POLITICS & SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA « PUZZLE-UL LATINO » PERIOADA: AL 2LEA SEMESTRU 2016/7

TITULAR : LECTOR DR. CATERINA PREDA ([email protected])

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FISA CURSULUI / COURSE OUTLINE / FICHE DU COURS 2013/2014 Titlul cursului / Course title / Intitulé du cours : POLITICS AND SOCIETY IN LATIN AMERICA. “The Latin American puzzle » Tipul cursului / Course type / Type du cours :

obligatoriu / compulsory / obligatoire opţional / elective / optionnel facultativ / voluntary / facultatif

Numele şi prenumele responsabilului de curs / Name of the person in charge of the class / Nom et prénom du responsable de cours : Caterina Preda Gradul didactic / Academic title / Titre académique : Lector Dr. Semestrul / Semester / Semestrul

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Descriere sintetică a cursului / Brief description of the course / Description synthétique du cours nd

This is an introductory class for 2 year students meant to present the political study of Latin America. So as to comprehend current events and trends of Latin American politics one has to first have a comprehensive view of modern political history of Latin America. How else could one understand the election of Daniel Ortega at the presidency of Nicaragua in 2006 if not by a return on the Sandinist revolution? The current debate on neo-populism can also be understood solely by knowing the history of populisms in Latin America. This type of questions will find an answer at the end of this introductory class. Bibliografie generală / References / Bibliographie générale Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University th Press, 2010 (7 edition) + the texts for each weekly discussion by email or online on my professor page (fspub.unibuc.ro) Forme şi criterii de evaluare / Requirements and evaluation / Formes et critères d’évaluation 1. Attending the classes is mandatory. 2. The final examination consists of a written exam of 20 to 24 very specific questions evaluating the information presented during the classes and seminars. NOTA : Studenţii sunt obligaţi să cunoască politica de probitate intelectuală a Facultăţii: plagiatul, copiatul, înşelătoria, multipla utilizare a unui referat, recursul nemărturisit la surse bibliografice sau la internet vor conduce la anularea notei şi a creditelor alocate cursului. Students should be aware of the Department’s policy of academic integrity: cheating, falsification, forgery, multiple submission, plagiarism, complicity and computer misuse will result in the invalidation of both grade and credits Les étudiants sont tenus connaître la politique de la Faculté en matière d’honnêteté intellectuelle : le plagiat, la contrefaçon, le dépôt multiple des travaux, la falsification, le recours inavoué aux sources bibliographiques et à l’Internet entraînent l’annulation des crédits et de la note du cours.

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Programul cursurilor / Courses outline / Programme des séances : 1. -

Introduction to the study of Latin America: terminology and approaches Territorial divisions (Central America, Caribbean, South Cone…) and temporal The concept of Latin America – “the Latin Americas” LA today – the essential problems: a very diverse map The Latin American panorama between stereotypes and realities (extreme inequalities, dictatorships and militaries) The cultural Latin American model

Refer to: Skidmore, Thomas E. and Peter H. Smith, Modern Latin America. Oxford: Oxford th University Press, 2005 (6 edition), Prologue. Why Latin America? pp. 1-12. 2. Discovery, conquest and colonial administration (XVI-XVIII c.) Independence(s): 1810-1830 - The Hispanic and Portuguese colonial models - The other colonies: English (Jamaica, Belize), French (Guyana and Antilles) and Dutch (Suriname and Antilles) th - The independence models and the recent 20 c. independences (Cuba, Panama) Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter One pp. 13-34. Discussion: the dream of Latin American unity – the permanent utopia (from Bolivar to Chávez) Simon Bolivar: Letter of Jamaica (1815), Angostura Address (1819) and Cartagena Manifest (1812); The Bolivarian revolution of Hugo Chavez: Jennifer McCoy, “Venezuela: Leading a New Trend in Latin America?”, ReVista (2008) http://www.drclas.harvard.edu/revista/articles/view/1105 th

3. 19 century Latin America: from independence to the construction of new states - After the independence until the 1850s – conservatory caudillos; after 1850 – the Liberals Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter One pp. 34-42. Discussion: the caudillos, dictators, etc. – the land of strongmen William H. Beezley, “Caudillismo: An Interpretive Note”, Journal of Inter-American Studies, 11: 3 (1969): 345-352 Eric R. Wolf and Edward C. Hansen, “Caudillo Politics: A Structural“, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 9:2 (1967): 168-179 Roger M. Haigh, “ The Creation and Control of a Caudillo”, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 44:4 (1964): 481-490 + John Lynch, “Bolivar and the Caudillos”, The Hispanic American Historical Review, 63:1 (1983): 3-35 4. The end of the XIX c. and the beginning of the XX c. (1870-1910); Mexico - The crisis of the end of the century – the wars (of Paraguay 1864-1870 and of the Pacific 1879-1883) - Positivism and American imperialism - North-American interventions in Central America and the Caribbean - The Mexican revolution (1910-1920) Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter One pp. 42-51; Chapter Eight. pp. 254-295. Discussion: Mexico after the revolution Alan Knight, “The peculiarities of Mexican History: Mexico compared to Latin America 18211992”, Journal of Latin American Studies 24 (1992): 99-144 Chris Gilbreth and Gerardo Otero, “Democratization in Mexico. The Zapatista uprising and civil society”, Latin American Perspectives 28:119 (2001): 7-29. Enrique Krauze, “Furthering Democracy in Mexico”, Foreign Affairs, January/February 2006

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5 . The years of prosperity (1914-1930); the Southern Cone - The First World War - reformism (Argentina, Uruguay, Chile) - American imperialism consolidated (North American policies) Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Three pp. 69-82; Chapter Four. pp.110-122. Discussion: presidentialism in LA Scott Mainwaring and Matthew S. Shugart, “Juan Linz, Presidentialism, and Democracy: A Critical Appraisal”, Comparative Politics, 29:4 (1997): 449-471 Scott Mainwaring, “Presidentialism in Latin America”, Latin American Research Review, 25:1 (1990): 157-179 Arturo Valenzuela, “Latin American presidencies interrupted”, Journal of Democracy 15:4 (2004): 5-19 6. Populism and neo-populism: from Vargas and Peron to Chavez and Fujimori From the crisis to the search of new solutions (1930-1960) - The 1929 economic crisis; the imports substitution model and the industrial takeoff - The political crisis: military governments and populisms (Argentina, Brazil) Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Three pp. 82-98; Chapter Five. pp. 157-164. Discussion: ‘Populism of ancients and moderns’ – neopopulism: Hugo Chávez/Fujimori Steve Ellner, “The Contrasting Variants of the Populism of Hugo Chávez and Alberto Fujimori”, Journal of Latin American Studies, 35:1 (2003): 139-162 Kurt Weyland, “Neopopulism and Neoliberalism in Latin America: How Much Affinity?”, Third World Quarterly, 24:6 (2003): 1095-1115 Kurt Weyland, “Neoliberal Populism in Latin America and Eastern Europe”, Comparative Politics, 31:4 (1999):379-401 7. Cuba: a portrait since independence - The Cuban revolution (1959) and the Castro system - The failure of continental revolution; the Nicaraguan revolution (1979-1990) - Rural (Central America) and urban (Southern Cone) guerillas: differences and specificities Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Nine pp. 296-355. Discussion: Cuba and the after Fidel – a new model? Mark P. Sullivan, “Cuba after Fidel Castro: issues for US policy”, CRS Report for Congress (2005) Daniel P. Erikson, “Charting Castro’s possible successors”, SAIS Review XXV:1 (2005): 89103. Tim Anderson, “Contesting ‘Transition’ The US plan for a ‘Free Cuba’”, Latin American Perspectives 32:6 (2005): 28-46 8. State terrorism in the Southern Cone (Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay) - the role of the military in LA politics; the National Security doctrine and authoritarian regimes Discussion: Latin American “originality”: terrorist states and The Condor Operation (Brazil, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay) J. Patrice Mc Sherry, “Tracking the Origins of a State Terror Network Operation Condor”, Latin American Perspectives 29:1 (2002): 38-60. 9. Democratic transition in Latin America; Brazil - The lost decade: 1980s - 1989 in Latin America (Panama, Stroessner, Pinochet…); consolidated democracies? Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Five. pp. 139-180.

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Discussion: Truth commissions in Latin America – transitional justice 10. “Under [American] influence”: Central America and the Caribbean - Central America: between common history and specificities - The Caribbean: Haiti and the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico and the micro-states Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Ten pp. 328-355; Chapter Eleven. pp. 356-395. Discussion: North American forms of intervention in Latin America – Caribbean and Central America Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Twelve, pp. 396-439. 11. Formal democracies: Colombia (drug democracy) and Venezuela (from corrupted democracy to Chavez) Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Seven pp. 221-253; Jennifer L. McCoy and William C. Smith, “Democratic Disequilibrium in Venezuela”, Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 37:2 (1995):113-179; Ronald D. Sylvia and Constantine P. Danopoulos, “The Chávez Phenomenon: Political Change in Venezuela”, Third World Quarterly, 24:1 (2003): 63-76 Discussion: Colombia or the absence of a state (guerilla, paramilitary movements and drugs) W. John Green, “Review: Guerrillas, Soldiers, Paramilitaries, Assassins, Narcos, and Gringos: The Unhappy Prospects for Peace and Democracy in Colombia”, Latin American Research Review, 40:2 (2005): 137-149 Siddhartha Baviskar, “Drugs and Democracy”, Economic and Political Weekly, 31:11 (1996): 654-655 Cynthia A. Watson, “Political Violence in Colombia: Another Argentina?”, Third World Quarterly, 12: 3/4 (1990 - 1991): 25-39 12. The “Indian” states (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia): Political drifting and political instability - The Indian question reappears: Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter Six pp. 181-220; Discussion: economic regional integration – the European Union as a model? UNASUR (2008) th st - The end of the 20 c. and the beginning of the 21 c: neoliberalism and the Washington consensus - new regional alliances: the American model (TLCs) versus the Bolivarian model (ALBA) Victor Bulmer-Thomas, “Debate. Regional integration in Latin America and the Caribbean”, Bulletin of Latin American Research 20:3 (2001): 360-369. 13. The Cultural Latin American model Refer to: Skidmore and Smith, Chapter 14, pp. 403-437. Additional bibliographical references: 1. Almond, Gabriel A., Powell Bingham Jr., Strøm Kaare & Dalton Russell J., Comparative Politics th Today. A World View. 8 Edition, New York: Pearson Longman, 2004 2. Bethell, Leslie (ed.), Historia de América Latina. El Cono Sur desde 1930, Barcelona: Crítica, 2002 3. Bethell, Leslie (ed.), Historia de América Latina. América del sur 1870-1930, Barcelona: Crítica, 2000 4. Diamond, Larry et al. (eds.), Democracy in Developing Countries. Latin America, Second Edition, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999 [Chap. 1, Larry Diamond et al, “Introduction: Politics, Society, and Democracy in Latin America,” pp. 1-65.] 5. Di Tella, Torcuato, History of Political Parties in Twentieth-Century Latin America, New Brunswick, New Jersey : Transaction Publishers, 2004 6. Galeano, Eduardo, Las venas abiertas de America Latina, Madrid: Siglo Veintuno de España ème Editores, 2004 (21 édition) 7. Higley, John & Gunther Richard, Elites in Democratic Consolidation in Latin America and Southern Europe, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992

