PART _ B 1. Explain any two theories of motiveiion itr detail (Atrtra Utriv,04),(Atrnr Univ,l0)^trtr univ May'12), (Aotr UDiv Nov'I2),(AnDs Univ. May,13),ADDa Utriv. April'11)
In simple tems, motivation is the willingness to do desired actions that satisfy the individual's needs. A need indicates an intemal state that makes outcomes ataactive. The motivation process is shown in fig 4.1 FIGURX 4.1 THE MOTIVATION PROCESS
5earclt
Need
Goal
Satisfadion
An unsatisfied need creates tension in the individual. This stimulates the drive to satisfy the need. ln tum this ddve initiates goal directed behaviour. Once the goals are achieved, the need is satisfied. Tension is thereby reduced.
Motivation is also observed in the form of obvious posilive work behav;our. For example, an employee who is motivated exerts a g.ealer effort to perform. He has a positive approach to his wod( On the other hand an ernployee who is not motivated does not expend enough effort to perform. A rced , indicates an ifltemal state ofthe mind that makes certain outcomes ofthe work appear attractive to the employee.
Motivation theories can be bmadly classified into content theories and process
kt us Lmderstand the distinction between these theories. CONTENT THDORY: Content theory identifies what canrses motivation? The beliefis that there are clearly identifiable things that can motivate an employee. Ifthe organization is able to ascertain whal these are then it can offer these to the employee in retum for good performance. The employee would be motivated by these offerings prov;ded he values them. Let us now undersrand a lew ofthe popular conlent theories. MASLOW'S HIERARCITY OF NEEDS This is perhaps the most popular theory ofmotivation. He hypothesized that a hiemrchy of five needs exists in each individual (see fig.4-2). theories.
a
L.
premise that higher-order needs are sarisfied intenDlly. wheteas los'er-orCer nee
Herzberg's MotivatioD Hygierc Theory . Hezberg, identified that the factors leading to job dissatis.faction are different from those that lead to job satislaction. The factor that lead to job dissatisfaction are called hygiene or maiotenance factors. The factors thal cause satisfaction are called motivators (see fis4.3). Figure 43 Herzberg's Motivatiotr Hygiene Theory
DIS SATISFACTION
Therefore, when the organization eliminates factors that create job dissatisfaction, it may at best bring about congenial work conditions .lt may oot necessarily result in motivation. Factors such as working cooditions, company policy, supervision, interpersonal relations etc. are considered as hygicne or maintenance factors. Factffs such as work itself, rccogilition, responsibility, achievement ctc, are considered as motivators.
)0
Herzberg opined that cerlain facton tend to be related lo job satisfact;on. Certain other factors tend to be related to job dissatislaction. When employees arc satisfactorily maiolained, they will not be dissatisfied; however, they will not be salisfied. If the organ;zation lvants to motivate employees then, Herzberg suggesG that the organizatjon must ensure the availability of rewards that lead to satisfaction. Intrinsic facto6, such as the work itsell, recognltion, responsibility, achievement etc, appear to be related 10 job satisfaition. Employees who felt good about their work, tended to attribute these lactors to them. Extrinsic factors such as working conditions, company policy, supervision. interpersonal relations etc. appear to be relaled to job dissatisfaction. Employees who felt dissatisfied with their work tended to attribute it to these faclorsThus, the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatislacdon, as is usually believed. By removing dissatisfuing factors fiom the job the organization may not n€cessarily be able to make the job satisrying. Similar is the case vice versa. Herzberg therefore proposed the e,\istence of a dual continuum. He suggested that the opposite of ..satisfaction,, is ..no satisfaction" .The opposite of "dissatisfaction" is ',no satisfaction',. The motivation-hygiene theory is criticized on account ofthe following reasorls: . When ihe outcomes are good people tend to take credit for themselves, On the contrary they attribute their failure to the extemal factors. . Heizberg's methodology suffers fiom poor reliability. o An overall measure of satisfaction must be used to assess satisfaction. This is because, a person may dislike certain aspects ofthe job but may still find it good. This has not been considered by the theory. . The theory is inconsistent with other research findings. It ignores situational variables.
.
Herzberg assumes a dircct relationship between satisl'action and productivity. However, he failed to look into this relationship. His theory studied satisfaction in isolation without considering productivity. Inspite of these criticisms, Herzberg's theory has received wide attention. practicing managers of the day use techniques like job enrichment, sharing responsibility rrith subordinates, allowing greater fteedoin on the job etc. These are believed to b€ spin offs from Herzberg's rcsearch. To a fair extent, Herzberg's research matches with results of other surveys made on employees' satisfaction.
MASLOW AI\D HERZBDRG _ A COMPARISON You can
see the similadties and distinctions between these ovo theories in fig.4.4_ Figure.4.4. MASLOW AND HERZBERG _ A COMPARISON
Maslovy's
Herzberg's
lt
Maslow identified the needs as a hierarchy offive needs. The individual moves fiom the lowest need to the highest need, step by step. Herzberg suggested that every individual moves tlrough each ofthese steps ir\ the sarne mamer. Herzberg idantified two needs. They are the hygiene or maintenance needs and the motivation needs. He suggested the existence oftwo continuums one for dissatisfaction and the other for satisfaction. Mallow's lower order needs correspond to Herzberg's hygiene or maintenance factors. Maslow's higher order needs correspond to Hetzberg's motivation factors. Maslow states that the fulfillment ofthe lower order need would cause the individual to move up the hiemrchy. Herzberg states that the two factors co exists- Only when motivators are present, the individual is satisfied.
Atderfer's ERG Theory Alderfer reliamed Maslow's hierarchy of needs of into another model- He called it lhe ERG theory. According to him there are three groups ofcore needs. These needs arc the existence, relatedness and growth needs. The existence need is concemed mainly with providing basic requfemenis for the individual's existence. The relatedness need is concemed with the individuals need to maintain good interpersonal relalionship with other membeB in his work grcup. The gm*th need is concemed with the intrinsic desire to grc\tr and develop. The existence need corresponds to Maslow's physiological and safety needs. The relatedness need corresponds to Maslow's social aird esteem needs. The growth need corresponds to Maslow's self actualization needs. The theory suggests that in an individual, at any point of timq more than one need may be present .If a higher need goes unsatisfied than the desire to sadsry a lower need generally intersifies. Mccregor's Theory X aDd Theory Y Douglas Mccrcgor suggested that a manager's view ofhis subordinates is based on any one ofthe two assumptions- The manager's behavior toward his subordinates in tum is based on the assumptions. Mccregor The first assumption is basically rcgative. Mccregor labeled i1 as Theory X .The second assumption is basically positive- He labeled it Theory Y. I,et us understand the assumptions underlying theory X and theory Y. Theory X identilies the four assumptions held by the manager as: . Emp,oyees inherently dislike wo*. Thercfore, ifpossible, they try to avoid it. . As employees disiike wqrk, they must be co€rced or threatened with pmishment. Such control, will force them to achieve desircd goals. Bmployees generally shirk responsibilities. They prcfer to seek formal direction . . Most employees want security as against other factors related to work. They do not have much ambition. Theory Y identifies four other assumptiotrs held by the manager as: . Employees view work as being as natural as rest or play . Employees will exercise selfdircction and self-control when they are committed
. .
to the Boals. The average person can learn to accept and can even seek responsibility. Creat;vity defined as the ability to make good decisions is spread throughout the workforce. It does not rcst only wilh persons in the managerial positions.
1z
A-
There
is no proof that eiiher of
these assumptions
is
valid. Practicing the
assumptions of Theory Y may noi necessarily motivate employees, Most human rcsource managers are fa,'niliar *'ith borh theory X and theory Y. While somc prcler to use theory X others prcfcr theory Y.
McClellaod's Achievemenl, Pos,er, and AmliatioD Motives David Mcclelland identified thrce motives or needs that drive employees at work. They are the need for achievement, the need for powel and the need for affiliation . l. The need for achievement it indicates the drive to excel, and to achieve in relation to a set of standards. lt denotes the employees desirc to succeed in his work
litt.
