Logon Nature / Medicinal Plant Trail Written and designed by Dr. Glyn Barrett March 2017
Table of Contents Aim
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Method
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Waypoint Topics and Descriptions
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NT1 Pseuderanthemum carruthersii Oleanolic acid Betulin Variegation NT2 Anethum graveolens Plant oils / Secondary metabolites / odors / attractants NT3 Hibiscus brackenridgei Corypha sp. (maybe elata) NT4 Tridax procumbens Sida sp. NT5 Carica papaya Papain NT6 Artocarpus altilis – Kulo – Breadfruit Leaf morphology Celosia argentea var. spicata NT7 Ruellia britonniana Cosmos sulphureus NT8 Imperata cylindrica - Cogon grass Monocots v Dicots NT9 Crotalaria pallida Fabaceae – the bean family NT10 Clerodendrum quadriculare Jatropha integerrima Epipyhtes NT11 Swietenia sp. – Mahogany tree NT12 Mangrove rehabilitation project Washed-up material on beach Pandana sp. Ipomoea pes-caprae
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NT13 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis NT14 Vitex parviflora NT15 Evolution – a tale of chickens and eggs NT16 Euphorbia cyathopora Cyanthillium cinereum NT17 Lantana camara NT18 Bayview from hilltop NT19 Beach ecology / Ecological Succession NT20 Solitary Bakhaw plant NT21 Acacia species. NT22 Bananas NT23 Fish drying racks NT24 Coconut grove NT25 Moringa oleifera Catharanthus roseus NT26 Chromolaena odorata Dactyloctenium aegyptium NT27 Jasmin species NT28 Caesalpina pulcherrima NT29 Vigna luteola NT30 Turnera ulmifolia Passiflora species NT31 Plumeria sp. - Frangipani Additional topics Ecosystem services Mycorrhizae Soil water holding capacity
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List of Figures Figure 1 Logon Nature Trail (blue line). Small white circles are waypoints. Figure 2 P. carruthersii - Carruthers' falseface Figure 3 Plant leaf variegation Figure 4 Dill (Anethum graveolens) Figure 5 Hibiscus brackenridgei Figure 6 Buri palm Figure 7 Tridax procumbens Figure 8 Sida sp. Figure 9 Carica papya. Cut fruit (left), plant with fruit (right) Figure 10 Atrocarpus altilis Figure 11 Leaf morphology Figure 12 Celosia argentea Figure 13 Ruellia britonniana Figure 14 Cosmos sulphureus Figure 15 Imperata cylindrica Figure 16 Structural differences between monocots and dicots Figure 17 Crotalaria pallida Figure 18 Cleodendrum quadriculare Figure 19 Jatropha integerrima Figure 20 Mahogany trees Figure 21 Organic material on beach Figure 22 Pandana sp. Figure 23 Ipomoea pes-caprae Figure 24 Stachtarpheta jamaicensis Figure 25 Vitex parviflora Figure 26 Euphorbia cyathopora Figure 27 Cyanthillium cinereum Figure 28 Lantana camara Figure 29 Colonization and ecological succession Figure 30 Acacia sp. Figure 31 Banana plant Figure 32 Fish drying racks in Bool Figure 33 Moringa oleifera Figure 34 Catharanthus roseus Figure 35 Chromolaena odorata Figure 36 Dactyloctenium aegyptium Figure 37 Jasmin sp. Figure 38 Caesalpina pulcherrima Figure 39 Vigna luteola Figure 40 Turnera ulmifolia Figure 41 Passiflora sp. Figure 42 Plumeria sp. - Frangipani
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List of Tables Table 1 Logon Nature Trail Waypoints - General topics
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Aim The Logon Nature Trail (LNT) is designed to give participants (e.g. PepSea volunteers, school children, locals, foreign visitors etc.) general information on the terrestrial ecology of Logon. Participation in this activity should increase knowledge of several key ecosystem processes. Due to the nature of the island, the main focuses are plant biology, ethnobotany and sustainable use of natural resources.
Method The LNT consists of a 4.8 km circular walk starting and ending at the People and the Sea head office in Barrio. The walk follows the clearly-marked walking/motorbike trail up to the north of the island and passes through several of its main habitats. The leader of the group follows the pre-determined path, labelled Nature Trail as shown on the Garmin GPS device, and stops at the various waypoints (labelled NT#). Each waypoint (listed in Table 1) has a specific topic and/or set of organisms to discuss. The leader should already be knowledgeable of the key characteristics of each location to facilitate communication to and teaching of participants. A map of the route, together with waypoints, can be seen in Figure 1. It is important to note that much of the plant life may be seasonal and may not be present at the marked waypoint. The photographs should allow the leader to easily recognise the plants along the whole length of the trail and refer to them whenever they deem appropriate. Dependent on the knowledge of the leader and/or the level of interest of the participants, the LNT should take around 2.5 – 3.5 hours. Participants are encouraged to take the following items on the walk: ● Notepad and pen; camera. ● Appropriate weather-dependent clothes / protection / sunglasses. ● Appropriate footwear; there are several rocky climbs on which flip-flops are not advised (this may be unavoidable in the case of local participants). Due to the terrain, it is not advised for persons with lowered mobility to partake in the walk. ● Water + snacks; there are several small shops on the way but participants are encouraged to bring their own water bottles (there is also a beach bar near Langub near the middle of the walk to rest, swim etc). N.B. Many of the entries in this report refer to the medicinal value of plants. Much of this information is derived from folklore and tradition, with little empirical experimentation or observation. It is advised to seek professional advice before administering treatment.
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Figure 1 Logon Nature Trail (blue line). Small white circles are waypoints.