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8. Linz, Juan & Stepan Alfred, The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown and Reequilibration, Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press, 1978 9. Linz, Juan, Totalitarian and Authoritarian regimes, Boulder & London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000 10. Mainwaring, Scott & Valenzuela Arturo, Politics, society and Democracy: Latin America, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998 11. Mainwaring, Scott and Pérez-Liñán Aníbal, “Level of Development and Democracy. Latin American Exceptionalism, 1945-1996”, Comparative Political Studies 36:9 (2003): 1031-1067 12. O’Donnell, Guillermo & Schmitter Philippe C., Transitions from Authoritarian Rule. Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies, Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1986 13. Pérez-Liñán, Aníbal, “Democratization and Constitutional Crises in Presidential Regime. Toward Constitutional Supremacy?”, Comparative Political Studies 38:1 (2005): 51-74 14. Valenzuela, Arturo, “Latin American presidencies interrupted”, Journal of Democracy 15:4 (2004): 5-19 Websites 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Latin American Database http://pdba.georgetown.edu/ Latin American Network Information Center http://lanic.utexas.edu/ América Latina. Portal Europeo http://www.red-redial.net/ El portal sociopolítico de Iberoamérica http://www.nuevamayoria.com/ES/ Internet Resources for Latin America http://lib.nmsu.edu/subject/bord/laguia/ The World Fact book http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html Maps http://www.worldatlas.com Elections in AL – 2006 http://www.observatorio2006.org/ BBC http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/default.stm http://www.amelatine.com/ http://www.latinreporters.com/ http://www.americas-fr.com/actualites/actualites.html Analysis (Spanish and English) www.nuevamayoria.com/ES/ Reuters LA http://lta.today.reuters.com/news/default.aspx Angus Reid analyses http://www.angus-reid.com/ http://www.latinnews.com Project Syndicate http://www.project-syndicate.org/

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Argentina (República Argentina/Nación Argentina) Capital: Buenos Aires Surface: 2.8 millions km² Population: 40.3 million (Indians – 3%) Independence: 9 July 1816 Federal presidential republic: 23 provinces and the federal district of Buenos Aires (24 districts). Voting system: Presidency: double tour majority (TRS) – 4 years mandate1 ; Congress: PR – closed lists (perfect bicameralism) Constitution: 1853 (reformed in 1860, 1898, 1957 and 1994) Suffrage: universal and mandatory since 18 years Executive: President (4 years) Mauricio Macri (2015) http://www.presidencia.gov.ar Vice-president: Gabriella Michetti Last presidential elections (2015): 1st round Mauricio Macri – Pro (Cambiemos) 34.15% Daniel Scioli – PJ (Frente para la Victoria) 37.08 Sergio Massa FR (Unidos por una nueva alternativa) 21.39

2nd round 51.34% 48.66%

Legislative: Senate – 72 members elected for 6 years (one third renewable every 2 years)2 Chamber of Deputies – 257 members elected for 4 years (half renewable every 2 years) according to the D’Hondt formula with a threshold of 3%. 3 Senate Pj- Frente para la Victoria 40 UCR 8 Frente Pro 6 Chubut somos todos 1 Federalismo y Liberacion 1 Frence Civico y Social de Catarmarca 1 Frente Popular 1 Frente Progressita Ccari 1 Gen 1 Justicialiasta San Luis 2 Justiciliastas 8 de octubre 1 Movimiento Popular Fueguino 1 Movimiento Popular Neuquino 1 Partidio Justicialista la Pampa 1 Produccion y trabajo 1 Proyecto Sur-Unen 1 Santa Fe Federal 1 Union por Cordoba 1

Chamber of Deputies Pj- Frente para la Victoria 81 Union PRO 41 UCR 41 Federal Unidos por Una Nueva Argen, 28 Justicialista 17 Frente Civico Por Santiago 6 Coalicion Civica 5 Compromiso Federal 3 Partido Socialista 3 Frence Civico y Social de Catarmarca 3 Frente de Izquierda y de los Trabajadores 3 Social Cristiano 3 Trabajo y dignidad 3 Movimiento Popular Neoquino 2 Libres del Sur 2 Suma + Unen 1 Gen 1 PTS Frente de Izquierda 1 Solidaridadd Si 1 Cultura Educacion y Trabajo 1 Union por Entre Rios 1 Proyecto Sur 1 Movimiento Solidaridad Popular 1 Conservador Popular 1 Compromiso con San Juan 1 Libertad y Democracia 1 Chubut somos todos 1 Union celeste y blanco 1 Primero Tucuman 1 Concertacion Forja 1 Salta somos todos 1 Avanzar San Luis 1

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The president and the vice-president are elected together. They can only exert two successive mandates. Since 2001 they are elected directly and not anymore through provincial legislatures. The mandate has been shortened also from 9 to 5 years and the number of senators grew from 48 to 72 (Constitutional reform of 1994, enacted for the 2001 elections). 3 http://www.congreso.gov.ar 2

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Bolivia (República de Bolivia) Capital: La Paz – seat of government (Sucre – capital) Surface: 1.084.390 km² Population: 9.1 million (62% Indians4) Independence: 6 August 1825 Presidential republic divided in 9 departments. Constitution: 2009 Voting System: president & vice-president elected together for 5 years; Legislative: Chamber of Deputies: 68 deputies elected in departmental circumscriptions and 62 in uninominal circumscriptions for 5 years; Senate: 36 senators elected in departmental circumscriptions for 5 years. Executive – President: Evo Morales (2006) - MAS Vice-president: Álvaro García Linera Last elections (12 October 2014) % Evo Morales (Mișcarea către socialism – MAS) 61.3% Samuel Doria Medina (Unitatea naționaă) 24.23% Jorge Quiroga (Partidul Creștin Democrat) 9.04% previous elections (6 December 2009) Evo Morales5 (Alianza para la Refundación de Bolivia MAS – IPSP) 64.22 Manfred Reyes Villa (Plan Progreso para Bolivia – Convergencia Nacional) Samuel Doria Menida (Alianza para el consenso y la unidad nacional) René Joaquino Carlos (Alianza Social) Previous elections (18 December 2005) Evo Morales (Movimiento al Socialismo-MAS)6 Jorge Quiroga (Poder Democrático y Social –PODEMOS)

% 26.46 5.65 2.31 % 53.7 28.5

Legislative: National Congress: Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) 130 – 5 years & Chamber of Senators (Cámara de Senadores) 36 – 5 years (PR) Last elections (12 october 2014) MAS Democratic Unity Christian Democratic Party

Senate

Deputies 25 9 2

88 25 10

(6 December 2009) Deputies Senate Alianza para la Refundación de Bolivia MAS – IPSP 88 26 Plan Progreso para Bolivia – Convergencia Nacional 37 10 Alianza para el consenso y la unidad nacional 3 Alianza Social 2 25 January 2009 Constitutional referéndum: Yes 61%, No 39 % Presidents since the transition Hernán Siles Zuazo (UDP) Victor Paz Estenssoro Jaime Paz Zamora Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MIR) Hugo Banzer Suarez7 Jorge Quiroga Ramírez Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada Carlos Mesa Gisbert Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé

1982-1985 – 3rd mandate 1985-1989 – 4th mandate 1989-1993 1993-1997 1997-2001 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2005 June 2005-January 2006

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In a 2001 census, 62% of the population of more than 15 years identified itself with one of the Indian peoples www.evomorales.net 5 Evo Morales had participated to the preceding elections (2002) and had won: 20,9% of the votes (1,6% behind the victorious Sánchez de Lozada). At the legislative elections of 2002 MAS had won 11.9% (27 deputies and 8 senators). 6 Movimiento Al Socialismo (Evo Morales) http://www.masbolivia.org 7 Ex dictator 1971-1978

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Brazil (República Federativa do Brasil) Capital: Brasilia Surface: 8 514 877 km² (35 times Romania) Population: 201 millions8 Independence: 7 September 1822 (of Portugal) Presidential federal republic9: 26 states and the federal district of Brasilia (27 federal unities) Constitution: 1988 (reformed several times) Voting system (mandatory) President: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds Senators (Federal Senate): uninominal majoritarian in two rounds. Federal deputies (Federal Chamber of deputies): proportional with open lists Governors: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds State deputies (Legislative Assembly of the federated states): proportional with open lists Mayors: uninominal majoritarian in two rounds. Members of the Municipal Chambers (vereadores): proportional with open lists Executive President & Vice-president (4 years)10: Michel Temer (2016) former vice-president took over after Dilma Rousseff was impeached Results of last presidential elections Dilma Rousseff (PT/PMDB) Aecio Neves (PSDB)

(5/26 October 2014) 51.64 % 48.36%

Previous elections (October 2nd/ 31st 2010) Dilma ROUSSEFF (PT) Jose SERRA (PSDB)

56.01% 43.99%

Legislative: National Congress: Chamber of deputies (Câmara dos Deputados) & Federal Senate (Senado Federal) Federal Senate (81 representatives) – 8 years (elections every 4 years for alternatively 1/3 and 2/3 of the seats); 2/3 renewed (or 54 senators) . Chamber of Deputies (513 repr. ) – 4 years – 4 years Coalition of government power to the people PT Workers' Party PMDB Brazilian Democratic Movement Party PSD Social Democrat Party PDT Democratic Labor Party PP Progressive Party PRB Republican Party PROS Republican Party of social order PCdoB Comunist Party Coalition Change Brazil Coalition United for Brazil others

304 70 66 37 19 36 21 11 10 128 53 28

Senate (81) 53

19 7 2

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2000 census: 6%-Blacks and 39% - parda or mulata (black and white blood), mestica or mameluca (white and Indian blood), cafuza (black and Indian blood) or simply Indians. 9 Except for the period 1961-1963 when a parliamentary system was imposed. 10 Through a constitutional amendment in 1997, the president and vice-president can be reelected for a successive mandate for the first time.

