvt{Sm¨ ......................... (kzoI-cn-

h-ap≈ aqe-I-߃ GsXm-s°-bmWv?

 CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰ohv kz`m-ha - p-≈h - tbm?

°p∂p/hn´p-sIm-Sp-°p-∂p) ......................... Atbm¨ D≠m-Ip-∂p.  ka-hmIyw ]q¿Øn-bm-°p-I. _

CeIvt{Sm t]mk-n‰ohv kz`mhw IqSnb Hcp aqe-Ihpw CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰ohv kz`mhw IqSnb Hcp aqe-Ihpw tN¿∂p-≠m-Ip∂ Hcp kwbp‡w t\m°q. $ CeIvt{Sm t]mkn-‰ohv kz`mhw IqSn-bXv ˛ Na $ CeIvt{Sm s\K-‰ohv kz`mhw IqSn-bXv ˛ F $ kwbp‡w ˛ tkmUnbw ^vfqssdUv $ cmk-kq{Xw ˛ NaF

23 11

Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw t_m¿am-XrI

tkmUnbw B‰hpw ^v f qdn≥ B‰hpw tN¿∂v Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ssIam‰w sNøp-∂Xns‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ tUm´v Ub{Kw {i≤n°q. cmk-_-‘-\-Øn¬ ]s¶-Sp-°p-∂Xv _mly-Xa - s - j-√nse Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ BbXn-\m¬ Ah-bpsS FÆw am{Xw kqNn-∏n°p∂ Nn{Xo-I-c-W-am-Wn-Xv. Na +

F

(2,8,1) (2,7)

tkmUnbw ^vfqssd-Uv D≠m-Ip-∂Xv Fßs\-sb∂p t\m°mw. Hmtcm-∂n-s‚bpw CeIvt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-sa-gpXn t_m¿ amXrI Nn{Xo-I-cn-°q. aqeIw

F + e → ................... (B‰w) (Atbm¨)

Na

19

F

9

→ Na

+

F

- → NaF

(2,8) (2,8)

NaF ¬ Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fpsS ssIam-‰-amWt√m Atbm- W p- I ƒ cq]- s ∏- S m\pw XpS¿∂v cmk-_‘ - \ - a - p-≠m-Im\pw Imc-Ww. Cu coXn- b n¬ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ ssIam‰ØneqsS cq]-s∏-Sp∂ cmk-_-‘-\-amWv Atbm-WnI_‘-\w. t]mkn-‰ohv AtbmWpw s\K- ‰ ohv AtbmWpw XΩn- e p≈ sshZyp-Xm-I¿j-W-_-e-amWv (electrostatic force of attraction) Atbm-WnI_‘-\Øn¬ AtbmWp-Isf tN¿Øp \n¿Øp∂Xv. `uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 39

sa·o-jyhpw ^vfqdn\pw XΩn-ep≈ cmk_-‘\ km[yX c≠p aqe-I-ß-fp-sSbpw Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ym-k-sa-gpXn hni-I-e\w sNøq. Hcp sa·o-jyw B‰-Øn\v kwtbmPn-°m≥ ^vfqdns‚ F{X B‰-߃ thWw? sa·ojyw ^v f qssd- U ns‚ cmk- k q{Xw F¥m-bn-c n°pw? \nK-a-\ -ß ƒ kb≥kv Ub- d n- b n¬ Ipdn- ° p- I . tUm´v Ub{Kw \nco£n®v _‘-\Øns‚ kz`mhw hni-Zam-°q. _

F

F

(2,7)

Mg (2,8,2)

+

→ [Mg]2+ (2,8)

F (2,7)

→ MgF2

_

F (2,8)

_ Mg _ - 2e

2F + - 2e

(2,8)

→ .............................

