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CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1
Energy Audit
Energy is very important in any country of the world especially in developing country like Nigeria. The total installed capacity of Nigeria‟s power plants is about 8,178 MWe out of which the average generating capacity is between 2000 and 2500 MWe. The estimated national demand is about 40,000MW, this imbalance therefore is the major source of our energy crisis. Energy is one of the largest controllable costs in most organizations and there is considerable scope for reducing energy consumption and cost. Many savings can be made for little or no cost, while further saving can be made as a result of investment in energy efficiency measures such as more efficicent electrical machines and equipment which give returns over their lifetime. Investing in energy efficiency can therefore lead to an improved profitability. Hence energy audit of various sectors of the industries is necessary to help to optimize the use of the current energy supply to the various consumers. Energy audits are diagnostic tools for collecting detailed information about buildings and plant operating parameters with a view to establish a balance sheet of energy and material input and output. An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s). Energy audit is also an essential activity for any organization wishing to control energy and utility costs. It provides a structural review of how the energy is purchased, managed and used, with the aim of identifying opportunities for cost savings through improved energy utilization
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practices. Once a carefully executed energy audit has been concluded, it becomes an easy matter to identify the various units/cost centres which consumes most energy and/ where efficiencies are low, and to identify potential energy conservation opportunities. 1.1.1
Types of energy audit
There are essential two types of energy audit, preliminary and general audit. In the preliminary energy audit, which normally takes a few days on the average to complete, the aim is to reveal inadequacies in metering and measurements and to obtain data on energy savings quickly. The preliminary audit (alternatively called a simple audit, initial audit, screening audit or walk-through audit) is the simplest and quickest type of audit. It involves minimal interviews with site-operating personnel, a brief review of facility utility bills and other operating data, and a walk-through of the facility to become familiar with the building operation and to identify any glaring areas of energy waste or inefficiency.
Typically, only major problem areas will be uncovered during this type of audit. Corrective measures are briefly described, and quick estimates of implementation cost, potential operating cost savings, and simple payback periods are provided. This level of detail, while not sufficient for reaching a final decision on implementing proposed measures, is adequate to prioritize energy-efficiency projects and to determine the need for a more detailed audit. (Akinbami, 1988)
General energy audit on the other hand, can take several weeks or months to complete. At this stage detailed studies of energy and material balances for specific operating
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departments and / or items of processing equipment are carried out. The audit report will document polices, procedure, energy usage and cost associated with specific energy system and pin point problems areas. The general audit alternatively called a mini-audit, or detailed energy audit or complete site energy audit (Wikipedia, the free encyclopeadia.mht) expands on the preliminary audit described above by collecting more detailed information about facility operation and by performing a more detailed evaluation of energy conservation measures. Utility bills are collected for a 12 to 36 month period to allow the auditor to evaluate the facility's energy/demand rate structures and energy usage profiles. If interval meter data is available, the detailed energy profiles that such data makes possible will typically be analyzed for signs of energy waste. Additional metering of specific energy-consuming systems is often performed to supplement utility data. In-depth interviews with facility operating personnel are conducted to provide a better understanding of major energy consuming systems and to gain insight into short and longer term energy consumption patterns.
This type of audit will be able to identify all energy-conservation measures appropriate for the facility, given its operating parameters. A detailed financial analysis is performed for each measure based on detailed implementation cost estimates; site-specific operating cost savings, and the customer's investment criteria. Sufficient detail is provided to justify project implementation.
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1.2
Energy situation at Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital
(OAUTHC)
Over the years energy shortage has been a regular challenge in our country which makes many citizens to seek for alternative power supply such as petrol or diesel generators.
OAUTHC, located in Ile-Ife, Osun state
, is also affected by the current national
energy crisis of the country, since most of their instruments runs on electricity which includes Angle Poise Lamp, Oxygen generator, Diathermic machine, incubator Plaster Cutter, X-ray viewer, Hand blower, X-ray drier etc. Apart from the energy crisis in the nation, OAUTHC does not have energy audit data necessary for making relevant energy efficiency and conservation decisions. The following are the major challenges of proper Energy Management in OAUTHC:
High electricity consumption for air conditioning
Poor technological innovation
Low energy efficiency in buildings: low insulation
Insufficient Energy Management practices
1.2.1
Objectives of Proposal
This project proposal examines the following:
Sources of Energies either primary or secondary
How much energy is generated
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Figure 1.1: Obafemi Awolowo teaching hospital complex
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How much, and in what ways, energy is being consumed by each departments, wards and theatres, as well as transportation energy
How energy is efficiently used
Recommendations on efficient use of energy at OAUTHC
Existing Energy Management practices, if any.
1.2.2
Scope of Proposal
The scope of this proposal covers the energy audit of OAUTHC. The complex is divided into four phases namely Phase 1and 2, Phase 3 and 4. The Phase 1 and 2 include the following departments: Administration, Chemical Pathology, Microbiology, Hematology, Labour Ward, Captain Cook Restaurant, Pharmacy, Neonatal, Postal Ward, Children Ward 1 And 2, Kitchen And Cafeteria, New Radiology Building, Old Renal Building, New Renal Transplant Building, Mothers‟ Inn, Radiology Pediatric Ward, Children Orthopedic Department, Staff Clinic, Male And Female Surgical, Causality, Mosque, Chapel. The Phase 3 and 4 include the following: HVN Building, School Of Nursing, School Of Nursing Lecture Theatre, Consultant Offices, New Administration Building, Amenity Building, and Physiotherapy.
1.2.3
Justification for the Project Proposal
In recent times OAUTHC uses electricity from the Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) and fossil fuels as some of their primary sources of Energy. The waste product from using fossil fuel as a source of energy leads to the production of Greenhouse gases such as Carbon(ii)oxide and Carbon(iv) oxide. These greenhouse gases increase average
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global temperature which is responsible for global warming and climatic changes across the globe.
The unstable price of crude oil per barrel in the international market makes it difficult for OAUTHC to adequately predict the amount that would be spent on energy annually. Hence it has become a matter of priority to have an Energy Audit of OAUTHC in order to identify opportunities for identifying energy savings and energy efficiency which, when effected will lead to lower emission of GHGs, It is also important for controlling energy and utility costs.
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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1
Overview
Energy is a critical requirement for hospital management, with increased pressures on services; extra reliance on computers; more air-conditioning coupled with inefficient and ageing buildings, energy consumption is always increasing. At the same time, with the cost and unreliable supply of grid power supply and fossil fuels coupled with the increased requirements of current legislations, hospitals are compelled to look towards an alternative energy plans and having energy audit to help them know how effectively they are using the energy they generate (Dirichi, 2007). This situation from the developed world is also apt for our current situation in Nigeria, and particularly here at the Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospital. 2.2
Global Energy Issues
All around the world, satisfying the energy demand of consumers has been a major issue on the mind of stakeholders in making energy available at the cheapest cost. Presently there has been a major dependence on fossil fuels as a primary source of energy which cause climatic changes or better said global warming (Krarti, 2000). Experts in the world are looking for other sources of energy such as Nuclear, renewable energy, hydrogen, etc. Renewable energy sources include:. •
Solar PV
•
Solar Thermal – heat and electricity
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•
Wind Turbines biowastes
•
Biomass – Bioethanol, Biodiesel,
•
Biomass – Pyrolysis, Gasifiers
•
Hydroelectricity - Small Hydro Power
•
Ocean energy
•
Wave energy
•
Tidal energy
•
Geothermal energy
Renewable sources of energy do not emit direct greenhouse gases (GHGS). Greenhouse Gases contribute to the Greenhouse Effect, without which the earth would be inhabitable at -19oC. In order of relative abundance, GHGs are: H2O, CO2, CH4, NOx, and ozone. Most of these arise from natural sources but human activity also contributes its share (Fagbenle, 2007). 2.2.1
Environmental Impacts of Alternative Sources of Energy
The alternative sources of energy to fossil fuel also have environmental impacts which include the following:
Mutation in humans: Nuclear energy emits gamma radiations which cause mutation in humans.