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Chile (República de Chile) Capital: Santiago Surface: 748.800 km² Population: 16 million Independence: 18 September 1810 Presidential republic: 15 regions with Easter Island – overseas territory Constitution: 198011 Voting system President: majoritarian with two rounds– mandate of 4 years12 Congress: binominal - Chamber of Deputies: plurinominal vote in binominal circumscriptions & Senate: binominal circumscriptions with a d’Hondt system; half of the representatives are renewed every 4 years. Executive: Président : Michelle Bachelet (2014) Partido Socialista Last presidential elections

1st (17 Nov 2013) %

Michelle Bachelet (Nueva Mayoria) Evelyn Matthei (Alianza)

46.7% 25.03

Previous presidential elections 1st round (11 Dec 2005) % Michelle Bachelet (Concertación) 45.95 Sebastian Piñera (RN) 25.41 Joaquin Lavin (UDI) 23.22

2nd (15 Dec 2013) %

62.1% 37.8 2nd round (15 Jan 2006) % 53.50 46.50

Legislative: National Congress (Congreso Nacional): Chamber of deputies (Cámara de Diputados) and Senate of the Republic (Senado de la República) Chamber of deputies Nueva Mayoria Alianza Independenți Si tu quieres Chile cambia Senate of the Republic Nueva Mayoria Alianza Independenți

(120) 67 49 3 1 (38) 21 16 1

Presidents since the transition (all from Concertacion) Patricio Aylwin 1990-1994 Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle 1994-2000 Ricardo Lagos 2000-2006 Michelle Bachelet 2006-2010

Sebastian Pinera

2010-2014

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Reformed in 1989, 1991, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, and 2005. Through the electoral reform, the presidential mandate was reduced from 6 to 4 years. Reelection for a successive mandate is forbidden.

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Colombia (República de Colombia) Capital: Bogotá Surface: 1.038.700 km² Population: 44.3 million Independence: 20 July 1810 (until 1830 part of Grand Colombia with Venezuela and Ecuador) Presidential republic: 32 departments and 1 capital district Constitution : 1991 Voting system President: majoritarian with two rounds (since 1991)13. Legislative: proportional system Executive: President: Juan Manuel Santos (2010-2014; 2014-2018) 4 years mandate. Vice President Angelino Garzon Last presidential elections (25 May/15 June 2014) Juan Manuel Santos (Partido de la U) Oscar Ivan Zuluaga (Centro Democratico)

50.9% 45%

Previous elections (30 May/20 June 2010) Juan Manuel Santos (U Party) Antanas Mockus (Green Party)

% 69.06% 27.52

Previous presidential elections (21 May 2006) Alvaro Uribe Velez (Primero Colombia) Carlos Gaviria Díaz (Polo Democrático Alternartivo) Horacio Serpe Uribe (Partido Liberal Colombiano)

% 62 22 11

Legislative: Bicameral Congress (Congreso) elected for 4 years: Chamber of representatives (Cámara de Representantes) and Senate of the Republic (Senado de la República) Last elections (14 March 2010) Senate (102) Chamber of Representatives (163) U Party (Social National Unity Party) 21 39 Democratic Center 20 12 PC (Partido Conservador Colombiano) 18 27 PL (Partido Liberal de Colombia ) 17 37 PCR (PRadical Change) 9 16 Green Party 5 6 Citizenship Option 6 PDA (Alternative Democratic Pole) 3 Pour un Huila Mejor 1 Movimiento Independiente de Renovacion Absoluta Green Party 3 other parties 13

List of the presidents since the end of the National Front in 1974

Alfonso López Michelsen (PL) Julio Cesar Turbay Ayala (PL) Belisario Betancur (PC) Virgilio Barco Vargas (PL) César Gaviria Trujillo (PL) Ernesto Samper Pizano (PL) Andrés Pastrana Arango (NFD) Alvaro Uribe (Primero Columbia)

1974-1978 1978-1982 1982-1986 1986-1990 1990-1994 1994-1998 1998-2002 2002-2010

FARC (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia) http://www.farcep.org

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Until 2006 when the president Uribe modified the Constitution so that he can be reelected for a 2nd mandate, immediate reelection was forbidden.

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Costa Rica (República de Costa Rica) Capital: San José Surface: 50.660 km² Population: 4 million14 Independence: 15 September 1821. Presidential republic divided in 7 provinces Constitution: 1949 (modified) Voting system: Presidential – TRS; if one of the candidates gets 40% he wins from 1st round Legislative: PR with blocked lists and a minimum of 40% women candidates (from 1999) Executive: President: Luis Guillermo Solis (2014) (PAC); 2 vice-presidents. They are elected together for 4 years15. Last elections (2 Feb/6 April 2014) Luis Guillermo Solis (PAC) 77% Johnny Araya (PLN) 22% Previous election (7 February 2010) % Laura Chinchilla (PLN) 46.76 Otto Solis (PAC) 25.16 Otto Guevara Guth (PML) 20.8 Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Lgislativa) has 57 members elected for 4 years. Last Elections – 7 February 2010 – no preliminary results yet Previous elections (2 February 2014) 57 Partido Liberación Nacional PLN 18 Partido Acción Ciudadana PAC 13 Movimiento Libertario 4 Partido de Unidad Socialcristiana PUSC 8

Partido Frente Amplio Partido Restauración Nacional Partido Accesibilidad sin Exclusion Alianza Democrata Cristiana Renovaccion Costarricense R

9 1 1 1 2

14 electoral cycles since the Ulate-Figueres pacts of 1948 Luis Rafael Otilio Ulate Blanco 1949-1953 José Figueres Ferrer 1953-1958 Mario Echandi Bolmarcich (PLN) 1962-1966 José Joaquín Trejos Fernandez (PLN) 1966-1970 José Figueres Ferrer (PLN) 1970-1974 Daniel Oduber Quirós (PLN) 1974-1978 Rodrigo Alberto Carazi Odio (PUSC) 1978-1982 Luis Alberto Monge Alvarez (PLN) 1982-1986 Oscar Arias Sánchez (PLN) 1986-1990 Rafael Angel Calderón Fournier (PUSC) 1990-1994 José María Figueres Olsen16 (PLN) 1994-1998 Miguel Angel Rodríguez Echeverria (PUSC) 1998-2002 Abel Pacheco de la Espriella (PUSC) 2002-2006 Oscar Arias (PLN) 2006-2010

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Indigenous population: 1% of the total population. Between 1969 and 2003 the constitution forbade the candidacy of an ex-president or vice-president (art. 132). The article was modified April 4th, 2003 so as to allow the candidacy of Oscar Arias for a new presidential mandate. Still no possibility to run for a successive mandate. 16 The son of José Figueres Ferrer. 15

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Cuba (República de Cuba) Capital: Havana Surface: 110. 860 km² Population: 11.4 million Independence: 20 May 1902 (from Spain in 1898 and administered by US 1898-1902) Republic divided in 14 provinces and a municipality (Havana). Constitution: 1976 (reforms: 1992 and 2002)17 Suffrage: universal (16 years) Executive18 (http://www.cubagob.cu) President of the Council of State (Consejo de Estado) and of the Council of ministers: Raúl Castro (2006)19 First vice-president of the Council of State and of the Council of ministers: Miguel Diaz-Canel Bermudez

Council of Ministers proposed by the president of the Council of State and nominated by the National assembly or by the Council of State of 31 members. Elections: the president and the vice-president elected by the National Assembly for 5 years. Only two mandates allowed. Last elections – February 2013: Raul Castro elected president – 100% Legislative (http://www.parlamentocubano.cu) National Assembly of Popular Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular) has 614 members elected for 5 years through a list of municipal delegates of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) Legislative elections in Cuba 1993 – elected deputies – 589 1998 – elected deputies – 601 2003 – elected deputies – 60920 2008 - elected deputies - 614 2013 – elected deputies - 612 Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) http://www.pcc.cu/pccweb/ Youth Communist Union (Union de jovenes comunistas – UJC) Defense committees of the revolution (Comités de Defensa de la Revolución – CDR)

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http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Cuba/cuba2002.html http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Executive/Cuba/cabinet.html 19 Fidel Castro transfered power to his brother Raul, July 31, 2006. Before that date Fidel had held power since 1959. 20 http://www.parlamentocubano.cu/ 18

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Dominican Republic (República Dominicana) Capital: Santo Domingo Surface: 48.380 km² Population: 9.3 million (Mulattoes 73%, White 16%, Blacks 11%) Independence: 27 February 1844 (of Haiti) Presidential Republic divided in 31 provinces and 1 district. Constitution: 1966 (reformed in 2002)21 Universal mandatory suffrage 22

Executive: - President: Danilo Medina (2012-2016; 2016-2020) PLD Vice-president: Margarita Cedeno de Fernandez (2012) PLD