2, The need lor power: it indicates the need to make othe6 behave in a particuiar manner. Without this, it is likely that the employee would not have behaved this way. 3- The Deed for alfiliatiotr: it is the desire for good interyeronal relationships. 'Ihis indicates a predisposition to develop Aiendly rclations with employees. We may observe that some employees have a drive to sucseed for the sake ofsuccess alone. Mcclelland refers to this drive as the need for achievement. He denoted it as (nAch). Mcclelland found that high achievers have a strong desire to do things better unlike othe.s. They search out situations that requirc them io take personal responsibility. They enjoy finding solutions to difficult ploblems. They prefer to get immediate feedback on their performance. They believe in setting moderately challenging goalswhich require them to expend a little more effort. Being competitive they look for chal)enges. High achievers dislike unrealistic goals as success depends more on chance. Similarly, they dislike goals that are easy to achieve.
Mcclelland's research is accepted to a fair extent. Howevet practitioners have been more interested in the achievement need. This is because employees driven by nAch are motivaled by intrinsic rather than extimic motivators. It implies that managers can encoumge employees to develop nAch. By doing so they would instill the desire to achieve a higher work performance. Manager can put employees through nAch tlaining. These aaining workshops nomally stimulate this need in tminees. ManageE must undeEtanding the concepts behind nAch. This will help them understand what employees high in nAch desire lrom their work. This helps to design jobs that are morc compleie. This can help motivate employees.
PROCESS THEORY Process theory identifies how motivation actually tates place? The belief is that there are clearly identifiable steps lhat the organization must adopt to motivate an employee. It is possible to motivate only iftie organization knows how employees a.e motivated. Therefore, it must lake initiative to identily and clearly map these steps. Process lheories of motivation attempt to rmderstand what individuals think when they decide to put effort into a particularjob. Process theories are concerned with the thought processes that influence the individual's behavior. Two process theories that we shall look into are the Equity theory and the Expecrancy theory. Equity theory is associated with Stacey Adams. lt finds fie relalionship between inputs and outputs. lfthe ratio der;ved is the same for everyone in an organizalion then equity is establishcd. When inequity exists individuals r€act in different ways io eslablish equity.
l"
Expectancy theory is associated with Viclor Vroom and Port€t artd Ilwler. According to expectancy theory effo( is linked to the desire for a particular oulcome. However, il is moderated by an evaluation of the likelihood of success. The ihmry concludes that, individuals will expend efforts when they have a rcasonable expectation that it will lead to the desircd outcomg eflbrt p€rse is not sufficient but it has to be accompanied by ability and skill, and job satisfaction results from effective job perfomance. job design, rewad - Conclusions of these two theories have wide implications on allocations and pe.formance. Understanding them is thercfore of crucial importance. Let us
now understand these popular process theories in detail.
ADAMS EQUTTY THEORY According to the equity theory proposed by Stac€y Adarns, individuals are motivaled by lheir beliefs about the reward structue. Rewa.ds may be considered to be fair or unfair, relative to the inputs the individual puts in. lndividuals use subjective judgment to compare the outcomes and inpuls. Comparisons arc made between the individuals inputs and outputs. Comparisons are also made between different individuals ( See Fig 4.5). Figure 4.5
Adsms Equity Tbeory
OUTCOME OFAN
INDIVIDUAT
OIITCOME OF ANOTflER INDII/IDUAL
INPUTOF
OUICOME OF AN INDIVIDUAT INPUI OI AN INDIVIDUAL
OUTCOME OT AN INDIVIDUAL INPUT
Of AN INDIVIDUAL
Adams suggested thal these comparisons have an impact on the individual's pedomance. Let us see what impact it has? If the individual feets thal they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or quality of work or move to some oiher organization. However, if people perceive that they arc well rewarded, they may be motivated to work harder.
\.ROOM'S TIIEORY
of
Perhaps Victor Vroom has propounded the fiIst expectancy theory based explanations tbree variables: expectancy, valence and motivation. His theory based
is
on
inskumentality. It is commonly referred to as fhe VIE theory. According lo this theory, motivation can be malhematically defined as: Motivstio! = Valence x Expectatrcy x InstrumeDtality Expectancy: An employee's choice of b€haviour depends not only on the outcome, bur also the probability that this outcome can be achieved. This is bas€d on percepi;ons of the employee and is denoted as subjective probabilities. The probabilities mnge from 0-i Expectancy denotes ihe relalionship between effort expe.ded and first level outcomes.
]+
Valenc€i It denotes the atracliveness of a particular outcome to thc cmployee. It is the satisfaclion that may arise from altaining lhe outcome.
Instrumentality: The valence of outcomes is derived ftom the ins:rumentalhy- ln lhis conlext it would be better to distinguish between first level outcomes and second levcl outcomes, First lsvel outcomes are based on pedormance. Sometimes employees perform well on their jobs because they like to. They are not concemed with performance outcomes. Performance outcomes have valeace because they lead lq second level outcomes. Second level outcomes arc usually need based. Second level outcomes are peformance based and do not depend on effon expended. They bring about satisfaction. The theory proposes that employees choose the behaviour that will help them attain a prefened outcome, which will bring them satisfaction. . Though the theory is considered to be difficult to comprehend, it is considered useful to understand the complexities of work motivation. Expeclancy theory suggests that an employee can be molivated to perform well if they are able to understand that such performance will lead to a good performance appmisal. In turq ihis score may result in realizaiion ofa personal goal such as a promotion. Porter and Lawler's Theory Porter and Lawlersuggested modificatiom to Vroom' s theory.Th€y give a more comprehersive model of motivation (see flg.4.7).
I'igurc 4.7
Actual perio.mance in a job is primarily determined by the effort expended. Unless the individual values the rewards and is able to see the linkage between effon and rewad, he will not put ;n eftbrt. Effort is also affected by the individual's abilities, rraits and role perceptions . Performaoce leads to intdnsic as well as ext insic rewards. Satisfaclion of the individual depends upon the laimess of the reward. If these rewards aie vicv/ed to be equitable then the individual is satisfied. Satisfaction once again motiyates the individual to expend efforls .
lr
2. Do€s motivatioD important for orgatrizatiotr developm€ /rchieveBeot? Justify your answer with Maslow's hierarchy ofDeeds. (Antra Univ May'07)
lfa
manager wants to get work done by his employees, he may either hold out a promise
ofa reward (positive motivation) or he/she may install fear (negative motivation). Both these types are widely used by managements. Maslow's *Need Hierarchy Theory":As per his th€ory these ne€ds are. (i) Physiological n€€ds: These are important needs for sustaining the human life. Food, water, warrnth, shelter, sleep, medicine and education are the basic physiological needs which fall in the primary list ofneed satisfaclion. Maslow was ofan opinion that until these needs were satisfied to a degee to maintain life, no other motivating factors can work. (ii) Security or Safety Deeds: These are the needs to be free ofphysical danger and ofthe fear oflosing ajob, properq/, food or shelter. It also includes protection against any emotional harn. (iii) Social ne€ds: Since people are social b€ings, they need to belong and be accepted by others. People try to satisry their need for alfection, acceptance and friendship. (iv) [steem needs: According to Maslow, once people begin to satisfy their need to belong, they tend to want to be held in esteem both by themselves and by otheN. This kind ofneed p,roduces such satisfaction as power, prestige status and selfronfidence. It includes both intemal esteem factors like selfrespect, autonomy and achievements and extemal esteem laflors such as slales. recogni!ion and aaendon, (y) Need for self-actualization: Maslow regards this as the highest need in his hierarchy. It is the ddve to become what one is capable ofbecoming; it includes growtll achieving one's potential and self-fulfillment. It is to maximize one's potential and to accomplish something. A business should therefore offer difFerent incentives to workers in ordel to help them fuIfi1] each need in tum and pmgress up the hierarchy. Manage6 should also recognize that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the sarne pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly differcnt set of inceniives from worker to worte.
11,
L
.
3. Discuss in detail the leadership tbeories.(Ann Univ. Apr,05 & D€c'o7),(Anna Univ. May'07). (ArDa Univ. April'11) 1 Charismatic Leadership a Great Man Theory: lndjviduals are bom eiiher with or without the necessary trairs for leadelship a Charisma is a G.eek word meaning gift Key Characteristics ofcharismatic leadeN * SelIConfidence o They have complete confidence in theirjudgment and ability. A vision ':. o This is an idealized goal that proposes a futule better than the status quo. fhe greater the disparity between idealized goal and the status quo .1. Ability to aniculaie the vision o They are able to clariry and state the vision in telms that are understandable to othels.
--
Stong convictions ,lrout r.ision
*
Behrvi,Dr thrt is out ofthe ordinary Those with charisma engage
.! l.
o
Charismatic leaders are perceived as being strongly committed and willing to take on high peBonal risk
o
in
behavior that is perceived as being novel,
unconventional, and counter to norns. Perceived as being a chang€ ageDt Charismatic leaders arc perceived as agents ofmdical change
o
EnvintrDental sensitivity
o
These leaders are able
to make realistic
assessments
of the envirorunental
constmints and resources needed to bring about chaflge. 2.
