Doklady Biological Sciences, Vol. 383, 2002, pp. 141–143. Translated from Doklady Akademii Nauk, Vol. 383, No. 4, 2002, pp. 571–573. Original Russian Text Copyright © 2002 by Ostroumov.

GENERAL BIOLOGY

New Definitions of the Concepts and Terms Ecosystem and Biogeocenosis S. A. Ostroumov Presented by Academician L.M. Sushchenya November 14, 2001 Received December 6, 2001

The terms ecosystem and biogeocenosis were coined by Tansley in 1935 [1] and by Sukachev in the 1940s [2], respectively. These terms are widely used in biological research [3–10], and there are several definitions of the term ecosystem [4–8]. However, a large body of new biological information has been accumulated since the time of introduction of these terms. Therefore, a revision of the currently accepted concepts of natural objects and interpretation of basic ecological terms (e.g., ecosystem and biogeocenosis) may be proposed. It seems reasonable to continue the search for new variants of definitions of these terms. The goal of this work was to contribute to this search by suggesting and substantiating specific definitions of two basic ecological terms. I certainly realize that this problem is very complex and its exhaustive solution is practically unattainable, because it is impossible to find an ideal definition that would be adequate to all imaginable situations or satisfy all experts. Nevertheless, it is worth trying to propose modern variants of refined definitions capable of taking into account large volumes of new information concerning aquatic [6, 11–15] and terrestrial [7, 9, 10, 14] ecosystems. Sometimes, the terms used in the definition require additional explanation themselves (e.g., trophic structure, biocenosis, community, etc.) [3]. For example, according to a typical definition, ecosystem is a biological community together with its physical environment (see p. 679 in [5]). However, this definition by no means reflects the whole body of experimental findings and theoretical concepts accumulated in ecology during the past decades. Given the remarks made above in this work, the following variant of definition can be suggested: Ecosystem is the complex of interconnected living organisms inhabiting particular area or unit of space, together with their environment and all their interrelationships and relationships with the environment. Ecosystem is characterized by the description of popula-

Moscow State University, Vorob’evy gory, Moscow, 119899 Russia

tions (abundance) of individual species; interspecies relationships; activity of organisms; physical and chemical characteristics of environment; flows of matter, energy, and information; and description of changes of these parameters with time. This definition does not contain terms such as trophic structure, trophic levels, biocenosis, biotope, community, components, systems, and succession. Because this definition is applicable to both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as to natural or model systems of various ranges and degrees of complexity, it seems to be quite universal. Specific features of this definition and their substantiation are briefly summarized in Table 1. The term biogeocenosis, suggested in the early 1940s by Sukachev [2], has gained wide recognition [7, 8]. This term is widely used in ecological research. The classical definition given by Sukachev is cited in many manuals and textbooks. However, a large body of new ecological information accumulated since the time of introduction of the term makes it reasonable to consider new variants of the definition. These definitions should take into account both recent progress in biological research and specific features of the current practice of the use of this term. For example, many researchers apply this term to aquatic ecosystems. To be applicable to aquatic ecosystems, the original definition of this term should be revised. According to the modern taxonomic system, fungi are excluded from the plant kingdom. New findings show that the information flow plays a significant role in the organization of superorganism structures [9, 14]. Based on a modified definition of V.N. Sukachev, the following definition of biogeocenosis can be suggested: Biogeocenosis is an aggregate of natural components (atmosphere, rocks, plants, animals, representatives of microorganisms and fungi, soil and hydrological conditions, and bottom sediments in the case of aquatic systems) in a particular area of land or water. Biogeocenosis is characterized by specific relationships between components; specific types of matter, energy, and information flows providing a certain degree of integrity (unity of components, indivisibility)

0012-4966/02/0304-0141$27.00 © 2002 MAIK “Nauka /Interperiodica”

142

OSTROUMOV

Table 1. Specific features of the definition of ecosystem proposed in this work No. Specific feature of the definition

Examples and comment on the preceding column

Brief substantiation

1

Indication that “living organisms The universality of the definition is inhabit a particular area or unit of increased to include situations with space” aquatic and soil systems in which organisms inhabit the bulk of the water or the bulk of the soil

Biological organisms may inhabit a considerable fraction (in terms of size and environmental diversity) of the system volume in the bulk of the water [6] and the bulk of the soil [10]

2

Direct indication to the ecosystem The definition is more plain and characteristics that are important specific; the importance of biolofor its description gical and nonbiological (physical and chemical) characteristics of the system is emphasized

The following characteristics have been shown to be necessary: abundance of individual species, interrelationships between them [4, 7, 8], specific physical and chemical environmental parameters [6, 10], seasonal and succession changes and their dynamics with time

3

Activity of organisms is put on the list of ecosystem characteristics required for its description

The importance of the physiological activity of organisms (e.g., the rate of photosynthesis, primary productivity, community respiration rate, rate of water filtration by hydrobionts, etc.)