President and vice-president are elected together for 4 years. They can be reelected for a successive mandate. Last elections (15 May 2016) Danilo Medina – PLD 61.74% Luis Abinader – PRM 34.98% precedent elections (20 May 2012) Danilo Medina - Partido de la Liberación Dominicana Hipolito Mejia - Partido Revolucionario Dominicana

% 51.21% 46.95

Legislative: Bicameral congress: Chamber of deputies (Cámara de Diputados)23 with 178 members, elected for 4 years (PR in each province) and Senate (Senado)24 with 32 members, elected for 4 years. Last elections (20 May 2012) Chamber of deputies and Senate Dominican Liberation Party (PLD) Dominican Revolutionary Party (PRD) Social Christian Reformist Party (PRSC)

178 32 105 31 75 3 1

21

http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/DomRep/domrep02.html http://www.presidencia.gov.do 23 http://www.camaradediputados.gov.do/portalsilcamara 24 http://www.senado.gov.do/PortalSILSenado 22

17

Ecuador (República del Ecuador) Capital: Quito Surface: 276.840 km² Population: 13.7 million (mestizo : 65% Indians : 25%) Independence: 24 May 1822 (until 1830, part of Grand Colombia with Colombia and Venezuela) Presidential republic divided in 22 provinces Constitution: 2008 Voting system: President & vice-president elected for 4 years – majoritarian vote with two rounds. Legislative: the most complicated voting system in the world which mixes list voting and uninominal. The reform of the voting system is debated. Mandatory vote (+ 18 years, facultative for illiterate persons and +65 years) (art. 27.Constitution of 1998) Executive - President: Rafael Correa (2007) – 4 years & Vice-president: Lenín Moreno. Since the 2008 constitutional amendment the president can seek immediate reelection. Last presidential elections 17 februarie 2013 Rafael Correa (Alianza País) Guillermo Lasso (CREO) Lucio Gutierrez (Partido Sociedad Patriótica 21 de Enero)

% 57.17 22.68 6.73

Legislative: National Assembly of Ecuador (2009) 137 members for 4 years Last legislative elections (17 Feb 2013) 137 Alianza PAIS 100 CREO 11 Partido Sociedad Patriótica 21 de Enero 5 Partido Social Cristiano 6 Unidad Plurinacinal de las Izquierdas 5 Partido Roldosista Renovador Ecuatoriano Institucional de Acción Nacional 1 SUMA 1 Movimiento Popular Democrático Partido Avanza 5 Accion regional por la Equidad 1 Integracion democratica de Carchi 1 MPC MPCNG 1 NG Constitutional reform 15 April 2007 – referendum on the organization of a Constituent Assembly 29 November 2007 – the Constituent Assembly dissolves Congress and assumes legislative power 29 September 2008 - the new constitution was approved by referendum (Yes – 64%) Presidents since 197925: Jaime Roldos (1979-1981)26 Osvaldo Hurtado (1981-1984) León Febres Cordero (1984-1988) Rodrigo Borja (1988-1992) Sixto Alfonso Durán-Ballén (1992-1996) Abdalá Jaime Bucaram Ortiz27 (1996-Feb. 1997) Fabian Alarcon (6-9 Feb 1997) Rosalia Arteaga Serrano (9-11 Feb 1997) Fabian Alarcon (11 Feb 1997 – 10 Aug. 1998) Jamil Mahuad28 (1998-2000) Coup d’etat in Jan 2000: Junta de salvacion nacional 21-22 Jan. 2000; Gustavo Noboa29 (22 Jan 2000 – Jan 2003) Lucio Gutierrez (2003-2005) April 2005 – coup d’état Alfredo Palacio (2005-2006)

25

Military regime: 1972-1979 (General Rodriguez Lara 1972-6). Since 1996, 7 presidents succeeded. The 3 presidents elected: Abdala Bucaram, Jamil Mahuad and Lucio Gutiérrez did not finish their mandates. To Abdalá Bucaram succeeded his vice president revoked in ten days by a Constitutive assembly led by Fabián Alarcón. Gustavo Noboa, as vice president, succeeded to Mahuad in January 2000 following the coup d’état of January 21st led by the colonel Lucio Gutiérrez, elected in 2002 to the presidency. www.observatorio2006.org 26 Mort dans un accident d’avion: son vice-président Hurtado assuma le mandat. 27 Deposed by Congress in 1997 for “mental incapacity”. 28 Deposed by an alliance of Indian organizations and army 21 January 2000. 29 The vice-president of Mahuad.

18

El Salvador (República de El Salvador) Capital: San Salvador Surface: 20.720 km² Population: 6.8 million (mestizo 90%, White 9%, Indian 1%) Independence: 1821 (of Spain); 1839 (of the Central-American Federation) Presidential Republic divided in 14 departments. Constitution: 1983 Executive: President: Sanchez Ceren (FMLN) (2014-2019) Vice president: Oscar Ortiz Last elections (2 feb/9 March 2014) Sanchez Ceren (FMLN) 50% Norman Quijano (ARENA) 49.8% Previous elections (15 March 2009) Mauricio Funes (FMLN) Rodrigo Avila (ARENA)

51.3 48.6

Previous elections (21 March 2004) Antonio Elías "Tony" Saca - ARENA Schafik Jorge Handal – FMLN Héctor Silva Argüello – CDU-PDU José Rafael Machuca Zelaya – PCN

57.7 35.6 3.9 2.7

Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) 84 members elected for 3 years Last elections (10 March January 2012) Partido Farabundo Marti para la Liberacion NacionalAlianza FMLN Republicana Nacionalista- ARENA Grande Alianza por Unidad Nacional - GRAN Concertacion Nacional Partido de la Esperanza Cambio Democratico - CD

84 31 33 11 7 1 1

Historical reminder Since the 1930s the military were in power Between 1979 and 1990 civil war interrupted by brief returns to electoral competitions. The FMLN, now in Parliament, was the main guerilla formation in the 80s.

19

Guatemala (República de Guatemala) Capital: Ciudad de Guatemala Surface: 108.430 km² Population: 12.7 million (mestizo & European 59.4%; K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Maya 8.6%, Indians non-Mayas 0.2%)30 Independence: 15 September 1821 Presidential republic divided in 22 departments Constitution: 1985 (reforms in 1993) Executive: President: Jimmy Morales (2015); Vice-president: Jafeth Cabrera Franco Elected together for a 4 year mandate. The president cannot have two successive mandates. Last elections (1st tour, 6 September and 2nd tour, 25 Oct. 2015) Jimmy Morales – Frente Convergencia Nacional 23.85% Sandra Torres – UNE 19.76 Manuel Baldizon – Lider 19.64

65.48% 34.52%

Legislative: Republic Congress (Congreso de la República) 158 members elected for 4 years. Last legislative elections (6 sept. 2015) Libertad Democratica Renovada (Lider) Unidad Nacional de la Esperanza (UNE) Todos Partido Patriota (PP) Frente Convergencia Nacional

seats 44 36 18 17 11

Encuentro por Guatemala (EG)

7

Union del Cambio Nacional UCN Compromiso Renovacion y orden (Creo) Vision con Valores (Viva) Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca URNG Convergencia Partido de Avanzada Nacional PAN

6 5 5 3 3 3

End of the civil war of 30 years in 1996 (1960-1996) through the Peace Agreements between the government and URNG.

30

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gt.html

20

Haiti (République d'Haïti/Republik d’Ayti) Capital: Port-au-Prince Surface: 27.560 km² Population: 8.7 million (Black 95%, White and mestizo 5%) Independence: 1 January 1804 (of France) Official languages: French & Creole French Presidential republic divided in 10 departments Constitution: 1987 – abrogated several times: return to constitutional order in 2006. Voting system: President: majoritarian for 5 years (cannot be reelected); Legislative: majoritarian in two rounds. Executive: President (5 years): Jovenel Moise Prime Minister : Enex Jean-Charles Former president : Michel Martelly (2011-2016) Last presidental elections : 1st round (25 oct 2015), 2nd round annulled & to be held on 28 April 2016 Jovenel Moise (Tet Kale) 32.81% Jude Celestin (Ligue Alternative pour le Progres et l’Emancipation haitienne) 25.27 + other 55 candidates Legislative: National Assembly: Chamber of Deputies (99) – 4 years; Senate (30) – 6 years, 1/3 renewable every 2 years Last legislative elections (1st round 15 august – many annulled this first round, 2nd Round 25 Oct 2015, 2nd round for those that annulled the 1st round in August and held it in October – 24 April 2016) Historical reminder 1957 -1986 Duvalier dynasty: Francois (1957-71) and Jean-Claude (Baby Doc) 1971-86 1990 democratic regime inaugurated 1990 – 1991 Jean Bertrand Aristide, ousted 1994 occupation force of the US 1994-6 Aristide back in office 1996-2000 René Préval 2000-2004 Aristide 2004-2006 US Marines 2006-2011 René Préval; certain restabilization January 2010 earthquake (316.000 dead, over 1 mln homeless)

21

Honduras (República de Honduras) Capital: Tegucigalpa Surface: 111.890 km². Population: 7.4 million (mestizo 90%, Indian 7%, Black 1%) Independence: 15 September 1821 Presidential republic: 18 departments Constitution: 1982 Mandatory universal suffrage for over 18 years old Voting system: President: simple majority; Legislative: PR Executive: President: Juan Orlando Hernandez (PN) - 4 years mandate Vice Presidents (3): Ricardo Antonio Alvarez Ariasș Ana Rossana Guevara Pintos Lorena Enriqueta Herrera Estevez. Last elections (24 November 2013) Juan Orlando Hernandez (Partido Nacional) Xiomara Castro de Zelaya (LIBRE)

36.89% 28.76%

Legislative: Unicameral national congress (128 members elected for 4 years - PR). Last elections (24 November 2013) Partido Nacional de Honduras - PN

128 48

Partido Liberal de Honduras – PL Libertad y Refundacion PLR Partido Anti Corupcion PAC Partido Innovación y Unidad PINU Partido de Unificación Democrática UD Partido Demócrata Cristiano de Honduras DC

27 37 13 1 1 1

Presidents democratically elected since the transition of 1981 Roberto Suazo Cordoba (PL) 1982-1986 José Azcona Hoyo (PL) 1986-1990 Rafael Leonardo Callejas (PN) 1990-1994 Carlos Roberto Reina (PL) 1994-1998 Carlos Roberto Flores Facusse (PL) 1998-2002 Ricardo Maduro Joest (PN) 2002-2006 Manuel Zelaya Rosales (PL) 2006-2009 Porfirio Lobo (PN) 2009-2013 The former president, Manuel Zelaya Rosales (2006-2009) PL was ousted in a coup 28 June 2009 led by the Congress. The President of Congress, Roberto Micheletti assumed the interim presidency.

