Organic Cultivation of Aromatic Plants – Challenges and Strategies Baby P. Skaria, Gracy Mathew and P. P. Joy. 2007. Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station, Odakkali, (Kerala Agricultural University), Asamannoor Post, Kerala-683 549

Introduction Aromatic plants form the group of plants, which contain a variety of complex chemical compounds and hence aromatic plants are generally referred to as `natural bio-chemical factories’ or `chemical goldmines’. Essential oils are highly concentrated, low volume, high value products. The extent of usage of essential oils is 55-60% for flavours in food industry, 15-21% for fragrances in perfumery/cosmetic industry, 10-20% as starting material for isolation of components, 5-10% as active substances in pharmaceutical preparations and 2-5% for natural products. It is in this context the organic farming of aromatic plants arises. But, why we have to think of organic farming? Improved varieties and methods of cultivation can increase productivity; however, chemical fertilizers and chemical pesticides changed the agriculture scenario in the world. High yielding varieties were selected for higher productivity but require high doses of chemical fertilizers. However, there is a limit for absorption of chemical fertilizers by the crops. Thus socalled "Green Revolution" was not a "Sustainable Green Revolution". The quick release fertilizers are just like capsules for man and do not involve the natural system of uptake. Such an uptake is a luxury intake. The so-called 'degraded soil sites' are actually man made. Decrease in production and productivity are due to the ‘death of the soil’. Why do people choose organic food?  Better taste – People believe that organic food tastes better.  Healthier - Organic foods have far less residues of pesticides, growth promoters and antibiotics. Organic food contains more vitamins, nutrients and cancer-fighting antioxidants.  Animal friendly - Animals are not treated with synthetic growth hormones or drugs.  GMO free - Genetically Modified Organisms are not allowed in organic agriculture.  Low cost and reasonable returns – There is saving in expensive agrochemicals. Farmers get reasonable returns for organic products.  More sustainable - Organic farming implies a sustainable management of natural resources; soil, water and bio diversity.  Integration of traditional and modern knowledge – A scientific understanding of ecology and soil science is achieved in organic farming.  Awareness of environmental and health issues  Introduction of legal guidelines for production, commercialization and import of organic products  Increasing publicity on organic food. History of organic cultivation USA understood the philosophy of organic farming as early as 1940’s, but the term organic was defined only after California developed the California Certified Organic Farmers (CCOF) Uniform Production Standards in 1973. In 1979, the California Organic Food Act (COFA) became the first law in the United States to set standards for organic agriculture. Now more than 30 countries have passed laws governing the production of organic foods. European Union regulation No. 2092/91 (24th June 1991) influenced organic products marketing. Import of organic products into the EU was regulated by setting standards for organics. The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), an international Non-Governmental Organization, established in 1972 as a worldwide volunteer umbrella organization for Organic Agriculture has developed basic standards for organic production and processing methods for its members. IFOAM has about 650 associations,

institutes, schools, co-operatives and other legal entities in over 100 countries world wide as members. At present so many countries have formulated their own regulations for Organic Agriculture. These regulations define uniform and harmonized rules and procedures for farmers so that consumers can be assured of necessary guarantees concerning the production methods and principles applied on the holdings claiming to be organic farms. These regulations provide legal security for organic production. In 2003, India’s organic exports stood at US$15.5 million and had about 2.5 million hectares under organic farming. Creating more jobs in areas with high un- employment can increase revenues in rural areas and reduce migration. The value of Chinese exports grew from less than US$1 million in the mid-1990s to about US$142 million in 2003, with more than 1,000 companies and farms certified organic. What is organic farming? "Organic production" can be defined as "a production system that is managed in accordance with the respective organic standards to respond to location specific conditions by integrating cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity". In the recent times, agricultural scenario is witnessing a trend towards organic farming. Agricultural produce through organic farming, without using inorganic fertilizers and pesticides has greater demand and fetches higher price in the international market. Organic farming has its root in ‘nature’, makes use of only organic materials, observes and learns from nature, believes that soil has life and cares about its fertility. It protects the flora and fauna of the soil. Organic farming is not for a single crop but it envisages the entire farm. It leads to environment friendly methods of organic waste disposal. It will reduce environment pollution, toxic effects due to use of pesticides and minerals and problems in biodiversity conservation. Organic farming involves mulching, crop rotation, cover cropping, green manuring, composting, organic recycling and use of animal wastes, biogas slurry and biofertilizers. The energy sources are windmills, solar panels, small-scale hydroelectric projects and bio-gas. The changeover from inorganic to organic farming is to be carried out only systematically and carefully. Organic farming may be adopted slowly in crops by reducing the dose of inorganic fertilizers rather than an abrupt change over. One of the main objectives of organic farming is to minimize the loss of nutrients and to keep them recycling within the farm. In permanent cropping systems, no tillage is needed, normally. Instead of this, a system should be introduced based on green manure plants (eg. local species of legumes) and mulching which encourages earthworm activity in soil. It is a sustainable system of agricultural production and is intended to ensure food production with inputs mainly provided from resources available on the holding, ie. reducing synthetic pesticides and fertilizers. Organic techniques encourage biological diversity and especially the use of varieties adapted to the ecosystem with natural resistance. Organic farming encourages the combination of complementary activities such as mixed cropping and stock breeding. Organic production systems are based on specific and precise standards of production, that are socially, ecologically and economically sustainable. The terms “biological” and “ecological” are also used in an effort to describe the organic systems more clearly. Requirements of organically produced foods differ from those of other agricultural products. Organic agriculture cannot ensure that products are completely free of residues, due to the general environmental pollution. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people. This facilitates production without residues of chemicals, contamination and pollution of the natural environment (soil or groundwater). Organic Agriculture is much more than simply chemical free. Producing Organic is a commitment to a system, which ensures that healthy, nutritious food can be produced year after year without environmental degradation. Organic production is not yield-oriented and no surpluses are produced, but require higher labour input. Hence it is suitable for developing countries having cheaper labour. The trend for green products is also increasing and it is expected that the industrialised countries will insist on ecolabelling of