_

Mg2+ + - 2F

_

→ ............................. → Mg F2

 Xmsg X∂n-cn-°p-∂-h-bn¬ GXn\w aqe-

I-߃ XΩn-emWv Atbm-WnI_‘\- Ø n\p km[yX? icn- b m- b h (9 ) sNøp-I. $ CeIv t {Sm t]mkn- ‰ ohv + CeIv t {Sm t]mkn-‰ohv $ CeIv t {Sm t]mk- n ‰ohv + CeIv t {Sm s\K-‰ohv $ CeIvt{Sm s\K‰ohv + CeIvt{Sm s\K‰ohv ]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_nfns‚ `mKw D]-tbm-Ks∏-SpØn t\ctØ \n߃ enÃv sNbvX X∑m{XIfn¬ Atbm-Wn-I-_-‘\w cq]oI-cn-°p∂h Fgp-Xq. NaCl, CaCl2, ........... ............. ........... AtbmWnI_‘\w hgn D≠m- I p∂ CØcw kwbp- ‡ - ß sf Atbm- W nI kwbp-‡-߃ F∂p hnfn-°mw.

cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-߃ aqe-I߃ IqSn-t®¿∂v kwbp‡ßƒ cq]oI-cn-°p-tºmƒ \S-°p∂ am‰w Ah-bpsS {]Xo-Ihpw cmk-kq-{Xhpw D]-tbm-K-s∏SpØn ka-hm-Iy-cq-]-Øn¬ Fgp-Xm≥ Ignbpw. cmk-am-‰-ßsf efn-X-ambn kqNn-∏n°m≥ CØcw cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-߃ D]-tbmK-s∏-Sp-Øm-dp-≠v. $ tkmUnbw ^vfqssd-Uns‚ cq]o-I-cW ka-hmIyw Fgp-Xp∂ coXn {i≤n-°q. $ tkmUnbØns‚ {]XoIw ˛ Na $ ^vfqdn≥ X∑m-{X-bpsS cmk-kq{Xw ˛ F2 (Zzbmt‰manI X∑m-{X) $ tkmUnbw ^vfqssd-Uns‚ cmk-kq{Xw ˛ NaF ka-hmIycq]-Øn-se-gp-Xn--bm¬ Na + F2 → NaF Hcp cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-Øn¬ Akv{XNn”Øn\v CS-Xp-`m-K-Øp-≈h A`n-Im-c-Ißfpw he-Xp-`m-K-Øp-≈h D¬]-∂-ß-fpam-bn-cn°pw. Ccp `mK-Øp-ap≈ B‰-ßfpsS FÆw Xpey- a m- b n- c n- ° p- I bpw thWw. apI-fn¬ Fgp-Xnb hmIy-Øn¬ CXp icnbmtWm F∂p ]cn-tim-[n-°q. aqeIw

B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw A`n-Im-c-I-ß-fn¬

B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw D¬]-∂-Øn¬

Na

1

.............

F

2

.............

Akv{X-Nn-”-Øn\v Ccp-`m-K-Øp-ap≈ B‰ß-fpsS FÆw Xpey-am°n Fgp-Xnb kahm- I ysØ kao- I rX cmk- k - a - h mIyw (balanced chemical equation) F∂mWp ]d-bp-∂-Xv. C\n apI-fn¬ Fgp-Xnb ka-hmIyw kao-I-cn-s®-gp-Xn-bXp t\m°q. 2Na + F2 → 2NaF

- m-kv{X-߃ 40 `uXn-Ii

C\n Ccp-`m-K-Øp-ap≈ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw Xpey-amtWm F∂p ]cn-tim-[n-°q. Xpeyam-°nb coXn {i≤n-°p-I. X∑m-{X-I-fpsS FÆw {Iao-I-cn-®mWv B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw Xpey-am-°p∂-Xv. CXn-\mbn A`n-Im-c-I-Øn-s‚bpw D¬]-∂Øn-s‚bpw cmk-kq-{X-Øns‚ CS-Xp--`m-KØv B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw Xpey-ambn hcp∂ coXnbn¬ kwJy-Iƒ tN¿°-Ww. tkmUnbw HmIvssk-Uns‚ cmk-kq{Xw Na2O BWv . CXns‚ cq]o- I - c - W - k- a hmIyw Fgp-Xn-bXp t\m°q. Na + O2 → Na2O  CXv kao- I rX ka- h m- I y- a mtWm? Fßs\ kao-I-cn°mw?

