ORGANIZATIONS: RATIONAL, NATURAL, AND OPEN SYSTEMS (5TH EDITION) BY W. RICHARD SCOTT

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From the Back Cover This broad, balanced introduction to organizational studies enables the reader to compare and contrast different approaches to the study of organizations. This book is a valuable tool for the reader, as we are all intertwined with organizations in one form or another. Numerous other disciplines besides sociology are addressed in this book, including economics, political science, strategy and management theory. Topic areas discussed in this book are the importance of organizations; defining organizations; organizations as rational, natural, and open systems; environments, strategies, and structures of organizations; and organizations and society. For those employed in fields where knowledge of organizational theory is necessary, including sociology, anthropology, cognitive psychology, industrial engineering, managers in corporations and international business, and business strategists. About the Author W. Richard (Dick) Scott received his undergraduate and M.A. degrees from the University of Kansas and his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Chicago. He is currently Emeritus Professor in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University where he also holds courtesy appointments in the Graduate School of Business, School of Education, and School of Medicine. He has been at Stanford throughout his professional career. In addition to serving as chair of the Department of Sociology, from 1972 to 1989 he directed the Organization Research Training Program at Stanford under the auspices of the National Institute of Mental Health, and was the founding director of the Stanford Center for Organizations Research, 1988-1996. He is the author or co-author of over one hundred scholarly articles and book chapters and has written or co-written about a dozen books and edited or co-edited another dozen. His most recent books include Institutional Change and Healthcare Organizations (2000) with Martin Ruef, Peter Mendel and Carol Caronna, and Institutions and Organizations, Second Edition (2001). He has served on the editorial board of many professional journals and was the editor of the Annual Review of Sociology from 1986-1991.

He has also been active in policy circles at the national level, serving on study sections for the National Science Foundation, National Institute of Mental Health, and National Center for Health Service Research. He was elected a member of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Science in 1975, and he served as a member of the governing board of the Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE) of the National Research Council from 1990-1996. Scott is a past fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. In 1988, he received the Distinguished Scholar Award from the Management and Organization Theory Division of the Academy of Management; and in 1996, he was selected for the Richard D. Irwin Award for Scholarly Contributions to Management from the Academy of Management. In 2000, the W. Richard Scott Award for Distinguished Scholarship was created by the Organizations, Occupations, and Work Section of the American Sociological Association, to annually recognize an outstanding article-length contribution to the field. He has received honorary degrees from the Copenhagen Business School (2000) and from the Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration (2001).

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved. The fifth edition allows me to continue my attempt to comprehend and make meaningful developments in the study of organizations. This effort commenced over forty years ago when, in 1962, I coauthored an early text-treatise on organizations with the distinguished organizational scholar, Peter M. Blau. The field of organizational sociology was just beginning to see the light of day at that time—Blau was a member of the pioneering cohort of Columbia scholars that gave birth to the field in its modern form—and I believe that our text helped to give the fledging field some intellectual coherence and perhaps even provided guidelines for its development. ENDURING FORMAT: CHANGING CONTENT It was two decades later that I returned again to the task of codification and synthesis, producing the first edition of this book in 1981. The title and the general framework have not changed through subsequent editions up to the present because I believe that the fundamental categories—varying combinations of rational, natural and open system arguments—remain serviceable vehicles for comprehending and tracking progress in the field. I believe that my original typology still functions to tame and order a field of study that, at first exposure, appears to be chaotic and, indeed, is crowded with competing theories and paradigms. My friend and colleague Jeffrey Pfeffer, surveying the field in 1982 commented: "The domain of organization theory is coming to resemble more of a weed patch than a well-tended garden" (1982: 1) . Without denying the existence of weeds, I prefer to pick up a hoe and lay out some borders and fences. While the general intellectual framework constructed in earlier editions continues to be employed, the content of the five editions has undergone great change. A reader of previous editions would recognize the typology of theories—whose dimensions remain unchanged—but could not help but be impressed by how much has changed. The layout and "bones" of the garden have not been altered, but we observe many new plants and flowers. The number of new perspectives that has emerged, the range of new and different topics addressed, the amount of new scholarship give ample evidence of a vigorous and expanding field. Recent developments in theory that I review include the knowledge-based conception of the firm and the elaboration of institutional and ecological-evolutionary perspectives. Greater attention is given to changing labor practices as