2

products in tune with ISO 14000 as a condition of import. This will mean that the product has to be certified to the effect that no ecological damage what so ever has been caused during the production process. Why organic farming? Pesticides pose dangers to the biodiversity; health and well-being of humans, animals and plant life; and are detrimental to soil micro-flora, microfauna and soil health. Chemical pesticides are toxic, non renewable, non degradable, lethal and stay in the environment for many years. They are 'slow release nuclear bombs' which, in the long run, becomes a cause for poverty, ecological imbalance, unsustained development and disharmony between man and his environment. Forced production, utilizing unnatural production technologies results in poor productivity per unit area, imbalance in the soil-water-microbes system, degradation of soil sites and irrational land use systems. A planned Organic Cultivation will involve site specific and crop specific decisions. The Organic Cultivation takes into consideration local resources, status of the environment and community involvement. Products that are certified and sold as 'organic' fetch a premium price compared with conventional products. The poor farmer never thinks of the quality of the food he consumes, but he is interested in the profit he can make out of organic farming. Hence, for a country like India where small and marginal farmers are the majority, organic farming would be the right choice for exploiting the interests of the developed countries. Organic farming also offers more employment opportunities since it is more labor intensive. Principles of organic farming Principle of organic farming is to allow ‘Mother Nature’ to provide us food the way nature intended. The soil is of central importance. Organic farmers nourish the soil and its micro universe rather than force-feeding the plants to grow unnaturally fast. In organic farming, animals are treated with care and respect. There are no cages, animals move free, grazing on grass and other natural pastures. The fertility and biological activities of the soil should be maintained by the cultivation of legumes, green manures, and deep-rooting plants and by incorporation of raw or composted organic material in the soil. If these methods are not sufficient to ensure adequate nutrition of crops and to maintain the mineral balance of soil, a limited number of other organic or mineral fertilizers may be applied. For compost activation, appropriate microorganisms or plant-based preparation (biodynamic preparations) may be used. In organic farms, preventive measures have absolute priority. Plants are protected against pests and diseases and weeds are eliminated by means of a range of techniques that should make it possible to avoid the use of pesticides; choice of naturally resistant species, appropriate crop rotation programmes, mechanical cultivation procedures, flame weeding, protection of natural enemies of pests. This means no artificial pesticides, no herbicides, no hormones and no growth promoters or food irradiation are practiced. In case of immediate threat to the crop, a limited number of plant protection products are authorized. Conversion requirements to organic agriculture Organic agriculture means a process of developing a viable and sustainable agroecosystem. The time between the start of organic management and certification of crops is known as conversion period. When traditional agricultural methods fulfill the principles of these standards, no conversion period is required. When claiming virgin land for organic agriculture, no conversion period is required. The whole farm including livestock should be converted according to the standards over a period of time. This time is defined by certification programme. If a farm is not converted all at once, it should be done on a field-by-field basis, whereby full standards are followed from the start of conversion on the relevant fields. These areas of land being managed to the full standards will therefore progressively increase.

3

Time taken for conversion to organic farming Crops Annual

1 st year Conventional

Perennials

Conventional

Year wise Label 2 and year 3 rd year In Conversion to Certified Organic Organic Agriculture In Conversion to In Conversion to Organic Agriculture Organic Agriculture

4 th year Certified Organic Certified Organic

Organic standards Minimum requirements for a farm or product to be certified as 'organic' are precisely defined by organic standards. There are organic standards of national as well as international level. For certification, the standards of the target market or importing country are relevant. Certain private labels such as Naturland, Demeter or BIO SUISSE have additional requirements on top of their national standards. Indian National Standards for Organic Products In 2000, the Government of India released the National Standards for Organic Products (NSOP) under the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). Products sold or labeled as 'organic' thereafter need to be inspected and certified by a nationally accredited certification body. A copy of the NSOP is available from [email protected]. In order to assist Indian farmers, INDOCERT (Indian Organic Certification Agency) elaborated a 2 page summary of the NSOP which is available from the site, http://www.apeda.com/organic/quality/Section-3.pdf . Though legally valid is only the full version of the standards, the summary helps to get a quick overview of the most important requirements for organic farming in India. Organic certification In case of organic products, certification is primarily an acknowledgement that these products have been produced according to organic production standards. These standards may be standards of private associations or companies or certification bodies or of the country. Generally third party certification is used for certification of Organic Agriculture (OA). Certification of OA is primarily a certification of production system or product method. Third party certification is required mainly to create or enhance trust between farmers and consumers. Once certified, organic products are marketed carrying a certification mark indicating that the products are certified organic. Even though the certification mark is not a trade mark as such, in most countries the certification mark is also registered as a trademark. Most certification programmes use their own logos and hence, certification also serves to distinguish the products of their members or contracted operators from those of their competitors. For a product to be certified organic, all operations in the production chain, including farmers, processors, manufacturers, exporters, importers, wholesalers and retailers must be certified as acting in conformity with the standards and regulations of the certification programme concerned. Once certified, it is the operator who labels the product with the certification mark and it is the producer who is continuously responsible to the certification body. Certification of organic products is basically the certification of a production system. The data on conversion, conversion period, bio-diversity, seeds and planting materials, cropping pattern, fertilizer policy, soil and water conservation, labeling methods, processing and handling, packaging and audit trail are pre-requisites for certification as organic.

4

Organic Cultivation: Strategies The following strategies are to be adopted for organic agriculture.  Rotations and diversification are key principles in organic crop production system.  In an annual cropping system, legumes are cultivated to improve soil fertility. Allelopathic crops that exude toxins from their roots can suppress weeds and insect pests. Diversity of crops in both time and space prevents insects and disease build-ups and gives a grower a hedge against poor market conditions for any one crop.  In a perennial system, cover crops are used to hold the soil, improve soil fertility and provide habitat for beneficial insects.  Pest-free and weed-free fields are neither always possible nor economically and ecologically desirable. Hence, one should learn the threshold of tolerable levels of weeds, insects, birds and rodents through experience and as an on-going process.  Varietal selection should look beyond maximum potential yield and consider insect and disease resistance, nutritional quality, flavour and positive response to lower inputs of nutrients and water.  Proper timing of planting and use of trap crops can minimize pest problem.  Materials are used only to solve specific problems, but not as a strategy.  Livestock management is based on balanced nutrition, animal stress reduction, preventive medicine and other means not dependent on drugs or antibiotics.  Livestock breeding selects for disease resistance.