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Table 1 Logon Nature Trail Waypoints - General topics
Waypoint Topics and Descriptions 6
NT1 Pseuderanthemum carruthersii Carruthers' falseface (figure 2) is a species of plant in the Acanthaceae family. It is endemic to Asia and contains many important and useful chemical compounds (e.g. oleanolic acid, Betulin, Lupeol, various sterols). These phytochemicals all have high medicinal value and are under investigation in the pharmaceutical industry in the hunt for novel drugs and medicines. The flowers are interesting because they have evolved to resemble their pollinators (moths and butterflies). The purple area just below the anthers contains attractants and acts as a visual landing aid for pollinators. Oleanolic acid Oleanolic acid is so called because it was first isolated and studied in Olea europaea (olive). It is known to have hepato (liver) protective and exhibits anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory and anti-viral properties. Oleanolic acid is a ubiquitous triterpenoid (plant compound) in the plant kingdom, medicinal herbs, and is an integral part of the human diet. During the last decade over 700 research articles have been published on triterpenoids research, reflecting tremendous interest and progress in our understanding of these compounds. Betulin Betulin is present in many plant species. Plant are thought to produce these compounds, which are called secondary metabolites, to protect themselves against micro-organisms and invading pathogens. Red alder bark, a North American tree species, contains high concentrations of botulin. Native Americans used red alder bark to treat poison oak, insect bites, and skin irritations. Blackfoot Indians used an infusion made from the bark of red alder to treat lymphatic disorders and tuberculosis.
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Figure 2 P. carruthersii - Carruthers' falseface
Variegation There are several potted plants here which are variegated. Variegation (figure 3) is the appearance of differently coloured zones in the leaves, and sometimes the stems, of plants. Variegation occurs very rarely in nature but is commonly seen in ornamental garden plants as they are considered pretty. A common cause of variegation is the masking of green pigment in most leaves by other pigments, such as anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are plant secondary metabolites which are used for a multitude of purposes by the plant. Variegation can extend to the whole leaf, causing it to be reddish or purplish. It is suggested that some patterns of leaf variegation may be part of a defensive masquerade strategy, allowing the plant to disguise itself from predators. For example, insect leaf miners (moths, beetles) may assume that a given leaf is already infested, thus reducing parasitization of the leaf.
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Figure 3 Plant leaf variegation
NT2 Anethum graveolens Commonly known as dill, it is an annual herb in the Apiaceae or celery family (figure 4). Dill is used as a flavouring for many foods, most famously gravlax (cured salmon), Eastern European soups and for pickling. Dill is best used fresh as its flavor rapidly disappears with drying. Oils extracted from dill are used in many traditional medicine including against jaundice, headaches, boils, nausea and liver problems. Athletes from ancient Greece used to spread dill oil over their body as muscle toners. It has antibacterial qualities against Staphylococcus aureus a deadly pathogen affecting hospital patients. Extracted substances from dill include carvone (food flavouring – chewing gum), umbelliferone (use in sunscreens) and apiole (used in the middle ages as an abortifacient). Dill (Ago-ago in Visayan) appears to be cultivated widely on Malapascua and may serve as a flavouring in food or simply decoration.
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Figure 4 Dill (Anethum graveolens)
Plant oils / Secondary metabolites / odors / attractants Secondary metabolites are chemicals produced by plants which have, currently, no known role in growth, photosynthesis, reproduction or other primary functions. There are thousands of known compounds of this nature and each plant species and family group produces its own characteristic set of compounds. Many compounds are known to have an adverse effect on other organisms, especially following consumption, raising the notion that plants evolved these secondary metabolites for their protective value. Some of these compounds can have severe consequences. Alkaloids which are found in green potatoes can inhibit activity of enzymes and interfere with neurotransmission which may cause hallucinations and convulsions. These compounds are also at the base of odors in plants and especially flowers. Many plants are pollinated by insects and insects are made aware of the presence of flowers and drawn to them by the odors. So plants just don’t smell nice for human purposes. Smells are attractants to potential pollinators.
NT3 Hibiscus brackenridgei A member of the Malvaceae family, H. brackenridgei is the national flower of Hawaii, where it is called Ma'o hau hele (figure 5), which literally means “green traveling introduced hibiscus”. Although the flowers are yellow, they turn green as they die. The Malvaceae family contains about 2,300 species of plants all 10
over the world with such notable species as okra, cacao and cotton. It is endangered in its natural range (Hawaii) from human encroachment on habitat and is listed on the IUCN Red list. Although the plant looks like a small shrub specimens in its native habitat, it can reach up to 10 m in height. In its native range the plants typically open between 2 pm and 4 pm and close again between 9 am and 1 pm. These times correlate with the activities of Sphinx moths which are most active at noon each day, increasing pollination success of the plants and a ready supply of food for the moths. In Hawaiian culture, Hibiscus is a symbol of royalty and communicates power. It is given to visitors from tourists to officials. It is planted in gardens across the world for its beauty.
Figure 5 Hibiscus brackenridgei
Corypha sp. (maybe elata) Better known as the palm fruit tree or ‘Nipa’, ‘Buli’ in the local tongue, these are some of the largest palm trees in the world (figure 6). They are widespread over the Philippines and can be found in Malaysia and India as well. The tree has many uses: ● Young fruits are made into sweets, known as "ubod" which are cooked and prepared in the same way as "labong" or young bamboo shoot. ● The sap is made into wine, "tuba" or toddy, vinegar or used in the production of soaps for body wash. ● The fiber known as "buntal" and "raffia" is very tough and is made into hats and for bag and basket production. ● The midrib, or supportive centre, of the leaves known as "calasiao" is also made into broom handles and for basket weaving. 11
● The lumber is used in furniture production and the leaves as roof thatch. ● Extracts from the roots are known to be diuretic and used as a stimulant. ● In Iloilo the plant is used for musculoskeletal and dermatologic conditions.