temporary, part-time and "flexible" workers and arrangements replace or supplement internal labor markets. More space is devoted to newly emerging forms such as networks and alliances. The sources of the changes that have occurred are numerous, but can be broadly partitioned into two categories: (1) changes in organizations; and (2) changes in organizational scholarship. Changes in Organizations. Organizations have spread from their early origins in governance and military operations and economic enterprise to invade every societal sector. From accounting to yoga instruction—just check your Yellow Pages—every imaginable, and some unimaginable activities have been swallowed up by organizations. No arena is immune. While this increasing range of activities has spawned diverse organizational forms, the larger process currently at work seems to be that of increasing isomorphism—organizational arrangements becoming more similar over time. Older forms, such as partnerships, are becoming more scarce as the corporate model becomes dominant, and older distinctions, such as public and private, profit and non-profit, are blurred and combined into hybrid arrangements. Market-based and managerial logics are ascendant at this time. While organizations are becoming more similar over time, the guiding models underlying modes of organizing are themselves undergoing change. The overall pattern appears to be movement from unitary to multi-divisional to network forms. Independent and tightly-coupled forms are giving way to interdependent, loosely-coupled networks and alliance forms. Accompanying these changes are revisions in organizational strategy. The grand strategy guiding organizational managers during most of the twentieth century can be described as one of internalization, bringing one after another function within the confines of the organization. Today's organizations are vigorously pursuing a strategy of externalization, outsourcing functions and relying on alliances or contracts for essential goods and services. This is a sea change that is having enormous impact on organizational structures and processes. I attempt to describe in detail in this edition what we know about these changing structures and strategies, their causes and consequences. Changes in Organizational Scholarship. Organizations change, but so too do our ideas about organizations and organizing. Reality and theorization are coupled, but only loosely so. Sometimes ideas lead practice; sometimes the reverse. Ideas change independently of what is being studied for many reasons. Two are of particular importance. First, organizational scholars are drawn from a widening array of disciplinary backgrounds. Early students of organizations were primarily social psychologists and sociologists. These social scientists were joined next by political scientists and economists, both institutional and behavioral. There has followed a range of other types of scholars including anthropologists, cognitive psychologists, industrial engineers, management, international business, and strategy scholars. Second, the locus of scholarship has migrated and dispersed over the past decades so that today's scholars are to be found spread throughout all of the social science departments and all of the university's professional schools. Business schools, engineering schools, schools of education and social services, nursing and medical schools—all boast a variety of folks whose primary interest is in examining the organizational forms within which the work of interest is being conducted. Within universities, a wide range of research and policy centers bring together a multidisciplinary mix of scholars to examine organizational issues. And increasingly, organizational studies are being conducted by specialists employed within corporate settings, in corporate training

programs and universities, and in consulting companies servicing corporations. Traditional universities no longer monopolize the creation of organizational knowledge. Although organizational studies continue to be conducted by many types of scholars located in a range of settings, the general trend in recent decades has been a movement away from academic locations into professional school and applied settings. In addition to changes in the disciplinary mix and locus of organizational scholars, a final difference involves changes in scale. Many more students of organizations are now at work than was formerly the case, so that the amount of scholarship has expanded rapidly if not exponentially. It is no longer possible to keep up with the flood of new books and journals. But this new edition attempts to incorporate much of this burgeoning literature. Finally, our ideas about organizations change as a reflection of changes in the phenomena studied. Confronted with the changing nature of organizations, scholars have, of necessity, begun to revise their conception of organizations. We witness a movement during the past decade away from entity-based views of organization to more interactional and process conceptions. Scholars are attending less to organizations and more to organizing. These are among the major types of changes in organizational scholarship that I attempt to review and evaluate. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF THIS VOLUME While there is much that is new, this edition adheres to several tenets that guided earlier editions and that, in my view, distinguish it from most other general books on organizations. Among these are the following: ●