Organic farming methods Traditional farming methods The details of agricultural practices that were adopted by farmers during vedic period are found in books such as vriksha ayrveda authored by vedic seers like Sorapala (10 A. D.). Vriksha Ayurveda is a knowledge system advocating agriculture with use of natural inputs. It promotes a system which synchronise all agricultural operations with the natural forces/elements ( Panchaboothas viz. earth, water, fire, air and space). Panchakavya It consists of five products from the Cow viz. dung, urine, milk, curd and ghee. Panchakavya is one suchh gem of wisdom preserved by vriksha ayurveda to safeguard all the human beings, animals, plants and micro organisms that dwell on earth’s surface. Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) VAM/AM, Psuedomonas, Trichoderama, Bacillus etc is being increasingly practised in crop production in recent times. Effective Micro-organism (EM) The technology was found by Japanese professor Terryosika. About 70 beneficial microbes are combined in EM formulation and used in the farms for fast multiplication of microbial population. EM formulation mostly contain Photosynthetic bacteria, Lactic acid bacteria, Yeasts, Actinomycetes and bacterai. Bio-dynamic farming Refers to working with energies, which create and maintain life. In 1924 Biodynamics (BD) developed from eight agriculture lectures of Rudolf Steiner (1861-1926), Austria. The word is derived from a greek word ‘dynamos’ means froce and ‘bio’ means life. Biodynamics is a new holistic method for chemical free farming . It is the regeneration of the forces that work through the soil to the plant aided by compost and manure. I biodynamic farming or spiritual

5

farming, cosmic rhythms are an important consideration. Biodymanic calendera are used for planting, sowing and harvesting. Under Indian context, the biodynamic agriculture is, in fact, trying to awaken most of our traditional knowledge. Most of the principles such as different elements for various parts of the plant, planting calendars, importance of farm animals, crop rotation, diversified cropping already exists in our ancient texts and practices. We can use biodynamic agriculture as an updated tool to suit the present and update the past. AGNIHOTRA or Homa Therapy Farming Agnihotra is the basic form of Yajnya tuned to the biorhythm of sunrise/sunset. Yajnya is the process of purification of atmosphere through the agency of fire. Agnihotra has three disciplines: burning of of specific organic substances in a copper pyramid, mantra and specific timings corresponding to one circadian rhythm of nature i.e. sunrise/sunset. There are five basic things necessary in the performance of agnihotra: 1) definite timings (sunrise /sunset) 2) fire (cow-dung cake fire) 3) Pyramid shaped copper pot of a specific size (14.5 x 14.5 cm at the top, 5.25 x 5.35 cm at the bottom) 4) offerings of raw rise together with cow’s pure ghee and 5 mantras. The aim of homa therapy farming is: 1. To heal and improve the lands that we cultivate rather than burdening with pollution of chemicals 2. to grow superior crops without the use of chemical fertilisers, pesticides and herbicides 3. to protect and heal the environment There are several aspects of Organic Cultivation. A planned Organic Cultivation will involve site specific and crop specific decisions. The manager has to plan Organic Cultivation at a specific site taking into consideration local resources, status of the environment, community involvement including demands from the cultivation project. However, two of these aspects, fertilizers and pesticides are very crucial. Organic Fertilizers Organic fertilizers include application of agriculture waste, composting using earthworms, farmyard manure etc. However, microbes play a vital role in facilitating uptake of nutrients in a crop. Rhizobia among several of these mocrobes are quite popular for leguminous crops. Rhizobia and blue green algae fix atmospheric nitrogen and reduce dependency upon artificial application of chemical fertilizers. Mycorrhizae, the fungal organisms, facilitate P uptake. Pseudomonas and several other bacteria facilitate nutrient uptake and form a very friendly network around the roots. Symbiotic organisms form a harmonious environment in the soil. There have been several researches worldwide to show that these are very friendly organisms. These organisms are usually available in the soils, more abundantly in the tropical climates. The local crop manager has to identify these microbes, select and multiply in sufficient quantities for applications. It empowers the local community to use its own resources in terms of biodiversity resources and rights, saves on application of high cost fertilizers, renders the soil healthy and avoids interference with the environment. The crop productivity can be optimized in the given environment. Indian farmers have traditionally used de-oiled neem cake as a fertilizer in their fields. The dual activity of Neem cake as fertilizer and pest repellent has made it a favoured fertilizer. When neem cake is ploughed into the soil it also protects plant roots from nematodes and white