Land Use/ Resource Depletion: renewable energy technologies such as wind power and solar energy most often require the use of large mass of land, often resulting in clearing of forest reserves. Closed cycle geothermal power plants will require a large amount of water for cooling or other purposes. In places where
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water is in short supply, this need could raise conflicts with other users for water resources. Furthermore construction of a utility-scale solar power plants require large amount of land-approximately one square kilometre for every 20- 60 megawatts (MW) generated- this poses an additional problem, especially where wildlife protection is a concern.
Waste Generation: installation and operation of almost all the renewable energy technologies results in solid waste generation. For instance construction of wind turbine results in variety of solid wastes such as metal scraps and aggregates.
Air and Water Pollution: the construction of most renewable energy technology results in dust emissions and other sorts of air pollution. Geothermal energy often results in large volume of waste water; the disposal method is to inject the liquid wastes back into a porous stratum of a geothermal well, resulting in pollution of groundwater. Though geothermal plants are far from human habitation, the continuous release of liquid waste tends to spread over time to human settlement. Production of geothermal energy releases steam containing hydrogen sulphide (H2S) as well as ammonia, methane, and carbon dioxide. Also the combustion of biomass produces air pollutants, including carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates such as soot and ash.
Impact on Wildlife: apart from destruction of habitats, certain renewable energy technologies have been attributed to causes of death of wild life. For instance wind turbines pose serious threats to birds. Also hydropower has been associated with causing death of salmons. (Dirichi, 2007).
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From 17th Century, world population increased from 0.5 to about 6 billion. Energy consumption increased by a factor of 140 from 100 million tonnes to 14 billion tonnes of coal equivalent (tce) per year. World Energy Commission studies show that world energy consumption will, by 2020, increase by a further 5.5 billion tce, mostly due to world population growing at a rate of 80 million per year. WEC studies predict fossil fuels will account for about 75% of the energy supply well into this 21st century with associated investment of about US30 billion. Based on today‟s knowledge and fossil energy prospecting investment, petroleum, natural gas and coal will be available globally for another 40, 60 and 220 years respectively. Hence, responsible governments must act now to conserve these wasting resources for future generations. The needs of the current generation must not be satisfied at the expense of future generations – i.e ecologically sustainable economy (Fagbenle 2007). UN Conference for Environment and Development (UNCED) concluded that there is a rapid increase in energy demand of the world and limited resources are available in meeting these demand. Hence there is a need to adequately manage and conserve the limited amount of energy we generate for our growing population therefore; energy audit is needed to determine how we use energy and how to avoid wastage in our homes and industries. Well-defined and verified information is necessary for feasible and the most profitable investments in energy efficiency improvements. Energy audits make use of a common set of tools for this purpose. The characteristics of the objects to be audited are different due
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to the varying purpose and the level of technological systems leading to the need of a diversity of auditing methods. The basic idea of energy auditing is pretty much the same in different countries but the models and practices differ. This project proposal briefly introduces several of the energy auditing models developed and applied in Finland and Germany. 2.2.2
Energy Audit of Other Countries of the World Using Finland and Germany
as a Case Study Energy auditing is a key instrument in the national energy efficiency policy of Finland as stated in Guidelines and Models for Energy Auditing. A system of method development, training, quality control and data management has been established. The trained auditors are authorized to perform audits that may enjoy government subsidy. The provision of delivering the results of the audit to the central audit data bank in Motiva, the national information centre of energy efficiency, is included in the granting conditions of the subsidy. In order for maintaining this kind of a national overall system uniform methods are necessary. This energy auditing system is also an essential element in making the voluntary energy conservation agreement system work and brings in results. In addition to the need of having a tailored energy auditing method for each type of energy consuming facility, like an industrial plant, residential or tertiary building, there is a place for an audit in the various phases of the lifetime of these facilities. Examples of these are methods for the commissioning phase of a new or renovated building and for
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follow-up after several years have passed since the previous audit or after some essential changes have taken place in the use of the facility. 2.2.3
Detail procedure for energy audit in Finland
Energy auditing has been one of the main tools in Finland‟s energy conservation activities since 1992. The latest report of the Government to the Parliament on the Energy and Climate Policy Guidelines for the Near Future implies continuation of the implementation of the national Energy Audit Program (EAP). 1. Energy Audit Program (EAP) There is one Energy Audit Program in Finland. The EAP is run by Motiva Oy (the Operating Agent), a state owned company. The Energy Department of the Ministry of Trade and Industry (MTI) is the Administrator, responsible for all official decisions. Most of the energy auditors work in consulting companies. The clients are from the industry, service and energy sectors. By the end of the year 2005 about 6400 energy audits had been carried out and reported. 2. Goals Coverage targets for energy auditing have been set in the Voluntary Energy Conservation Agreements. E.g. for the municipal buildings the target is commonly set at 80 % of the building volume. The target year was 2005 in many of the agreements. Other targets than those in the agreements do not exist on the national level. 3. Legislation There is no legislation concerning or influencing the need for energy audits.
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4. Promotion and marketing Besides the market actors offering energy auditing services most of the promotion and marketing is done by Motiva as a part of its work program financed by the Ministry of Trade and Industry. The most important tool for this purpose is the internet site of Motiva (www.motiva.fi). A lot of printed material for distribution has also been produced. 5. Subsidies Within the frame of the EAP the energy audits are subsidized by 40 to 50 %. The higher percentage is applied with municipalities that have joined the Voluntary Energy Conservation agreement. The cumulative amount of subsidies to audits in all relevant sectors during the period of 1998–2005 is estimated at 12 million euros and respectively the value of the cumulative savings at approx. 215 million euros. In terms of final energy consumption the annual savings have exceeded 1 TWh. 6. Administration The Ministry of Trade and Industry has ordered the administrative services for supporting the EAP from Motiva. Motiva acts between the Ministry and the market developing the auditing procedures, training auditors and disseminating information in order to activate both the demand and the supply side actors on the market. Motiva also maintains the audit data bank, provides information of the auditing activities and their results in the reports to the Ministry. The administrative function for the subsidy scheme is in the regional Employment and Economic Development Centres (TECentres) of the Ministry.
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7. Monitoring All reports from the subsidized audits are sent to Motiva for checking and quality control. Along with this the essential data and other results are transferred from the reports to the data bank maintained by Motiva. Using the data from the bank Motiva puts together an annual report of energy auditing for the Ministry. 8.
Audit models
There are audit models for different facilities, ranging from simple service sector buildings to process industry and power production. A separate audit model exists for apartment buildings. For process industries and power plants there are energy analysis models applied for the specific conditions in those types of facilities. There are various types of audits made available, depending e.g. on the age of the facility to be audited. The critical determinants for choosing the proper auditing scheme, besides the type of the facility, are its age and the phase of its life-cycle. The basic auditing model being for an existing, non-audited building, additional models have been developed for the commissioning phase of a new or renovated building, walk-though audits for a quick overview of the conditions, and a follow-up audit model to be applied in buildings that had been audited several (e.g. 10) years ago or that have experienced essential changes in their use. 9. Training Motiva arranges training of auditors a couple of times a year, depending on the demand.