22

Mexico (Estados Unidos Mexicanos) Capital: Ciudad de México Surface: 1.923.040 km² Population: 108.7 million (mestizo 60%, Indian 30%, White 9%) Independence: 16 September 1810 (of Spain) recognized in 1821 Presidential federal republic divided in 31 States and 1 federal district Constitution: 1917 Voting system31 President: elected with simple majority (1 round) Chamber of Deputies: 300 representatives in uninominal circumscriptions and 200 members elected by PR in plurinominal circumscriptions Chamber of Senators: 96 in trinominal circumscriptions and 32 through PR Executive: President (6 years32): Enrique Pena Nieto (2012) PRI Legislative: Union Congress (Congreso de la Unión): Chamber of Deputies (Cámara Federal de Diputados) – 500 members for 3 years Chamber of Senators (Cámara de Senadores) – 128 members elected for 6 years

Last presidential elections (1 July 2012) Enrique Peňa Nieto (PRI) Josefina Vazquez Mota (PAN) Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (PRD) Last legislative elections (1 July 2012)34 PRI PAN PRD PVEM PT Nueva Alianza Movimiento Ciudadano

38.2 % 25.4 % 31.533 % Chamber of Deputies 207 114 101 33 19 10 16

Main political parties Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) Partido Acción Nacional (PAN) Partido de la Revolución Democrática (PRD)

Chamber of Senators 52 38 22 9 4 1 2

1929-2000 in government

31

Voting is mandatory The president cannot be reelected. Senators and deputies cannot be reelected for a successive mandate. 33 La alegerile precedente, diferenţa ȋntre cei 2 candidaţi, Calderón şi Obrador a fost de 0.56 (sau 233.831 de voturi). Vezi decizia Tribunal Electoral del Poder Judicial de la Federación du 5 septembre 2006 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/142535.html 34 Mandate 32

23

Nicaragua (República de Nicaragua) Capital: Managua Surface: 120.254 km² Population: 5.6 million (Mestizo 69%, White 17%, Black 9%, Indian 5%) Independence: 15 September 1821 Presidential republic divided in 15 departments and 2 autonomous regions (Atlantico Nord and Atlantico Sur). Voting system: president & vice-president elected together for 5 years (one round, the candidate that obtains 45% or at least 35% with a difference of 5% of the following candidate); legislative: vote proportional (PR). Since 2014 the president can be elected without any term limits. Constitution: 1987 Executive - President: Daniel Ortega (2007-2012; 2012-2017; 2017-22) Vice-president: Rosario Murrillo (wife, since 2017) Last elections (6 November 2016)

Daniel Ortega FSLN 72.4% Maximiliano Rodriguez Martinez PLC 15.03%

Last elections (6 November 2011) Daniel Ortega FSLN Fabio Gadea Partido Liberal Independiente Arnold Aleman PLC

62% 31.1% 5.6%

Preceding elections (5 November 2006) Daniel Ortega FSLN Eduardo Montealegre Rivas ALN José Rizo Castellon PLC Edmundo Jarquin Calderon MRS Eden Atanacio Pastora Gomez AC

38% 29% 26% 6.4% 0.2%

Legislative: National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) – 9435 members for 5 years Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional FSLN 62 Alianza Liberal Independiente 26 Partido Liberal Constitucionalista PLC 2 Historical reminder 1936 – 1979 Somoza « dynasty »36 1979 – 1990 FSLN37 government (Sandinist Front of National Liberation) Presidents since the transition in 1990 Violeta Barrios Torres de Chamorro (UNO) José Arnoldo Alemán Lacayo (PLC) Enrique Bolaños Geyer (PLC)

1990-1997 1997-2002 2002-2007

35

20 deputies elected in national circumscriptions and 70 in departmental circumscriptions and autonomous regions. Are part of the Assembly the ex-president and ex-vice-president as well as the candidates for the posts of president and vice-president that came second at the last elections http://www.asamblea.gob.ni 36 Anastasio Somoza García 1937-1947, 1950-1951 et 1951-1956 (assassinated). Luis A. Somoza Debayle 1956-1957 after the death of his father and then elected : 1957-1963 et Anastasio Somoza Debayle 1967-1972 ; 1974-1979. 37 www.fsln-nicaragua.com/

24

Panama (República de Panamá) Capital: Ciudad de Panamá Surface: 75.990 km² Population: 3.2 million (mestizo 70%, Indian 20%, White, 10%) Independence: 1903 (of Colombia)38 Presidential republic divided in 9 provinces and 1 territory Constitution: 1972 (reformed in 1978, 1983, 1994, and 2004) Voting system: President: majority. Legislative: mixed (majority and PR) Executive: President: Juan Carlos Varela (2014) PAN 1st vice-president: Isabel Saint Malo Elected together for 5 years and cannot be reelected immediately (must wait 10 years). Last elections (4 May 2014) % 39.1 Juan Carlos Varela (Partido Panamenista) Jose Domingo Arias (Cambio Democratico) 31.4 Juan Carlos Navaroo (PRevolucionario Democratico) 28.1 Previous elections (3 May 2009) Ricardo Martinelli (Alianza por el cambio) Balbina Herrera (Un país para todos) Previous elections (2 May 2004) Martín Erasto Torrijos Espino39 (PRD) Guilleromo Endara- Solidaridad José Miguel Aléman - Partido Arnulfista

59.97% 37.7 % 47 30 10

Legislative: Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) – 71 members elected for 5 years Last elections (2014) 71 Partido Revolucionario Democrática PRD Cambio Democrático CD Partido Panameñista PAN Movimiento Liberal Republicano Nacionalista – Molirena Partido Popular PP Independenţi

25 20 12 2 1 1

Presidents since the fall of Noriega in december 1989 Guillermo Endara Galimany (ADOC40) 1989-1994 Ernesto Pérez Balladares (PRD) 1994-1999 Mireya Moscoso (PA) 1999-2004 Martín Torrijos Espino (PRD) 2004-2008 The Panama Channel 15 aug 1914: Inauguration of the Panama channel 20 dec 1989: the US invades the country and deposes the general Manuel Noriega. 31 dec 1999: the channel is given to Panama. During this time, the US reserves the right to intervene militarily any time so as to “guarantee the neutrality of the Channel”. + since the 1994 constitutional reform (Art 305) Panama has no army 38

Panama won its independence from Spain and joined in 1822 Grand Colombia de Simón Bolívar. Son of the ex dictator Omar Torrijos (1968-1981) 40 Elected in may 1989 from the ADOC - Alianza de Partidos Políticos de Oposición. 39

25

Paraguay (República de Paraguay/Tetâ Paraguay) Capital: Asunción Surface: 397.300 km² Population: 6.6 million (mestizo 95%, others 5%) Official languages: Spanish & Guaraní Independence: 14 May 1811 (of Spain) Presidential republic divided in 17 departments and the capital Constitution: 1992 Voting system: President: majoritarian in two rounds; Legislative: PR with lists Suffrage: 18 years, universal and mandatory (until75 years) Executive: President (5 years): Horacio Cartes (2013) PC , Vice-president: Juan Afara Elected together for only one mandate of 5 years Last presidential elections (21 April 2013)

%

Horacio Cartes (Partido Colorado) Fernando Lugo(Alianza (Alianza Patriótica para el Cambio - APC) Efrain Alegre Paraguay) Mario Ferrero (Avanza Pais) Anibal Carrillo (Frente Guasu)

45.83 % 36.9 5.8 3.3

Legislative – National Congress (Congreso Nacional) : Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) - 80 for 5 years (PR) Chamber of Senators (Cámara de Senadores) 45 for 5 years (PR) Last legislative elections (21 April 2013) Asociación Nacional Republicana/Partido Colorado (ANR) Partido Liberal Radical Auténtico (PLRA) Unión Nacional de Ciudadanos Éticos (UNACE) Frente Guasu

80 45 26 2 1

45 19 13 2 5

Avanza Pais Partido Encuentro Nacional Pasion Chaquena Alliance Patria Querida PPQ

2 2 1 1

2 1 -

Partido Democratico Progresista

-

3

Presidents elected since the fall of Stroessner (1954-1989) Général Andrés Rodríguez Pedotti41 (PC) Juan Carlos Wasmosy Monti (PC) Raúl Cubas Grau (ANR-PC) Luis Angel González Macchi42 (ANR-PC) Nicanor Duarte Frutos (ANR-PC) Fernando Lugo

1989-1993 1993-1998 1998-1999 1999-2003 2003-2008 2008-2012 – evicted from power by the Parliament in a coup.

41

Stroessner’s son in law he takes power after the coup d’état of February 3 1989 and is elected 1 may 1989. 42 The president of the Chamber of Senators who assumed power after president Cubas left.