●

●

●

●

I attempt to provide an introduction to the study of organizations for the serious student. The book is introductory, starting at the beginning but, I think, not elementary or simplistic. My aim is to provide a platform and pathway that allows the beginning student—whether undergraduate, graduate, or professional—to enter into ongoing conversations about organizations. Most professional books and journal articles are too specialized or recondite for the neophyte and make no attempt to provide a general orientation and a map of the territory. This text attempts to meet this need. I endeavor to provide a fair and balanced account of the major theories and debates in organizational studies. While I hold my own opinions and judgments about which are of most interest, I strive to show that much value is to be gained by entertaining a range of ideas about what organizations are and how they function. I give roughly equal time to describing changes in the "real world" of organizations and to examining changes in theories of organizations—our ideas about what they are and what we think they should be. While events shape our ideas, it is no less true that our ideas shape events. I accord equal effort to presenting and evaluating organizational theory and to describing and commenting on related empirical research. Scientific inquiry is characterized, as Whitehead (1925) reminds us, by the confrontation of "general principles" with "irreducible and stubborn facts." I devote considerable space, particularly in chapters 2 through 5, to discussing the contributions of early theorists and students of organizations. While attending to new ideas, I believe it is essential that we remember and understand our origins. This is not just an exercise in the history of theory for its own sake. Earlier scholars provide the foundation and shape the frameworks within which today's scholars work. Conversely, today's scholars continually de...

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ORGANIZATIONS: RATIONAL, NATURAL, AND OPEN SYSTEMS (5TH EDITION) BY W. RICHARD SCOTT PDF

This broad, balanced introduction to organizational studies enables the reader to compare and contrast different approaches to the study of organizations. This book is a valuable tool for the reader, as we are all intertwined with organizations in one form or another. Numerous other disciplines besides sociology are addressed in this book, including economics, political science, strategy and management theory. Topic areas discussed in this book are the importance of organizations; defining organizations; organizations as rational, natural, and open systems; environments, strategies, and structures of organizations; and organizations and society. For those employed in fields where knowledge of organizational theory is necessary, including sociology, anthropology, cognitive psychology, industrial engineering, managers in corporations and international business, and business strategists.

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Sales Rank: #678759 in Books Brand: Brand: Prentice Hall Published on: 2002-07-09 Original language: English Number of items: 1 Dimensions: 8.96" h x .95" w x 5.98" l, Binding: Paperback 430 pages

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Used Book in Good Condition

From the Back Cover This broad, balanced introduction to organizational studies enables the reader to compare and contrast different approaches to the study of organizations. This book is a valuable tool for the reader, as we are all intertwined with organizations in one form or another. Numerous other disciplines besides sociology are addressed in this book, including economics, political science, strategy and management theory. Topic areas discussed in this book are the importance of organizations; defining organizations; organizations as rational, natural, and open systems; environments, strategies, and structures of organizations; and organizations and society. For those employed in fields where knowledge of organizational theory is necessary, including sociology, anthropology, cognitive psychology, industrial engineering, managers in corporations and international business, and business strategists. About the Author W. Richard (Dick) Scott received his undergraduate and M.A. degrees from the University of Kansas and his Ph.D. in sociology from the University of Chicago. He is currently Emeritus

Professor in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University where he also holds courtesy appointments in the Graduate School of Business, School of Education, and School of Medicine. He has been at Stanford throughout his professional career. In addition to serving as chair of the Department of Sociology, from 1972 to 1989 he directed the Organization Research Training Program at Stanford under the auspices of the National Institute of Mental Health, and was the founding director of the Stanford Center for Organizations Research, 1988-1996. He is the author or co-author of over one hundred scholarly articles and book chapters and has written or co-written about a dozen books and edited or co-edited another dozen. His most recent books include Institutional Change and Healthcare Organizations (2000) with Martin Ruef, Peter Mendel and Carol Caronna, and Institutions and Organizations, Second Edition (2001). He has served on the editorial board of many professional journals and was the editor of the Annual Review of Sociology from 1986-1991. He has also been active in policy circles at the national level, serving on study sections for the National Science Foundation, National Institute of Mental Health, and National Center for Health Service Research. He was elected a member of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Science in 1975, and he served as a member of the governing board of the Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE) of the National Research Council from 1990-1996. Scott is a past fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. In 1988, he received the Distinguished Scholar Award from the Management and Organization Theory Division of the Academy of Management; and in 1996, he was selected for the Richard D. Irwin Award for Scholarly Contributions to Management from the Academy of Management. In 2000, the W. Richard Scott Award for Distinguished Scholarship was created by the Organizations, Occupations, and Work Section of the American Sociological Association, to annually recognize an outstanding article-length contribution to the field. He has received honorary degrees from the Copenhagen Business School (2000) and from the Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration (2001).