6

ants. Farmers in southern parts of India puddle neem leaves into flooded rice fields before the rice seedlings are transplanted. Neem cake is extensively used for citrus trees, jasmine and roses as organic manure. 100 kg of Neem seed cake will provide nearly 3.6 kg to N, 0.8 kg of P, 1.7 kg of K, 0.77 kg of Ca and 0.75 kg of Mg. Cases where urea application is unavoidable, coating of urea with neem extract prevent denitrification and increases urea efficacy. Organic cultivation is an integrated crop management. Selection of elites among local cultivars or land races, producing hardy seedlings, applications of bio-fertilizers, microbial management, application of vermi-compost, practicing bio-pesticides, intercropping of 'protective' or symbiotic grasses, herbs or weeds are all components of Organic Cultivation. Government of India, as also many other countries, provide accreditation as labeling for household and other consumer products, which meet the set environmental criteria. The ECOMARK logo is an earthen pot. Organic cultivation is a beginning. In fact, we are re-discovering it since this was the form of cultivation from Vedic times to recent India. Indian agriculture of the past 5000 years was not Petro-chemical based agriculture rather an organic agriculture. Let us revert to Vedic Organic Cultivation; it may be agriculture, horticulture, silviculture or kitchen gardening. Products authorized for organic farming for use in fertilization and soil conditioning (Annex II (A) to regulation (EEC) No.2092/91 Farm yard manure, Slurry or Urine, Composted animal excrements, including poultry, Manure and composted farm yard manure, Dried farm yard manure and dehydrated farm yard manure, Guano, Straw, Compost and spent mushroom and vermiculture substrate, compost from organic house hold refuse, processed animal products from slaughter houses and fish industries, seaweeds and seaweed products, saw dust, bark and wood waste, wood ash, natural phosphate rock(Cadmium should not exceed 90mg/kg P2O5), Basic lag, rock phosphate(less than 60% Chlorine), Sulphate of potash (not enriched by chemical processes to increase solubility), Sulphur, chloride of lime, byproducts of sugar industries(eg. vinase), by products of oil palm, coconut and cocoa (including EFB, POME), cocoa peat and empty coco pods, by products of industries processing ingredients from organic agriculture. Products also allowed but need not be approved by control body Calcium carbonate of natural origin (eg. chlk, marl, lime stone, phosphate chalk), magnesium rock, calcareous magnesium rock, Epsom salt(MgSO4), Gypsum(CaSO4), Sodium chloride, Ammonium calcium phosphate, Trace elements (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Zn), Stone meal, Clay, naturally occurring biological organisms, vermiculite, wood charcoal. Organic Pesticides Supporters of chemical pesticides claim that there is no option but to use these lethal pesticides. It is surprising that though we are aware of several phytoactive metabolites from the scientific body of knowledge as well as from the knowledge available in Vedic literature, yet the society has patronized chemical pesticides. Commercial gains, quick success, impatience and ignorance has led to wide spread use of toxic chemical fertilizers. The losses to living organisms, microbes, environment and crops are ignored for the apparent commercial gains.

7

Search for environmentally safe pesticides received an impetus in early 1960s following the publication of 'Silent Spring' by Rachel Carson in 1962. Out of 1000s of plants with bioactive properties, neem tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss), the Nimba, as is known in Sanskrit language, provides pesticidal options that are par excellence. The chemicals present in neem are safe, biodegradable and are environment friendly. Vedic literature particularly Atharva Veda, Ghryhasutra , Sutragrantha and Puranas provide a wealth of information on neem. Brihat Samhita, the Hindu treatise associates neem plantation with constellations. Long before synthetic chemicals and commercial insecticides and fertilizers were available, neem derivatives were used in Indian villages to protect and nourish crops. Today through scientific researches we know that neem extracts can influence nearly 400 species of insects. Neem plants, as do all other plants, contain several thousands of chemicals. Of special interest are hundreds of terpenoids that are unique to neem and some related members of this family. Of its biological constituents, the most active and well-studied compound is Azadirachtin. However in most traditional preparations of neem as pesticide or medicine, a mixture of neem chemicals are present and provide the active principles. Neem is quite effective against armyworm, one of the most devastating pests of food crops in the western hemisphere. Azadirachtin in extremely low concentrations-a mere 10 mg per hectare-inhibits the pests. Neem extract is useful against leaf-miner, a serious pest in parts of North America. Neem seed extract has been approved by the US environmental protection agency for use on leaf miners. Neem is extremely useful as an anti-feedent and ovi-positional repellent for protection of several crops. Neem is also effective against fruit flies. Spraying neem can control med fly, one of the most damaging horticulture pests. Whereas conventional pesticides will kill fruit flies as well as thrips and internal parasites, neem products on the other hand leave the friendly organisms unaffected. De-oiled neem cake (the residual remaining after the oil has been pressed out of the seeds) and neem oil are quite effective against rice pests. Five applications of a 25% oil emulsion sprayed with an ultra low-volume applicator can protect crops against brown plant hoppers. Farmers usually mix neem leaves with grain before keeping it in storage for several months. Neem leaves, oil or extracts act as repellent against several insects such as weevils, flour beetles, bean-seed beetles and potato moths. Treatment of jute sack by neem oil or azadirachtin-richproducts prevents the penetration of pests like weevils and flour beetles. Neem oil destroys beanseed beetles (bruchids) - variety of insects mostly attacking legumes -at the egg-stage itself. Products authorized in organic farming for plant pest and disease control (Annex II (B) to regulation 2091/91) Preparations on basis of pyrethirns extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium containing possibly a synergist. Preparations from Derris elliptica, Quassia amara and Rynia speciosa Propolis Diatomaceous earth Stone meal Preparations on basis of metaldehyde containing a repellent to higher animal species and as far as applied within traps Sulphur, Boardeaux mixture Burgundy mixture Sodium silicate Sodium bicarbonate Potassium soap (Soft soap)

8

Pheromone preparations Bacillus thuringiensis preparations Granulose virus preparations Plant and animal oils Paraffin oil Preparations of neem