26

Peru (República del Perú) Capital: Lima Surface: 1.285.220 km ² Population: 28.6 million (Indian 45%, White 15%, Black, Japanese, Chinese and other 3%) Official languages: Spanish & Quechua Independence: 28 July 1821 (of Spain) Presidential republic divided in 25 regions and a province – Lima. Constitution: 1993 Voting system: president: majoritarian in two rounds + 2 vice-presidents elected together for a mandate of 5 years and can be reelected but not immediately; legislative – preferential vote – one national circumscription, d’Hondt formula Suffrage: 18 years universal and mandatory (until 70 years) Executive: President P e d r o P a b l o K u c z y n s k i (2016) – 5 years Vice-presidents: Martin Vizcarra, Mercedes Aráoz Last elections Pedro Pablo Kuczynski

PPK

Keiko Fujimori - Fuerza Popular

10 April & 5 June 2016 21.05 50.12%

39.87

Last presidential elections (10 April & 5 June 2011) Ollanta Humala (Alianza Gana Peru) Keiko Fujimori (Fuerza 2011)

49.88% 1st %

2nd %

31

51

23

48

Legislative: Congress of the Republic (Congreso de la República) 120 members for 5 years (PR).

72 Fuerza Popular 20 Frente Amplio 18 Peruanos Por el Kambio 9 Alianza Para el Progreso 5 Acción Popular 5 APRA 4

Presidents since 198043 Fernando Belaunde Terry Alan García Pérez Alberto Fujimori45 Valentín Paniagua Alejandro Toledo Alan García Pérez

1980-198544 1985-1990 1990-2000 2000-2001 2001-2006 2006-2011

43

1968-1980 military government First mandate 1963-1968 45 At the 1990 elections Fujimori won face to the writer Mario Vargas Llosa. 44

27

Uruguay (República Oriental del Uruguay) Capital: Montevideo Surface: 173.620 km² Population: 3.4 million (White 88%, mestizo 8%, and black 4%) Independence: 25 August 1825 (of Brazil) Languages: Spanish and Portunol (Spanish with Portuguese spoken at the Brazilian frontier) Presidential republic divided in 19 departments Constitution: 1966 (reforms in 1989 and 1997) Voting system President: majoritarian in two rounds (since 1996) Legislative: PR with blocked lists using Double Simultaneous Vote Suffrage: 18 years, universal and mandatory Executive: President: Tabare Vazquez (March 2015) – FA Vice-president: - Raul Sendic. Elected together for 5 years Last presidential elections (2014)

%

%

Tabaré Vázquez (Broad Front - FA)

49

56

Louis Alberto Lacalle Pou (PN)

31

43

Previous elections (1st: 25 Oct 2009 2nd: 29 Nov 2009) José Mujica (Frente Amplio) Luis Alberto Lacalle (PN) Pedro Bordaberry46 (PC)

% 47.9 29 17

Previous presidential elections (31 October 2004)

% 52.3 43 %

Tabaré Ramón Vázquez Rosas (FA-EP-NM) Jorge Larrañaga (Partido Nacional-Blancos) Jorge Luis Batlle Ibáñez (Partido Colorado)

50.5 35.1 10.3

Legislative: General Assembly (Asamblea General): Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) and Chamber of Senators (Cámara de Senadores) Chamber of Deputies (99) 5 years PR Chamber of Senators (31) 5 years PR – 30 senators + the vice-president who presides Last legislative elections (25 October 2009)

99 31

Frente Amplio Partido Nacional-Blancos – PN Partido Colorado – PC Partido Independiente – PI

50 16 30 9 17 5 2

47

Presidents since the transition Julio María Sanguinetti (Colorado) Luis Alberto Lacalle (Blanco) Julio María Sanguinetti (Colorado) Jorge Batlle (Colorado) Tabaré Vázquez (Frente Amplio)

1985-1990 1990-1995 1995-2000 2000-2005 2005-2010

46

Son of former dictator Juan Maria Bordaberry (1973-1976) FA is formed of: Asamblea Uruguay – AU; Confluencia Frenteamplio – CFA; Corriente 78 – C78; Movimiento de Participación Popular – MPP; Partido Demócrata; Cristiano del Uruguay – PDCU; Partido Comunista del Uruguay – PCU; Partido de los Comunes – PdlC; Partido Socialista del Uruguay – PSU; Vertiente Artiguista - VA

47

28

Venezuela (República Bolivariana de Venezuela) Capital: Caracas Surface: 882.050 km² Population: 26 million Independence: 5 July 1811 (until 1830 part of Grand Colombia with Columbia and Ecuador) Presidential federal republic: 23 states and a federal district with a federal dependency Constitution: 1999 Voting system: president (6 years, can be reelected once) – majoritarian with 1 round; legislative: PR, 5 years (renewable twice) Executive: President - Nicolas Maduro (2013) Vice-president: Jorge Alberto Arreaza (2013) – named by the president.6 year term with no limitations to reelection. Last elections (14 April 2013) Nicolas Maduro (PSUV) Henrique Capriles (MUD)

% 50.6% 49.1

Last election of Chavez (7 October 2012) Hugo Rafael Chávez Fríaz (Gran Polo Patriotico) Henrique Capriles (MUD)

% 55 44

Legislative: National Assembly (Asamblea Nacional) – 16748 members with a 5 years mandate Last elections (6 December 2015) Democratic Unity Roundtable (MUD) Great Patriotic Pole Indigenous seats

109 55 3

Previous elections (September 2010)

167

PSUV (Partido Socialista Unido de Venezuela)

96

MUD (Mesa de la Unidad democratica) PPT (Patria Para Todos)

64 2

Chronology Hugo Chavez 4 Feb. 1992 – missed coup of Chavez 6 Dec. 1998 – he is elected president 15 Dec. 1999 - referendum on the new Constitution 30 July 2000 - reelected 12 April 2002 – missed coup against him 15 August 2004 - Referendum for his revocation (59% against) 3 Dec. 2006 – reelected for a new mandate of 6 years December 2007 – referendum for the Constitutional reform (eliminate term limits) – 51 % No 15 February 2009 – the same referendum was approved (54% Yes)

48

3 seats reserved to Indians.

29

The most important regional organizations

ALBA Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas CAN Andean Community of Nations (Andean Pact 1969-1996) MERCOSUR Southern Common Market

2004

6

1996

4

1991

5/10

Planned for 2005 replaced by FTAs 1994

34

Cuba, Venezuela, Bolivia, Nicaragua, Honduras and Dominica. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru (until recently also Venezuela) Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, Venezuela (associated countries: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru) The same as OAS without Cuba

3

Canada, United States, Mexico

2004

6

UNASUR Union of South American Nations (project not yet approved by all countries ) OAS Organization of American States

2008

12

1948

35

SICA Central American system of integration

1991

7

CARICOM Caribbean Community

1973

15

Costa Rica, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, Dominican Republic The member countries of MERCOSUR and CAN with Chile, Guyana and Suriname (=the 12 countries of South America) (1948) Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Chile, Ecuador, El Salvador, United States, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic, Uruguay, Venezuela. Have also joined: Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Grenada, Suriname, Dominica, St Lucia, Antigua and Barbuda, St Vincent and Grenadines, Bahamas, St Kitts and Nevis, Canada, Belize and Guyana. Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama and Belize (Dominican Republic is an associated state and Mexico has the statute of regional observer) Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St Lucia, St. Kitts and Nevis, St. Vincent and Grenadine, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago. (associated states: Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos Islands)

FTAA Free Trade Area of the Americas (project to extend NAFTA) NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement CAFTA – DR - US

30

31

The discovery of Latin America49 The discovery voyages of Christopher Columbus 1. The first journey 3 august 1492: the discovery of America: October 12 149250 (Columbus is admiral and vice-king & perpetual governor of the lands he discovers accordingly to the capitulaciones signed with the Kings in Santa Fe) - He discovers Bahamas, Cuba and Santo-Domingo - He is ennobled and is officially named Admiral of the Oceanic Sea and Viceking General Governor of the Indies. nd 2. 2 journey of confirmation (25 October 1493) Treaty of Tordesillas (7 June 1494): draw a line between the two poles (a parallel was changed for a meridian saving thus the localization of what Columbus already discovered: Portugal had thus open road to the Indies and for Castile this guaranteed that what Columbus discovered remained under its property). The line of demarcation was fixed at 370 leagues west from the Cap Vert between the lands attributable to the two countries. The Portuguese colonize then Africa, China and India whereas the Spanish seize the Americas. 3. the 3rd journey (30 May - 31 August 1498) the letter – narration of Columbus of this voyage is among the most important as it includes among others: a new vision of the Earth, a new geodesic order replacing that of Ptolemy, the explanation and placement of terrestrial paradise (on the coast of Venezuela)51. Francisco de Bobadilla is appointed replacing governor (21 May 1499) and arrives in Santo Domingo 23 August 1500. Columbus returns in Spain and is imprisoned and then liberated by the kings; follows a period of two years of processes with the Crown before the last voyage of 1502. 4. 4th and last journey of Columbus: 1502. He leaves as an explorer and docks in Panama where he finds gold. Juan de Fonseca was responsible of the discoveries (1499-1509) after the dishonor of Columbus following his 3rd voyage. He will be in charge of the discoveries of the terra firma (Isthmus of Panama).52 1. The voyage of Alonso de Ojeda, Juan de la Cosa and Américo Vespucio (30 May 1499). 2. The voyage of Cristóbal Guerra et Alonso Niño (June 1499) 3. The voyage of Vicente and Añez Pinzón (December 1499): discover Brazil which they called el Rostro Hermoso (The beautiful face) (24 January 1500)53. 4. The voyage of Diego de Lepe (January 1500) who discovers a part of the Brazilian coast.