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The training program is for two days, one day in common for the HVAC and electricity experts and one day separately for these two groups of experts. The training is concluded with a test work. Participants to the training program typically come from engineering and consulting companies, but experts come also from the customers‟ side, like municipalities, big real estate owners and industry. 10. Authorization Successful passing through the training entitles the expert to the authorization. This gives him the right to carry out energy audits supported with the government subsidy. The authorization is valid for the time being. 11. Quality control The reports of all the audits that are receiving government subsidy are delivered to Motiva whose experts carry out the quality control. 12. Auditors’ tools The authorised auditors have all the information and training material published by Motiva and the computer program Motiwatti to be used as a tool in the audit process. Use of Motiwatti is necessary in order for producing the audit report in the required format. 13. Other programs including energy auditing The aim of the Voluntary Energy Conservation Agreement Scheme is to help reduce the specific energy consumption and to develop and introduce methods that would allow energy efficiency to be integrated into everyday operations in a building or
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other facility. The agreements are made between the Ministry of trade and Industry and an organization or company in the public or private sector. In some cases other ministries have also become parties to the agreements. Crucial measures according to the agreement are energy auditing and the appropriate energy saving measures. The Scheme, first launched in 1997, has been a significant implementing instrument also for energy audits. The coverage of this program level activity is high. 85 % of the total energy use in the industry and over 50 % of the building stock of the service sector are within the Scheme. All enterprises and organizations within the Scheme have an obligation to implement energy audits. Therefore the set goal for the EAP, which is to have 80 % of industrial energy use and of the service sector building stock audited by the end of year 2010, should be met. The target sectors of the Scheme are in principle all energy end-users and suppliers. By the end of the year 2005 the Ministry had agreements or respective programs with the following sectors: •
Industry
•
Municipalities
•
Real estate & construction
•
Power generation
•
Electricity transmission and distribution
•
District heating
•
Transport/trucking
•
Transport/busses
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•
Oil sector
The administration of the VAS has been divided between the Ministry, Motiva and the branch associations. In each agreement the responsibilities have been divided in a different way, but in practice Motiva is the Operating Agent for the scheme and is responsible for the total monitoring and reporting to the Ministry. 14. The Condition Assessment Scheme The Condition Assessment Scheme is a part of a wider scheme, which aims at improving the condition and maintenance of residential sector buildings. The aim of the program is to promote systematic renovation, based on a long-term plan on maintenance and repairs, and to prepare the building owners for future investments. The Ministry of the Environment has been supporting condition assessments in residential sector buildings since 1993. The Administrator of the Condition Assessment Program is the Finnish Housing Board, which is part of Finland‟s Environmental Administration. Local municipal housing authorities act as Operating Agents and are responsible for handling the subsidy applications and payments as well as for the quality of the assessment work. The target groups of the Scheme are blocks of flats and terraced houses. 15. Energy audits in other contexts The Environmental Management Systems (EMS) have continuously been an area of “other activities”, where Motiva has made efforts to influence the decision makers to adapt good practices on energy issues – primarily to include energy auditing in the EMS.
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16. Condition assessments in the tertiary sector The condition assessments in the tertiary sector e.g offices and large residential buildings are very popular among the Finnish building owners. In order to benefit from the interest of building owners on condition assessments the Ministry of Trade and Industry and Motiva have co-operated with the Ministry of the Environment to develop The Guidelines for Condition Assessment in Tertiary Buildings, which contains information on how to combine an energy audit and a condition assessment. (Seppo, et‟ al)
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Figure 2.1: The Finnish Energy Auditing Scheme
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Figure 2.2: Audit Model
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2.2.4
Germany Energy policy of the Federal Republic of Germany
Since the beginning of the 1990s the federal government policy has given increased emphasis to global warming issues and the target was set to reducing CO2-emissions by 25 % before 2005, compared to 1990 levels. The main policy targets are an efficient and environmentally harmless energy supply, increased use of renewable energy sources and a more efficient use of energy in the industrial, commercial and private sectors. Essential boundary conditions are economic sustainability and security of energy supply. The German federal government‟s energy conservation policy is basically market oriented. Framework conditions created by the federal government are supposed to support the market-economy process, e.g. by information measures, financial incentives, and legal measures (such as the new eco-tax on energy consumption). In addition, the federal government makes use of voluntary self-commitments of the industry where appropriate. Subsequently, the federal energy policy includes promotion programs for a more rational use of energy, increased use of renewable energy sources, R&D of new materials, innovation, rehabilitation, and physical improvement, investment support, economical and regional development, environmental information dissemination activities. The programs are tailored for special target groups, in most cases for the housing, service or industrial sectors, where the SME-companies have a special emphasis. Terms of the program vary from three to five years, but those can be continued if the programs are found effective. In Germany, energy auditing is generally considered as an advisory or consultancy service provided by qualified experts. The federal state, the states and municipalities
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promote the use of external energy experts in improvements of energy efficiency, if inhouse resources are not adequate. An energy auditing procedure is standardized by the Federation of German Engineers, and applied generally as an element in various energy efficiency improvement programs. The energy auditing concept as a stand-alone activity is being executed by large German companies on their own, most often by in-house resources. As regards SME‟s, which most often lack in-house resources for energy auditing, the federal government supports energy audits by financing up to 40 % of the costs of an externally delivered audit (max. 1600 euro). However, energy audits are most often being carried out by companies taking part in the so-called eco-audit system based on the EU-ordinance on eco-audit of June 29, 1993. Energy policies of the states The Federal Germany consists of 16 states, which have constitutionally guaranteed extensive rights of self-government. The states follow federal energy policy or carry out their own energy policies. The energy policies of the states include typically programs for renewable energy sources, rational use of energy, environmental, municipal energy conservation, economical promotion, training, information dissemination etc. Regional and municipal energy saving activities Large cities and regions may have their own concepts for energy saving, information dissemination and other such activities. These are often linked to the municipal energy
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management and energy contracting services. Energy auditing is typically included in these procedures. Energy audit programs The Federal Energy Conservation Program “Energiesparberatung vor Ort” in 1991, the Federal Ministry of Economics (BMWi) launched an energy saving promotion program called “Vor-Ort-Beratung”, as a part of national policy to reduce CO2 emissions. The program has been running since then and is considered very effective, especially in the rehabilitation of old buildings. A resolution to continue the program was made in1998. The program gives subsidies for the following audit phases carried out by qualified engineers: • Phase 1: Present situation • Phase 2: Documentation and proposals for energy efficiency enhancements • Phase 3: Personal advice by engineers at the time when the documentation is handed over. Credit institutions give low interest loans for investments recommended in the audits. Goals of the program are to improve the thermal insulation and heating systems, by promoting energy certification and other energy saving measures in new and existing buildings built before 1984 in the old States and 1989 in the new states, respectively, and to increase energy saving awareness among the building owners and end users. The goals are pursued by technical and financial aid provided by numerous local actors. The
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program gives financial support to building owners to procure energy audit services. All building owners are, in principle, eligible to get support from the “Vor-Ort-Beratung” program are provided that the whole building is audited. Also flat owners have to include a formal audit of the heating system and the structural condition of the building in the service applied. Several states and credit banks have additional programs for financing investments recommended in the audits. The program is extended to SME‟s and religious buildings. If they are used for residential purposes, maximum support for an energy audit carried out by a consultant is limited based on the building size counted in flats per building. The consultants shall have adequate professional experience on energy auditing and proven skills to carry out reliably the defined “Vor-Ort-Beratung” tasks. The information and advising agent of the program is Bundesamt für Wirtschaft (BAW) in Eschborn. The energy audit services are authorised to engineers and consulting companies around the nation. The RKW e.V. (Rationalisierungs Kuratorium der Deutschen Wirtschaft) carries out a qualification procedure and maintains a list of authorised agencies and companies by regions. The federal “Vor-Ort-Beratung” program covers all states and a few states have established their own “Vor-Ort-Beratung” programs such as the “Gebäudecheck Energie” by the State of Northrhine-Westphalia. As the programs are diversified, very little collective information on the results, total volumes of audited buildings and implemented energy saving measures is available.