Organic cultivation of Aromatic Plants Aromatic plants can be cultivated as pure crop, inter crop, catch crop, cover crop, border crop and under crop in farm, plantation and forestry sectors. Since the cultivable land is limited, efforts are needed to push these crops along with priority crops like food and commercial crops, wherever feasible. Vetiver grows well in coastal belt. Cinnamon, clove, nutmeg, patchouli, kacholam, rasna, etc can be grown as intercrop in coconut gardens and orchards. Eucalyptus, cinnamon, champak, elenji, etc can be grown as avenue trees and in waste lands. Vetiver, lemongrass, rasna, etc also conserve soil and water in slopy lands due to extensive root ramification. Rose scented geranium, patchouli, palmarosa, Java citronella, lemongrass, Eucalyptus citriodora, Tagetes, davana, mint, etc are suitable for cultivation even in the semiarid tropics. Contiuous cropping of rose scented geranium intercropped with clusterbean or greengram is most productive and profitable. Java citronella can be intercropped with lentil in UP. Rice-potato-mint rotation is suitable in central UP while rice-brassica-mint system in tarai region. Efforts are needed to maximise the productivity of aromatic plants per unit resource so as to make Indian aromatic plants competitive in international market and to bring good returns to growers without damage to the environment and human health. To achieve this, development of high yielding high quality types, resistant to major pests and disease as well as development of cropping systems involving spices will be important. The growers should select appropriate crop and variety suitable to the locality and follow a package of organic farming practices. Timely planting, maintenance of optimum plant population, organic growth boosters, timely irrigation and weed control, harvest and selection of viable cropping system are all important. Optimum plant populations, irrigation regimes and harvest time and methods, improved method of organic nutrition; new cropping system involving aromatic and food crops, etc give sustainable production with greater land efficiencies. Developing efficient low cost cultivation practices for different situations including post harvest processing and quality analysis is the need of the hour. The important aspects of organic farming are the use of nutrients from organic sources like crop residue and by-products, animal wastes, green manuring, bio fertilizers, use of crop rotation, mixed cropping, minimal tillage and control of pests by cultural and biological methods or by using plant-based medicines. These components are applicable to all aromatic crops. Mixed cropping and minimal tillage are more suitable to the perennial crops. Multiple cropping, a form of mixed cropping is best exemplified by this group. Since, organic farming tries to mimick the natural ecosystem where all types of plants are included irrespective of their class to which they belong, a compartmentalization in selection of crops may not go well with the object of harvesting the full benefit of the system of farming. Here all types of plants- annual, biennial, perennial, horticultural, agronomic, legume, non-legume, herb, shrub, tree, etc., may be included in the scheme in order to capitalize the advantages of organic system. Lemongrass It is propagated through seeds and root divisions or slips. Clonal propagation is better as seed propagation leads to considerable genetic heterogeneity resulting in gradual deterioration of yield and oil quality. Improved varieties such as 'Sugandhi' or 'OD-19' (developed at

9

Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station, Odakkali), 'LS-48' and 'Pragati' (developed at CIMAP, Lucknow) are available for cultivation. Fresh seeds are to be used for sowing as they are short viable and the viability is drastically reduced after six months of storage. Seed rate is 3-4 kg/ha for transplanting and 25-30 kg/ha for broadcast sowing. For transplanting, seeds are sown in a well prepared nursery during April-May. Seeds germinate in 5-7 days. Seedlings are transplanted when 45-60 days, old at a distance of 20-50 cm in rows, 20-75 cm apart depending on the soil fertility and tillering nature of the variety. In areas receiving high rainfall, planting on ridges or beds is recommended. Ridges or beds are taken across the slope on hilly areas. Lemongrass is a soil exhausting crop. Spent-lemongrass in the form of compost at 10 tonnes/ha and wood ash at 2 tonnes/ha, which are obtained as byproducts of grass distillation, supply sufficient amount of nitrogen and potash to the crop. 4-6 irrigations are essential for getting optimum yield in areas where rainfall is restricted or not well distributed. Crop-weed competition period is the first 25-30 days after planting or harvest. Generally, 2-3 weeding are necessary during a year. Burning of stubbles in summer is practised in some areas to ward off pests, diseases and weeds. Earthing up of plants after weeding and fertilization is beneficial as the roots have a tendency to grow above the soil. The first cutting of grass is taken about 3 months after planting, thereafter every 6-8 weeks. Harvesting is done with the help of sickles, the plants being cut close to the base about 10 cm above ground level. Generally, 3 harvests are possible during the first year and 4-5 during subsequent years. The plantation remains economical for 4-6 years. The fresh grass yield ranges from 3 to 10 tonnes/cut/ha depending on soil fertility, agroclimatic conditions and management. The grass yield is the lowest in the first year and highest in the third or fourth year of planting. The essential oil is produced by distillation of the grass with water. For obtaining good quality oil, steam distillation in stainless steel units is preferred, with a steam pressure of 18-32 kg/cm2 in the boiler. The grass is distilled either fresh or after wilting. Wilting of grass for 2 days and chopping to 3 cm size gave about 30% more oil and citral. The oil yield and content in the grass depend upon several factors such as fertility of the soil, climatic conditions, age of the grass, time of cutting, the state of the grass distilled (whether fresh or dry), distillation method, etc. On an average the oil recovery is 0.2-0.4% and the oil yield is 100-125 kg/ha/year. Palmarosa It is propagated best through seeds and also through slips. 'IW 31245', 'IW 3629', 'IW 3244' and 'Trishna' are improved varieties available for cultivation. Seeds are sown on nursery beds prepared in May. About 5 kg seeds are adequate to give seedlings for planting one hectare. As the seeds are very small and light, they are usually mixed with fine sand or soil in the ratio of 1:10 for even distribution and ease of sowing. The beds are watered lightly and regularly. Germination starts in two weeks time. In about 4-6 weeks, seedlings are ready for transplanting. The field is prepared well before the onset of monsoon and the seedlings are transplanted during June-July. Healthy and established seedlings, about 15 cm tall are carefully removed from the nursery and transplanted in rows, 20-60 cm apart with the plants spaced at 20-60 cm. Spacing can be increased on fertile soils. Farm yard manure is given at 10 tonnes/ha before planting. Palmarosa plantations are to be irrigated at 10-14 days interval during the summer period. The plantation should be kept weed free by regular weeding and hoeing. The optimum stage of harvest is the initial seed setting stage. This stage will be reached about 10-15 days after flowering. The grass is cut at a height of about 10 cm from the ground level and the whole plant is used for distillation. During the first year one or two cuttings can be obtained depending upon the climatic conditions. After the first harvest, subsequent harvests can be made at 70-80 days interval and 3-4 cuttings can be taken a year. The plantation remains

