Remarks:  The Future of the International Monetary System   

 

 

Michael D. Bordo 

Rutgers University 

 

 

  

 

Prepared for the Conference:” The International Monetary system: Old and New Debates” sponsored by  the Reinventing Bretton Woods Committee 

Paris, December 10, 2010 

 

 The purpose of the International Monetary System (IMS) is to allow private agents to trade freely and  efficiently between countries in goods, services and financial instruments. The history of the IMS since  the late nineteenth century is one of financial innovation from the fixed exchange rate gold standard  regime to floating exchange rates today( Bordo and Flandreau 2003). The path of learning was not  smooth . 

According to the Trilemma story (Obstfeld and Taylor 2003), a fixed exchange rate  system  with free  capital mobility only works when there is no monetary policy independence. The Classical gold standard  worked moderately  well  in the period  1880‐1914 for the advanced countries and  for many emerging  countries .It provided the environment for massive capital flows from Europe to the countries of new  settlement. The gold standard had fixed exchange rates, free capital mobility but only limited monetary  policy independence (with credibility central banks had some leeway to pursue stabilization policy  within the target zone provided by the gold points.  Bordo and MacDonald 2005). 

The gold standard broke down in World War I and was reinstated in the mid 1920s as a Gold Exchange  (GE) standard in which member countries held international reserves in gold and foreign exchange and  the reserve currency countries, Great Britain and the  U.S. ,held reserves in gold. The GE standard only  lasted until 1936 when France left it (the rest of the world abandoned the gold standard between 1931  and 1936). The GE standard broke down primarily because of the asymmetric adjustment problem. The  UK went back to gold at an overvalued parity in 1925 and France did so in 1926 at an undervalued  parity. In addition, the U.S. and France (the largest gold holders sterilized gold inflows from deficit  countries like the UK) and didn’t allow the classical price specie flow adjustment mechanism to work.  Thus the UK faced continuous deflationary pressure and a threat to adhering to gold while France and  the U.S. sucked gold out of the IMS creating global deflationary pressure. In addition to asymmetric  2   

adjustment ,the adherents to the GE standard( because of the postwar dual mandate of full  employment and gold convertibility Eichengreen1992) suffered from a lack of the credibility that  had  characterized the classical gold standard. The Bretton Woods System (BWS) was designed to rectify the  faults of the GE standard. However, like the GE standard, it evolved into a gold dollar standard. Capital  controls allowed monetary (and fiscal) policy independence) to stabilize the domestic real economy. In  addition the BWS was an adjustable peg system allowing members to alter their parities in the face of  permanent shocks and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was established to smooth member  countries current account imbalances. 

 Bretton Woods worked relatively well from 1959 to 1967 after current account convertibility was  established by the European countries. It had both good price level and real output performance (Bordo  1993). During this period capital controls had considerable traction and the U.S. ,the reserve center  country ,followed (at least until 1965) the rule to maintain price stability. 

The BWS broke down because of the Triffin dilemma (the rise in outstanding dollar liabilities held by  member countries relative to the U.S. gold reserves creating the eventual conditions for a run on the  U.S. gold reserves): a run up in U.S. inflation after  1965 which was transmitted to the rest of the world;  the loss of credibility of U.S. monetary policy; growing capital mobility and ease to evade the capital  controls. 

BWS was succeeded in 1973 by managed floating exchange rates. After a decade of learning  characterized by high and variable inflation in virtually every advanced country, ( except Germany and  Switzerland), and volatile exchange rates, floating  became relatively successful by the mid 1980s.  Indeed many emerging countries reached the level of financial maturity to be able float in the  subsequent two decades. 