Figure 6 Buri palm
The large fan shaped leaves allow the tree to grow very tall without too much negative effects from strong winds.
NT4 Tridax procumbens Commonly known as ‘coatbuttons’ or tridax daisy, the plant belongs in the Asteraceae (daisy) plant family. It is native to Mexico and tropical South America but has been introduced into many tropical and subtropical regions and is now considered highly invasive. It is thought to have been first introduced into Nigeria in the 1900s as an ornamental and has since spread profusely throughout the world. The plant is used in India for healing wounds and is applied as a poultice. It also has anticoagulant and antifungal properties and is used as an insect repellent. Usually the plant is crushed and boiled to extract the useful compounds and then applied to the targeted areas. Essential oils can be distilled from the roots and used for many medicinal purposes. Other uses include treatment of boils and blisters.
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Figure 7 Tridax procumbens
T. procumbens can produce up to 2500 seeds and it is so invasive that densities of up 340,000 plants per hectare (100m x 100m) have been reported in cassava fields in west Africa. In Africa, it is used as chicken feed supplement following drying and crushing. Sida sp. Locally known as ‘Ualisualisan’ or ‘broom weed,’ the plant belongs to family Malvaceae and is closely related to such plants as cotton and okra (figure 8). It is classified as a pantropic weed and found throughout the Philippines. It is a very useful medicinal plant and has antihelmintic (antiparastic) properties. The roots are crushed and mixed with honey and administered to expel worms in the body. They are considered a very bitter tonic and sometimes used as an aphrodisiac, especially in Indian Ayurvedic medicine. The leaves contain saponin, a substance with soap-like properties. Saponin refers to the French word for soap (‘savon’). These substances are very bitter in taste and may act as deterrents to herbivores. They are used in the manufacture of beauty and cosmetic products and sometimes added to animal feed as a purgative. Poultices made from boiled leaves are applied to ulcers and sores. Decoctions made from the roots and leaves are useful to reduce effects of hemorrhoids, fevers and impotency. Fresh juice can be extracted from the roots and can promote healing. In west Africa, extracts from the plant are used in treating malaria (a blood parasite).
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Figure 8 Sida sp.
NT5 Carica papaya Papaya (figure 9) is a widely-cultivated fruit tree sometimes called ‘papaw’ or ‘pawpaw’. It belongs to the Caricaceae family, of which they are 22 currently known species. It is native to the tropical Americas and southern Mexico where it was first cultivated by meso-American civilisations. In all likelihood it was transported around the world in the 15th/16th centuries by Spanish and Portuguese traders. The flowers are very sweet scented and open at night to be pollinated by moths and other night flying insects. Papaya plants can either be male, female or hermaphroditic. Males only produce pollen and the females only produce small fruit if they are not pollinated. Hermaphrodites can self-pollinate as they have both male and female organs. For this reason, most growers select these plants for cultivation. Papayas rank fourth in the world for tropical fruit production behind bananas, oranges and mangos. It is an important source of revenue for developing countries as appetite for the fruit grows around the world. India currently produce over 40% of all papayas.
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The black seeds of papaya have a spicy taste and are sometimes use as a substitute for black pepper after they have been dried and crushed. Papayas, which are high in vitamins A and C and calcium, are often used fresh in fruit salads and desserts, as well as dried or prepared in juices and jams. Papain Papaya produces a very useful chemical named Papain. This is a protease or an enzyme which breaks down proteins. It is used in the food industry as a meat tenderizer and is readily used in flavouring. Papain is also used in medicine for the treatment of ulcers and to reduce scarring following surgery. The beverage industry uses it as a beer clarifier. The health benefits of papain are: ● Boosting of digestion through support of intestines and stomach. ● Application to skin for wound healing, burns and rashes. ● Resistance to fungus through application. ● Immune system support for cancer patients. ● Antioxidant, protecting the body from cellular damage caused by oxygen free radicals. ● Food preservation as it reduces growth of bacteria.
Figure 9 Carica papya. Cut fruit (left), plant with fruit (right)
NT6 Artocarpus altilis – Kulo – Breadfruit Kulo (figure 10) belongs to the jackfruit family (Moraceae) and originates in the South Pacific and was introduced to Oceania and most other tropical regions by French and British explorers in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is called breadfruit from the texture of the ripe fruit following cooking. At this stage, it is similar to freshly baked bread and tastes a little like potato. It serves as an important food source for tropical societies, 15
especially southern India and Sri Lanka. It has a 27% carbohydrate content and very little other nutritional value and is often used as a bulking agent. The fruit can be cooked in many ways including roasting, baking, frying or boiling. Some of the health benefits of breadfruit are: ● Resistance against infection as they are sources of antioxidants. These help remove free radicals from the body that can lead to aging. ● Useful for sufferers of diabetes as the fiber inhibits the absorption of glucose from food. It contains compounds needed by the pancreas to produce insulin. ● Eating toasted breadfruit flowers can help relieve toothache. ● Nourishes hair, promotes hair growth and treats dandruff and itchiness. ● The latex, when applied to skin surfaces, can treat eczema and psoriasis. The timber was previously used in the tropics for shipbuilding and house construction. Pollination of breadfruits is done mainly by bats at night time. Fruits bats have been sighted in Logon but seem to be quite rare.