10

productive for 4-6 years. The yield of grass and oil starts decreasing from the third or fourth year onwards. The grass yield is 6-10 tonnes/cut/ha. The harvested herbage is allowed to wilt in shade for 24-48 hours for draining off the excess moisture from the leaves. This reduces the bulk and cost of distillation. The oil can be obtained either by hydrodistillation or by steam distillation. Steam distillation yields more of better quality oil. The distillation unit should be clean, rust free and free of any other odour. The oil content and yield depend upon the climatic conditions, harvesting time, maturity of grass, extent of wilting and the distillation process. The oil yield is low in the first year and it increases with the age but gradually decreases after fourth year. All parts of the plant contain essential oil, the maximum being present in flowers and the least in the stalks. On an average, the oil content in various parts are: whole plant 0.10-0.40%, stalks 0.01-0.03%, flowering tops 0.45-0.52% and leaves 0.16-0.25%. The average annual oil yield is 100-125 kg/ha though an yield of 250 kg/ha is not uncommon. Citronella Citronella grass is propagated only vegetatively by slips which are obtained by dividing well grown clumps. Clumps are separated in a manner that each slip contains 1-3 tillers. Roots and leaves are trimmed off before planting. About 50 slips are obtained from an year old healthy clump. 'Jorlab C2', 'RRL JOR-3-1970', 'CIMAP/Bio-13' and 'CIMAP/73-1' are the improved high oil yielding varieties available for cultivation. With the onset of monsoon, the land is brought to fine tilth by ploughing and harrowing. Ridges and furrows or beds are made. The slips obtained from healthy vigorously growing plants are planted during June-July at 60-90 cm spacing and 10 cm deep. Delay in planting results in drying of slips and poor establishment and plant population. Farm yard manure is applied at 10 tonnes/ha before planting. Irrigation is required within 24 hours of planting if there is no rain. Supplemental irrigation is not required in areas with 2000-2500 mm rainfall, well distributed over the year. However, in drier months irrigation may be provided for better yield. Depending on weather and soil conditions, 8-10 irrigations are required in dry areas during the rain free period. The field is to be kept weed free till a complete cover of the crop is obtained. Weeding in the interrow spaces can economically be achieved using cultivators between the rows. Earthing up is done after about 4 months of planting and again after every harvest as the citronella rootstock has a tendency to work out of soil by itself. The crop is ready for the first harvest after about 9 months of planting and subsequently at an interval of 3 months. Harvesting is done by sickle above the first node at 20-45 cm above the ground. Generally leaf blades are cut and sheath are left out. Flowering should be discouraged as it causes aging and reduces the life span of the plantation. Harvesting can be done 4 times a year. Generally the Java crop once planted yields profitable returns for 4-5 years and needs replanting only afterwards. Ceylon citronella remains productive for 10-15 years. Uprooting of the plantation after its life span and rotation with any legume species is recommended. Horse gram, cowpea and sunhemp are good rotational crops. The harvested grass is wilted in shade for a short time and steam distilled within 24 hours. The oil yield varies with the season, soil fertility and distillation efficiency. On an average, 0.8-1.2% of oil is recovered from the grass and the oil yield is about 100 kg/ha during the first year and 150 kg/ha during subsequent years. Yields of 200-250 kg/ha/yr can be obtained under favourable conditions with good management. Vetiver Vetiver or Khus grass is capable of both vegetative and sexual reproduction in nature. However, under cultivation, it is generally multiplied vegetatively through slips. While preparing the slips for planting, fibrous roots and leaves should be trimmed off. 'Pusa hybrid-7', 'hybrid-8', 'CIMAP/KS-2', 'Sugantha' and 'ODV-3' are improved varieties available for commercial cultivation. With the onset of monsoon land is prepared. Farm

11

yard manure or compost is applied at 10-15 tonnes/ha and slips collected from good healthy and disease free clumps are planted during the months of June-July vertically about 10 cm deep at a spacing of 30-60 cm. Late planted crop yields coarse roots which yield inferior quality oil. In areas where rainfall is good and well distributed over the year and humidity is high, supplemental irrigation is not necessary. In other areas 8-10 irrigations are required to get optimum yield. 2-3 weedings at an interval of about a month are needed during the initial period of plant growth. Once the plantation is established very well, weed problem is not very severe because of the thick and dense shoot cover. Earthing up after weeding is also beneficial to the crop. Roots are harvested after 15-24 months of planting. Harvesting can be done even earlier. Although the young roots give a higher yield of oil, this will be of low specific gravity and lacking in the valuable high boiling constituents. If the roots stay in the ground for over two years, the yield of oil diminishes considerably and the oil becomes very viscous with a dark colour but of a high quality. In general, the crop is harvested after 18 months during the dry season from December to February by digging out the bush along with its roots manually. The length of the roots varies from 10-35 cm according to the condition of growth, soil, climate, etc of the locality. The roots are separated from the plants, washed to remove the adhering soil and dried under shade for 1-2 days which improves the olfactory quality of the essential oil. Prolonged drying in the sun reduces the oil yield. The root yield is 3-5 tonnes/ha. The roots can be crushed and powdered before distillation. Both fresh and dry roots can be distilled. Usually steam distillation is resorted to. As the most valuable quality constituents are contained in the high boiling fractions, the roots must be distilled for a prolonged period ranging from 24 to 48 hours. But it has also been reported that 78% of the oil was recovered in 16 hours time. The oil obtained from stored roots is more viscous and possesses a slightly better aroma than that obtained from freshly harvested roots. To obtain maximum oil yield and to shorten the time of distillation, the roots should be distilled when fresh. The oil recovery from fresh roots is 0.3-0.8% and from dried roots is 0.5-3.0% depending upon the duration of distillation. On an average 15-25 kg oil is obtained per hectare per crop. Mint Japanese mint is propagated through stolons. 'CIMAP/MAS-1' and 'Hybrid-77' are improved varieties. Seed rate is 400 kg/ha. A hectare of well established mint provides enough planting materials for 10 hectares. Stolons are planted either on flat land or ridges. In plains, they are planted in shallow furrows of 7-10 cm deep at a spacing of 45-60 cm after incorporating compost or farm yard manure at 10-12 tonnes/ha. Irrigation enhances growth and improves the yield. The field should be kept weed free, particularly during the initial stages of growth till proper establishment and coverage of the ground area . Japanese mint is first harvested after about 4 months of planting when the lower leaves start turning yellow. Subsequently two more harvests can be taken generally at an interval of 80 days. The fresh herb yield ranges from 25 to 50 tonnes/ha obtained in 3 cuttings annually The harvested herb may be wilted in shade for a few hours for draining off the excess moisture thereby reducing the bulk. Both fresh and dry herb are employed for distillation. Steam distillation is usually preferred and the duration of distillation is 1.5-2 hours generally. Fresh herb contains 0.4 to 0.6% oil. On an average, 100-150 kg oil/ha is obtained annually. Patchouli Patchouli is propagated vegetatively by stem cuttings having 4-5 nodes and 15-20 cm length. Improved varieties commonly cultivated are 'Johore', 'Singapore' and 'Indonesia'. Cuttings are prepared from the apical region of healthy stocks. The basal 2-3 pairs of leaves are carefully removed Cuttings are planted 3.5 cm apart in nursery beds, seed pans or polythene bags. It is important to provide aeration, partial shade and regular watering in order to get early and good rooting. Rooting occurs in 4-5 weeks and they are ready for transplanting in 8-10 weeks. Before transplanting, the field is prepared well and laid into beds of convenient size. These beds are