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Other programs with energy audits Municipal energy improvement programs and energy contracting programs apply commonly energy auditing in various steps. The first phase of standardised energy audit, Present Situation, is widely used to clarify the actual status of the building and the technical systems, operational routines and occurred energy consumption and costs. Energy auditors may be used also in later stages to generate new ideas for improvements and to teach how site inspections are carried out in practice. Design tasks, cost estimates, economic calculations and implementation plans are also often ordered from the same engineering offices. Other activities including energy audits Commercial energy audits and more comprehensive energy analyses are available from several specialised consulting firms around the country. 2.3
Nigeria Energy Crisis
As a third world country and a producer of crude oil, Nigeria depends mainly on fossil fuel as a primary source of energy. In response to the sensitization of the UN, the Nigeria governments are looking for alternative sources of energy. In 2004, during democratic government of Olusegun Obasanjo, the use of cassava in production of bioethanol as an alternative source of fuel was actively promoted. As Nigerians became aware of the need to minimize wastage of energy, switching off lights, especially security lights and the use of energy efficient equipment was encouraged by energy experts. From recent development, it shows that the Nigeria government and people are not fully awakened to
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need of having energy audit of homes and industries which helps in energy conservation and its efficient use. There is no doubt that our energy sector is underdeveloped or that Nigeria herself is barely struggling to keep abreast with other developing countries. International Human Development Reports and Indices ranked Nigeria‟s in the committee of nations low on the issues of energy. Under the classification “Biomass and Waste”, Nigeria ranked No. 158 (out of 179) on Biomass and waste energy utilization as a percentage of Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) with 79.8% in 1990 and 78% in 2005. This implies a disproportionate usage of biomass resources such as fuel wood, foliage, animal wastes, etc. for energy production relative to other primary energy sources such as fossil fuels natural gas, petroleum resources, hydro, and other renewable energy sources besides biomass. The ecological implications of this on desertification and global warming are apparent. Nigeria‟s electricity consumption in 2004 was 157 kWh/capita (116 kWh/cap. in 2006 IEA database) while South Africa‟s consumption was 4,818 kW-hr/capita (7079 kWh/cap. in 2006 IEA database). Comparative data on other countries appear in Table 1 below indicating Nigeria‟s precarious energy situation. The data for 2009 will be even much lower than the 116 kWh/cap for 2006, due to myriad of problems, the Niger Delta question being a vexing one among them (Fagbenle, 2008 ). The statistic above shows that Nigeria have reduced electricity consumption between 2004 and 2006 not for the fact that our demand for energy is reducing but because we are not even generating the amount of energy needed to satisfy our growing population need.
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Table2.1.
Comparative per capita electricity consumption of Nigeria with some
other countries.
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2.4
Energy Use and Savings Potential in Hospitals
The health sector is very much dependent on power for its operation. Figure 3 shows a typical break down of energy use in the health sector. Conventionally speaking the higher the energy consumed by an appliance, equipment or service, then the higher the potentials for energy savings. As observable from Figure 3, a bulk of energy consumption in the health sector comes from space heating, hot water production and lighting, thus offering opportunities for energy savings. This trio represents about 70% of energy consumption in health sector. For instance in hospitals, lighting is generally the largest consumer of the electricity in a hospital, accounting for about 40% of the total consumption thus offering an opportunity for energy saving. The energy used for lighting depends on the efficiency of the lamp, and their hours of use. Daylighting is the most important element in creating a low-energy building in many climates. Reducing lighting loads decreases the electrical energy required for operating lighting systems and reduces building cooling loads. However, many commercial building owners are skeptical about daylighting strategies because of the perceived risk associated with what is considered a new concept. Also, architects and engineers find it difficult to optimize the daylighting system so as to minimize the sum of heating, cooling, lighting, and ventilation energy costs. Furthermore the use of energy efficient lightings and lighting controls offer excellent means of cutting back on energy consumption via lighting. Control of lighting is normally by local switches and these should be provided in sufficient number to allow variation in lighting options e.g. reduced levels of luminance when circumstances permit, and to encourage energy conservation.
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Figure 2.3: Energy use in United Kingdom Hospitals
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Building envelopes and thermal insulation offer means for reducing energy consumption associated with space heating. Regulations for thermal insulation, ventilation, lighting and indoor temperature levels ensure that every house is somewhat energy efficient. In addition to lighting, hot water demands are continuous and in significant quantity, hot water consumption ranges between 100 to 200litres/bed per day. With about 2.5kg of dry laundry per bed per day, hospital laundries, which often use hot water/ steam, are very big energy consumers. Typically, they account for 10-15% of a hospital‟s total energy consumption of around 2000kWh/bed. Considerable energy savings can be achieved in the production, distribution, utilization, and final recovery of this steam. In addition to the need for lighting, space heating and hot water generation, 24 hours a day, hospitals demand extensive energy for ventilation; running equipments; sterilization; laundry and food preparation. A building‟s heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system (HVAC) creates interior comfort by compensating for climatic conditions. Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC systems) account for 39% of the energy used in commercial buildings in the United States. Consequently, almost any business or government agency has the potential to realize significant savings by improving its control of HVAC operations and improving the efficiency of the system it uses. (Levermore, G.J 1992). The use of high performance HVAC equipment can result in considerable energy, emissions, and cost savings (10-40%). Whole building design coupled with an "extended comfort zone" can produce much greater savings (40%-70%). Ventilation in particular constitutes about 20-30 % of the total energy consumed in buildings today. For most
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buildings, efficiency can only be achieved if the energy used for ventilation is reduced; this however may lead to reduced ventilation rates and increased levels of air pollution in buildings from people and their activities, and thus result in poorer indoor air quality. The obvious solution would be to reduce the pollution sources indoors. However ventilation within hospitals is absolutely necessary to reduce transmission of airborne pathogens, given the vulnerability of patients‟ immune systems. On the other hand, with hospital equipments, correlation with energy consumption is difficult, given the variety of equipment and its distribution, but is less important than might be expected. There are firm requirement throughout the hospital for equipment, instrument and materials to be sterilised, because of the potentially widespread contamination risks. With only a few percent of a hospital‟s total energy consumption, sterilisation is not very energy-intensive. Annual energy consumption is in the order of 500kWh/bed. The power required is low, around 1kW for decentralized equipment, so opportunities for energy saving are limited, likewise for other medical equipments. 2.5
OAUTHC Energy Audit
Information we got from the maintenance department of OAUTHC stated categorically that the hospital does not have a detail energy resource bank or have ever carried out an energy audit of the whole teaching complex. One of the engineers stated, that they only have estimated value of the energy needed for day to day running of the hospital based on the total number of transformer used by the complex. OAUTHC have three 750kVA transformers serving the various complex with further expansion going on it is estimated that the total electric energy need by OAUTHC will far exceed 2500kVA.
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OAUTHC needs to have a comprehensive energy audit which will help them to have an energy-management program. Energy costs, for example, which typically represent up to three percent of a hospital‟s operating budget, can be reduced easily by 20 to 25 percent by following this program. This will continually increase saving long after the initial investment has been paid. In addition, by continually upgrading the technology of building systems, managers of OAUTHC can create new savings opportunities. In fact, substantial savings can often be generated through awareness and low-cost measures, with no capital investment required.
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CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY The type of audit that have been carried out in this proposed project is preliminary energy audit which involves brief review of facility utility bills and operating data, and a walkthrough of the facilities to become familiar with the building operation and to identify any glaring area of energy waste or inefficiency. Listed below are the things we have considered in carrying out this type of audit.
Type and number of electrical appliances in offices.
The existing generator(s) capacities and their performance to assess their generating operations.
How often in a day electrical appliances are put on.
The year the appliance was installed and its expected life.
The specific energy consumption department-wise and plant as a whole.
The power sources, load factor and efficiency of large motors, process automations, building and wards illuminations etc.
Collection of requisite data and analysis and identification of specific areas with potential for conservation of energy.
Identification of limitations in the optimal use of energy.
35
3.1
Basic measurement and Calculation
From the basic information that has been gathered the following calculations have been done.
Energy production and used in different forms; hence there is a need to have a unified unit for the purpose of this project. All forms of energy will be converted to kWh.
3.2
Energy cost and tariff of power supplied by PHCN.