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved. The fifth edition allows me to continue my attempt to comprehend and make meaningful developments in the study of organizations. This effort commenced over forty years ago when, in 1962, I coauthored an early text-treatise on organizations with the distinguished organizational scholar, Peter M. Blau. The field of organizational sociology was just beginning to see the light of day at that time—Blau was a member of the pioneering cohort of Columbia scholars that gave birth to the field in its modern form—and I believe that our text helped to give the fledging field some intellectual coherence and perhaps even provided guidelines for its development. ENDURING FORMAT: CHANGING CONTENT It was two decades later that I returned again to the task of codification and synthesis, producing the first edition of this book in 1981. The title and the general framework have not changed through subsequent editions up to the present because I believe that the fundamental categories—varying combinations of rational, natural and open system arguments—remain serviceable vehicles for comprehending and tracking progress in the field. I believe that my original typology still functions to tame and order a field of study that, at first exposure, appears to be chaotic and, indeed, is crowded with competing theories and paradigms. My friend and colleague Jeffrey Pfeffer,

surveying the field in 1982 commented: "The domain of organization theory is coming to resemble more of a weed patch than a well-tended garden" (1982: 1) . Without denying the existence of weeds, I prefer to pick up a hoe and lay out some borders and fences. While the general intellectual framework constructed in earlier editions continues to be employed, the content of the five editions has undergone great change. A reader of previous editions would recognize the typology of theories—whose dimensions remain unchanged—but could not help but be impressed by how much has changed. The layout and "bones" of the garden have not been altered, but we observe many new plants and flowers. The number of new perspectives that has emerged, the range of new and different topics addressed, the amount of new scholarship give ample evidence of a vigorous and expanding field. Recent developments in theory that I review include the knowledge-based conception of the firm and the elaboration of institutional and ecological-evolutionary perspectives. Greater attention is given to changing labor practices as temporary, part-time and "flexible" workers and arrangements replace or supplement internal labor markets. More space is devoted to newly emerging forms such as networks and alliances. The sources of the changes that have occurred are numerous, but can be broadly partitioned into two categories: (1) changes in organizations; and (2) changes in organizational scholarship. Changes in Organizations. Organizations have spread from their early origins in governance and military operations and economic enterprise to invade every societal sector. From accounting to yoga instruction—just check your Yellow Pages—every imaginable, and some unimaginable activities have been swallowed up by organizations. No arena is immune. While this increasing range of activities has spawned diverse organizational forms, the larger process currently at work seems to be that of increasing isomorphism—organizational arrangements becoming more similar over time. Older forms, such as partnerships, are becoming more scarce as the corporate model becomes dominant, and older distinctions, such as public and private, profit and non-profit, are blurred and combined into hybrid arrangements. Market-based and managerial logics are ascendant at this time. While organizations are becoming more similar over time, the guiding models underlying modes of organizing are themselves undergoing change. The overall pattern appears to be movement from unitary to multi-divisional to network forms. Independent and tightly-coupled forms are giving way to interdependent, loosely-coupled networks and alliance forms. Accompanying these changes are revisions in organizational strategy. The grand strategy guiding organizational managers during most of the twentieth century can be described as one of internalization, bringing one after another function within the confines of the organization. Today's organizations are vigorously pursuing a strategy of externalization, outsourcing functions and relying on alliances or contracts for essential goods and services. This is a sea change that is having enormous impact on organizational structures and processes. I attempt to describe in detail in this edition what we know about these changing structures and strategies, their causes and consequences. Changes in Organizational Scholarship. Organizations change, but so too do our ideas about organizations and organizing. Reality and theorization are coupled, but only loosely so. Sometimes ideas lead practice; sometimes the reverse. Ideas change independently of what is being studied for many reasons. Two are of particular importance. First, organizational scholars are drawn from a widening array of disciplinary backgrounds. Early students of organizations were primarily social