Trait Theory I IradeBhip haits are not completely inbom but can also be acquired through leaming and experience. a The trait approach seeks to determine 'what makes successful leader' ftom the leader's own personal characteristics. a The method of study was to select leade$
were studied.
It was the
of
eminence and iheir chamcteristics
hypothesis that the persons having certain tmils could
become successfu I leaders. Traits / Qualities in a successiirl leader classified into intrate and acquired tmits.
lnnrte Qualities
Physical Features
- Intelligence Acquired Qualiti€s o Emotional Stabiiity . Free from bias . Consistenl ia aclion . Relrains tiom anger o o o o o
Human Relations Empathy
Objectivity Motivating Skills Technical Skills
ll
o Communicative o Socialskills
Skills
Limitations of th€ Theor'y
-
Generlisation of Traits
Mea\mement ofTraits Applicability of Traits No direct cause and effect relationship 3. Human Relations Theory 'I he two important human rclations theo es are Hawthome Experients
-
t
*XandYTheory
a) Ha$.thorne Experients
Background This study undertaken by Elton Mayo in Westem Electric Company, Chicago (19241932) Mayo wanted to find out what effect fatigle and monotony had on job productivity and how to contIol them tbrcugh variables such as
-
Rest breaks
-
Tempemtues
work hou$ Humidity
The experiment 6 \ir'omen from an assembly line Segregated them from the rest ofthe faclory a Put them under rhe eye of a supeflisor (a friendly observer) Made fiequent changes to their working conditions a Always discussed and explained the changes in advance What happetred during the experiment? ,& The individuals became a team and the team gave wholehearted ceopemtion with the experiment They were happy in the knowledge that they we.e doing what they wanted to do *L They felt they were working under less pressure than before They were not pushed arould or bossed by anyone Under these condiiions they developed an increased sense of rcsponsibility which came from rrithin the group itself Mayo's Conclusions Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation but musl be seen as memhrs of a
t t I
&
t ll
> >
ts
> >
goup Monetary incentives and good working conditions arc less important to the individual than the need to belong to a group
Informal or unofiicial groups formed at work have sfong influence on behaviour Managers must be aware of these 'social ne€ds' and cater for them to ensure that employees work with the organisation rather than against it
Manager must consider the human element in the organisation
b)XandYTheory "Theory X and Theory
Y'
of Douglas Mccregor :Mccregot in his book "The Human side of Enterpise" states that people inside the organization can be managed in lwo ways.
lt
The first is basically negative, which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager deah with employees, Mccregor concluded ihal a manager rs view ofthe nature ofhuman beings is based on a certain gouping ol assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these alssumptions.
U[der the assumptions oftheory X : ! Employees inherently do nol like work and whenever possible, will attempt to avoid ir,
Ll Because employees dislike work, tlrcy have to be lorced, coerced or threatened with punishmenl lo achieve goals E Employe€s avoid responsibilities and do not work fill fomal directions arc issued. Most wotkers place a greater importance on security over all other factors and display little ambition. cantrast [trder the assumptiors of theory Y : tr Physicsl and inental effofl at work is as naturai as rest or play. People do exercise self-control and self-direction ard ifthey are committed to those
!
h
I
tr tr
goals. Average human beings, are willing to take responsibility and exercise imagination, ingaluity and creativity in solving the problems ofthe organiztion. That the way the things a.e organize4 the avemge human beingls brainpower is
only pady used. On aDal)sis ofthe assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lowerorder Deeds dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs dominate individuals. An organizafion that is run on Theory X lines tends to be authoritarian in nature, ihe word *authoritariar" suggests such ideas as the .,power to enforce obedience,' and the 'ight to co6mand." In conhast Theory Y organizations can be described as 'barticipative,,, where the aims ofthe organization and ofthe individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve their o.,,vn goals best by directing their efforts towards the success ofthe organization. However, this theory has been cdticized widely for generalization of work and human behavior. 4. Behavioural Theories of Leadership
According to behaviouml theories ofleadelship, leadership can be described in terms ofWhat leadels do rarher rhan whal rhe) are. These theories attempted to determine how different kinds of behaviollrs affect the performance and satisfaction of the followers.
The two important behavioural theories are Ohio State University studies and the studies of MicbigaD UDiv€rsity. a)Ohio Stste Studies otr Leadership Stogdill in Ohio State Universiry initiated a series ofresearches on leadership 1945 The Two important leadership dimensions identified were Consideration and Initiaiing Structuae
Consideration reflected the behaviour
of the leader indicating his relationship with
the
subordinates. In Initiating structure, leader tries to define and structurc own roles and suboridinates Two types ofQuestionnaires used I eader Behaviour DescBprion Que.-ionna;re Leader Opin,on Questionnaire
.
l.r
,.
Ohio State Leadership quadrants Ifish
t
Ilith initiding rtiucture Iligh corr3ideratton
L,draa
Hlgl b) Michigan Studies on Lerdership This study was canied orlt by Likert ofthe University ofMichigan He identified two leadership orientations Employee C)rientation
. .
-
Productionorientation
a He fotmd that the employee oriented style resulted in higher performance
compared to
pmduction oriented one 5.
I t I
Ficdler's Contiugelcy Model Fred E. Fiedler's developed this contingency model According to Ficdlcr, lcadqship dcpcnds on thc situarion in which thc lcadc. operates
He identified thee situational factors Leader - follower Relalions
-
Task StIuctule The StahN Power
The Managerial
crid
2,!)
L.
High I
t.9 l-lanagernen t
ttentioh to needs .f people for enlisfgi nq relationshi ps le6ds io omfortable friendl
o-
6
q,S rt6nagernent work accomplishment is from cnmmitted people; I
nterdependence throuqh
a common stake i n
leads
t. trust &
orq
res
5-5 t .naqemenl
Adeqsale organization
performence is possi ble throuqh b6lanci nq the
nece$ir! to qet out vork vith m.i ntai ni n9I mornle of people 6t stisr6ctorU level.
3
2
l.l
9- I llanagelYren
rlanage]rlent
Ex.rtion of minr muml effort to qet vork done ls approDriate lo ustai n org membershi
p
Efficiencg of opBratio result3 from arrangi nq conditions of uork i n such 6 vag that hum6'-i elements i nterfere to a
2345674
Concern for Pro
Hi9h
llanagerial Grid from R 8l€ke 6nd J. tlouton, Ilanagerial F€cades', Adv6nced HsnEgement Journal, Julg 1966, 3l . Mmegeri.l Grid Atrlhority Compliance (9,1)
The
. I
r r
Coutrtry Club (1,9) lnformal grapevine Impovertuhed (1,1) Laissez-faire
Middle-of-the-Road(5,9 - Compromise (carot & stick) t Team (99) Iiuman R€sources Appmach Promote the conditions that integmte creativity, high productivity, and tigh momle through concert€d team action.
1l
4. What are the basic leadership styles? Explain them critically. / Wbat is meant by "Lerd€rship style"? Describe tbe diflereut styles ofleadership. (Anna Univ Apr'f0)
A leadership sfyle is a leader's style of providing d;rection, implemenring plans. and molivating people. There are many different lead€rslip styl€s thal can be exhibited by leadeN in the poliiical, business or other fields. LEADERSHIP STYLES Leade$hip style is the manner and approach of p.oviding direction- iinplemenling plans, and motivating people. Kurt Lewin (1939) led a group ol researchers to identify d:fierent styles of leadership. This early study has been very influential and established three maior leadership styles. The three major styles ofleadership are
. . .
Authoritarirn or rrnocraiic Parlicipative or democratic Delegative or Free Reign
Although good leaders use all thrce styles, with one oithem normally dominant, bad leaders tend to stick wilh one style.
AuthoritariaD (.utocratic)
I want both ofyou to..
.
This style is used when leaders tell their employees what they want done and how they want it accomplished, without getting the advice oftheir followers. Some of the appropriate conditions to use it is when you have all the information to solve the pmblem, you are short on time, and your employees arc well molivaled. Some people lend to think of lhis style as a vehicle l.or yelling, using demeaning language, and leading by lhreats and abusing their power. This is no! the aulhoritarian style, rather it is an abusive, unprofessional style called "bossing people around-" It has no place in a leader's repertoire. 1he authorita.ian styie should normally only be used or rare occasions- Ifyou have the lime and wanl lo gain more commitment and molivalion ftom your employees, then you should use the participative style.