Energy efficiency and energy wastage.
Procedure used for preliminary audit
Step 1 - Interview with Key Facility Personnel For preliminary audit of OAUTHC various meeting was scheduled between us and key operating personnel to kick off the project. The meeting agenda focused on: audit objectives, scope of work and description of scheduled project activities. In addition to the administrative issues, the discussion during this meeting established: operating characteristics of the facility, energy system specifications, operating and maintenance procedures, preliminary areas of investigation, unusual operating constraints, anticipated future hospital expansions and other concerns related to facility operations.
36
Step 2 - Facility Tour After our initial meeting, a tour of the facility was arranged to observe the various operations first hand, focusing on the major energy consuming systems that would be identified. Step 3 - Document Review During the initial visit and subsequent kick-off meeting, available facility documentation was provided and reviewed with facility representatives. This documentation include all available architectural and engineering plans, facility operation and maintenance procedures and logs, and utility bills for the previous five years. The available plans should represent "as-built" rather than "design" conditions. Otherwise, there may be some minor discrepancies between the systems that would be evaluated as part of the audit and those actually installed at the facility. Step 4 - Facility Inspection After a thorough review of the construction and operating documentation, the major energy consuming processes in the facility had been further investigated to know their status. Step 5 - Staff Interviews Subsequent to the facility inspection, we met with the facility staff to review Preliminary findings and the recommendations to be considered. Given that the objective of the audit is to identify energy managements that would be of high value to OAUTHC. In addition,
37
interviews were scheduled with key representatives designated by the facility as having information relevant to the energy audit. These representatives include major energy consuming system service, maintenance personnel and utility representatives. Step 6 - Utility Analysis The utility analysis gave a detailed review of energy bills from the previous 12 months. This would include all purchased energy, including electricity (PHCN) and fossil fuels Step 7 - Economic Analysis Data collected during the audit was processed and analyzed to account for Energy wastage and propose Energy conservation measures for OAUTHC. Step 8- Prepare a Report Summarizing Audit Findings The results of our findings and recommendations are summarized in this final report. The report includes a summary of all the activities and effort performed throughout the project with specific conclusions and recommendations.
38
3.3
Questionnaires
The data needed for energy audit of OAUTHC was gathered using these various questionnaires, some of these questionnaires were modified when we were carrying out our field work in the hospital. 3.3.1
Useful energy produced by diesel generator
Day Time
Number of Litres
Conversion factor
Energy Produced(kWh)
Morning Afternoon
Conversion factor (DEFRA, 2007). Fuel Energy density for diesel oil = 39.6MJ/lit Energy density = mass/volume Therefore, Fuel Energy mass = 39.6 MJ/lit x X litres of diesel = 39.6XMJ But 1kWh = 3.6MJ Y = 39.6XMJ x kWh/3.6MJ = 11XkWh
39
3.3.2
Lighting of building
Name of building........................................... Type of
Quantity of
Power Rating
Hours Used
Energy
lighting
lights
(kW)
(h)
Consumed(kWh)
Incandescent Florescent
40
3.3.3 Month
Questionnaire for Power supply from PHCN Initial
Final
Unit of
Unit
Power
Meter
Meter
Power
Charge
Consumed
Consumed
Reading
Reading
Used
(kw)
(kWh)
Tim(h)
Energy
41
3.3.4
Questionnaire for each building
Name of building......................................................................................................................... Name(s) of department in each building 1. ................................................................................................................ 2. ................................................................................................................ 3. ............................................................................................................... 4. ............................................................................................................... 5. ................................................................................................................ 6. .............................................................................................................. 7. ................................................................................................................. Date of audit.............................................../2010 Building Manager..................................................
42
3.3.5
Equipment questionnaires
Department of................................................ S/N
Name of Equipment
Power
Hours of
Energy
Rating
Usage(h)
consumed(kWh)
(kWh)
43
Chapter four Results and discussion The energy audit encompasses several steps and preliminary consultation, initial data gathering and assessment, on-site inspection, data analysis and evaluation, and reporting as stated in the previous chapter. This section of the project gives detail analysis of data in bar chart, pie chart and their corresponding interpretation.
We started with a preliminary energy audit analyzing energy consumption and expenditures. From the various graphs plotted we were able to determine the ward and equipment that consumed the highest amount of energy. The next step in the energy strategy process was to rank and specify energy consuming equipments.
The result and discussion will be restricted to the objective of this project which are stated below:
4.1
Sources of Energies
The primary source of energy is fossil fuel. OAUTHC makes use of electric energy from PHCN and from diesel generators. They use about 2,500 liters per day to run diesel generators and 5,310 liters of natural gas is used in the kitchen for 1 month which is equivalent to 177 liters per day. PHCN has various sources of energy which are from steam power plants, thermal power plants, hydro power stations and geothermal.
44
4.2
Quantity of energy generated
4.2.1
Diesel
Average energy produced monthly by generator is gotten from liters of fuel used by generator. Using the Conversion factor (DEFRA, 2007) below we get a theoretical energy available in fuel.
Fuel Energy density for diesel oil = 39.6MJ/lit Energy density = mass/volume Therefore, Fuel Energy mass = 39.6 MJ/lit x X litres of diesel = 39.6XMJ But 1kWh = 3.6MJ Y = 39.6XMJ x kWh/3.6MJ = 11XkWh Where X = 2,500 liters
Therefore
Theoretical available Energy = 11 x 2,500 x 30days
=825,000 kWh
45
4.2.2
Natural gas
12.5kg of natural gas is used per day by hospital kitchen. This translates to 375kg/month and has heating value of 14.71kWh/kg.
Theoretical energy of Natural gas = heating value x mass of natural gas
=14.7kWh/kg x 375kg
= 5512.5kWh
4.3
Energy consumption patterns in Medical buildings
The figure below shows energy consumption of light, medical equipments, accessories like fans air conditioning unit, television, radio, fridge and so on in OAUTHC wards. The questionnaire administered helped us gather the needed energy consumption from nurses and doctors in the wards. Tables were constructed as shown below for the 23 functioning medical buildings covered in OAUTHC. The tables and the figure drawn from the data collected for all the 23 medical building are stated clearly in appendix A and B. Appendix E has a pictorial representation of important places in the hospital like some wards and departments. It also contains some medical equipment and picture of the generator house.
46
Table 4.1
Female medial ward
Name of Appliances/ Medical equip Nos
Daily
Bulbs
use
Power Ratings (W)
Total Power(W)
Avg hour of usage/day
Average Energy/day(WH)
Ranking
%
8
5
100
500
21.6
10785.7
1
33.3
Flourescent
6
2
40
80
17.7
1417.1
7
4.4
Ceiling Fan
11
6
60
360
20.4
7354.3
2
22.7
Standing fan
6
4
100
400
4.9
1942.9
6
6.0
Television
2
2
84
168
12.3
2064.0
5
6.4
DVD
1
1
12
12
10.6
126.9
9
0.4
Radio
2
1
11
11
4.1
45.6
10
0.1
Computer
2
1
85
85
4.1
352.1
8
1.1
Fridge(small)
2
2
75
150
18.1
2721.4
4
8.4
Kettle
3
3
1000
3000
1.9
5571.4
3
17.2
Total
32381.4
Kettle
Fridge (1/10 hp)
Computer
Radio
DVD
Television
Standing fan
Ceiling Fan
Flourescent
12000.0 10000.0 8000.0 6000.0 4000.0 2000.0 0.0 Bulbs
Average energy/day(kWh)
47
Energy consuming equipment
Figure 4.1a: Female medical ward energy consumption
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Kettle
Fridge (1/10 hp)
Computer
Radio
DVD
Television
Standing fan
Ceiling Fan
Flourescent
Bulbs
Ranking Percentage
Figure 4.1b: Female medical ward energy ranking and percentage
Sterilizer
Kettle
Fridge(1/4 hp)
Fridge(1/6 hp)
Computer
Radio
DVD
Decorder (Dstv)
Television
Standing fan
Ceiling Fan
Flourescent
Bulbs
Sterilizer
Kettle
Fridge(1/4 hp)
Fridge(1/6 hp)
Computer
Radio
DVD
Decorder (Dstv)
Television
Standing fan
Ceiling Fan
Flourescent
Bulbs
Average energy/day(Wh)
48
50000.0 45000.0 40000.0 35000.0 30000.0 25000.0 20000.0 15000.0 10000.0 5000.0 0.0 Energy/day(WH)
Energy consuming equipment
Figure 4.2a : Male medical ward energy consumption
60
50
40
30
20
10 Ranking
Percentage
0
Figure 4.2b: Male medical ward energy ranking and percentages
49
The various figures drawn in the appendix A and B shows that the equipments that are energy guzzlers includes lighting which are bulbs or fluorescent (modular fittings), air conditioning, sterilizer and sometimes fans. It is only on rare case that we have some medical equipment consuming much energy for example electric plaster cutter, X-ray viewer in auto cleave plaster department and dialysis machine in renal ward.