Type and functions of ecosystem are mainly determined by its productivity [5], which depends on the physiological activity of organisms. The rate of water filtration by hydrobionts is important to maintain the water quality in aquatic ecosystems at a sufficiently high level [11, 15]

4

Flows of matter and energy have been introduced instead of the terms “turnover of matter and energy” or “exchange of matter and energy between system components”

The essence of the processes of matter and energy transfer is defined more accurately; because some of these processes are unidirectional, the term flow is more correct than the term exchange

Transfer of pollutants (including radionuclides) along the trophic chain is unidirectional [13]. Transfer of matter and some chemical elements (C, N, P, Si, Al) by pellets settling in water [12] is also an example of unidirectional transfer (along the vector of gravity force)

5

Flows of information have been introduced in addition to flows of matter and energy

Flows of information are important to provide contact between organisms, regulation of their interaction in the ecosystem, and ecosystem stability

There are many examples of information transfer by pheromones [9], attractants, deterrents, and other ecologically important substances produced by organisms [14]

and their changes with time. Organisms usually contribute to environment formation or modification. Specific features of the new definition and its comparison with the classical Sukachev’s definition [2] are briefly described in Table 2. The following specific features of the variant should be emphasized. (1) Taking into consideration the modern concept of natural systems called biogeocenoses, the words about water surface; fungi; and flows of matter, energy, and information have been added; a new conclusion was added. (2) The word “uniformity” is omitted (in the definition by Sukachev it was used in the context of uniform natural phenomena); the word “exchange” (in the context of energy and matter exchange) has been replaced by “flows”; the last part of the definition has been omitted (replaced by a new variant discussed above). (3) It has been noted that living organisms usually contribute to environment formation or modification. (4) The problem of unity of the system’s components is considered as adequately and carefully as pos-

sible (“a certain degree of integrity” has been included). (5) It is noted that biogeocenoses tend to change with time. I realize that the variant of definition suggested in this work is far from ideal. In many cases other variants of definition of the term ecosystem are more useful [3– 8]. I hope that the use and discussion of different variants will promote further progress in the development of the definitions of these basic terms. The evolution of the terms inevitably occurs as new ecological data, are accumulated. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to V.D Fedorov, G.V. Dobrovol’skii, E.A. Kriksunov, V.L. Kontrimavichus, V.N. Maksimov, A.S. Vladychenskii, A.P. Melikyan and many other colleagues from Moscow State University and Russian Academy of Sciences for stimulating discussion of general ecological problems. I am also grateful to AcaDOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Vol. 383

2002

NEW DEFINITIONS OF THE CONCEPTS AND TERMS ECOSYSTEM AND BIOGEOCENOSIS

143

Table 2. Specific features of the definition of biogeocenosis proposed in this work (see the text) No. 1 2

3 4 5

6

7

8

Difference from the classical definition by Sukachev (1972) [2]

The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic systems is emphasized

“Land and water surface” is used instead of “land The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic surface” systems is emphasized The term “uniform phenomena” is omitted Studies performed in the past decades gave many examples of heterogeneity of some parameters (temperature, illuminance, etc.) and variability of these parameters within the biogeocenosis. Synusias and consortiums are other examples of heterogeneity [8] Fungi are added to the list of biotic components Fungi were previously assigned to plants; however, according to the modern taxonomic system, they are excluded from the plant kingdom Bottom sediments are added to the list of The universality of the definition and its applicability to aquatic biogeocenosis components systems is emphasized The word “exchange” in the expression “exchange of This substitution is required to provide higher accuracy, because, in matter and energy” is replaced by the word “flows” many cases, unidirectional flows rather than bidirectional exchange take place The word “information” is added to the expression Studies performed in the past decades gave many examples of the “flows of matter and energy” important role of information transfer in the processes of formation of multiple connections and interactions between the components of biogeocenoses [8, 9, 14] It is noted that living organisms usually contribute It is emphasized that living organisms are involved in environment to environment formation or modification formation and modification. The examples of this involvement have been presented by many authors in studies on terrestrial (soil) [10] and aquatic [11, 15] systems The last part of the definition is omitted and reMore specific expressions are used; the possibility of changes with placed by a new variant time is emphasized. Specific features of community dynamics (reversible and irreversible changes, including seasonal and circadian rhythms, fluctuations, successions, etc.) were extensively discussed in ecological literature [2–5, 7, 8]