Figure 10 Atrocarpus altilis
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Leaf morphology Plants all over the world have different morphologies (i.e. they look different). One of the key areas of difference can be seen in the shape of the leaves. Every species of plant has its own particular shape of leaf and these leaves fulfil a role in the plant’s ability to cope with the environment in which it lives. Photosynthesis is accomplished by chlorophyll in the leaves. Large trees should have sufficiently large leaf surface areas to create enough photosynthate for growth. Plants in tropical countries where it is often rainy have ‘drip tips’ at the end of the leaves to remove excess water from the leaves and to stop fungal infections. Very interesting in this context is the ‘Form fits Function’ theory in biology and evolution.
Figure 11 Leaf morphology
Celosia argentea var. spicata Known is the plumed cockscomb (figure 12). Produces massive amounts of tiny seeds. One seed head is known to have up to 10000 seeds. The plant is edible and often consumed in Africa in soups. 17
Other common names are wool flower or silver cockscomb. The leaves are high in beta-carotene which is the same compound which give carrots their characteristic colour. Also contains high concentrations of folic acid which is good for pregnant women.
Figure 12 Celosia argentea
NT7 Ruellia britonniana The common names for this plant are Purple Showers or Mexican Petunia. It is a member of the Acanthaceae family and native to Mexico, the Caribbean and South America. It has become invasive in Africa and across the United States following its introduction as an ornamental plant in the 1930s. The flowers usually last one day and new ones appear the following day. In the Philippines, it is often referred to as the Popping Pod plant due to the plants exploding to disperse their seeds over a wide area, hence its invasive capability. It is used in Trinidad and Tobago as a cooling agent, for urinary problems and high cholesterol. The root is crushed in Suriname as a treatment against kidney diseases and whooping cough. In Sri Lanka, it is used as a stomach medicine; in India, as a pain reliever of scorpion stings. Compounds from Ruellia species are used in treatment of bladder stones and bronchitis. Pastes from the leaves are applied to treat skin diseases and boils. Roots are used as anthelmintic against parasitic worms. 18
Many species of Ruellia are poisonous so care should be taken to properly identify the plant before it is used for medicinal purposes.
Figure 13 Ruellia britonniana
Cosmos sulphureus The common name for this plant is sulfur or yellow cosmos. Native to Mexico and South America. The genus come the Greek name kosmos, meaning beautiful. They belong to the daisy family or Asteraceae. The plant was commonly harvested from the wild as a source of yellow and orange dyes for domestic textiles and clothes by meso-American civilisations. Wool products are very easily dyed by flavonoids in the plant. Dye is generally extracted by boiling the flowers for an hour then adding the textile to the solution and continuing the boiling process. The rhizomes, or roots, are known for the treatment of malaria. Studies in laboratories have shown plant compounds to be the active against the mosquito-causing protozoan Plasmodium. In China, it is considered to have antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal properties. The young leaves and petals can be eaten raw and are often added to salads for colour. The plant is 19
widespread and is a good source of nectar and pollen for bees and butterflies.
Figure 14 Cosmos sulphureus
NT8 Imperata cylindrica - Cogon grass This ubiquitous plant (figure 14) grows extensively around the island and is beneficial for use as a ground cover plant, especially near beach areas and in sandy soil. It is effective at reducing soil erosion by binding soil particles with a dense root network. The plants can grow up to 4 meters high. The leaf margins are finely toothed with sharp points at the top. These are lined with sharp, silica crystals, which is the main constituent in glass. It is a very sustainable building material which is regularly used in the making of paper, thatching and for weaving into mats and bags. Thatching is a technique used all over the world and is still practiced in the UK and Northern Europe. It has good insulating properties, being densely packed and trapping air. Young plants and chutes can be cooked and eaten. The roots contain high concentrations of starch, sugars and salts. Aboriginal people in Australia are known to use Cogon grass as a substitute for salt due to the high saline content which it stores in its cells.
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Figure 15 Imperata cylindrica
The cosmetic company, L’Oreal, use compounds from cogon grass in some of its facial skincare products due to the high concentration of potassium, which has a strong hydrating effect. Seeds of cogon grass are very small and are called ‘parachute seeds’. Each seed is attached to a pappus of fine hairs which allows dispersal over long distances by wind. The plant is highly invasive and considered a weed and pest species in 73 countries around the world. It has a propensity to grow as a monoculture and prevent the growth of other species through the process of allelopathy. Monocots v Dicots All plants can be separated into either of these two groups (figure 15). The key differences lie between the leaves, stems, roots and flowers. All grasses, including cogon and rice, are monocots. Monocots have one cotyledon and dicots have two cotyledons upon emergence from the seed testa. Leaves: monocots are usually parallel while dicots are netlike or branching. Stems: monocots have very complex vascular bundles (the circulatory system of the plant) while dicots are more ordered in a ring pattern. The xylem takes water up from the ground into the roots to the leaves while the phloem takes nutrients produced in the leaves down for storage in the roots. Roots: monocots are usually fibrous while dicots have taproots. 21
Flowers: monocots usually have floral parts in multiples of three while dicot flowers usually come in multiples of four or five.
Figure 16 Structural differences between monocots and dicots
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NT9 Crotalaria pallida Commonly known as the smooth rattlebox plant, it is a perennial herb capable of growing up to 2m. It is cultivated all over the world as a green manure and ground cover crop. The leaves contain an alkaloid which is poisonous to goats, although when dried the toxins rapidly degrade. It is well suited to saline conditions and grows quite readily on coastlines. The flowers are used as vegetables and the roasted seeds used as a coffee substitute with similar bitter qualities. Infusions of the plant are used to treat eczema and other skin conditions.
Figure 17 Crotalaria pallida
Fabaceae – the bean family C. pallida belongs to the Fabaceae family which all have seed pods which resemble beans. Plants in this family have symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria. They fix atmospheric nitrogen while the plants supply carbon compounds and sugars to the bacteria. This allows the plant to colonise nutrient poor soil with high sand and rocky content.