 CXnse AtbmWp-Iƒ GsX√mw?

Nne Atbm-WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS cq]o-IcW ka-hmIyw Xmsg sImSp-°p-∂p. F√mw kao-IrX cmk-k-a-hm-Iy-ß-fmtWm? A√mØh kao-I-cn-°m-at√m. • Na + Cl2

→

NaCl

• Mg + F2

→

MgF2

• Mg + O2

→

MgO

• Ca + O2

→

CaO

aqeIßfn¬ Zzbm-t‰m-anI X∑m-{X-I-fps≠∂v \n߃°-dn-bmw. Adn-bm-hp-∂h enÃv sNbvXp-t\m-°q. Cl2, O2, F2, ........... ............. ...........  ^vfqdn≥ X∑m{Xbnse cmk-_-‘\w

Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ssIam‰w hgn-bmtWm \S°p-∂Xv? X∑m-{Xm-cq-]o-I-c-W-Øns‚ Nn{Xo- I - c Ww hni- I - e \w sNbv X p Is≠-Øq. →

F

F

‘\w t\m°q. HmIvkn-P≥ B‰-Øns‚ _mly-Xasj√n¬ F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpIfp≠v? O + O →

O

O

→ O=O

 F{X tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ ]¶p-h-

®n-´p≠v?

 GI-_-‘\w cq]-s∏-Sp-tºmƒ F{X

(Covalent bond)

+ F

 O2 X∑m-{X-bnse kl-kw-tbm-P-I-_-

F2 X∑m-{X-bnse kl-kw-tbm-PI _‘\hpw O2 X∑m-{X-bnse kl-kwtbm-PI _‘-\hpw XΩnep≈ hyXymkw {i≤n®nt√. F2 hnse cmk-_-‘\w GI_‘\-am-Wv. O2 hnteXv Zzn_-‘-\-hpamWv.

kl-kw-tbm-PI _‘\w

F

ChnsS _‘-\-Øn-te¿s∏´ c≠v B‰ßƒ°pw -ÿncX ssIh-cn-°m≥ (AjvSI-]q¿Øo-Ic - W - Ø - n\v) Hmtcm Ce-Ivt{Sm-WpIƒ Bh-iy-ap-≈-Xn-\m¬ Ch XΩn¬ CeIvt{Sm¨ ssIam‰w hgn ÿncX ssIh-cn°m≥ Ign-bn-√. c≠v B‰hpw Hmtcm CeIvt{Sm¨ hoXw ]¶p-h-®mWv cmk-_-‘\w cq]-s∏-´-Xv. CØcw cmk-_-‘\w kl-kwtbm-PI _‘\w (covalent bond) F∂-dnb-s∏-Sp-∂p. CXv Hcp sNdnb hc (˛) sIm≠v kqNn-∏n-°p-∂p. Cl2 X∑m-{X-bnse cmk-_‘-\hpw CXp-t]mse kqNn-∏n-°mw.

→ F_ F

tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-I-fmWv _‘-\Øn-ep-≈Xv?  Zzn_-‘-\-Øntem?  GI-_-‘-\-Øn-\pw Zzn_-‘-\-Øn\pw

\n¿h-N\w cq]o-I-cn-°q.  ss\{S-P≥ B‰-Øns‚ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨

hn\ymkw 2, 5 BWv. ÿnc-X-bv°mbn ss\{S-P\v F{X Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ IqSn thWw?

`uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 41

 c≠v ss\{S-P≥ B‰-߃ tN¿∂v N2

D≠mIp-tºmƒ Fß-s\-bmhpw Ah AjvSI LS\ t\Sp-∂Xv? Nn{Xo-Ic - Ww ]q¿Ønbm°n t\m°q. N + N

----- → N≡N

→

 F2 hnse GI-_-‘\w F - F F∂pw O2

hnse Zzn_-‘\w O = O F∂pw kqNn∏n- ° m- s a- ¶ n¬ ss\{S- P - \ nse {Xn_‘\w Fßs\ kqNn-∏n°mw?

Cu {]h¿Ø-\Ø - ns‚ cmk-ka - h - mIyw FgpXn-bn-cn-°p∂Xp t\m°q. H2 + Cl2 → HCl  CXv kao-IrX ka-hm-Iy-amtWm F∂p

]cn-tim-[n-°q. As√-¶n¬ kao-I-cn-°q. Im¿_¨ sS{Sm-t¢m-ssdUv (CCl4)X∑m-{Xbnse _‘\w Nn{Xo- I - c n- ® n- c n- ° p- ∂ Xv t\m°q. Cl

Cl  Hcp

ssl{U- P ≥ X∑m- { X- b nse _‘\w CXp-t]mse FgpXnt\m°q.

C +4 Cl → Cl C Cl

→ Cl

Cl

C Cl

hyXykvX Atemlaqe-I-߃ tN¿∂p≈ kwbp‡X∑m-{X-If - nepw Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ ]¶ph-®mWv cmk-_-‘\w km[y-am-Ip∂Xv.

Im¿_¨ B‰w Hmtcm t¢mdn≥ B‰-hp-ambn F{X tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ ]¶p-hb - v°p∂p≠v?

H2, Cl2 F∂nh tN¿∂v HCl D≠mIp∂ kml-Ncyw hni-I-e\w sNbvXp-t\m-°q.

CXnse _‘\w efn-X-ambn Nn{Xo-I-cn-®ncn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q. Cl

ssl{U- P ≥B‰- Ø ns‚ _mly- X a sj√n¬ Hcp Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wm-Wp-≈-Xv.  loen-b-Øns‚ LS\ t\Sn ÿncX

ssIh- c n- ° m≥ F{X Ce- I v t {Sm¨ thWw?  t¢mdns‚ Ce- I v t {Sm¨ hn\ymkw 2, 8, 7 BWt√m. CXn\v Fß- s \-

bmWv ÿncX ssIh-cn-°m-\m-hpI?

ssl{U-P\pw t¢mdn\pw tN¿∂p≈ cmk_-‘\w {i≤n-°q. H + Cl →

H

Cl

→ H_Cl

 F{X tPmUn Ce-Ivt{Sm-Wp-Iƒ ]¶p-h-

bv ° p∂p? Cu klkwtbm- P - I - _ ‘\w GI-_-‘-\-amtWm Zzn_-‘-\amtWm?  _‘-\sØ Fßs\ kqNn-∏n°mw? - m-kv{X-߃ 42 `uXn-Ii

Cl

C

Cl

Cl  CXn¬ Im¿_-Wn\v F{X kl-kw-tbmPI _‘-\-amWp≈Xv?

Hmtcm t¢mdn≥ B‰- Ø n- \ ptam? Hmtcm B‰hpw cq]o-I-cn® kl-kw-tbm-P-I-_-‘\-ß-fpsS FÆhpw AXXv B‰-Øns‚ hme≥knbpw XΩn¬ Fs¥-¶nepw _‘apt≠m? $ Im¿_-Wns‚ hme≥kn ˛ 4 $ cq]o-I-cn® kl-kw-tbm-PI _‘-\Øns‚ FÆw

$ t¢mdns‚ hme≥kn ˛ 1 $ cq]o-I-cn® kl-kw-tbm-PI _‘-\Øns‚ FÆw ˛

Cl

CXp ]cn-N-b-ap≈ a‰p kl-kw-tbm-PI X∑m{X-I-fnepw {]I-S-amtWm?