demician L.M. Sushchenya for reviewing the manuscript, to V.L. Kas’yanov, V.N. Pavlov, and A.I. Azovskii for valuable criticism of the preliminary version of the manuscript, and to Dr. Peter J. Wangersky for useful advise. This study was supported by IBG. REFERENCES 1. Tansley, A.G., Ecology, 1935, vol. 16, pp. 284–307. 2. Sukachev, V.N., Izbrannye trudy (Selected Works), Leningrad: Nauka, 1972, vol. 1. 3. Odum, Yu.P., Fundamentals of Ecology, Philadelphia: Saunders, 1971, vols. 1, 2. 4. Fedorov, V.D. and Gil’manov, T.G., Ekologiya (Ecology), Moscow: Mosk. Gos. Univ., 1980. 5. Begon, M., Harper, J.L., and Townsend, C.R., Ecology, Oxford: Blackwell Sci., 1996. 6. Alimov, A.F., Elementy teorii funktsionirovaniya vodnykh ekosistem (Principles of the Theory of Aquatic Ecosystem Functions), St. Petersburg: Nauka, 2000. 7. Shilov, I.A., Ekologiya (Ecology), Moscow: Vysshaya Shkola, 2000. 8. Rozenberg, G.S., Mozgovoi, D.P., and Gelashvili, D.B., Ekologiya: elementy teoreticheskikh konstruktsii sovremennoi ekologii (Ecology: Principles of the Theoretical DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Vol. 383

2002

Structure of Modern Ecology), Samara: Samarskii Nauchnyi Tsentr RAN, 1999. 9. Isaev, A.S. and Girs, G.I., Vzaimodeistvie dereva i nasekomykh-ksilofagov (Interaction between the Tree and Xylophagous Insect), Novosibirsk: Nauka, 1975. 10. Dobrovol’skii, G.V. and Nikitin, E.D., Sokhranenie pochv kak nezamenimogo komponenta biosfery (Conservation of Soils As an Indispensable Component of the Biosphere), Moscow: Nauka, 2000. 11. Ostroumov, S.A., Biologicheskie effekty poverkhnostnoaktivnykh veshchestv v svyazi s antropogennymi vozdeistviyami na biosferu (Biological Effects of Surfactants as Related to the Anthropogenic Impact on the Biosphere), Moscow: MAKS, 2000. 12. Ostroumov, S.A. and Kolesnikov, M.P., Dokl. Akad. Nauk, 2001, vol. 379, no. 3, pp. 426–429. 13. Matishov, D.G. and Matishov, G.G., Radiatsionnaya ekologicheskaya okeanologiya (Radiation Ecological Oceanology), Apatity: Kol’skii Nauchnyi tsentr Ross. Akad. Nauk, 2001. 14. Ostroumov, S.A., Vvedenie v biokhimicheskuyu ekologiyu (Introduction to Biochemical Ecology), Moscow: Mosk. Gos. Univ., 1986. 15. Ostroumov, S.A., Dokl. Akad. Nauk, 2002, vol. 382, no. 1, pp. 138–141.

New Definitions of the Concepts and Terms Ecosystem ... - Springer Link

solution is practically unattainable, because it is impos- sible to find an ideal .... text of energy and matter exchange) has been replaced by “flows”; the last part of ...

15KB Sizes 2 Downloads 302 Views

Recommend Documents

New Definitions of the Concepts and Terms Ecosystem ... - Springer Link
Doklady Biological Sciences, Vol. 383, 2002, pp. 141–143. Translated ... body of new biological information has been accumu- lated since the time of ... degree of integrity (unity of components, indivisibility). GENERAL BIOLOGY. New Definitions of

New Definitions of the Concepts and Terms Ecosystem
search by suggesting and substantiating specific defini- tions of two basic ... according to a typical definition, ecosystem is a biolog- ical community together with its physical environment. (see p. 679 in [5]). However, this definition by no means

Nepali Concepts of Psychological Trauma: The Role of ... - Springer Link
Mar 23, 2010 - School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, ... culture reveals that PTSD was not a universal and ever-present way of framing ... severe hardship with great courage and strength, to a ''postwarrior'' class wh

basic accounting terms and definitions pdf
basic accounting terms and definitions pdf. basic accounting terms and definitions pdf. Open. Extract. Open with. Sign In. Main menu. Displaying basic ...

basic accounting terms and definitions pdf
basic accounting terms and definitions pdf. basic accounting terms and definitions pdf. Open. Extract. Open with. Sign In. Main menu.