NT10 Clerodendrum quadriculare 23
Commonly called the star-burst bush or fireworks plant. It belongs to family Lamiaceae. It grows extremely fast from underground runners and is considered invasive outside of its native range. It is native to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea where explosions of populations are kept in check by natural predators such as beetles. In Philippine traditional medicine it is used to treat wounds and ulcers and employed in tonic baths. It is very attractive to bees and other pollinators as it produces vast quantities of nectar and pollen. Xerophytic by nature, it can withstand long periods of dryness. Clerodendrum comes from the Greek word “kleros” and means chance, while quadriculare is a reference to the four-chambered ovary of the plant.
Figure 18 Cleodendrum quadriculare
Jatropha integerrima Known as Spicy Jatropha (figure 19) and part of the Euphorbiaceae family. Native to the West Indies and very abundant in Cuba. It is very attractive to butterflies and hummingbirds. Like many plants in the family, it produces a milky sap that can be a skin irritant. All parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous if ingested.
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Figure 19 Jatropha integerrima
Epipyhtes Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants without causing any harm. They are not parasitic. They get their moisture and nutrients from the air, rain and debris which accumulate around them. The most famous epiphytes are found in tropical rainforests where they take advantage of holes and crevices in large trees to grow. Famous examples of epiphytes are orchids and bromeliads. They have an advantage over herbs and other small plants which root in the soil by being able to live high up in the canopy where they can attain sunlight and where herbivores are less active. Epiphytic is derived from the Greek “epi” meaning upon and “phyton” meaning plant. Many epiphytes are grown as indoor plants in houses all over the world as they are very efficient air purifiers and humidifiers. They don’t need soil to grow and are thus low maintenance plants.
NT11 Swietenia sp. – Mahogany tree Commonly known as Philippine cedar, these trees belong to the Meliaceae or mahogany /chinaberry family. It is becoming increasingly rare in its natural habitat and is classified in the IUCN red data list. It is threatened primarily with habitat loss. 25
It is an important timber tree providing valuable tropical hard wood for use in furniture, shipbuilding and musical instruments. A decoction of the bark is used as an astringent and for cleaning wounds. Powder of the bark is used as an antiseptic. Many essential oils are extracted from the tree, especially carinene. A closely related species Swietenia macrophylla is called “sky fruit” trees because the fruit seem to hang upwards from the tree. A concentrated juice extracted from these fruits is said to improve blood circulation and as used a skin tonic.
Figure 20 Mahogany trees
NT12 Mangrove rehabilitation project A good occasion to discuss the PepSea Mangrove project, e.g. planting process, monitoring and maintenance. Importance of mangroves to ecosystem health and human resources are key topics to discuss. Logon High School students planted 1000 Avicennia marina saplings in February 2017. Saplings were donated by the MENRO. Previous plantings of Rhizophora species were planted by Hobert, the German neighbor. 26
The dangers of monocultures should be discussed. Monoculture ecosystems are highly susceptible to disease. Planting several species of mangroves will be beneficial as this will build up community resilience. Plants accomplish different ecological roles which other species benefit from in mutualistic relationships. If the tide is low it will be possible to find and show many of the marine invertebrates living in the mud (e.g. brittle-stars, holothurians, crabs, snails, barnacles). The biology and ecological role of each species can be discussed. There may be insects (caterpillars, beetles) on the mangrove plants. If present, it will be possible to discuss parasitism and predation. It must be stressed that these are not necessarily bad for the ecosystem as they contribute such factors as population control. However, new ecosystems should be protected in their initial stages as they will be vulnerable. Monoculture planting increases this vulnerability as well. Washed-up material on beach The beach bordering the rehabilitated mangrove area is littered with washed-up material (organic and non-organic; discount material from anthropogenic sources). These materials continue to contribute significantly to the ecosystem and these factors can be discussed here (figure 21): ● Coral and shell fragments – calcium cycling, sand formation, rock formation over geological time, return to ocean as dissolved calcium, taken up by new corals ● Organic material (seaweed, algae, dead animals) brings nutrients to nutrient poor coastal and beach ecosystems. This helps plants to grow; their roots securing unstable substrate and protecting the land from erosion. Detritivores (arthropods, molluscs) on the beaches feed upon these. ● Intact shells are used by hermit crabs for homes.
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Figure 21 Organic material on beach
Pandana sp. Pandanus species (figure 22) are of high cultural, health and economic benefit to communities in the indo-Pacific. They have thick prop roots which help to secure them in unstable ground. They are highly adapted to life by the ocean as they have adapted mechanisms to withstand extremes of temperature, water stress and salt. Fruits from these trees, which look like large pineapples, can float on water so the plant is able to move between islands. The serrated leaves are highly effective at dissuading herbivores. The leaves are used in basket weaving and as a flavouring in Sri Lankan and Thai cuisine.
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Figure 22 Pandana sp.
Ipomoea pes-caprae Commonly known as beach morning glory or goat’s foot (figure 23) is a very common pantropical creeping vine. Member of Convolvulaceae family. It is very tolerant to salty air and soil. It is one of the best examples of oceanic dispersal whereby its seeds float and are completed unaffected by salt water. Coconuts are another such example. It regularly colonises sand dunes and stabilizes ground from the worst effects of wind, rain and sea. They lay out adventitious roots which bind sand particles. In Australia, it is used by aborigines as a poultice for sting ray and stone fish stings. In the Philippines, the plant is commonly known as Bagasua and is used in the treatment of colic, piles and rheumatism. Seeds are poisonous if ingested.