12

incorporated with organic manure at 12-15 tonnes/ha. Rooted cuttings are transplanted at 40-60 cm spacing and irrigated if there is no rain. Constant watering, regular weeding and light cultivation after every harvest are essential for proper growth and yield of the crop. The crop is harvested when the foliage becomes pale green to light brown and the stand emits a characteristic patchouli odour. The first harvest of the leaves is taken after about 5 months of planting. Subsequent harvests can be taken after every 3-4 months depending on the local conditions and management practices. Harvesting is done in the cool hours of the morning to avoid loss of essential oil. Young shoots of 25-50 cm length which contain at least 3 pairs of mature leaves are cut. In practice, a few shoots are always left unplucked to ensure better growth for next harvest. The crop stands for 3-4 years. The harvested herb is dried in shade allowing free air circulation for about 3 days. Proper drying is very important for the quality of oil. During drying, the material should be frequently turned over for promoting uniform drying and for preventing fermentation. Completely dried material can be pressed into bales and stored in a cool dry place for sometime. The dried herbage is steam distilled for its oil. Interchange of high and low pressures (1.4 to 3.5 kg/cm 2) produces better yield as more cell walls rupture in this process. Duration of distillation is 6-8 hours. Prolonged distillation gives higher yield and better quality of oil. But if it is distilled for too long, the oil will have a disagreeable odour. The oil yield varies from 2.5 to 3.5% on shade dry basis. On an average, from one hectare we get 8000 kg fresh leaves annually which on shade drying yield 1600 kg and on distillation give 40 kg of oil. Patchouli resinoid is also prepared occasionally by extracting the leaves with volatile solvents such as benzene. Such extraction gives 4.5-5.8% of resinoid which contains 70-80% of alcohol soluble absolute. Davana Davana is propagated by seeds. Seeds are short-viable and hence cannot be stored for long. Transplanting is generally practised in the crop. A nursery area of 500 m2 sown with about 1.5 kg seeds is sufficient for planting one hectare. The seeds are mixed with fine sand, broadcast over the nursery bed, covered with a thin layer of sand and watered regularly. Seeds germinate in about 3-4 days. When the seedlings are 10-12 cm tall they are transplanted to the main field at 15 x 7.5 cm spacing. Before transplanting, 12-15 tonnes of well decomposed FYM. The crop is irrigated weekly. Two weedings are carried out in the main crop and one in the ratoon crop. The crop is often subject to damping off at the tender early stage, particularly in the nursery. This disease, caused by Rhizoctonia species is common during cloudy and rainy period. Hence adjusting of sowing time is important for avoiding the disease. The crop is harvested during February-March when a large number of flower buds start opening. Flower to plant ratio at the time of harvest is reported to be important in davana. Harvesting is done by cutting the whole plant with sickle at a height of 10 cm from the ground. The herb yield is 8-10 tonnes/ha. The harvested herb is dried in shade for 2-3 days. The dried herb is steam distilled for a period of 6-8 hours for extracting the essential oil. The flower heads contain 0.3-0.4% of oil and in general, an oil recovery of 0.2% is achieved from the whole plant. The oil yield is 12-15 kg/ha. Geranium There is no seed setting in geranium. The plant is propagated by stem and root cuttings. Terminal cuttings root earlier than middle and basal cuttings. IAA is better than IBA for inducing rooting. Rooted cuttings are raised in the nursery during November-January and transplanted after 2 months at 60 x 40 cm spacing in the main field after applying well decomposed FYM or Compost at 10-12 tonnes/ha. Irrigation is provided daily for the first 3-4 days, on alternate days till two weeks and weekly thereafter. The crop requires weeding 20 and 40 days after planting and hoeing after harvest. The crop is ready for harvest after 4 months from transplanting when the leaves begin to turn light green and exhibit a change from lemon like odour to that of rose. The green leafy shoots are harvested with a sharp sickle. Three harvests can be taken per annum