2L
Let's work together to solve this. . . This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process (determining what to do and how !o do k). However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this style is noi a sign of weakness, mther it is a sign ofsrength that your employees will respecl. This is normally used when you have part ofthe information, and your employees have other parts. Note thal a leader is not expected to know everrthing is why you - thisbenefit employ krunledgeable and s,t7l.l../ employees. Using this style is of murual it allows them to become part ofthe team and allows you to make better decisions.
You two take care ofthe problem while I go. . . ln this style, the leader allows the employees to make the decisions. However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions that are made. 'this is used when employees are able to analyze the situation and determine whal needs to be doDe and how to do iL You cannol do ever)'thing! You mtrst set priorities ar)d delegate cerlain tasks.
2)
5. What are the essential qualities
ofa
good l€ader? (Antra Univ Nov'12)
QUALTTIES OF A LEADER:
> Ability
to rnary'se- the Ieader must be able to analyse any problem and offer an immediate solution. He should be alerl mentally. > Emotiotral stability the leader must not ma-ke decisions influenced by emotions. he has to approch any problem intellecutually and find a solution. > Self-confidetrce - A person calmot be a successfirl leader ifhe lacks self-confidence. lfhe has confidence in himseli he will be able to overcome resistance from anyone for his proposals.
> Foresight the leader must loresee what is likely to happen. He must be able to visualise the futtlle events and prepare his followers to meet challenges. > S€nse ofjudgemetrt The leader must be able tojudge what is good under the given circumstances. Only then he will be able to evolve certain pmctjcal decisions. > Understanding The leader must not always thrust his views on his follwers. He must also listen to their viewpoints particula y while making decision in a critical situation. > Menlal courage - The leader must be capable oftaking ceflain bold decisions. For this he must have mental courage. He need not play safe by just endo.sinS the decisions of others. > Capacity to motivate Needless to say, the leader must t e able to induce and motivate his followers to work for the mission he has undertakel > Ability to guide - The leader will be able to guide his follwerc in the work process only he himselfis well versed in the actuapl work. > Communication skjlls - Successfirl leaders arc always known for the co muniqtion skills, Such skills are essential to direct the follureB to work for attaining the desired goal. Mordovet the leader will always be able to defend himselfof he posesses good
if
communication ability.
> Sociablity - The leader should not be indiffe.ent to the needs of his follwers. As his follwers work wholeheartedly for firlfilling his mission, the leader has the duty to reciprocaGIf any follwer has cefiain personal problems, the leader musl do his best to help him. The leader must make himself accessible to his follwers. > Ambitious - The leader must always be an ambitious person. Only then his subordinates will be able to work with enthusiam. He must always have some novel plans to make things interesting for the follwels. > Positive thinkilg The leader musl be an optimist. He must always.have a positive attilude towards his work. Only then he will be able to i.stil such a feeling in his follwers.
2+
L.
6. Discuss dilTerent communication patterns and also th€ rsasons to be aBare
of
them.(Anna,Univ.Nov'07) Nct$,orks are anoiher aspect ofdirection and flow ol communication. Bavelas has shown that communication pattems, or networks, influence groups in several impo(ant ways, Communication networks may affect the group's completion olthe assigned task o. time, the position of the de facto leader in .the group, or they may affeqt the group members, satislaction lrom occupying certain positions in the network. Although these findings are based on labomtory experiments, they have important implications for the dynamics of communication in formal organizations. There arc several pattems of communication:
.
"Chain",
.'Wheel',
. . .
"Srar",
"All-Channel' network,
'Circle.
The Chain catr readily be seen to rcpresent the hierarchical pa$em that chamcterizes suic-tly formal informafion flow,':from the top down," in military and some types ofbusiness organizarions. The Wheel ca.n be compared with a typical autocratic organization, meaning one-man nrle ard limited employee participation. The Star is similar to the basic formal smrcture of rlrany organizations. The All-Channel network, which is an elabomtion of Bavelas's Circle used by GueEkow, is analogous to the free,liow of commrmication in a group lhat encour?ges all of its members to become involved in group decision processes. The All-Channel network may also be compared to some of ltle informal communication
U it's assumed that messages may move in both directions between stations in the netwo*s, it is easy to see that some individuals occupy key positions with rcgard to the number ofmessages they haadle and the degree to which they exercise control over the flow of information- For example, the person represented by the central dot in the "star" handles all messages in the goup. ln corfiast, individuals who occupy stations at the edges of the pattem handle fewer messages and have little or no contol over the flow of infomation.These "peripheral" individuals can communicate wilh only one or two olher persons :lrrd must depend entirely on others to relay their messages if ftey wish !o exlend their range.
In rcporting the rcsults of experiments involving the Circle, Wheel, and Star configumtions, Bavelas carne to the following tentative conclusions. In pattems with positions located centrally, such as the Wheel and the Star, an organization quickly develops arcund the people occupying these central posilions. ln such patlems, the organizalion is more stable and errors iri performance are lo*er than in pauems having a lower degree of ccntrality, such as ihe Circle. Howeve., he also found thal the morale of members in high centrality pattems is relatively low. Bavelas speculated that this lower momle could, in the long run, lower the accuracy and speed ofsuch networks. In problem solving requiring the pooling of data and judgments, or ,'insight," Bavelas suggested that the ability to evaluate partial results, to look at ahematives, and to restructure problems fell off rapidly when one penion was able to assume a more central (that is, more controlling) position in the information flow. For example, insight into a problem requi.ing change would be less in the Wleel and the Star than in the Circle or the Chain because ofthe "bottlenecking' effect ofdata control by central members_ It may be concluded from these laboratory resulis that ihe structure of communications within an organization will have a significant influence on the accuracy of decisions, the
speed with which they can be reached, and the salisfacdon of &e people involved. Consequently, in networks in which lhe responsibility for initiating and passing along messages is shared more evenly among the memt els, the better the goup's morale in ihe long
7. Explain the process ofcommunication / componenls ofcommEnication in detail. (Anoa Utriv.Vlr)'10) Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It is a continuous process. Pre-requisite of communication is a message. This message must be conveyed through some medium to the rccipient. It is essential that this message must be understood by the recipient in same tems as intended by the sender. He musl respond within a time frame. Thus, communication is a two way process and is incomplete without a feedback from the recipient to the sender on how well the message is understood by him.
Communication Process
ofcommudicatio process arc as follows: Context - Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication p.oceeds with contextThe sender chooses tie message to communicate within a coltext. SeDder / Encoder - Sender / Encoder is a person who sends the message, A sender males use of symbols (words o. graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the rcquired response. For instance - a training manager conducting training for new batch of employees. Sender may be an individual or a group or an organization. The views, background, approach, skills, competencies, and knowledge ofthe sender have a grcat impact on the message. The verbal and non verbal symbols chosen arc essential in ascertaining interpretation of the message by thc recipient in the same terms as intended by the senderMessage - Message is a key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It is a sign that elicits the response ofrecipient. Communication pmcess begins with deciding about the message to be conveyed- It mLrst be ensured that the main objective oftle message is clear. Medium - Medium is a meals used to exchange / hallsmit the message. The sender must choose an appropriate medium for transmitting the message else the message might not be conveyed to the desired recipients. The choice of appropriate medium of communication is essential for making the message effective and correctly interpreted by tbe recipient. This choice of communicalion medium varies depending upon the features of communication. For instance - Written medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small Brcup of people, while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required &om the recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there. Recipi€trt / Decoder - Recipient / Decoder is a person for whom the message is ;ntended / aimed / targeted. The degree to which the decoder understands the message is dependent The main components
2L
upon various factors such as knowledge ofaecipient, theia responsiveress to the messnge, and the reliance ofencoder on decoder. Feedback - Feedback is the main component of communication process as jt permits the sender to analyze the efficacy of the message. lt helps the se der in confinning thc conect interpretation of message by the decoder. leedback may be verbal (through words) or nonverbal (in lom of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of mcmos,
reporlr. etc.
8. Discuss the barrieN to effective iDterpeBoDal communications. / Define communicstion.
What are the barriers to €ffective communicatiotrs? (Arna Univ May,09),(Anna Univ May'10) (Atrna Univ Nov'l2),(Anna Univ. Ap.il 2011) Commmication is the exchange
of ideas, feelings, and thoughts from one person
to
another.