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Figure 23 Ipomoea pes-caprae
NT13 Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Common name: blue snake weed, Jamaica vervain. Visyan name is bilu-bilu (figure 24). Medicinal uses: made into a “bush tea” as a cooling tonic for the elderly and blood cleanser and to treat asthma. In Nigeria it is used to treat menstrual disorders and complaints. It used to be exported from the Americas in the 17-18th centuries as a medicinal tea. Many bioactive phytochemicals with antibacterial properties. Extracted juices are often mixed with various oils and applied to the skin for treatment.
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Figure 24 Stachtarpheta jamaicensis
NT14 Vitex parviflora Common name: molave tree (figure 25) Family: Verbenaceae Native: south east Asia Threatened with habitat loss, IUCN Threatened status Tree can grow up to 40m high under optimal growth conditions. Dominant timber species in the Philippines and in monsoon forests where it is overharvested and exploited. The wood is very strong and hard and resistant to fungal and termite attack. The tree has many useful medicinal values. The bark and wood are used as an emetic and to treat jaundice. Emetics are used to counter poisons. A yellow dye used in textile industry is extracted following soaking of wood shavings in water. A very important species to protect and should be the focus of replantations in the Philippines.
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Figure 25 Vitex parviflora
NT15 Evolution – a tale of chickens and eggs The main topic to discuss here is evolution. Evolution can be talked about in general terms (e.g. speciation, adaptation, micro and macro evolution, phylogenies, tree of life etc). As shown by paleontologists and geologists, chickens are evolved from dinosaurs. Dinosaur eggs have been found throughout the fossil record. Organisms which produce young by means of eggs are called oviparous. The answer to the age-old question “which came first? The chicken or the egg?” is most certainly the egg.
NT16 Euphorbia cyathopora This plant is quite common and found island-wide (figure 26). What is remarkable about it are the red leaves surrounding the flowers. These leaves have evolved to resemble petals and could serve multiple purposes. One of the main purposes may be to better define the flowering area to attract pollinating insects. The red parts, if viewed under UV light, should reveal the presence of nectar guides which will be aligned in such a way to direct insects. Insects are able to see the UV spectrum. Imagine a helicopter landing pad.
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These deep colours are given by chemicals such as phytoalexins which can also act as deterrents to herbivores due to their astringent and bitter flavours.
Figure 26 Euphorbia cyathopora
Cyanthillium cinereum Commonly known as “little ironweed” it belongs in the Asteraceae or daisy family. “Cinereum” in latin means ash-grey (figure 27). It is used in Thailand for smoking cessation. Leaves of C. cinereum have some antibiotic activity and consequently they are frequently used in traditional medicine in India to treat conjunctivitis, dropsy and urinary disorders. In the Philippines, this species is used as an infusion for cough and skin diseases. A poultice from leaves reduces headaches while a root decoction relieves stomach aches and diarrhea. The seeds yield a fatty oil and are used as an anthelmintic and alexipharmic; they are said to be quite effective against roundworms and threadworms.
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Figure 27 Cyanthillium cinereum
NT17 Lantana camara Known in Malaysia as the big-sage plant L. camara (figure 28) belongs to the Verbenaceae family. Native to meso-America, it was spread around the world by Dutch explorers and is now considered invasive in many countries. It was imported to the Philippines from Hawaii in the 17th century and has since spread. The flowers, which are usually yellow, change to orange or red after they have been pollinated. This increases pollination efficiency so the same floret is not visited twice. The plant is toxic to herbivorous animals and exudes toxic chemicals into the soil which prevents many other plants from growing. This process is called allelopathy and is done by many plants, the most well known being Rhododendron sp. and Walnut trees. The fruit are loved by many birds who can easily spread the seeds through their feces. Some weaver birds highly value lantana flowers for decorating their nests. They are an indicator of males’ fitness.
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Figure 28 Lantana camara
NT18 Bayview from hilltop This is a great place to view two adjacent bays, separated by a rocky outcropping, on the north-east coast of Malapascua. It is an ideal location to discuss evolution and speciation with geographic separation. The two bays will have distinct environmental attributes (salinity, exposure to wave activity, benthic composition etc) which will create many microhabitats and niche environments with novel resources for exploitation. Parallels could be drawn here to the finch species of Galapagos, Island theory and biogeography.
NT19 Beach ecology / Ecological Succession Another occasion to discuss beach ecology especially: the role of detritus, recycling of energy and nutrients in the environment. The plants growing on the cliff edge can be discussed in terms of habitat colonization (figure 29). Primary colonization by hardy organisms such as moss and lichen would be followed with colonization by larger and more complex plants in the process of ecological succession. Organic matter would be deposited by a succession of organisms and communities which will change the composition of the environment and allow for other species to colonize. The environment is always in a state of flux.
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Figure 29 Colonization and ecological succession
NT20 Solitary Bakhaw plant It is possible that the entire beach area at Bool was covered in mangroves up until colonization and development of the area by man. The environmental conditions (exposure, sediment type) are favourable for mangrove growth as demonstrated by the mature solitary Bakhaw on the left of the beach. A good area to discuss the negative impacts and destructive habits of man on the environment. Mitigation strategies in aid of ecological conservation can be mentioned. Mangrove biology and ecology can be discussed in further detail here around the mangrove tree (Rhizopora sp.) Topics can include: ● ● ● ●
Salt tolerance mechanisms; halophytes. Lenticels or breathing pores. Adventitious root systems; stilt roots and pneumatophores. Juvenile plants or propagules grow out from and are cared for by the mother plant.