49

Sources: Jesús Varela Marcos, “Los descubrimientos españoles en el Nuevo Mundo” in Juan B. Amores Carredano (ed.), Historía de América (Barcelona: Ariel, 2006), pp.165-215. 50 At that date Columbus and his people dock on the island of Guanahami in the Bahamas, which they call San Salvador (the sacred flavor). 51 He calls Indians slaves and Queen Isabel imprisons him, he loses then his title as Vice-king but keeps that of Admiral. 52 The discovery of the new continent was represented in the painting of the map of Juan de la Casa of 1500. In 1507 a first book called for the first time the New World based on the book “Mondus Novus” of Américo Vespucio. 53 Varela Marcos, p. 193

32

5. The voyage of Pedro Alvarez Cabral (March 1500) – the history of the Brazilian nation begins with the expedition of Cabral who discovers the new land of “Vera Cruz” 6. The voyage of Alonso Vélez de Mendoza and Luis Guerra (September 1500) is marked politically by the Portuguese discovery of Cabral. 7. The voyage of Rodrigo de Bastidas and Juan de la Cosa (July 1501). 8. The “high voyage” of Christopher Columbus (9 May 1502). His mission was to make the tour of the world and his legal situation was similar with that of the discoverers with a contract or capitulaciones. 9. The voyage of de Juan Díaz de Solís-Vicente and Añez Pinzón (1508-1509). This expedition had magnificent geographic and cartographic results prolonging with 300 leagues to the north what was known but was disastrous from a geopolitical point of view. The great conquests: from the Caribbean to the Pacific54 1. The first nucleus of expansion: from the Caribbean islands and more precisely La Española (Santo Domingo): between 1492-1528 the expeditions are directed to the islands (Puerto Rico, Jamaica and Cuba) and after to the Terra Firma where is founded Santa María la Antigua del Darién, creating the Government of Castilla del Oro from where will follow the expansion to Mexico and the north of Venezuela. 2. A second nucleus of expansion is constituted of Panamá between 1509 and 1519. From here the Spanish influence extends to the north to the close territories of Central America; the South Sea was discovered and they arrived to Peru. 3. Once conquered the capital (Tenochtitlan) of the Aztec empire (Mexico) it became the capital of the first vice-royalty (New Spain). From here they leave for Central America and the rest of the northern territory of Mexico as well as most part of the South of the US. 4. Once submitted the Inca Empire, Peru 1532-1535 constituted the 4th nucleus of continental expansion. From there they arrived to the north, to the kingdom of Quito and the New Grenade and, to the south, is covered what will be the High Peru and most part of the nowadays Chile (up to the frontier of the river Bio-Bio). 5. Other expansive secondary centers55: the island of Cuba (to Florida), Quito (to the Amazon), Asunción (to Río de la Plata and all the South-East coast of the Andes). The great conquerors Mexico – Hernando Cortés (1519-1521) Peru – Francisco Pizarro (1524-1532) Chile – Pedro de Valdivia (1535-1540)

[Aztec - Tenochtitlan – Montezuma] [Inca - Tawantinsuyu – Atahualpa]

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Ibid., p. 215 Mexico (1519-1521), Santo Domingo (1492-1528), Cuba (1511), Peru (1532-1535), Asunción (1537), Central America (1523-1525), Venezuela (1520), Bogota (1538), Quito (1534), Santiago (1541), Buenos Aires (1536-1580), Rio de Janeiro (1555), Santa Fe (1609).

55

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Colonial administration of Latin America56 During the 16th and 17th c. two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Nueva España 1535) and Peru (1543) – included all the territories South of Panamá. They were rejoined at the administrative level by the Audiencia of Hispaniola (Santo Domingo). García-Gallo established the following stages (juridical-institutional nature): 1. viceroyalty of Christopher Columbus (1492-1499) 2. system of provinces and governments (gobernaciones) (1500-1511) 3. reestablishment of the Columbian viceroyalty (1511-1523) 4. return to the system of gobernaciones (1524-1535) 5. the great districts (1535-1565): the viceroyalties of New Spain and Peru and the Audiencias: Santo Domingo, Guatemala, Santa Fe & Manilla. 6. the consolidation of the system (1565-1750) Territorial restructuration in the 18th c. 1. viceroyalty of New Spain (1535) 2. viceroyalty of Peru (1543) 3. viceroyalty of New Grenade (1739) – Santa Fe (audiencias of Santa Fe, Panamá and Quito with the gobernaciones of Venezuela, Margarita and Nueva Andalucía or Cumaná) 4. viceroyalty of Río de la Plata (1776) – (gobernaciones of Charcas, Tucumán, Cuyo, Paraguay and Buenos Aires) 5. The general commandment of the North interior provinces of New Spain (1776) 6. Capitanía General of Caracas (1777) – gobernaciones of Caracas, Maracaibo, Cumaná, Guayana, Margarita, Guayana and Trinidad (later forming the Venezuelan nationality). 7. Capitanía General of Chile – 1778 (independent from the viceroyalty of Peru) 1. Metropolitan institutions of government (16th - 18th c.) Ø Casa de Contratación (The House of Trade) – trade and immigration (Decrees of 1503 revised in 1510, 1531, 1539 and 1552) Having as a reference the Portuguese Casa de India, the Catholic kings established in 1503 the Casa de Contratación with the headquarters in Seville. The new institution was born with the clear purpose of dealing with the organization of the Indian trade and of all that was related to it. It was an organism destined to the control, inspection, register and tax of all that affected the relations and contracts with the New World. The competences of the Casa de Contratación covered 4 domains: control and tax of the trade with the Indies, control of the passengers (control of the population that immigrated each year in the Indies), civil and criminal jurisdiction (acted as an independent tribunal from the Audiencia of Seville) and diffusion of knowledge on navigation (1552 the first school of navigation of Europe). Ø Council of the Indies (El Real y Supremo Consejo de las Indias)57 In 1524 was nominated its first president García de Loaysa, bishop of Osma and confessor of Charles V. The Council was since its creation the superior organism in charge of the universal government of Indian affairs, distinct and independent of the other Councils of the Peninsula. Together with the creation of the Real Audiencia of Hispaniola it confirmed the character of kingdom of the new lands. A kingdom incorporated to the Crown of Castile as another part of the Hispanic Monarchy. Until its creation, all the questions regarding the New World were dealt with by the Council of Castile. The faculties of the Council extended to all that was relative to the administration, government and direction of the affairs concerning the Indies, always establishing itself as a supreme instance. The Council was formed initially of a president, three councilors, a 56

Miguel Molina Martínez, „La organización administrativa de las Indias” in Juan. B. Amores Carredano, Historia de América (Madrid: Ariel, 2006), pp. 261-283. 57 La normativa plasmada en la Recopilación de Leyes de los Reinos de Indias de 1680.

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secretary, a prosecutor (the defense of the royal jurisdiction, of the patronage of the monarch of the Indian Church and the Real Hacienda as of the Indians), a lawyer, a relator, an accountant and a guardian. In 1528 was created the post of great chancellor and in 1571 the one of cosmographer and major chronicler (in charge of writing the official history of the New World). 2. Institutions of government in the Indies Ø The Vice-King Personal representative of the monarch, this post was the pillar on which stood since the mid 16th c. the foundation and consolidation of the Kingdom of the Indies. In what concerns the government, the vice-king acted as the maxim executive power to administer the viceroyalty in all its issues except those that the monarch reserved for himself. Ø The presidents-governors & governors (gobernadores) An important figure in the Indies, the governor was nominated by the king and exerted the political government at the territorial level of gobernaciones or provinces. Major provinces were those that had the same district as that of a Real Audiencia and that had the capital in the headquarters of the gobernacion. Those that were not conforming to this model were minor provinces or simply gobernaciones, generally situated in the most remote zones. In the first case, the holders were presidents-governors and in the second, simply governors. The presidents-governors exerted their jurisdiction on all the district of the Audiencia and were invested by the same superior government as the vice-kings of the New Spain or Peru. Major Mayors (alcaldes mayores) (New Spain) & corregidores (Peru) – Representatives of the government at the local level (mayors) Alcaldes mayores – prevailed the juridical aspect & corregidores – major weight of the political Ø Cabildos (municipal council) The local level of the Indian political-administrative structure was represented by the Cabildos. The Cabildo appeared as the manifestation of the political power of the cities recently founded and as spoke-person of the demands and aspirations of their inhabitants. Those responsible were the alcaldes/mayors (justice) and regidores/counselors (regiments). The regidores constituted the city administration. When, at the beginning of the 17th c. the selling of the posts was generalized and the institution lost grand part of its representative character and facilitated the access of pressure groups or families that controlled them. The Cabildo abierto (open) consisted of the reunion of neighbors to debate the problems and adopt agreements that concerned them. The Cabildo de indios (of Indians) – base of the political organization of the Indian people. Its structure was a true reflection of the castellan model and was composed of two mayors and other 2 or 4 regidores, all Indian. Ø Audiencias – justice (civil and criminal jurisdiction) Their creation was the answer to the necessity of give justice between vassals, to its defense face to the abuses of the governors and, in the same time, to the imperative of protecting its own rights to what was linked to the Real Patronato or to the Real Hacienda. From the beginning the juridical competences in the Indies were in the hands of Christopher Columbus and the first tribunal was created in Hispaniola in 1511. The territorial delimitations of the districts of the Audiencias were always imprecise because of the geographical ignorance that the Council of the Indies itself had at the time of its creation. In the 17th c. there were 3 types: 1) Viceroyal audiencias were those presided by the viceroy and that had their headquarters in the capital of the viceroyalty (Mexico and Lima)

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2) Audiencias pretoriales corresponded to those controlled by the presidents-governors of the province (Santo Domingo, Santa Fe, Guatemala, Buenos Aires and Manila); 3) Subordinated audiencias – those that had as president none of the authorities (Guadalajara, Qito, Charcas, Chile). They were formed of: a president, oidores (magistrates next to the king that judged the causes) and the prosecutors (especially what was related to the church patronage), to those was added in the 18th c. the figure of the regent. Ø Real Hacienda (Treasury) Since their discovery, the Indies were considered the royal patrimony of the Catholic Kings as well as of their successors that possessed them as their own goods and could establish thus any type of privilege and tributary imposition. 58 Four functions since 1501: treasurer, accountant, factor (control of the selling and distribution) and veedor (taxes). In 1605, through the creation of the Tribunals of Accounts of Mexico, Lima and Santa Fe, this structure was modified; the latter begun to be responsible for the taxation of the work of royal officials. In fact, they acted as true Audiencias in what regards treasury. Ø War (defense of the new lands & protection of the maritime traffic) This branch of government depended of the council of the Indies and since the beginning of the 17th c of the Junta of War. Even if this can seem strange, the defense of the Indies was not in the hands of a regular army. Nonetheless, the prolonged war in Chile with the Araucanos (Indian people from the South) led to the creation of a professional army in 1602.