Commmicalion is a process of passing inlomation and understanding from one person to molher. Keith Davis. TEE BARRIERS OF COMMUI\ICATION: Perceptual and Latrguage Diff€rences: Perception is generally how each individual i erprets the world around him. All generally want to rcceive messages which are significant to them. But any message which is against their values is not accepted. A same event may be taken differently by different individuals. For example : A person is on leave for a month due to personal reasons (family member being critical). The HR Manager might be in confusion whether to retain that employee or not, the immediate manager might think of replacement because his teams productivity is being hampercd, the family members might take him as an emotional support.
The linguistic difrerances also lead to communication breakdown. Sarne word may mean different to differcnt individuals. For example: consider a wod ..value,,. What is the value ofthis Laptop? I Yalue our relation? What is the valu€ of leaming technical skills? "Value" means different in differcnt sentences. Commtmication breakdown occurs iftherc is wrong perception by the receiver.
Itrformation Ov€rload: Managers are surrounded with a pool ofinformation. It is essential to conhol this information flow else the information is likely to be misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result communication is less effective. lnattention: At times we just noi listen, but only hear. For example a traveler may pay attenlion to one 'NO PARKING" sign, but if such sign is put ail over the city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored for effective communication. Similarly if a superior is engrossed in his paper work and his subordinate explains him his
problem,
tle
superior may not get what he
is saying and it leads to disappointment of
subordinate.
Time Pressures: Often in organization the targets have !o be achieved within a specified time period, the failule ofwhich has advene consequences. ln a hasie to meet deadlines, the formal channels of communication are shortened, or messages are partially given, i.e., not completely transfened, Thus sufficient time should be given for eflective commrmicationDistractiotr/Noise: Communication is also alfected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical distraclions are also there such as, poor lightr[ng, uncomfortable sitting, unhygieflic rcom
also affecls communication conlmunication.
in a meeting. Similarly use of loud speakeN intederes with
1'l
Emotions: Emotional state at a panicular poi.r of dme also aff€cts cmml'rlication. If the receiver feels that communicator is angry he interprcts tlEr the ioformalion being sent is very bad. Wtile he takes it diflerently if the commrmicator is happy and jovial (in that c-ase the message is interpreted to be good and interesting).
Complexity iD Organizstional Structure: GGater the hierarchy in an organiztion (i.e. morc the nuinber of managerial levels), more is the chances of communication getting destroyed. Only the people at the top Ievel can see the overall picture while the people at low Ievel just have knowledge about their own area and a littte knowledge about other areas. Poor retention: Human memory camot function beyond a limit. One cant always retain what is being told specially if he is not interested or not attentive. This leads to commruication brcakdown. Noise - Noise plays an important barder to effective communication. knagine you want to pass on some information to a person standing next to a blaring mike. Do you think, the sender will ever be able to interyret it correctly? Do you think the rcceiver in this case is io blamez In this case, because ofthe blaring mike, the information will never rcach the pe.son in its desircd folm. Any presentation o. speech delivered in a noisy classroom or auditorium is pointless as the information would never fall on the eals ofthe listeaers. Try sharing some information with your friend in an overcrowded bus or a noisy market correct information will never reach the recipient and he would never be able to inte+ret it correctly or respond accordingly. Here noise is an extemal communication barrier and it results in the distoriion of the message.
UnorgaBiz€d Thought - UnoBanized and haph^zard thoughts also are instrumental in poor commrmication and a very important barrier to effective commmication. a. Mike to Monalisa -"Please come at 2 pm, okay not 2 come at 2.30 pm instead, fine let us freeze it for 3 pm" b. Monalisa is bound to get confirsed as Mike himself is not clear about the timings. The sender mlst pass on crystal clear information lo the recejver. The sender mltst fiist he himself very clear what he wants to commrmicate and then only begin the conveBation. Abstract ideas, haphazard thoughts lead to ineffective communication. First know what you have to communicate and rhen only spea-k.
WroDg interpretations - Wrong interpretations again play a very important role in miscommrmication- An information can be wrongly interpreted by the receive. leading to a complete mess. "Tom went for a bash yesterday nighf'. The word bash can be decoded as beating as well as a party. The sender rnight convey his message to the recipient in order to provide some necessary information but the rcceiver miSh misinteryret it. It is ihe
rcsponsibility of lhe receiver to give proper feedback to the speaker and clear all tlle doubts beforc ending the conversation. Don't keep things within you$elf; ask if you arc not clear with anything, Not Understanding the rcc€iver - The boss once wanted to address his young tearn- He quoted examples from the year 1950 - the year when his team members were nol even bom. Don't you think, all the young chaps will lose interest after sometime? That's the :mportance of undeNtanding thc recipient. Don't just prepme a speech, learn more aboul the cultue, habits, thought process of your listeners. The sender must undeNtaad the receiver first and then pass on the information. If a sender is sad and you want to give him some exciting news, he will neither respond nor undeNtand and hence the effect will for sule get nullified. Not understanding the receiver again is a banier to effective communication. Ignoring the content - One should lay emphasis on the content ofhis speech. The conteDt has to be clear, crisp and abov€ all interesting. Don't just speak; tale some time to find out what you are speaking. Find out whether the content is relevant or not? During presentalions, the spealer must use interesting words, funny one liner to capture the attention of the
28
L I
Don't make your speech monotonous otherwise the listeners after sometime will definitely fall asleep- One should be smart enough to understand when to crack a slight joke in mid ofa conversation. 11 really works. Don'tjust speak for the heck ol'it, unrlerstand what you erc speaking and try to make it mo.e intercsting, crisp and above all relevant. Avoiding the Listener - Imagine youEelf attending a seminar wherc the speaker is simply reading from his notes and for once has not made any eye contact with you. You will never be able to relate with the speaker and henae never tother to find out what he waots to convey. Don't just go on. Create a frierdly atmosphere and then start communicating. Don't just come to the point, one can ask questions lrom the listeners like what's new?, Lovely weather or even use compiiments like wondefil c.owd, enthusiastic gloup. Don't avoid your listenen, make an eye contact with them to effectively commrmicate. Nol colrfirmiog with the recipient - Always qoss check with the listeners, whether they bave received the corect info.mation or not. For imtaDce, ifyou are sharing some important coltact no, do make it a habit 10 veriry the number with the receiver whelher the rcceiver has ,ored it c.rrectly or not. Use words like'Did you get it? ,.Am I Audible?,, in between the c@velsaliorl Try to find out whether the listener is getting your message or not- Take pauses in b€tweerl" simply don't rush. Make a habit to spell out words. Ifyou want to pass or ]our tuail id to your team, it is better to spell out each word of the email account. Another efuive way is 10 break each word into alphabets, like ant can be communicated as a as in alph4 o as in Netherlands, t as in tango. The eror rate will defirutely go down and thc comBrrfcarion will be more effective. Not [trderstaEding the mood ofthe recipieDt - Try to understand the interest or the mood of the second pany and read the mind of the other person. Don't just start speaking, ulde$tand the nlood ofthe other persoo ]irst tud flen share the information. Ifyou thinl, the receiver is in the pink ofhis moods, don't giye him sad news, he will never bother to listen. Wait fot the correct time and then commNicate ifyou want your communication 10 create an listeners.
impact.
Low pitch aDd toD€ - Sometimes even the pitch and tone can play a communication barrier. Your content might be accumte, crisp and even rclated, but if your pitch is low your information will never reach the iisteners baflg on. The tone has to be crystal c]ear and loud for passing o1r correct information. Remembo to give the conect pause after each sentence and don't forget the punctuation mmks. Remember you arc cornmunicating not only for the first benches but the people on the Iast bench are also a part ofthe communication. Be loud and clear but don'1shout. Impatient Listener - The listener also has to be patieit enough lo absorb the complete information and then respond accordingly. Always jot down your points ard stal1 off with your queries once the sender is through with the commuDication. Don't just jump in between the conversation as it leads to urmecessary confusions, misudestandings and conflict and the communjcdlion never reaches an) conclusion. Difl€rent cultural lev€l - In any organizalion, an individual can oever think on the same line as his boss does. There is always a difference in their thought process. The rvork pressure, lack of transparency between the team membels are also the barriers which lead to an ineffective communication. These barriers are called internal barri€rs.
