Sullivan - 1 Innocence: Power and Politics in America Sean M. Sullivan R. Spruce-Veatch ENGWR 300 28 April 2006 I want you to be honest with yourself. I won’t tell anyone. How many times have you been driving on the freeway and seen someone D.W.A. (Driving While Asian)? What’s the first thought that pops into your mind when you see a black man driving an expensive luxury car? Do you get irritated because your bank’s ATM machine requires you to select your language first? How many times have you expressed some stereotype about those [insert ethnic label here]? For some, these ethnic stereotypes move beyond cultural biases and prejudice to hate. Such ideologies are used to justify anything from racial jokes to full-scale genocide (euphemized as ethnic cleansing). Since September 11, 2001, all Americans have been forced to call into question our ideas of what it means to be a citizen in a multi-cultural society. America, the great melting pot, struggles with its own identity. Racism and prejudice abound in our society, demonstrating time and again our discomfort with those who are different from us. Prejudice, hate, and racism, have their roots in the early history of American society. The sad irony is that racial prejudice is often predicated on a false assumption – all humans can be classified by phenotypical morphologies into discreet “races.” Race and prejudice have no basis in biology, but are social constructs created to divide people into groups for the purposes of controlling access to power, wealth, and prestige. BIOLOGY OR CULTURE? I have brown eyes, brown hair, and white skin. Maybe you have brown eyes, black hair, and black skin. My hair texture is fine and wavy, maybe yours is straight,

Sullivan - 2 tightly curled or non-existent. Some people are tall, and some are short. People come in all sorts of shapes and sizes, with varying degrees of color. These variations are expressions (phenotypes) of an individual’s genotype. In other words, you and I are the products of the genes our parents passed to us at conception interacting with our environment (during gestation and after birth), which is just a complicated way of saying that all humans vary from one individual to another. The first scientific attempt to classify human variation was by Carolus Linnaeus (1758) with his taxonomic classification system, placing humans in four different classifications. (Jurmain et al 306) Other scientists developed other methods for classification based on different traits. This typological model was based on a small number of morphologies such as skin color, hair texture, body build and stature. (Marks 173) With our new understanding of human variation, evolution and genetics reveal that the concept of race has no biological basis and is instead rooted in human culture. Genetic evidence proves that there is greater variation within a population than between populations. In fact, the average nucleotide differences between a randomly chosen pair of humans are consistently estimated to lie between 1 in 1,000 to 1 in 1,500. This proportion is low compared with those of many other species. To put this average nucleotide diversity value into perspective consider that humans differ from chimpanzees at only 1 in 100 nucleotides on average. Given that there are approximately three billion nucleotide base pairs in the human genome, each pair of humans differs, on average, by two to three million base pairs. If one divides Old World populations into three continents (Africa, Asia and Europe), a grouping that corresponds to the common view of the three ‘major races’, 85-90% of genetic variation is found within each of these

Sullivan - 3 continental groups, with only 10-15% of variation found between the groups. (Jorde and Wooding S28-S29) In spite of this evidence, racial classification still exists providing the foundation of prejudice in America. CAUSES OF PREJUDICE Racism – it is such a heavy word, loaded with hundreds of years of cultural baggage, bringing to mind images of slavery, lynchings, and brutal treatment perpetrated by whites on blacks. Psychotherapist Paul Watchel wrote, “A word with such powerful emotional connotations, that is used to describe events and attitudes so close to the heart of our society’s most basic afflictions, is bound to be a source of contention.” (615) Even if modern biology disproves the biological basis of race, racial prejudice is very real and plays a significant role in American society. Watchel argues that the popular usage of the word racism has lead to imprecision and overly broad meanings impeding our ability to discuss these issues and develop lasting solutions. Whites walk through this social minefield in their interactions with blacks, fearing that to express their views will result in accusations of being racists. For blacks, though there might be short-term advantages to intimidating whites in this way, the ultimate cost continues to be high. (Watchel 616617) Sociologist Vincent Parrillo examined the underlying causes of prejudice by focusing on four areas: levels of prejudice, self-justification, personality, and frustration. He argues that prejudice exists on three levels: cognitive, emotional, and action orientation. On a cognitive level, prejudice is based on a person’s beliefs and perceptions of a group as threatening or non-threatening along with other perceptions relative to the person’s point-of-view. An example would be the common view that Asians are the