psychologists and sociologists. These social scientists were joined next by political scientists and economists, both institutional and behavioral. There has followed a range of other types of scholars including anthropologists, cognitive psychologists, industrial engineers, management, international business, and strategy scholars. Second, the locus of scholarship has migrated and dispersed over the past decades so that today's scholars are to be found spread throughout all of the social science departments and all of the university's professional schools. Business schools, engineering schools, schools of education and social services, nursing and medical schools—all boast a variety of folks whose primary interest is in examining the organizational forms within which the work of interest is being conducted. Within universities, a wide range of research and policy centers bring together a multidisciplinary mix of scholars to examine organizational issues. And increasingly, organizational studies are being conducted by specialists employed within corporate settings, in corporate training programs and universities, and in consulting companies servicing corporations. Traditional universities no longer monopolize the creation of organizational knowledge. Although organizational studies continue to be conducted by many types of scholars located in a range of settings, the general trend in recent decades has been a movement away from academic locations into professional school and applied settings. In addition to changes in the disciplinary mix and locus of organizational scholars, a final difference involves changes in scale. Many more students of organizations are now at work than was formerly the case, so that the amount of scholarship has expanded rapidly if not exponentially. It is no longer possible to keep up with the flood of new books and journals. But this new edition attempts to incorporate much of this burgeoning literature. Finally, our ideas about organizations change as a reflection of changes in the phenomena studied. Confronted with the changing nature of organizations, scholars have, of necessity, begun to revise their conception of organizations. We witness a movement during the past decade away from entity-based views of organization to more interactional and process conceptions. Scholars are attending less to organizations and more to organizing. These are among the major types of changes in organizational scholarship that I attempt to review and evaluate. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF THIS VOLUME While there is much that is new, this edition adheres to several tenets that guided earlier editions and that, in my view, distinguish it from most other general books on organizations. Among these are the following: ●

●

●

I attempt to provide an introduction to the study of organizations for the serious student. The book is introductory, starting at the beginning but, I think, not elementary or simplistic. My aim is to provide a platform and pathway that allows the beginning student—whether undergraduate, graduate, or professional—to enter into ongoing conversations about organizations. Most professional books and journal articles are too specialized or recondite for the neophyte and make no attempt to provide a general orientation and a map of the territory. This text attempts to meet this need. I endeavor to provide a fair and balanced account of the major theories and debates in organizational studies. While I hold my own opinions and judgments about which are of most interest, I strive to show that much value is to be gained by entertaining a range of ideas about what organizations are and how they function. I give roughly equal time to describing changes in the "real world" of organizations and to

●

●

examining changes in theories of organizations—our ideas about what they are and what we think they should be. While events shape our ideas, it is no less true that our ideas shape events. I accord equal effort to presenting and evaluating organizational theory and to describing and commenting on related empirical research. Scientific inquiry is characterized, as Whitehead (1925) reminds us, by the confrontation of "general principles" with "irreducible and stubborn facts." I devote considerable space, particularly in chapters 2 through 5, to discussing the contributions of early theorists and students of organizations. While attending to new ideas, I believe it is essential that we remember and understand our origins. This is not just an exercise in the history of theory for its own sake. Earlier scholars provide the foundation and shape the frameworks within which today's scholars work. Conversely, today's scholars continually de...

Most helpful customer reviews 6 of 38 people found the following review helpful. PhD student from Navarre, FL By A Customer This book is poorly organized and poorly written. I do not recommend this book as a good text book for organizational theory and practices. 6 of 6 people found the following review helpful. Excellent Work By Marshall S. Brown This is an excellent book. The author does a fantastic job of explaining organizational theory from a conceptual perspective. The book does not spend a lot of time discussing research methodology. The book does a great job of presenting information in a form that a manager can use in evaluating various approaches to organizational behavior issues. This volume will certainly remain an important part of my toolkit! 5 of 6 people found the following review helpful. Informative Read By P. Latham This book was ideal for the doctoral class I just completed. The book thoroughly explained the salient points and provided useful information for further doctoral work. Although the book was scholarly, it was an easy and pleasant read. I recommend this book for anyone who wants a keener understanding of the organization as a system See all 8 customer reviews...