4.3.1
Comparison of energy consumed in all the medical building
We summed up the energy consumed by each appliances and medical equipment in each wards, theatres and other medical buildings to give the total energy consumed by each building which can be seen in Appendix A. From the figure below, the ward and department that consumed the highest amount of energy are the radiology department (1003kWh/day), renal ward (988kWh/day) and morbid (967kWh/day) respectively. After which we categorize the energy consuming equipment into three which include light, medical equipment and accessories to know the amount of energy consumed by each of them. Radiology department lightning consumes about 40.8kWh/day which translates to about 1,224kWh/month while medical equipment consumes 14.86kWh/day which is equivalent to 445.8kWh/month and accessories consumes about 813.43.4kWh/day which is 24,402.9kWh/month. Renal ward which is the second largest energy guzzler have the following breakdown: lightning consumes about 6.2kWh/day which translates to about 168kWh/month while medical equipment consumes 219.64kWh/day which is equivalent to 6,589kWh/month
and
accessories
consumes
about
813.43.4kWh/day which
is
24,402.9kWh/month. A pie chart show below gives a better representation of this data. The third energy guzzler is the morbid with 10.345kWh/day consumed on lightning which
50
translate to 310.37kWh/month, 822.85kWh/day consumed by medical equipment which translates to 24685.7kWh/month and 133.42kWh/day consumed by accessories which translate to 4,002.72kWh/month. The average energy consumption bar chart of radiology department in appendix B show that air conditioning unit is the highest energy consuming equipment among the other accessories used by the department. This is so because the X-ray machine and other medical equipment required a cool environment to work effectively, hence the air conditioning unit is always working. The patients in renal ward run on a life supporting machine like the dialysis machine, water reverse osmosis plant that needs constant supply of electricity. These machines make use of UPS as their back up. These special UPS consume large amount of energy and it run for about 24hours. They have nine UPS with power rating of 3000watt which sums up energy consumption to 555.43kWh/day. Morbid the third energy guzzler has the mortuary cold room has its highest energy consuming medical equipment. The refrigerating unit (mortuary) is used to preserve 20 dead bodies at a time. 822.85kWh is the energy consumption of the cooling unit. On a general note it could also be deducted from the figure above after plotting lightning, medical equipment, accessories related data of all the medical building on a separate bar chart it was find out that: casualties ward has the greater percentage of their energy consumed on lightning, while for medical equipment morbid rank the highest and for accessories radiology rank highest.
Pharmacy Dental clinic Microbiology lab
Heamatology lab Chemical pathology
Pharmacy Dental clinic Microbiology lab
Heamatology lab Chemical pathology
Radiology department
Ige ward
Renal ward
Gynaecology
100,000.00 90,000.00 80,000.00 70,000.00 60,000.00 50,000.00 40,000.00 30,000.00 20,000.00 10,000.00 0.00 Gynaecology
Figure 4.3a: Energy consumption in medical building
Autocleave plaster dept
Medical building
Autocleave plaster dept
Radiology department
Ige ward
Renal ward
Children emergency's…
Morbid
HVN Centre
Medical rehabilitation
Children's orthopeadics
Casualties ward
Orthopaedics ward
Labour ward theatre
Post natal ward
Antenatal ward
Children's ward
Male medical ward
Female medical ward
Energy consumed daily(Wh)
0.0
Children emergency's ward
Morbid
HVN Centre
Medical rehabilitation
Children's orthopeadics
Casualties ward
Orthopaedics ward
Labour ward theatre
Post natal ward
Antenatal ward
Children's ward
Male medical ward
Female medical ward
Energy consumed
51
1200000.0
1000000.0 800000.0
600000.0
400000.0
200000.0
Medical building
Figure4.3b: Energy consumed by light in medical building
Medical building
Figure 4.3d: Energy consumed by accessories in medical building Chemical pathology
Chemical pathology
Dental clinic
Pharmacy
Gynaecology
Autocleave plaster dept
Radiology department
Ige ward
Renal ward
Heamatology lab
900000 800000 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0
Heamatology lab
Figure 4.3c: Energy consumed by medical equipment in medical building Microbiology lab
Medical building
Microbiology lab
Dental clinic
Pharmacy
Gynaecology
Autocleave plaster dept
Radiology department
Ige ward
Renal ward
Children emergency's…
Morbid
HVN Centre
Medical rehabilitation
Children's orthopeadics
Casualties ward
Orthopaedics ward
Labour ward theatre
Post natal ward
Antenatal ward
Children's ward
Male medical ward
Female medical ward
Energy consumed(Wh) 900000 800000 700000 600000 500000 400000 300000 200000 100000 0
Children emergency's ward
Morbid
HVN Centre
Medical rehabilitation
Children's orthopeadics
Casualties ward
Orthopaedics ward
Labour ward theatre
Post natal ward
Antenatal ward
Children's ward
Male medical ward
Female medical ward
Energy consumed(Wh)
52
53
Light
Medical equipment
Accessories
4% 15% 81%
Figure 4.4a: Radiology department energy consumption
Light
Medical equipment
Accessories
1% 22%
77%
Figure 4.4b: Renal ward energy consumption
Light
Medical equipment
Accessories
1% 14%
85%
Figure 4.4c: Morbid energy consumption
54
The sum of all the energy consumed in medical building by lights, medical equipments and accessories is represented on the figure 4.5 below. The figure shows accessories consume the highest energy with a value of 3130.27kWh/day which is equivalent to 93,908.1kWh/month. A more detail data representation is given in appendix C. 4.3.2
Parameters considered in medical buildings
The parameters considered in energy audit are area of building and number of occupants in buildings on peak and off peak period which can be found in appendix C. The representation of these data is shown below in figure 4.6 and it can be inferred from this figure that there is no correlation between the energy consumed and number of occupants in medical buildings, this is basically because the energy consuming equipment like air conditioning is used to cool medical equipment and few personnel while the majority of the people are cooled by natural ventilation For example renal ward, Ige ward, orthopaedics ward etc does not make use of air conditioning irrespective of the amount of patients admitted at any particular time. Furthermore the energy use intensity was calculated in appendix C and from the bar chart plotted in figure 4.7 morbid has the highest energy use intensity (EUI) because it has a small floor area so therefore it was able to maintain its status, followed by radiology department and renal ward. The non medical buildings consumed a lesser amount of energy basically because they don‟t use medical equipment they make use of light and accessories only. The data and chart plotted for non medical buildings can be found in appendix A and B respectively and
55
Light
Medical equipment
Accessories
7% 32% 61%
Figure 4.5: Total energy consumption for medical building
1200000.0 1000000.0 800000.0 600000.0 400000.0 Avg energy/day(Wh)
200000.0
no of occupant Chemical pathology
Microbiology lab
Pharmacy
Autocleave plaster dept
Ige ward
Children emergency's ward
HVN Centre
Children's orthopeadics
Orthopaedics ward
Post natal ward
Children's ward
Female medical ward
0.0
Medical building
Figure 4.6: Relationship between energy consumed and number of occupant
Medical building
Figure 4.7: Energy use intensity for medical building Chemical pathology
Heamatology lab
Microbiology lab
Dental clinic
Pharmacy
Gynaecology
Autocleave plaster dept
Radiology department
Ige ward
Renal ward
Children emergency's ward
Morbid
HVN Centre
Medical rehabilitation
Children's orthopeadics
Casualties ward
Orthopaedics ward
Labour ward theatre
Post natal ward
Antenatal ward
Children's ward
Male medical ward
Female medical ward
Energy use iintensity(MJ/ sq m)
56
10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00
57
4.4
Energy consumption pattern in Non Medical Buildings
it is obvious that the energy guzzling equipments are bulbs, refrigerator, freezer , air conditioning ,standing fan, washing and electric drying machine. From figure 4.8 the highest consumers of energy are laundry and tailoring department, (2626.8kWh/day), Administration (677.4kWh/day) and Afribank(479.7kWh/day). Laundry and tailoring ranked the highest energy guzzler because it makes use of a drying machine that consumes about (780kWh/day), and a washing machine that consumes 1806kWh/day which sum up to a total of 77580kWh/month followed by administration that makes use of air conditioning for cooling the offices which consumes about 68.3kWh/day that is equivalent to 2049kWh/month while the third energy guzzler is Afribank which expends about 276kWh/day on air conditioning and this translates to 8280kWh/month. We categorize the energy consuming equipments in non medical buildings into light and accessories and the bar chart plotted for this category shows that the lightning in administration consumed a substantial amount of energy while the laundry and tailoring department consumes a greater percentage of their energy on accessories. Generally, accessories consumes 4303.9kWh/day of the total energy in nonmedical buildings while lightning consumes 117.8kWh/day as demonstrated by figure 4.10. 4.4.1 Energy use intensity for non medical buildings It can be deducted from figure 4.9 that laundry and tailoring has the highest energy use intensity (11.56MJ/m2) because it consumes large amount of energy and it has a small floor area followed by Afribank which is (1.09MJ/m2) and administration department which is (0.67MJ/m2).