Probabilities for new theories - Springer Link
where between 0 and r, where r is the prior probability that none of the existing theories is ..... theorist's internal programming language"(Dorling 1991, p. 199).

Probabilities for new theories - Springer Link
all propositions of the form m(Ai) = r for some real number r. We can assume that .... The use of conditionalization in the preceding section depended on having a ...

Production and validation of the pharmacokinetics of a ... - Springer Link
Cloning the Ig variable domain of MAb MGR6. The V-genes of MAb MGR6 were reverse-transcribed, amplified and assembled to encode scFv fragments using the polymerase chain reaction essentially as described [6], but using the Recombi- nant Phage Antibod

Comparison of MINQUE and Simple Estimate of the ... - Springer Link
1,2Department of Applied Mathematics, Beijing Polytechnic University, Beijing ... and a Project of Science and Technology of Beijing Education Committee.

Comparison of MINQUE and Simple Estimate of the ... - Springer Link
Vol.19, No.1 (2003) 13–18. Comparison of MINQUE and Simple Estimate of the. Error Variance in the General Linear Models. Song-gui Wang. 1. , Mi-xia Wu. 2.

Comparison of MINQUE and Simple Estimate of the ... - Springer Link
of an estimate ̂θ of a scalar parameter θ is defined by MSE(̂θ) = E(̂θ − θ). 2 ..... panel data and longitudinal data, X and V may satisfy the condition MV M ...

The Incredible Economics of Geoengineering - Springer Link
Dec 6, 2007 - As I shall explain in this paper, its future application seems more likely than not. ... because the incentives for countries to experiment with ...

The Strength of Weak Learnability - Springer Link
high probability, the hypothesis must be correct for all but an arbitrarily small ... be able to achieve arbitrarily high accuracy; a weak learning algorithm need only ...

The antimalarials quinacrine and chloroquine ... - Springer Link
+525-606-4040; Fax +525-528-0095 e-mail: [email protected] ..... Burger PC, Shibata T, Aguzzi A (1988) Selective induction by. N-nitrosoethylurea of ...

Ecosystem services and their values: a case study in ... - Springer Link
of China. Received: 11 March 2005 / Accepted: 14 December 2005 / Published online: 17 March 2006 ... graphic information system that helps to analyze the.

Calculus of Variations - Springer Link
Jun 27, 2012 - the associated energy functional, allowing a variational treatment of the .... groups of the type U(n1) × ··· × U(nl) × {1} for various splittings of the dimension ...... u, using the Green theorem, the subelliptic Hardy inequali

The Strength of Weak Learnability - Springer Link
some fixed but unknown and arbitrary distribution D. The oracle returns the ... access to oracle EX, runs in time polynomial in n,s, 1/e and 1/6, and outputs an ...

Conflict and Health - Springer Link
Mar 14, 2008 - cle.php?art_id=5804]. May 30, 2006. 21. Tin Tad Clinic: Proposal for a Village-Based Health Care. Project at Ban Mai Ton Hoong, Fang District, ...

Minireview New Functional Aspects of Cathepsin D ... - Springer Link
angiogenesis-dependent growth of metastases. Interest- ingly, pro-CD from human .... like the bcl-2-family member bax that is the best- .... the bottom right, where the dense granular bodies, fingerprint-like myelin figures, and granular osmiophilic

New Exact Solution of Dirac-Coulomb Equation with ... - Springer Link
Sep 19, 2007 - brings on that the solutions of the Klein-Gordon equation and the Dirac ... and its magnetic moment in a completely natural way and so on.

pdf-1833\blacks-law-dictionary-definitions-of-the-terms-and-phrases ...
... the apps below to open or edit this item. pdf-1833\blacks-law-dictionary-definitions-of-the-term ... jurisprudence-ancient-and-modern-4th-edition-by-he.pdf.

Molecular dating and biogeography of the neritic krill ... - Springer Link
Jun 10, 2008 - ing of nodes using a Bayesian MCMC analysis and the. DNA sequence information contained in mtDNA 16S. rDNA and cytochrome oxidase ...