ORGANIZATIONS: RATIONAL, NATURAL, AND OPEN SYSTEMS (5TH EDITION) BY W. RICHARD SCOTT PDF

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Service Research. He was elected a member of the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Science in 1975, and he served as a member of the governing board of the Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE) of the National Research Council from 1990-1996. Scott is a past fellow of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. In 1988, he received the Distinguished Scholar Award from the Management and Organization Theory Division of the Academy of Management; and in 1996, he was selected for the Richard D. Irwin Award for Scholarly Contributions to Management from the Academy of Management. In 2000, the W. Richard Scott Award for Distinguished Scholarship was created by the Organizations, Occupations, and Work Section of the American Sociological Association, to annually recognize an outstanding article-length contribution to the field. He has received honorary degrees from the Copenhagen Business School (2000) and from the Helsinki School of Economics and Business Administration (2001).

Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved. The fifth edition allows me to continue my attempt to comprehend and make meaningful developments in the study of organizations. This effort commenced over forty years ago when, in 1962, I coauthored an early text-treatise on organizations with the distinguished organizational scholar, Peter M. Blau. The field of organizational sociology was just beginning to see the light of day at that time—Blau was a member of the pioneering cohort of Columbia scholars that gave birth to the field in its modern form—and I believe that our text helped to give the fledging field some intellectual coherence and perhaps even provided guidelines for its development. ENDURING FORMAT: CHANGING CONTENT It was two decades later that I returned again to the task of codification and synthesis, producing the first edition of this book in 1981. The title and the general framework have not changed through subsequent editions up to the present because I believe that the fundamental categories—varying combinations of rational, natural and open system arguments—remain serviceable vehicles for comprehending and tracking progress in the field. I believe that my original typology still functions to tame and order a field of study that, at first exposure, appears to be chaotic and, indeed, is crowded with competing theories and paradigms. My friend and colleague Jeffrey Pfeffer, surveying the field in 1982 commented: "The domain of organization theory is coming to resemble more of a weed patch than a well-tended garden" (1982: 1) . Without denying the existence of weeds, I prefer to pick up a hoe and lay out some borders and fences. While the general intellectual framework constructed in earlier editions continues to be employed, the content of the five editions has undergone great change. A reader of previous editions would recognize the typology of theories—whose dimensions remain unchanged—but could not help but be impressed by how much has changed. The layout and "bones" of the garden have not been altered, but we observe many new plants and flowers. The number of new perspectives that has emerged, the range of new and different topics addressed, the amount of new scholarship give ample evidence of a vigorous and expanding field. Recent developments in theory that I review include the knowledge-based conception of the firm and the elaboration of institutional and ecological-evolutionary perspectives. Greater attention is given to changing labor practices as temporary, part-time and "flexible" workers and arrangements replace or supplement internal labor markets. More space is devoted to newly emerging forms such as networks and alliances.