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Acacia species. Acacias (figure 30) belong to the Fabaceae or pea family of plants. If there are seed pods on the plant, show participants their resemblance to beans, hence the reason they have been put in the bean family. There are about 980 known species of Acacia around the world, the most well known Acacias are those which are found on the African savannah. Many Acacias have symbiotic relationships with various insects. They help each other out and depend on each other. In Africa a special ant/acacia relationship works where the tree supplies homes for the ants within its bark by creating hollow tunnels. The ants help the tree by protecting them against herbivores such as gazelle or giraffe. An associated topic of discussion here would be plant defenses (physical and chemical) against herbivory. Acacia seed pods are eaten in Africa where they are ground into flour and baked into bread. The Book of Exodus states that the Tabernacle was constructed from Acacia wood.
Figure 30 Acacia sp.
NT22 Bananas There are over 1000 varieties of banana. Most of these varieties come from two wild species of banana plant (Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana). The most popular variety is the Cavendish, which accounts for 45% of global crop. Bananas (figure 31) are native to the Malay peninsula and Australia and were likely first domesticated in Papua New Guinea. Starchy bananas, such as plantains, must be cooked before consumption.
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Botanically speaking, banana plants are not in fact trees. They are the largest herbaceous flowering plant. Compared to most other fruit, bananas are naturally slightly radioactive because of their potassium content and the small amounts of the isotope potassium-40 found in naturally occurring potassium. Due to its low genetic diversity, the Cavendish banana is highly susceptible to fungal disease and scientists estimate that the variety will no longer be available within 10-20 years. It will have become so susceptible to disease that producers will no longer grow the variety. This raises the topic of the dangers in monoculture crops. A prime example is the Irish potato famine (1850s) where over 1 million people died and many millions more emigrated due to lack of food. Also worth mentioning the spread of zoonotic diseases in intensive livestock (cow, pig, sheep) farming. Ecosystems do not function properly with low diversity. Species interact with each other either directly or indirectly. May be interesting to talk about the Rivet Hypothesis. “It is a theory that entails about the conditions of ecosystem wherein a significant loss of a certain species affects the functions and diversity of an ecological community.” Scientists are working on plant diseases all over the world in the effort of maintaining biological diversity. Seed stocks of many species are being stored in seed vaults in the eventuality of global apocalypse, e.g. Svalbard.
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Figure 31 Banana plant
NT23 Fish drying racks Fresh food, especially fish, degrades very rapidly unless it is preserved in some way. Drying (figure 32) is an ancient method of food preservation which relies on the energy of the sun to remove water and prevent the growth of micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria and fungi). This may be a good occasion to talk about the necessity of water for life – even bacteria need water! Fish dried in this manner has a shelf life of several years and eases home storage (bulk) and transport (weight) of foodstuff to market. Drying continues to be a very sustainable form of food preservation and is known to alleviate poverty in many communities around the world. Discuss with participants which other methods of food preservation they may be aware of. ● Short term – fridge ● Long term – canning, pickling, smoking, salting, freezing
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Figure 32 Fish drying racks in Bool
NT24 Coconut grove The scientific name for the coconut is Cocos nucifera and it is a member of the palm or Arecaceae family. Coconut palms thrive on sandy soil and are highly tolerant of salinity. The large seeds float and are full of water which allow saplings to colonize new areas. As coconuts are ubiquitous across the tropics and have many uses (food, construction, medicinal, clothing) it would be interesting to have a discussion with participants about these. Test their knowledge and eke out information from them. Which parts are used for what? Husks? Fibres? Leaves? It would be good if the leader of the group has time to watch the documentary: The Coconut Revolution (http://bit.ly/1QgxAL3). It is a short documentary describing the world’s first successful eco-revolution where a small band of guerillas on Bougainville Island hold out against the Papua New Guinea army and a multinational mining corporation by using coconut oil as fuel for their equipment and vehicles. Coconut water is used as an intravenous hydration fluid in parts of the world where medical supplies are limited.
NT25 Moringa oleifera Commonly known as the drum-stick tree due to the resemblance of the long seed pods to drumsticks 40
(figure 33). It is native to the southern foothills of the Himalayas and cultivated widely all over Asia. Due to its xerophytic nature, it is highly suitable to dry habitats and needs very little water to grow. It has been classified as a superfood due to its nutritional value including important sources of minerals, proteins, vitamins, beta-carotene, amino acids and various phenolics. All parts of the plant are used in various food preparations. The plant has strong medicinal value and parts such as the leaves, roots, seed, bark, fruit, flowers and immature pods work as cardiac and circulatory stimulants. They also possess antitumor, antipyretic (fever reduction), antiepileptic, antiinflammatory, antiulcer, antispasmodic, diuretic, antihypertensive, cholesterol lowering, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective (liver), antibacterial and antifungal activities. Definitely a miracle plant!
Figure 33 Moringa oleifera
Catharanthus roseus Commonly called the Madagascar Periwinkle (figure 34). The seeds of the plant are reported to be transported by ants. The plant was traditionally used in Madagascar to treat a host of ailments. Scientists working in the 1950s found that the plant produced several highly toxic alkaloids (chemicals) which are now being used in the treatment of cancer. One compound (vincristine) has been proven in raising the survival rate of children suffering from leukaemia from less than 10% in the 1960s to over 90% today. While the plant is not threatened and grows well throughout the tropics it serves as a reminder of the 41
potential benefits which have and can be harnessed from the natural world. There are many other plants and indeed other organisms (corals, insects) which remain to be discovered and studied which may benefit humanity in similar ways so conservation is key before these species are lost forever.