21
9. What arc the bar.ieE to efrertiye communicatiotrs? Srggest remedies to overcome those barriers- (Atrna v May'09) (AtrD. Univ Mey,l0)(AtrDa Utriv May'12)
U
THE BARRJERS TO EFFEC"TIVE COMMUMCATIONS: Refe. Q.No. 3 Overcoming lhe barri€rs of communicalion: There is a lot ofcommunication barriers faced these days by a1l. The message intended by the sender is not underctood by the receiver in the saune terms and sense and thus communication breakdown occurs, lt is essential to deal and cope up with these communication barri€rs so as to ensurc smooth and effective communication. 1. Eliminsting differences ilr perception: The organization should ensure that it is reffuiting right individuals on thejob. It's the responsibility ofthe interviewer io enswe thal the interviewee has command over the wdtten and spoken language. There shodd be proper Induction program so that the policies ofthe company are clear to all the employees. Therc should be proper hainings conducted for rcquired employees (for eg: Voice and Accent hainiflg). 2. Use of Simple Language Use of simple and clea. words should be emphasized. Use of ambiguous words and jargons should be avoided. 3. Reductioa aDd elimination of noise leyels: Noise is the main communication barrier which must be overcome on priority basis. It is essential to identiry the source of noise and then eliminate that souce. 4. Active Listenitrg: Listen attentively and carefully. There is a difference between "listening" and "hearing". Active listening means hearing with proper mdeNtanding of the message that is heard. By asking questions the speaker can ensure whether his,/her message is undeNtood or not by the receiver in the sarne terms as intended by the speaker. 5. Emotional State: During communication one should make effective use of body Ianguage. He/she should not show their emotions while communication as the receiver might misinterpret the message being delivered. For example, ifthe conveyer ofthe message is in a bad mood then the receiver might think that the information being delivered is not good. 6. Simple OrgaDizafional Structure: The organizational structure sholrd not be complex. The nurnber ofhiemrchical levels should be optimum. There should be a ideal span ofcontrol within the organization. Simpler the organizalional structue, more effective will be the communication. 7. Avoid Information Overload: The managers should know how to priodtize their work. They should not ove oad themselves with the work. They should spend quality time rvith their subordinates and should listen to their problems and feedbacks actively. 8. Give CoNtructiye Feedback; Avoid giving negative feedback. The contmts of the feedback might be negative, but it should be delivered consfuctively. Constructive feedback will lead !o effective communication between the superior and subordinaie, 9. Proper Medi, Selection: The managers should properly select the medium of communication. Simple messages should be conveyed orally, like: face to face interaction or meetings. Use of written means of communication should be encouraged for delivering complex messages. For significant messages reminders can be given by using wriften means ofcommunication such as : Memos. Notices etc. 10. Flexibility in meetitrg the targets: For effective communicatjon in an organization the managers sholrld ensure that the individuals are meeting their targets timely without skipfing the formal channels of communication. There should not be much pressure on employees to meet
the
iargets.
2o
10. ExplaiD the types of
lormal organizational communications.
Types ofCommunication
People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its context in which it is being sent. Choice ofcommunication rhannel and your
style of communicating also affects communication_ So, the.e are variety of types of
communication.
Verbal Communication: Verbal communication refers to the the form of commmication in which message is transmitted verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every communicalion is to have people unde$tand what we are trying !o convey. Itr verbal commuDication rememb€r the acronym KISS(keep it short and simple). When we talk to others, we hssume that others understand r,r'hat we arc saying because we know what we are saying. But this is not the case. usLully people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence crmtes barrier in delivering the dght meaning. Verbal Commudcation is further divided into: Oral Commrmication Written Communication
. .
Oral Commutricationl ln oral communication, Spoken words are used_ It includes face-to-face conversat;ons, speech, telephonic cooversation, video, mdio, television, voice over intemel. In oml
communication, commluicaiion
is
influence
by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of
speaking.
-Zt
Advantages;
r' lt brings
quick f€€dback,
y' ln a face-to-face conversation2 by re2ding facial expression and body langoage one can guess whether he/she should trust whal's being said or not.
Disadva ag€:
o In face-to-face discussion, user
is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering so
this can be counted as a
Writter Commudcation: In wdtten communication, written signs or symbols arc used to communicate. A written message may be pdnted or hand written. ln written communication message can be fansmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammm used, writing style, precision and clarity of the Ianguage used.
Written Communication is most commolr form of communication being used in business. So, it is considered core arnong business skills-
Advantages:
> Messages can be edited and r€vised many time before it
is
actually
sent.
Written communication provide record for every message sent and can be saved for laler study.
L A written message enables receiver to firlly mderstand it and send appropriate feedback. DisadvaDtages:
. .
Unlike oral communication, Writien codmunication doesn't bring insta$t feedbackIt take more time in composing a written message as compard to word-of-mouth. and number ofpeople struggles for wdting ability. Nonv€rbal CommunicstioD: Nonverbal communication is ihe sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posturc, tone ofvoice or facial €xpr€ssiotrs, is called nonve.bal communication. Nonverbil communicatioD is all about the body language of speaker. Nonverbal commrmication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal signals reflects the situation more accuftfely than verbal messages. Sometimes nolrverbrl response coDtradicts verbal communicatiotr and hence affect the effectiveness ofmessage.
Nonverbd commulication have the following three elements: Appearance
Speaker: clothin& hairstyle, neatness, use
of
cosmetics
Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, fumishings
Body
Language
Facial exprcssions, gestures, postures
Sounds Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate
Formal Commrnication:
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ln formal communication, ceftain nrles. conveniions and principles are followed whiie comrnunicating message, Formal communicatio[ occurs in fomal atrd official style. Usually professional settings, coryomte meetings, confercnces undergoes in formal pattem. In formal commutricatiorl, use ofslang alrd foul language is ayoided and corr€ct pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.
Informal CommE trication: Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication channels. It's jusi a casual talk. It is established for societal amliations of members in an orgEnization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends ard family- I! hforEal commutricatioo use of slang words, foul lrtrguage is not restricted. Usually- iDformal cornmunication is done orally and using gestures.
InforDrl
communicatiotr, Unlike formal communication, doesD,t follow In an organization, jt helps in finding out staff grievances as people express ilrore whtn talking informaliy. Informal communicatiotr helps itr building relationships. lEte4rarsonal coDmunication: Commuication between two persons is called as inte.personal communication. htaDersoral communication:, A person speaking by himselfis called as intrapelsonal communication (Soliloquies) lllrss corrlDunicaiiod: Cotrmmication among a large number ofpeople is called as mass communication. Grotrp commutricatioD: Communication arnong a small number of persons (3-20) is called as group communication Intemal coDmunication: Commuication within lhe organization among its membels is called as intemal commmicalion. External communication : Communication with outside the organization is called as extemal communication. Eg: suppliers, customeB, governmenl etc.
futtoritlllinB.
l1.Ilxplaitr iD detail about organization culture.(or) What is orga zationat culture? Explain the typ€s of organizstional culture((Anna U[iv May,t3) Organization culture relers to ihe beliefs and principles of a particular organization. The culture followed by the organization has a deep impact on the employees and their rclationship arnongst themselves. Every organization has a unique cultue making it different from the other and givinB i1 a sense of direction. It is essential for the employees to understard the culture ol thcir workplace to adjust well.
VARIOUS TYPES OF ORGANIZATION CULTURE: 1. Subculture: subcultwe refers to a valuees that are shar€d by the employees ofa panicular departrnent in an organization. It is the rcsult of problems or experience peculiar to a particular deparment. 2. Domitrant culture: It relers lo a set ofva:lues that are shared by all the members ofan organization. For example, the employees of an organization mwy hold the view that under no circumstances they would take part i. any strike progamme.
l:?