Atbm-WnI kwbp-‡hpw kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-‡hpw

Im¿_Wpw ssl{U- P \pw tN¿∂p- ≠ mIp∂ Hcp kwbp- ‡ - a mWv aosY- b v ≥ (methane) . cmk- k q{Xw CH 4. CXns‚ X∑m-{Xm-L-S\ hc®v _‘-\-߃ Is≠Øq.

cmk-_-‘-\-Øn-ep-≠m-Ip∂ hyXymkw kwbp-‡-ß-fpsS kz`m-h-Ønepw {]I-S-amIptam? Idn-bp∏v Atbm-Wn-I-kw-bp-‡-amWv. sagpIv kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-‡-hpw. Ch-bpsS KpW-߃ Xmc-Xayw sNbvXp t\m°q. hyXymkw D≠t√m.

kl-kw-tbm-PI _‘\w hgn cq]o-Ir-Xam-Ip∂ kwbp-‡-ßsf s]mXpsh klkw- t bm- P I kwbp- ‡ - ß ƒ (covalent compounds) F∂p ]d-bp-∂p.

Atbm-WnI kwbp-‡ß - f - p-sSbpw kl-kwtbm-PI kwbp-‡-ß-fp-sSbpw s]mXp-Kp-W߃ t{ImUo-I-cn® ]´nI 3.9 {i≤n-°pI.

Atbm-WnI kwbp-‡-߃

kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-‡-߃

Jcw

aq∂v Ah-ÿ-I-fnepw ImW-s∏-Sp∂p.

Pe-Ønse tebXzw

ebn-°p-∂p

asÆ- Æ , CCl 4 , FY- t \mƒ, s_≥kn≥ XpS-ßnb Hm¿Km-\nIv emb- I - ß - f n¬ ebn- ° p- ∂ p. (A]q¿h-ambn NneXp Pe-Ønepw ebn-°p-∂p).

hnZyp-XvNm-eIX

emb\n Bbn- c n- ° p- t ºmgpw Dcp- I nb Ah- ÿ - b nepw sshZypXn IS-Øn-hn-Sp-∂p.

sshZypXn ISØnhnSp-∂n√

{Zh-\n-ebpw (sa¬‰nMv t]mbn‚ v) Xnf- \ nebpw (t_mbn- e nMv t]mbn‚ v)

Db¿∂Xv

s]mXpsh Xmgv∂Xv

KpW-߃ Ahÿ

]´nI 3.9 Atbm-WnI kwbp-‡-߃°pw kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-‡-߃°pw IqSp-X¬ DZm-l-cW-߃ Is≠Øn Ah-bpsS t]cpw cmk-kq-{Xhpw kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-ØpI. Nne ]Zm¿Y-ß-fpsS KpW-ß-fp-ambn _‘s∏´ Hcp ]´n-I-bmWv Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p∂Xv. (]´nI 3.10) sshZypXNme-IX ]Zm¿Yw

Jcm hÿ-bn¬

Dcp-Inb Ah-ÿ-bn¬

Peob emb\n

{Zh-\ne oC

Xnf-\ne oC

(melting point)

(boiling point)

A

D≠v

D≠v

ebn-°p-∂n√

1540

2760

B

C√

C√

ebn-°p-∂n√

65

120

C

C√

D≠v

D≠v

808

1465

]´nI 3.10 `uXn-Ii - m-kv{X-߃ 43

CXnse hnh-c-߃ A]-{K-Yn®v Xmsg ]d-bp-∂h Is≠-Øm≥ {ian-°q.  Atbm-WnI kwbp-‡-am-Im≥ km[y-X-bp≈ ]Zm¿Yw?  teml-aq-e-I-am-Im≥ km[y-X-bp-≈Xv?  kl-kw-tbm-PI kwbp-‡-am-Im≥ km[y-X-bp-≈Xv?

\nß-fpsS \nK-a-\-߃°p ImcWw Is≠Øn kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Fgp-Xq.

- m-kv{X-߃ 44 `uXn-Ii