Figure 4.8b: Energy consumed by light
Non medical building
10000.0
5000.0
0.0 Expenditure control
Administration
Afria bank
Security depot
Medical record library
Laundry and tailoring
Kitchen
School of nursing
Fire station
Chapel of Grace
Phase II kiosks
Phase 1 kiosks
Average energy/day(Wh)
Captain cook
15000.0
Captain cook
20000.0 Maintenance Dept
25000.0
Maintenance Dept
30000.0 School of science lab
35000.0
School of science lab
Figure 4.8a Energy consumed by non medical buildings Cash office
Non medical building
Cash office
Expenditure control
Administration
Afria bank
Security depot
Medical record library
Laundry and tailoring
Kitchen
School of nursing
Fire station
Chapel of Grace
Phase II kiosks
Phase 1 kiosks
Energy consumed(Wh)
58
3000000.0
2500000.0
2000000.0
1500000.0
1000000.0
500000.0
0.0
Captain cook
Maintenance Dept
School of science lab
Cash office
Expenditure control
Administration
Afri bank
Security depot
Medical record library
Laundry and tailoring
Kitchen
School of nursing
Fire station
Chapel of Grace
Phase II kiosks
Phase 1 kiosks
Energy intensity(MJ/ sq m) 0.00
Non medical building
Figure 4.9 Energy use intensity in non medical building Captain cook
Maintenance Dept
School of science lab
Cash office
Expenditure control
Administration
Afria bank
Security depot
Medical record library
Laundry and tailoring
Kitchen
School of nursing
Fire station
Chapel of Grace
Phase II kiosks
Phase 1 kiosks
Energy consumed(Wh)
59
3000000.0
2500000.0
2000000.0
1500000.0
1000000.0
500000.0
0.0 Accessories
Non medical building
Figure 4.8c: Energy consumed by accessories
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
intensity(MJ/sq m)
60
Light
Accessories
3%
97%
Figure 4.10: Percentage energy consumption of light and accessories in non medical building
61
4.5
Energy consumed by various sources of energy
As stated earlier the major sources of energy are from Diesel generator, PHCN and natural gas (cooking gas). The monthly energy consumption of diesel is 649,704kWh as collated from OAUTHC maintenance department generator data form for the month of June 2010. The detail data collected from the data form is in appendix D, this form show run time of generators in the morning afternoon and evening and also shows the computed energy consumed by various generators. The calculated energy produced by the generator is computed using a diversity factor of 0.75 as recommended by the site engineer. This factor is necessary because the generator cannot perform at its peak power rating because; friction, heat loss and maintenance practices will tell on it energy producing capacity. The energy produced by generator is 649,704kWh is the actual energy from the volume of 75,000 liters consumed per month. Figure 4.11 gives energy produced daily by generators. The hospital makes useof the following generating set: 1650kVA, 1000kVA, 500kVA and 250kVA. Figure 4.15 gives a pictorial representation of them. The PHCN power consumption is also given in the table 4.3 and figure 4.12. This table covers for 12 months; the month of June will be use in various energy efficiency calculations because we could only access generator energy consumption for the month of June. In June 2010, the energy consumed from PHCN utility bill is 39,250kwh while the energy consumption monthly by natural gas is 5512.5kWh.
62
4.6
Peak and off peak energy consumption
The PHCN utility bill that was given to us at the maintenance section of OAUTHC makes it difficult to account for the on peak and off peak period when the generator is not in use. For the purpose of this project we will be making use of generator data form show below in table 4.2 to draw a bar chart: figure 4.13. From this figure it could be deduce that the evening period is when much energy is consumed. This could be attributed to the use of more lighting at the night. 4.7
Percentage of energy production
From the figure 4.14 below the generator hold the highest percentage of 93% of the total energy produced monthly, while PHCN and natural gas have6% and1% respectively. This clearly shows that generator is their major producer of energy. Natural gas is that small because this form of energy is used in the kitchen in a small scale. 4.8
Cost of energy consumption
2,500 liters of diesel is consumed daily which sums up to 75,000 liters per month. One liters of fuel is sold for N105 at the time of writing this project. The monthly cost on diesel is N7, 875,000. Amount payable for the energy consumption in the month of June for PHCN as stated in the utility bill is N287, 465.85. A kilogram of natural gas cost N 250 and more lightning at night, some places can‟t do without electric energy and most of the time PCHN electric energy is not available in the evenings. 375kg per month will add up to N93,750. Figure 4.16 gives a pictorial representation of this.