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The ability of floating exchange rates to handle the series of shocks  that  have occurred since 1973  makes it difficult to understand why it should be replaced by a Bretton Woods type system loaded with  fatal flaws. The recent financial crisis (which is not yet resolved for peripheral European countries) and  its aftermath of slow recovery is an unusual episode. It was not caused by the IMS but by policy   mistakes ,again largely by the United States (a flawed housing policy, failures in supervision and  regulation and too loose monetary policy between  2002‐2005), aided by financial innovation which  increased leverage and risk taking. The financial crisis and subsequent serious recession were  transmitted to the rest of the world through financial linkages and trade flows. The emerging countries,  less financially connected to the U.S., and with a strong underlying growth dynamic, fared much better  than the advanced countries.  Once adjustment to the crisis/ recession and slow recovery has been  made in the advanced countries, several years from now, it should be back to business as usual. The  eurozone story is different from the rest of the IMS. It reflects serious flaws in its construct (e.g. the lack  of a fiscal union and credible adherence by members to fiscal rules). The crisis revealed its fault lines and  the outlook seems less optimistic. 

However, there is a similarity between the GE standard and BWS on the one hand and the present  system on the other—the asymmetric adjustment mechanism between surplus countries like China and  deficit countries like the U.S. and U.K.  Like France and the U.S. in the 1920s and 1930s and the U.S. in  the 1960s, important countries like China are not playing by the rules of the IMS. In each case there is a  good reason why these surplus countries sterilized gold and dollar inflows. In the case of France in the  1920s and 1930s, it was because of fear of a   return to the high inflation of the early 20s. A similar fear  drove U.S. policy makers. For the U.S. in the 1960s, it was because of the financing of the Vietnam War  and  social programs, along with the Keynesian takeover of the Fed  (which led it to greatly downplay  the commitment to gold convertibility and to low inflation, in favor of maintaining full employment and  4   

high growth).  Similarly, today China undervalues its currency and sterilizes reserve inflows because it  wants to follow the successful export –led domestic development strategy that other Asian countries did  earlier in the twentieth century. 

The key intractable problem today, as in the past, is the inability to force important sovereign countries  to go against their perceived national interest. No one can force China to let its currency float or to  remove its capital controls. The main difference in this regard between the GE standard and the BWS  system   in the past, versus the regime today is that a fixed exchange rate system ( as in the earlier  episodes) would eventually collapse in the face of the imbalances; whereas today  flexible exchange  rates in countries (other than China and several others) can act as buffers until China has reached the  financial maturity to float. The U.S. dollar will continue to be the international reserve currency of choice  for the foreseeable future because it’s possible rivals are not yet ready (the eurozone is unstable and  China is not financially developed enough to provide a reserve currency). Moreover, because of this  there is little incentive for China or other surplus emerging countries to stage a run on the dollar like  France did in the 1960s.Thus the floating exchange rate system will muddle through after the financial  crisis becomes history. 

 One possible reform of the present system that could work to make it more efficient is for all countries  to follow credible  inflation  targeting (or better still, price level targeting) rules at a common inflation  rate, e.g. 1%, along with floating exchange rates. It would be like the classical gold standard but better  because it would not be based on a commodity facing “the vagaries of the gold standard,” and because  the floating exchange rate could handle shocks to the real exchange rate. It would require  countries  to  reach the financial maturity necessary to have a floating exchange rate and like under the gold standard  to follow credible monetary (and fiscal) rules. 

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References 

Michael D. Bordo ( 1993), “The Bretton Woods international monetary system: A historical overview. In  A Retrospective on the Bretton Woods system; lessons for international monetary reform, eds. Michael  D.Bordo and Barry Eichengreen,3‐98.Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 

Michael D. Bordo and Ronald MacDonald ( 2005) “Interest Rate Interactions in the Classical Gold  Standard;1880‐1914: Was there Monetary Independence?’ Journal of Monetary Economics. March. 

Barry Eichengreen ( 1992) Golden Fetters: The Gold Standard and the Great Depression, 1919‐1939.  New York: Oxford University Press. 

Maurice Obstfeld and Alan M. Taylor  ( 2003) “Globalization and Capital Markets”. In  Globalization in  Historical Perspective, eds. Michael D.Bordo , Alan M. Taylor and Jeffrey G. Williamson,121‐183.  Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 

 

 

  

 

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Remarks: The Future of the International Monetary ...

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