v Spanish defensive system Three echelons: the defense of Atlantic routes, of the maritime routes of the Caribbean and the Pacific and the terrestrial population nucleus established there. v American piracy59 Lasted almost two centuries and ended with the peace of Ryswick of 1697. Manuel Lucena Salmoral divided piracy in 5 periods: 1521-1568 – French piracy dominates 1569-1621 – the continuation of the “English sea dogs” and the beginning of Dutch piracy 1622-1655 – the great Dutch offensive and Libertarian: buccaneers and beginning of the filibusters; ends with the take of Jamaica in 1655 1656-1671 – apogee of filibusters and ends with the take of Panama by Morgan 1672-1697 – the agony of filibusters that chased by England is used only by France as a support of its crews in the Caribbean. September 30 1697, France, Spain, England and Holland signed the peace of Ryswick that also meant the reconnaissance of the French sovereignty on the western part of Hispaniola and the end of the filibusters. Piracy disappeared when it ceased to be functional. Ø Visits & residence judgments – controls of functionaries and institutions. The 18th c. reforms The arrival of the Bourbons on the Spanish throne supposed the beginning of a period of significant and prolonged changes for the Indies. Even if it is commonly considered that the reforms that affected Latin America happened essentially in the 2nd half of the 18th c., it is from the beginning of the century that the Spanish Crown was looking for new formulas to 58

El quinto real – tax on the fifth part of the minerals extracted. “Pirate was the maritime attacker that acted on his own which distinguished him from the corsair who acted at the service of a crown that entrusted a free pass in exchange of a part of the plunder. The buccaneers were pirates exclusively American that took their name form the Caribbean word, boucan, which signified to roast meat as well as the artifact that they used for this purpose. Filibusters appeared as true libertarian pirates but afterwards were used by different European countries in their colonial pretentions”. Ibid., p. 298.

59

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revitalize and maintain the international power of Spain: modernize and reactivate to obtain a major economic development capable to generate revenues. Political-administrative and defense reforms (reaffirm the authority of the monarch) 1714 Secretary of the Marine and the Indies – the Council of the Indies remained thus as a consultative organ and a justice tribunal. 1754 Fernando VI separated the two secretaries and created one more specialized, the Secretary of Universal Dispatch of the Indies – dedicated exclusively to Indian questions 1787 Charles III divided the Secretary and created two new ones: one for ecclesiastic affairs, grace and justice and another for war, treasury, trading and navigation. They were coordinated by a Supreme State Junta. 1790 Charles IV suppressed the two Secretaries and distributed the affairs of the Indies in 5 Spanish secretaries – centralizing and unifying the administration of the kingdom. Territorial restructuration: 1717 New Grenada; Audiencias of Quito and Panamá suspended until 1720 when they were reestablished as parts of the viceroyalty of Peru and in 1739 they passed again to New Grenade The ministry of the Indies of José de Gálvez (1776-1787) – reinforces the defense and develops the economy of the great zones until then marginal 1776 Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata 1776 The general commandment of the Northern Interior Provinces of New Spain – with the purpose of tracing a defensive line that united the territory comprised between California and the Gulf of Mexico. 1776 Intendencia of Caracas 1777 Capitanía General de Venezuela 1778 Capitanía General de Chile – separated of the viceroyalty of Peru. Important modifications in the administration of justice 1776 is created the Regente de audiencia – control the tribunals. Thus appears a juridical bureaucracy more efficient and independent. The introduction of the system of intendencias – since 1765 to control more effectively Indian administration. This system encountered the important opposition of the authorities (as in Cuba in 1764) and of the Council of the Indies and thus its expansion was suspended. Afterwards, the 1st intendencia was created in Caracas in 1776. The promulgation of the Ordinance of Army Intendentes and Province of Rio de la Plata in 1782: creation of 8 provinces. In 1784 – the regime of intendencia is applied in Peru: 7 intendencias with a superintendencia in Lima. In Chile – 3, in Cuenca in the Audiencia of Quito and in the Audiencia of Guatemala – 4 provinces. The unique territory that remained outside this project was that of New Grenade. The main success of intendencias must be situated in the economic field because this brought an augmentation of revenues. Commercial liberalization The decree of October 1765 authorized Cuba, Puerto Rico, Santo Domingo, Margarita and Trinidad to trade directly with other peninsular ports without navigation license and with a more simple fiscal system. In the years that followed, the new system was extended to Louisiana, Campeche, Riocacha and Santa Marta in New Grenade, while was authorized trading inter-regionally between the different American areas (1774). 1778 Free Trade Regulation – authorized trade directly between 12 ports and 24 of the Indies even though reserving them exclusively to the Spanish merchants and products. Initially free trade was excluded in Venezuela and New Grenade. Real Hacienda Modifications to the territorial organization were also introduced by modifying the number, distribution and functioning of the cajas reale (fiscal districts) that complicated the bureaucratic system. Thus, the fiscal districts were structured departing from the Ordinance of Intendentes in 4 categories: general cajas (capital of the viceroyalty), main cajas (Intendencias capitals), foreign cajas (on the territory of the Intendencia) and minor subordinate treasuries (distant places and with less economic volume).

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Independence in Latin America 1804-1903

Country Haiti Chile Mexico Columbia

year 1804 1810 1810 1810

Paraguay Venezuela

1811 1811

Argentina Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Costa Rica Salvador Peru Ecuador

1816 1821 1821 1821 1821 1821 1821 1822

Brazil Bolivia Uruguay Dominican Republic Cuba

1825 1825 1825 1844 1902

Panama60

1903

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of France

until 1830 member of Grand Colombia with Venezuela , Ecuador until 1830 member of Grand Colombia with Ecuador , Colombia

1839 – of the Central-American Federation until 1830 member of Grand Colombia with Venezuela , Colombia

of Haiti of Spain in 1898 and administered by the US 18981902 of Colombia

Panama won its independence from Spain and rejoined in 1822 Grand Colombia of Simón Bolívar.

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North American policies in Latin America 19th c. – beginning of the 20th c.61 1823 Monroe Doctrine: “America to the Americans” – the right to intervene and warning for Europeans. This doctrine couldn’t be applied and Spain could intervene militarily in the Dominican Republic in 1861 and in Peru in 1862, Napoleon III attempted to annex Mexico and Maximilian was emperor between 1864-7. Th. Roosevelt had added in 1904 to the Monroe Doctrine a corollary that justified the policy of Big Stick (intervene to ensure economic stability). William Howard Taft (1909-1913) inaugurated Dollar diplomacy, more directly concerned by the defense of economic interests. Numerous countries were converted in financial protectorates: 1905-1941 the duty rights of the Dominican Republic passed to the US and for Haiti the same thing happened during 1915-1934. Woodrow Wilson (1913-) “Wilson doctrine” refuse to recognize a government that is not the result of elections (applied in Central America but not in Peru where the arrival in power of Leguía was not contested). Wilsonian diplomacy – organize elections and try to make respected the result when needed by occupation and to create the public security forces capable of maintaining order once troupes were withdrawn. This proved counterproductive because the police forces were at the origin of prolonged dictatorships. Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in power in the US in 1933 “Good Neighbor” policy (1933-1945) with Latin America (approach favored by the fascist advance and the weakness of American capitalism following the crisis of 1929).

61

Olivier Dabène, L’Amérique latine à l’époque contemporaine, Paris : Armand Colin, 2005 (5ème édition)

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Truth and reconciliation commissions in Latin America Argentina CONADEP (National Commission on the disappearance of persons) 1983 The Report « Nunca más » of CONADEP spoke of 9.000 disappeared The organizations of human rights estimate at 30.000 the number of dead and disappeared Chile Rettig Commission (National Commission of Truth and Reconciliation) 1990 3 196 victims (2.905 of the military: 1.720 dead and 1.185 disappeared) Valech Commission (National Commission on Political prisoners and torture) 2003 28.459 imprisoned and tortured [In May 2005 a supplementary Report added 1.204 victims more] Guatemala CEH (Historical Clarification Commission) 1994 The Report “Guatemala: Memory of Silence” (1999) documented 42.275 victims (of which 6.159 disappeared) Human rights organizations estimate at more than 200.000 the number of victims of the civil war of 36 years (19601996). Salvador Truth Commission 1992 [primary sources: 7.000 victims, secondary sources: 20.000] Non-official sources: more than 70.000 victims Peru Commission of Truth and Reconciliation (2001) The Report of 2003 documents the victims of the period 1980-2000 speaks of 69.000 dead and disappeared. Bolivia (1st Truth commission in LA) National Commission of Investigation of the Disappeared (1982-4): 155 disappeared; no final report Committee to judge Garcia Meza [in power between 1980-1] – non-official Speaks of 14.000 detainees, 6.000 exiled, 70 disappeared Ecuador Truth Commission and justice (1996) [studies the period 1979-1996]: 176 victims Report "De la Locura a La Esperanza" (From craziness to hope) Brazil Proyecto Brasil Nunca más (1979-1985) – coordinated by the archbishop of Sao Paulo, Cardenal Paulo Evaristo Arns: 125 cases of disappeared In 1995 the government gives the law of reparation to 36 families of disappeared 2007 the Report “The right to memory and truth” of the Special commission on the political dead and disappeared (since 1996): 479 disappeared; the report recognizes the state responsibility. Uruguay Several non-official commissions as the Commission of Investigation on the situation of the Persons disappeared and the responsible facts (1985): 164 disappeared Commission for Peace (2000): Report of 2003 speaks of 38 disappeared (of which 25 dead). Paraguay Truth and justice commission established in 2000 (about the regime of Stroessner 1954-89) An anterior commission established by the World Council of churches (1976-1990) documented that 360.000 persons had been detained (of a population of 3 million) and 1.5 million were in exile. Panama - in 2001 the president Mireya Moscoso established a commission for the study of crimes of the period 196889 (dictatorships of Torrijos and Noriega) [150 disappeared] Haïti – In 1994 was formed the National Commission of truth and justice (Report of 1996)

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