The sources of the changes that have occurred are numerous, but can be broadly partitioned into two categories: (1) changes in organizations; and (2) changes in organizational scholarship. Changes in Organizations. Organizations have spread from their early origins in governance and military operations and economic enterprise to invade every societal sector. From accounting to yoga instruction—just check your Yellow Pages—every imaginable, and some unimaginable activities have been swallowed up by organizations. No arena is immune. While this increasing range of activities has spawned diverse organizational forms, the larger process currently at work seems to be that of increasing isomorphism—organizational arrangements becoming more similar over time. Older forms, such as partnerships, are becoming more scarce as the corporate model becomes dominant, and older distinctions, such as public and private, profit and non-profit, are blurred and combined into hybrid arrangements. Market-based and managerial logics are ascendant at this time. While organizations are becoming more similar over time, the guiding models underlying modes of organizing are themselves undergoing change. The overall pattern appears to be movement from unitary to multi-divisional to network forms. Independent and tightly-coupled forms are giving way to interdependent, loosely-coupled networks and alliance forms. Accompanying these changes are revisions in organizational strategy. The grand strategy guiding organizational managers during most of the twentieth century can be described as one of internalization, bringing one after another function within the confines of the organization. Today's organizations are vigorously pursuing a strategy of externalization, outsourcing functions and relying on alliances or contracts for essential goods and services. This is a sea change that is having enormous impact on organizational structures and processes. I attempt to describe in detail in this edition what we know about these changing structures and strategies, their causes and consequences. Changes in Organizational Scholarship. Organizations change, but so too do our ideas about organizations and organizing. Reality and theorization are coupled, but only loosely so. Sometimes ideas lead practice; sometimes the reverse. Ideas change independently of what is being studied for many reasons. Two are of particular importance. First, organizational scholars are drawn from a widening array of disciplinary backgrounds. Early students of organizations were primarily social psychologists and sociologists. These social scientists were joined next by political scientists and economists, both institutional and behavioral. There has followed a range of other types of scholars including anthropologists, cognitive psychologists, industrial engineers, management, international business, and strategy scholars. Second, the locus of scholarship has migrated and dispersed over the past decades so that today's scholars are to be found spread throughout all of the social science departments and all of the university's professional schools. Business schools, engineering schools, schools of education and social services, nursing and medical schools—all boast a variety of folks whose primary interest is in examining the organizational forms within which the work of interest is being conducted. Within universities, a wide range of research and policy centers bring together a multidisciplinary mix of scholars to examine organizational issues. And increasingly, organizational studies are being conducted by specialists employed within corporate settings, in corporate training programs and universities, and in consulting companies servicing corporations. Traditional universities no longer monopolize the creation of organizational knowledge. Although organizational studies continue to be conducted by many types of scholars located in a range of

settings, the general trend in recent decades has been a movement away from academic locations into professional school and applied settings. In addition to changes in the disciplinary mix and locus of organizational scholars, a final difference involves changes in scale. Many more students of organizations are now at work than was formerly the case, so that the amount of scholarship has expanded rapidly if not exponentially. It is no longer possible to keep up with the flood of new books and journals. But this new edition attempts to incorporate much of this burgeoning literature. Finally, our ideas about organizations change as a reflection of changes in the phenomena studied. Confronted with the changing nature of organizations, scholars have, of necessity, begun to revise their conception of organizations. We witness a movement during the past decade away from entity-based views of organization to more interactional and process conceptions. Scholars are attending less to organizations and more to organizing. These are among the major types of changes in organizational scholarship that I attempt to review and evaluate. DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF THIS VOLUME While there is much that is new, this edition adheres to several tenets that guided earlier editions and that, in my view, distinguish it from most other general books on organizations. Among these are the following: ●

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I attempt to provide an introduction to the study of organizations for the serious student. The book is introductory, starting at the beginning but, I think, not elementary or simplistic. My aim is to provide a platform and pathway that allows the beginning student—whether undergraduate, graduate, or professional—to enter into ongoing conversations about organizations. Most professional books and journal articles are too specialized or recondite for the neophyte and make no attempt to provide a general orientation and a map of the territory. This text attempts to meet this need. I endeavor to provide a fair and balanced account of the major theories and debates in organizational studies. While I hold my own opinions and judgments about which are of most interest, I strive to show that much value is to be gained by entertaining a range of ideas about what organizations are and how they function. I give roughly equal time to describing changes in the "real world" of organizations and to examining changes in theories of organizations—our ideas about what they are and what we think they should be. While events shape our ideas, it is no less true that our ideas shape events. I accord equal effort to presenting and evaluating organizational theory and to describing and commenting on related empirical research. Scientific inquiry is characterized, as Whitehead (1925) reminds us, by the confrontation of "general principles" with "irreducible and stubborn facts." I devote considerable space, particularly in chapters 2 through 5, to discussing the contributions of early theorists and students of organizations. While attending to new ideas, I believe it is essential that we remember and understand our origins. This is not just an exercise in the history of theory for its own sake. Earlier scholars provide the foundation and shape the frameworks within which today's scholars work. Conversely, today's scholars continually de...

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