63
Table 4.2 Energy consumed by generator daily
Day 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21th 22th 23th 24th 25th 26th 27th 28th 29th 30th
Total Energy consumed KWh Morning Afternoon Evening 4125 5588 9749 1313 7339 9435 4526 4956 17874 5620 9225 9360 2766 4125 10078 4219 7444 11756 4121 5063 8152 2494 1950 11421 3819 9656 7500 2123 4620 14109 4125 5032 9748 1313 7339 9510 4526 4954 17873 5633 9225 9360 5124 8698 9566 3502 6783 13991 3609 7625 12056 3713 6506 9764 4168 4001 14630 5306 7846 13875 653 8438 13702 5394 7744 13725 3363 7148 10700 994 5328 15563 5700 14313 7977 4430 5518 9669 3429 3000 5831 3244 6617 11421 3872 9656 7500 2123 4620 14109 Total Energy consumed monthly
Sum 19461 18086 27356 24205 16969 23419 17336 15864 20976 20852 18905 18161 27353 24218 23388 24276 23289 19983 22799 27027 22793 26863 21211 21885 27990 19617 12260 21282 21028 20852 649,704
64
Table 4.3 PHCN power consumption in 2010
Month
Consumption (kWh)
Unit charge
Current charges
Amount payable
January
96010.00
6.90
662469.00
698692.05
February
99640.00
6.90
687516.00
724991.40
March
122330.00
6.90
844077.00
889380.45
April
154500.00
6.90
1066050.00
1122452.10
May
79050.00
6.90
545445.00
575816.05
June
39250.00
6.90
270825.00
287465.85
July
38130.00
6.90
263097.00
279351.45
August
61210.00
8.60
526406.00
557063.30
September
82920.00
8.60
713112.00
753321.45
October
78918.00
6.90
544534.20
574712.91
November
56078.00
6.90
386938.20
409237.11
December
80040.00
6.90
552276.00
829989.40
65
60000
40000 30000 20000 10000
29th
27th
25th
23th
21th
19th
17th
15th
13th
11th
9th
7th
5th
3rd
1st
0 Days in the month of june 2010
Figure 4.11: Energy produced by generators
Month
Figure 4.12: PHCN energy consumption for year 2010
December
November
October
September
August
July
June
May
April
March
February
180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 0 January
Energy consumption(kW)
Energy generated kWh
50000
66
18000
Energy consumed(kWh)
16000 14000 12000 10000
Mornring
8000
Afternoon
6000
Evening
4000 2000 0 Days in the month of June 2010
Figure 4.13: Energy produced by generators at different period
PHCN
Generators
Natur al gas
1% 6%
93%
Figure 4.14: Energy produced by various sources (kWh)
67
Figure 4.15.a 1000kVA generator
Figure 4.15.b 1650kVa generator
68
Figure 4.15.c 250kVA generator
Figure 4.15.d Control room for PHCN and generators
69
4.9 Energy Efficiency for Generator The amount of energy that is theoretically available in 75000liters of diesel fuel is 825000kWh which is regarded as the Energy input while the actual energy that was available for consumption is 649704kWh which is the Energy output Energy Efficiency= (Energy input - losses)x 100/(Energy input) Losses= Energy input - Energy output =825000kWh - 649704kWh=175296kWh Energy efficiency= 825000-175296/(825000) =78.7% The losses in the generating plant is due to friction between moving parts, age of the generator, i.e. time factor poor level of maintenance and heat loss. 4.10
Environmental impact
The hospital make use of fossil fuel as it primary source of energy. Diesel used in their generators is a form of fossil fuel that produces the needed energy. They make use of 1650kVA, 1000kVA, 500kVA and 250kVA which produce large amount of green house gases (GHGs), noise and heat. The GHGs is from the combustion of fossil fuel which produce gases such as CO2 , NOx , CO, CH4 , CxHy amount to 50% of the total value of GHGs present in the atmosphere Fagbenle (2007). These gases cause the depletion of the
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Figure 4.16: Cost of energy
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ozone layer which is associated with global warming. The carbon emission is also injurious to the health of human when inhaled in reasonable amount. A close look at the generator house shows that soil pollution or contamination is evident. The soil of generator house and diesel storage tank cannot be use in the future for agricultural practice Noise pollution is another environmental impact of using generator as a major source of energy. From the phase II kiosk of OAUTHC the noise of the generator is evident and this approximate 150meters. This excessive noise is injuries to the ear drum and convenient of patient in adjacent medical building is compromise. Medical buildings like radiology, Ige ward children ward are the most affected.
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CHAPTER FIVE Conclusion and Recommendation The result of the energy audit of OAUTHC shows that the energy guzzlers are lightning, air conditioning, refrigerators, sterilizers, washing machine, electric drying machine , mortuary cold room .It was further discovered that the buildings that consumes energy most are as a result o f having one or more of the equipments listed above. The purpose of energy audit is to come up with an effective energy management system which can be accomplished by practicing the following recommendation. It is critical that all the equipment and systems are operated and maintained properly. Mandatory and regular operation and maintenance (O&M) of all equipment and machinery need to be performed in order to detect any faulty or leaky connections and thereby prevent energy loss or decreased performance efficiency. Periodic training and education of building owners and/or facility managers are important in order to keep them updated with the newer technologies and effective ways to improve energy efficiency.· Programs to impart continued awareness about energy savings measures and educate the users are also important to achieve energy savings.· It is important to identify one person and give them responsibility so that they can play a leadership role in planning and implementing the project in an effective fashion. 5.1
Recommendation on Major Energy Guzzlers
Air conditioning and ventilation
Ensure the system does not run for more than the hours necessary.
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Using brands that are energy efficient e.g. Samsung
Ensure that the air conditioning is regularly serviced and the filters are periodically changed.
Replace units older than 15yrs with new ones.
Ensure the room is air tight when air conditioning unit is switched on.
Do not switch on both fan and air conditioning simultaneously.
Lightning
Use slimline energy efficient fluorescent tubes with electronic fittings
Replace twin fluorescent with single tube and high efficiency reflector.
Provide facilities for local switching
Ensure that areas are not over-lit
Ensure that light fittings are regularly cleaned and that old flourescent tubes are replaced after their useful life.
Reduce the number of lightning that is used during the day.
Lights should be switch off when not in use
The use of incandescent bulbs should be discourage while use of fluorescent and energy saving bulb should be encourage.
Medical equipments
They should ensure that new medical equipment been purchase be energy efficient
Old or obsolete equipment should be discarded
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5.2
Routine maintenance should be carried out on the various medical equipments Cost reduction
Energy saving bulbs and equipment will have drastic reduction in the amount of kWh of energy consumed. For example in causalities ward where they have much lightning but make use of energy efficient bulbs the consumption of energy reduced. A more detail energy audit needs to be carried out with the use of automated measuring meter to give more accurate energy consumption of each appliance. Top official should also be notified of the need to support audit personnel in carrying out energy audit of the hospital. Data storage facilities of PHCN bills, generator fuel consumption, age of appliances, and date for routine maintenance should be readily available with the appropriate authority. In conclusion personnel or staff needs to be regularly enlighten about need for energy saving measure because in the course of carrying out our project we discover that energy saving practice is not strictly adhere to though people are aware of the need to conserve energy. Power supply from PHCN is relatively cheap compare to power or energy generated from generators. Cost reduction will be possible if and only if electric power from PHCN is consistent. An alternative way to reduce cost is by using other form of generating energy like solar which is cheap but installing such facilities is capital intensive. Biodegradable fuel can also be use as substitute fuel for generating energy.
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Dirichi, N,C; ( 2007) A Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MSc in Energy Systems and the Environment; unpublished „MSc Thesis‟. University of Strathlcyde, Glasglow.
Fagbenle R. L. (2007) Cultural and institutional barriers underdeveloping Nigeria‟s energy sector Fagbenle R. L. (2008). Lecture note on Electricity generation from renewable energy – Time to tread the Beaten Path. Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Ibadan, Ibadan http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/business/envrp/pdf/conversion/factors.pdf
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Krarti M.. 2000. Energy Audit of Building Systems: An Engineering Approach. CRC Press, Bota Raton, FL. Levermore, G.J (1992). Building Energy Management Systems: An application to heating and control, E& FN Spoon 45 Lynas, M. (2007). It.s Carbon Judgement Day. Available Online: http://environment.guardian.co.uk/ethicalliving/story/0,,1997277,00.html Seppo S., Markovitch J. O, Vantaan E.O Gennadiy N. A, Vantaan K.U (2006). Guidelines and Models for Energy Auditing William J. M, Stein, B. and Reynolds, J.S (1980) Mechanical and electrical equipment for buildings, Sixth edition WWF (2007). Your chance to help combat climate change! Available online at http://wwf.org.uk/core/about www.oee.nrcan.gc.ca www.wikipedia.com/sff234/energyaudit/ Zobler, N. and Hatcher, K. (2003). Financing Energy Efficiency Projects, Government Finance Review. Available Onlinewww.energystar.gov/ia/business/government/