Figure 34 Catharanthus roseus
NT26 Chromolaena odorata C. odorata (odorata pertaining to the flowers’ strong smell) is native to South America and was introduced to Southeast Asia by explorers in the 17th/18th centuries. It is commonly called the Siam weed or devil (figure 35) weed due to extremely invasive ability. One plant is able to produce up to 90000 tiny seeds per plant. These seeds are highly mobile and easily dispersed by wind due to the hairs on the seed coat which act like a parachute. The plant is known is grow up to 3 cm per day and can rapidly spread over and choke native vegetation and block out sunlight to understory plants. The plant is classified as a creeper and grows out in long thin strands to overwhelm over plants. The plant is also toxic to most mammalian herbivores including goats and cattle and is known to cause allergic reactions in humans. This further increases the plant’s invasive nature as there are very few natural 42
control measures to keep the population in check. This would be a good occasion to discuss the dangers of introducing species to novel habitats. There are many examples to discuss (e.g. lionfish in Caribbean, brown snakes on Guam, prickly pears and rabbits in Australia, king crab in north Atlantic, zebra mussels in North America).
Figure 35 Chromolaena odorata
Dactyloctenium aegyptium Commonly called the Egyptian crowfoot grass due to the shape of the florets (figure 36). The reference to Egypt comes from its initial identification and classification by biologists or surveyors there. Many species are called after the place they were first discovered or indeed by whom they were discovered by. An example close to home is the naming of a new species of moth discovered in the Philippines by a museum curator called Dr. Aimee Lynn B. Dupo. The moth species was named Cleora aimeelynnae. Good occasion to discuss scientific nomenclature. Crowsfoot grass is used as a famine crop in parts of Africa during times of food shortage. The plant belongs to the Poaceae family which comprises all the grasses of the world. There are around 12,000 known species of grass. Grasses are all monocots (refer to p. 23) which includes bamboo and rice. All grasses have hollow stems and generally are the dominant vegetation in many habitats and ecosystems supplying most of the food to grazing herbivores.
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Figure 36 Dactyloctenium aegyptium
NT27 Jasmin species Jasmin flowers (figure 37) are generally white and release their smells at night to attract bats and night time flying insects like moths. In India Jasmin is known as the ‘Queen of the Night’. The production of chemicals which would colour the flowers are energetically expensive to produce and would serve little purpose at night. This would be a good location to discuss the biological concept of ‘form fits function’ where it can be explained that life is not random but instead is purposeful. Life inherently depends on the acquisition and transformation of energy. Life attempts to be as efficient as possible to minimize waste. Oils extracted from the plants are used in the cosmetic industry and they are known to have calming and sedative properties. In China, Jasmin is used as a symbol of feminine beauty and sweetness. It is used in teas, skin creams and herbal baths around the world.
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Figure 37 Jasmin sp.
NT28 Caesalpina pulcherrima Another member of the Fabaceae or pea family having a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The flower is commonly called the ‘Peacock flower’ (figure 38) and known as the ‘Mexican bird of paradise’. It is national flower of Barbados. Good place to discuss national symbols. What is the national flower of the Philippines? (it is ‘Sambaguita’ or Jasmin, mentioned in NT27.) This plant is very poisonous especially the peas. Compounds from the plant are known to induce abortion. Although poisonous to humans, the plants are highly attractive to hummingbirds which have evolved mechanisms to break down the toxins in their bodies.
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Figure 38 Caesalpina pulcherrima
NT29 Vigna luteola This is a ground cover plant and is sown as a green manure (figure 39). As the plant is also a Fabaceae species, it accumulates high densities of nitrogen in its tissue. When the plant dies and breaks down, it releases all the nitrogen back into the soil and allows other more nutrient hungry plants to grow. In this manner is it called a pioneer plant. The plant is also used to feed livestock. Other topics of discussion at this waypoint are 1. the adjacent seagrass meadows; their biology, ecology and importance for healthy marine ecosystems; and 2. Rubbish accumulation in the wells which are high risk factors in disease transmission
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Figure 39 Vigna luteola
NT30 Turnera ulmifolia Common names: yellow buttercups, yellow alder (figure 40). Native to the Caribbean. A little known plant with great medicinal value. A recent scientific report demonstrated the potential for use of the plant in the treatment of MRSA (Methicillin-resistant-Staphylococcus aureus) a bacteria which is causing disease in many hospitals around the world, having gained resistance to hosts of commercially available antibiotics.
Figure 40 Turnera ulmifolia
Passiflora species There are around 500 species of Passionflowers or passion vines in the family Passifloraceae (figure 41). 47
Many species produce sweet nectar from glands on their leaf stems. This attracts ants which defend the plant from other more destructive insects such as beetles and butterflies. Discuss symbioses and mutual relationships with participants on a broad scale. A good occasion to discuss plant growth adaptations. Passionflowers climb using tendrils which wrap and curl around other objects. The plants do not need to produce wood for support and instead put energy into the formation of climbing appendages.
Figure 41 Passiflora sp.
NT31 Plumeria sp. - Frangipani Frangipani, so called because of the resemblance to marzipan, is fragrant at night to attract sphinx moths (figure 42). Flowers are also mostly white so another reference to resource use and efficiency. The plants, however, dupe the moths by not producing any nectar. Contains poisonous milky sap. Native to Caribbean and taken to Americas by priests. National tree of Laos. Every Buddhist temple there has them planted in their courtyards
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Figure 42 Plumeria sp. - Frangipani
Additional topics Can be discussed whilst walking between waypoints. Ecosystem services Bees and pollination. Water filtration and purification through soil. Food and building material. Solar energy. Mycorrhizae Symbiotic relationships between plants and fungi. The microbial diversity of soil. There could be 10000 different species of micro-organisms in 1 g of soil. Soil water holding capacity The composition of soil (percentages of sand, silt, clay). These bind water to some degree and allow the proliferation of plant roots and micro-organisms.
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