13

and the crop remains in the field for 4-6 years. The yield of fresh herbage/ha/year from the 3 harvests is about 15 tonnes. The harvested herb is immediately taken up for distillation. Steam distillation gives better quality oil as compared to hydrodistillation. Distillation takes 3-4 hours. The volatile oil is present mostly in the leaf blades and there is practically no oil in the woody stem. In large scale distillations, the oil recovery varies from 0.1 to 0.15% on fresh weight basis and the average oil yield is 18-20 kg/ha/year. A maximum oil yield of 60 kg/ha has been reported. Eucalyptus Eucalyptus is propagated by seeds only. Seeds can be sown directly in the field or seedlings can be raised in the nursery during February-September. Germination takes upto a fortnight depending upon atmospheric humidity and temperature. Cold stored seeds germinate in 2-4 days. Seedlings are maintained in the nursery for 2-3 months until they attain a height of 20-30 cm when they are transplanted to the mainfield at 70-100 cm spacing. 10-12 tonnes/ha of organic manure. Weeding is required during the initial period until the plants are established well. Harvesting is done when the weather is clear and oil content in leaves is maximum. Accordingly, harvesting leaves during February, April, July and October has been recommended. In Kerala, harvesting twice a year, in May and November, is practised. Plants can be pollarded to promote vigorous sprouting of side shoots. Fresh shoots sprout in about four weeks after pollarding, which are ready for harvesting after 4-5 months. First pruning is done at 30-45 cm above ground and the subsequent ones at 75-90 cm above ground. The harvested leaves are steam distilled for 2-3 hours soon after harvesting to avoid loss of oil through evaporation as well as deterioration of its quality during storage. Though oil recoveries as high as 5% has been reported, 1-2% yield is frequently achieved in E. citriodora. The highest oil yield is obtained from the top leaves. This oil has better solubility in alcohol and higher cineole content than the oil obtained from the lower leaves. A 6-8 years old tree yields 30-60 kg of leaves/year which gives 0.5-1 kg of oil. Cinnamon It is propagated mainly by seed and rarely by cuttings of young 3-leaved shoots, layering of shoots and by the division of old rootstocks. Seeds soon lose their viability and should be sown fresh after the removal of the pulp. Germination takes 2-3 weeks time. Seeds are sown thickly in nurseries in May-June. When 4 months old, seedlings are transplanted into poly bags or baskets. After a further 10-12 months they are planted in the main field at 2-3 m spacing when they have sufficiently hardened off. Cattle manure or compost at 20 kg/tree/year may be applied. Regular weeding is done in the early stages of growth and the seedlings are irrigated till they are established, if there is long drought period. Plants are pruned when they are 2-3 years old at a height of 15 cm above ground level. Side shoots growing from the base are cut to encourage growth of more side shoots till the whole plant assumes the shape of a bush. Leaf spot and die back diseases caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, grey blight caused by Pestalotiopsis palmarum and sooty mould caused by Phragmocapinus betle are the common diseases of cinnamon. For the preparation of quills, the plants are harvested 3 years after planting when the shoots have grown 2-2.5 cm in diameter and 1.5-2 m in length. Harvesting is done in May or November. The correct time for cutting the shoots for peeling is determined by noting the sap circulation between the wood and the corky layer. Peelers can judge this by making a test cut on the stem with a sharp knife. If the bark separates readily the cutting is taken immediately in the early morning with sharp knife to prevent breaking and splitting of cut ends (Fazlullahkhan, 1967). Leaves are removed, the brown skin is scraped off and the stems are cut into pieces of convenient length. The bark is split longitudinally and peeled off using peeling knife on the same

14

day of harvest. The cylindrical pieces of bark (quills) are dried in sun for 2-5 days and packed in bundles for trade. The first harvest may yield 30-50 kg quills/ha/year. Better harvests are expected after 10 years when 170-200 kg of dried quills/ha/year are obtained. The chips, featherings or trimmings of bark left after the collection of quills are used for distillation and the oil yield is 0.5-1% generally. For the extraction of leaf oil, the leaves and tender twigs are harvested in May and November. Wilting of the harvested leaves in shade for 24 hours increases the oil recovery. Steam distillation for 4-6 hours gives an oil yield of 0.5 to 0.7%. The Challenges India is not in a position, at present, to completely do away with the use of synthetic agro chemicals, especially the inorganic fertilizers, in view of the large demand of the increasing populations for food commodities. Systematic phasing out of the use of agrochemicals and synthetic fertilizers and increasing the use of organic manures, reduced tillage bio fertilizers etc may prove beneficial in this direction. At present the country lacks a systematic research and development programme in respect of sustaining agricultural systems though organic farming practices. The technological and economic feasibility of organic farming will certainly influence its large scale adoption and promotion. Coupled with this, the need for alternate farming system in view of emerging environment problems and energy constraints will have a bearing on agricultural structure in general, and adoption of organic farming practices, in particular. However, awareness about degradation of earth’s natural resources at an alarming rate and man’s quest to survive and keep this planet green and healthy should go in favour of world wide adoption of organic farming systems. Initially, there may be some barriers which inhibit the farmers from adopting organic farming. Land resources can move freely from organic farming to conventional farming; but they do not move freely in the reverse direction. In changing over to organic farming an initial crop loss generally occurs, particularly if it is rapid. Biological controls may have been weakened or destroyed by chemicals, which may take three or four years to build up. Organic farmers may be afraid to enter the new market without adequate government support. Agricultural research has to be directed towards a better understanding of agro-ecosystems and how to maintain them, rather than towards the destruction or replacement of biological systems with more energy consuming and industrialized methods. Concern for alternative solution should be a goal of all research. The development of appropriate technologies is another important area of research. Conclusion Organic farming does not aim at a particular crop, but it is a system for the well being of the soil, environment and all flora and fauna inhabiting the earth especially man. Hence, this system is to be implemented in the production of aromatic plants also in a harmonious manner so as to make the natural aromas and flavours used through out the world as an ‘amruthu’ instead of making it a ‘visha’. Organic farming represents a highly suitable form of land use for areas with particularly stringent ecological requirements, in particular catchments for drinking water. Research into the economic analysis of organic production system shows that productivity per hectare and operating incomes are comparable with those obtainable from conventional farming when the holdings have reached a good soil management balance and taken control of the marketing of their produces. Marginal and small farmers in China, India, Latin America and most probably in other developing countries, have a comparative advantage in shifting to organic agriculture, as the technologies they use are often very close to organic practices. Still, many will face a number of obstacles to becoming certified organic producers, including lack of technical knowledge,

15

inadequate market information, limited storage and processing facilities and complex certification processes. Since, organic cultivation does not aim at a particular crop or a group of crops such as aromatic plants, a specific system for that is not necessary. But, the principle of organic cultivation has to be modified depending on crop, soil climate etc. To provide and enhance those skills and knowledge, the development of research in organic cultivation has to be focused on a much closer association with many aspects of ecological research, to develop the tools necessary for understanding complex interactions at different systems levels. This system of natural resource management approach will markedly solve the problem of poverty and will build a sustainable food security system.

16