3. Strotrg cullure: ln the case of strong culture, the valu€s 3re intens€ly held and widely shared by all the members ofan organization. The aninrde of the €mploy.e€s in such fll organization will be positive and the rate of labour tumover will be lo!r'. Th€ employees art convinced about tlrc actions ofthe management and lhey repose fu11 fairh in dle laner4. Weak culture: In an organization having weak culture, ihe coIe values are not itrt€8sely held and widely shared by al1 members of the organization- The emPloyees in such m organization, obviously, do no posses a positive attittrde. T}le rate of labour turnover is also likely to be high. 5. Authoritarian culture: In this case, the leader of the organization exercises firll contml over the subordinates who have to strictly carry out the ordeN and instructions ofthe former. It is based on the assumption that the leader knows whal is good for the organization and would always strive for its interests. 6. Normative Culture: In such a culture, the tloms and procedwes of ihe organization are p.edefined and the rules and rcgulations are set as per the existing guidelines. The employees behave in an ideal way and strictly adhere to the policies ofthe organization. No employee dares to break the rules and sticks to the alrcady laid policies. 7. Pragmatic Culturc: In a pBgmatic culturc, more emphasis is placed on the clients and the extemal parties. Customer satisfaction is the main motive of the employees in a pragmatic culture. Such organizations treat their clients as Gods and do not follow any set rules Every employee strives hard to satisry his clients to expect maximum business fiom their side. 8. Academy Culturc: Organizations following academy cultue hire skilled individuals. The roles and responsibilities are delegated according to the back grolmd, educational qualilication and work experience of the employees. Organizations following academy cultfie are very particular about training the existing employees. They ensure that vadous training programmes are being conducted at the workplace to hone the skills of the employees. The management makes sincerc efforts to upgmde the knowledge of the employees 10 improve their professional competence. Ihe employees in an academy cultme stick to the organization for a long$ dumtion and also grow within it. Educational irstitutions, universities, hospitals p€ctice such a culture. 9. Basebalt tesm Culture: A baseball team culture consideN the employees as the most treasured possession of the organization- The employees are the true assets of the organization who have a major role in its successful functionjng. ln such a culture, the individuals always have an upper edge and they do not bother much about their organization. Advertising agencies, event management companies, financial institutions follow such a culture.
Organizations following a club cutture are very Particular about the reduit. The individuals arc hi.ed as pel their specialization, educational
l0.Club Culture: employees they
qualification and interests. Each one does what he is best at. The high potential employe€s arc p.omoted suitably and appralsals are a regular feature of such a culture. I 1. Fortr€ss Culture; Therc arc certain or8anizations where the employees are not very srre about their carcer and longevity. Such organizations follow fortress culture. The employees are lerminaled if the organization is not performing well. Individuals suffer the most when the organization is at a loss. Stock broking industries follow such a culture. 12. Tough Guy Culture: In a tough gly culture, Feedbacks arc essential. The performance of the employees is reviewed from time to time and their work is thoroughly monitored. Teain managers are appointed to discuss queries wiih the team members and guide them wheaever required. The employees are under conslant watch in such a culture. I l. B€t your company Culture: Organizations which follow bet your company culture take decisions which involve a huge amount of risk and the consequences are also unforeseen. The
3+
principles and policies ofsuch an organization are lomrujaled to address sensitive issues and it lakes time to get the results. 14. Process Culture: As the name suggesls the employees in such a culture adhere to the processes and procedures of the organiz,ation. Feedbacks and performance reviews do not matter much iD such organizations. The employees abide by the rules and regulatioos and work accoding to the ideologies ofthe workplace. All govemmenl organizations follow such a
culture,
ELEMENTS
OF
ORGANIZATIONAI
CULTI]RE:
There are many possible elements oforganizational culture. The above definition includes three the elements organizational cultue
of
Organizatio[al Values. Values reflect what rve leel is important. Organizations may have core values that reflect what is important in the organization. These values may be guiding principles of behavior for all members in the organization. The core values may be stated on l]le o.ganization's website. For example, an organization could state that their core values arc creativity, humor, integrity, dedication, mutual respect, kindness, and contribution
b
society-
Organizstional Beliefs. Beliefs that a.e part of an organization,s cultue may include beliefs about the best ways to achieve certain goals such as inc.easing productivity and job motivation. For example, an organization may convey the beliefthat the expression of humot in the workplace is an effective way to increase productivity and job motivation. Organizational Norms. Norms reflect the typical and accepted behavioB in ao organization. They may reflect the values and beliefs ofthe organization. They may rcflect how certain tasks are generally expected to be acomplished, the attributes of the work environment, the tlpical ways ihat people communicate in the organizatioq and the typical leadership styles in the organization. For example, the work environment of a company may be described as relaxed, cheerful, and pleasant. Moreover, the organization may have a participative decision making process in which many people in ihe organization are able to express their views conceming important decisions. Also, an organization may [Eve rrany meetings to discuss ideas.
CRf,ATING , SUSTAINING, AND CIII.NGING A CULTURE: As mentioned earlier, cultu.e is sharedness of understanding values among the oryanizational membes. Cultue once established may fade away also. The establshed culture needs to be changed to respond to the environrnental changes.
CRNATING A CULTURX: 1. Founder's values and beliefs:
i
The lounders of every organization have certain values and beliefs. The people employed by them must work with them to realise and sustain the goals and values for which the organization itselfhas been established. A business organization, for examplc, may be established with the sole objective of selling essential consumer goods ofgood quality at the lowest pice. Likewise, the founders ofanother business may fbcus on maximum customer salisf'action. The employees ofsuch an organization , therfore, are expected to give top proirity to attain and sustain maximum customer satisf'action.
2. Critical Incid€trts:
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3ji
Cenain cridcal incidents that may arise in an o€aniz,aiion may also pave rvay for ihe ofa certain culture. A very high rate of labour tumover owing to lo\r' pa! for exarnple, may forEe ihe mMagemenl lo e!olve a sensible pay policy. Ii may be mentioned here lhat rnosl ofthe self-financing collges rhat were collecting high fees from the students had to cut down the same drasticalty owing to poor stude enrollmenl, The indifferent attitude ofa particular management may promote employee indiscipline. Such a trend may prove to be detrimental to the interests olthe organization. Under such circumstances, some member of certain tough measures to discipline the
creation
employees.
SUSTAININC CULTURE:
Once a certain culture is $eated, the next is to sustain it, i.e., to make it.emain. Ior sustaining culture, the following approches are useful: Selection ofthe right man for the right job 2. Actions ofthe top management 3. Preparing the new employees to adapt Selectiotr ofthe Right Man for dre Right Job: In the manner ofemployee selection, it is not enough to consider only the academic achievements and skills ofthe individual should the organizational culture be sustained. An individual who is well qualified ard trained may not be prepared to accept the organizaion's culture, It is, therfore, important that the pdnciple of'.ighl man for the rightjob' is applied to find out the preparedness of an ildMdual to accept and lbllow tailhltlly the organization's practices.
l.
Actions ofthe Top ManagmeDt: For the sustance oforganizational culture, the top management has to play a major part. tl shall reiterate its values, beliefs and goals by advising the middle and supe isory level managers and through them the employees ofthe entire organization. The moment ihe top management discoveN any deviation liom the basic norms ofthe organization, it shall take apprcpriate action to set dght things. ln the matter ofsustaining organizational cultute, the following areas require periodical review by the top management: a Adherance by the employees to the basic values of the organization.
a a a a a t a
Superior-subordinate relationships
Work commitment and involvement Employee attendance
Punctuality union activities Labour tumover Customer serice
Socialisation: As the new employees are not farniliar with the organization's culture, they must be prepared to adapt. Such an adaptation process is known as 'socialisation'. Stages:
l.Prearrival- [t
refers to all leaminig that
6culs before
a oew employeejoins the
organization. 2.Encounter- At this stage, the new recruit starts comparing the expeclations he had in the anival stage with reality.
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S.Melamorplosis: It means change ofcondition orcharacter by magic or natural development. At this stage, the employee masters the art ofadapting to the organization's values and norms.
C}IANGINC ORGAtr{IZATIOANL CULTURX: The world in which the organization exists conslantly changes. Market conditions, economic policies ofthe govemment, technology etc. Do change with the passage oftime. Every organization, therfore, has to adapt itselfto such changes lailing which i! cannot survive. Many organizations in the past were showing resjstance to the inlroduction of computels. Employees were also not willingto accept the chnge_ But now we find the use of computeis eveD/wherc. Owingto the tmd in the industry, an organisation that has been using the indigenous technolgy may have to collaboraling with foreign car companies) A change in the mode ofbusiness may result in a change in the very culture ofthe organisation. Now the question is how to bdng about a change in the organisational cul1urc. For this purpose, the follov/ing approaches may be used: The reward system can be changed to support the cultural change. Personnel who have the will to inroduce the change may be appointed. Changing the chief executive officer ofthe organization can bring about a total change in the organizational culturc as he/she plays a major role in determining the marmer in which tlings arc done. It is also necessary to convince every member ofthe organization ofthe need for the change so that they may give their support.
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MEANS OII,,I.RANSMIl,l'ING ORGANIZA'I'IoNAL CULTI,IRE: The organizational culture is hansmitted to the employees usually through the following means:
i) ii)
iii) iv)
v)
Stories
Ritualt Symbols Language Slogans
Stories: One way oftransmitting the organizational cultwe to the employees is by narrating the hardships and suffe$ings ofthose who have founded the organization. Tte present genamtion ofernployees may nol be aware ofthe diffculties faced by the founders during the early days of inception of the organization. Once they are made to understand the sarne, they will be able to appropriate and also emulate the values and beliefs for the promotion of which the organization has been foundeal.
Rituals: The core values ofan organizatjon are rcfleoed in certain rituals p€rformed as a matter ofrcutine. Daily moming prayer, weekly f'amily dinner, monthly picnic, annual award presentation function etc. Are a few examples ofsuch rituals. The performance ofthese rituals helps the employees appreciate the organization,s
cultule. Physical symbols: Certain physical symbols used in the organizatioD do rel,lect its cuklrle. lnscribing the logo ofthe organization in all the stationel, irems provided for thye staff, elegant unifoms for different categoaies ofemployees, reserved car park Ior executives, luxurious office fumishings etc are examples ofphysical symbols.
Larguage:
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Over a period of time every organization develop6 ce.tain ttrlique terms ro dBcribe stafl customers, suppliers, equipmen! work sitt diofl and so orl, It may take somctime for a new employee to become familiar witb lhese re.ms rhar are used effortlessly by the existing employees. By leaming the language oflhe organization, the membeIs convey their acceptance of the organizational culture. Slogans: Slogans can also be useful in making the not only the employees but also those who deal with the orgaganiation understand aDd appreciate its culture"Customer satisfaction is our Motto', "Efforts never fail", "Every customer is important to us", etc. Are a few slogans that symbolise what the organization stands the
lor. 12.
[rplain cr€ativity
in detail.
Creativity is defined as the ability to produce new and useful ideas through the of known priniciple and components in novel and obvious ways. Creativity exists throughout the population, largely independent ofage, sex, and education. CR,EATIVITY PROCESS: Creativity is a very complex process. Many ofus believe that it is unexlainable and comes out of the clear blue sky for no apparent reasons. But this is not a good and valid explanatiorl and behavioural scientists believ€ that thmugh specific process, creatjvity emerges. The following are thesteps usually ide ified in describing this Focess. Saturatiotr: It may be true that some new ideas may comejust by the way but the most important way to get right ideas is to wod( on a baming Fohlem, and work hard. For example , a manager should tkoughly conveBant with the problem on hand. For him, saturation stage normally begins in through familiarity with a problem itself, its history, its importance, its relationship to other pafts of the business, and its setting. It will provide the manager an insight in identii,ing the real problem and he can think for suitable solution. Preparition: This step is a period of conscious, direc! mental effort devoted to the accumulation of information pertinent to the problem. During this step, the following activities a.e car:reid out (a) Structwe the problem, (b) Collect alJ available information (c) Understand relations and effects (d) Solve sub-pmblems (e) Explore all possible solutions and combinations that may lead to a satisfactory combination
solulion.
Frustmtiotr and incubrtiotr: Failure to solve the problem satisfactory by the anal)'tical process above leads to iiustration Io the creative person. Therefore, he may engage himself in activities totally uncormected with the problem; he may watch movie, play video games, and go for other enierlainment, and so on. How ever, the problem, fortified with all the facts gathered about it, incubates in the subconscious mind. The subconscious mind engages continuously in generation ol ideas lor the solution of problcm even though people may not be aware aboul it. During the process ofincubation, the mind will work subconsciousiy to create cerlain new ideas.
Inspiration or illumination;
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A possible solulion to the problem may occur as a sponlaneous insighr. often when the consciolrs mind is al resl during relaxation o. sleep. Raudsepp states thal ',creative ideas ,'nav and do appear at any hour and undea the strangesl of circumstances"_ Sometimes, trra y idcas may come whcn one is not really thinking about the problem consciously. Vcrificatio[: This is the final stage of crwative process and involves verifying. modifying, or applying the ideas towards the solution ofthe problem under study. lntuition or insight is not alrvays corect, and the solution revealed in a flash of insight must now be tested and evaluated !o assure it is a satisfactory solutioo to tle problem. This is actually a very critical phase in creative process because new ideas are wo(hless until they come into full form and are available for consistent by those who can use them.
CREATTVITY TOOI^S: Crealivity tools are designed to help you devise, creative and imaginarive solutions to Fobkms. It heips you sopt opportunitjes dlat you might otherwise miss. The following dr€
rzilrs qEdivhy roots:
Eirttr-i+:
Braifilorming is an excellmt way of developing many creative solutions to a Fobl6D. h *orks by focusing on a prcblem, and then coming up with very many mdical soldiotrs to it. The essence of brainstoming is a creative conference, ideally of 8 to 12 peqle meeting for less than an hour to develop a long list of 50 or more ideas. Suggestions ae listed without critism on a blackboard or newsprint as they are offered; one visible idea leads to others. At the end of this sessio& participants are asked how thw ideas could be combined or improved.
Vertical thinking ard Latelal thinkiDg: In a "vertical thinkifl9, one starts with some knolvn condition and then applies
steps
of
r€asoning aimed at reaching a goal.
Lateral thinking is the opposite to vertical thinking. In a lateral thinkin, one is not consffained to follow completely the formal deduction prcess. One has an inspimtion or flash and sees a new angle on the problem. In many ways, lateral thinking is bminstorming ox your own- Lateral thirlets makejumps to new ideas and views, they are creative and imaginative, often supplying ideas that vertical thinking alone could not p.ovide. ReYersal tool: Reversal is a good tools for improving a prodcui o. a se.vice. ln this method, ueative lhinkers ask the opposite ofthe question that he want to ask, and apply ihe results,
SCAMPER Tool:
S
substitude-components, materials, people
C- Combine mix, combine with other assemblies or serviccs, integmie A - Adapl- alter, change f,rnction, use part of anotho elemenl M- Modify- increase or reduce in scale, chnge shape, modiry afiributes (e.g. colour) P- Put to anoiher use E- Eliminate- remove elements, simplify, reduce to core functionality R- Reve6e- tum inside out or upside down, also use of reversal
Reframitrg Matrlx: Reframing mafix is a simple technique that hepls to look at business problems from a number of different viewpoints. It expands the range of creative solutions that you can generale. The approch relies on the fact that diftbrent pcople with differcnt experience approch problems in dil'fercnt ways-
Mindmapping;
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This tool is similar to concepl fan exc.pt looking o.E lrep b6.f mindmap consists of a cenbal word or concept sith 5 to lO B*r ik word, similarlo crcating a spider-web.
fi6 n!*- -{ th -d- 5 tk
l3.Explain breifly aboul innovation.
II{NOVATION: Innovation means the use of these ide3s, ln an enterprisg this can mean a new prodcut, a new service or a new vray of doing things. lffDvations are based mainly on bright ideas. I1 is very dsky and not successfii at ali times- The most successful innovations are often t]rc exited one- lnnovation is not only relevant to high-tech enterprises but also crucial for old-line, tiaditioal companies which may not service without the inlilsion of innovation. Innovation comes about because of some of the following situations:
(i)
The unexpected event, failure or success.
(ii) The fact that the difference h\reen what is assumed and what really is. (iii)The process or task that needed imEovement. (iv)Change in the ma*et or industy improvement (v) Change in the market or industry structure (vi)Change in human populatiom (vii) Change in meaning or in the way things are perceived. (viiD lnnovation based on knowl€dge. II{NOVATION PROCESS: SettiDg tte agetrda)Setting the stage)Testing snd implementing the idet) Assessing the outcome STAGE-1: It involves setting the agenda for innovation. This involves creating a mission statement a document dessibing an organization's overall direction ed general goals. Top management should be committed to innovation and motivated to implement the idea. STAGE-2: Stage two sets the stages. At this stage, brcad goals are narrowed down into more sp€cific tasks and need€d rcsources are gathercd to meet them-
STACE-J;
At
stage three, the ideas are actually implemented.
ln other words, lile is given to
innovation.
STAGE.4: At stage four, an assessment ofthe idea is made, what happens to the idea depends on ihe results of the assessment. Three outcomes are possible. If the resulting idea has been a total success,it will be accepted and caried out in the future. This ends the process. Likev/is€, the process ends when the idm proves to be a total failure. However, ifthe new idea shows p.omise and makes some progress towards the organization's objectiv3es but still has pmblems, th eprocess is likely to start all overagain at stage two.
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