Sullivan - 4 model minority because they are studious, hard working, etc. These generalizations serve to shape both ethnocentric and prejudicial attitudes. It is important to note that there is a difference between the two attitudes – ethnocentrism refers to judging the values of others by your own. In contrast, prejudice is a rejection of other people because of their membership in a particular group. (Parrillo 578-579) The emotional level of prejudice is more complex as it refers to the feelings that other groups arouse in an individual. Though these feelings may be rooted in stereotypes from the cognitive level, they represent a more intense stage of personal involvement. (Parrillo 579) One example of this can be seen in people’s reaction to the prospect of legalizing gay marriage; many feel that this as a threat to the institution of marriage and often react in an emotional way. Finally, we reach the action-orientation level of prejudice. Depending on the strength of feelings a person harbors about members of other ethnic or social groups, he or she may have a tendency to act for or against them. These actions can be positive or negative and can involve such behaviors as segregating the target group, or desiring to change or maintain the differential status between the two groups. It is the predisposition to act, not the action itself that matters. (Parrillo 579-580) Self-justification involves putting down a person or group to justify the maltreatment of them. Parrillo wrote, “Some philosophers argue that we are not so much rational creatures as we are rationalizing creatures…If we can convince ourselves that another group is inferior, immoral, or dangerous, we may feel justified in discriminating against its members, enslaving them, or even killing them.” (580) This powerful motivating force can be seen in the rise of hate groups in the United States. 50% of new recruits into these groups are women. Their message often revolves around anti-gay

Sullivan - 5 sentiments and white supremacy. (20/20) Groups such as the Westboro Baptist Church under the leadership of Fred Phelps perverts Christian teachings espousing hate filled rhetoric. In response to the recent death of Coretta Scott King, Phelps’ church wrote, “Coretta Scott King is in hell with her husband, and no amount of caterwauling or glorifying her whoredoms will change that fact. She kicked the righteous blacks off the Freedom Train to make room for her feces eating fag friends, and God will never forgive her for it. Deal with it!” (WBC) Self-justification has long been used in American history. One only has to look at the treatment of African slaves, Native Americans, and other immigrant groups to see how white society justified these abuses as a means to maintain the status quo. Personality is another factor that creates prejudice. Parrillo suggests that individuals raised with harsh parental discipline often develop an authoritarian personality. Excessively domineering posturing of parents can create a tendency in children-as-adults to demonstrate displaced aggression, directing their hostilities against a powerless group. (Parrillo 581) Though sociologists have debated the validity of the authoritarian personality theory, cross-cultural studies have shown where more authoritarian social structures exist, greater authoritarianism was seen along with increased social distance between groups. These studies have helped sociologists better understand some aspects of prejudice, but they have not provided a causal explanation. Perhaps the children picked up their prejudice from the beliefs of their parents. (Parrillo 582) In any case, personality plays a part in a mosaic of factors that contribute to prejudicial beliefs and actions.

Sullivan - 6 Another important factor leading to prejudice is frustration, “the result of relative deprivation in which expectations remain unsatisfied.” (Parrillo 583) Frustration takes two forms: relative deprivation and scapegoating. Relative deprivation is a lack of resources in relationship to the resources of other social groups, which can lead to scapegoating, blaming others for something that is not their fault. (Parrillo 583) C.P. Ellis, a former Ku Klux Klan member, illustrated this factor when he talked about growing up poor: “I really began to get bitter…I began to blame it on black people. I had to hate somebody…You gotta have somethin’ to look at to hate.” (Terkel 593) For a group to become a suitable scapegoat, the group must be: highly visible in physical appearance or customs and actions, not strong enough to strike back, situated within easy access of the dominant group, a past target of hostility for whom latent hostility still exists, and the symbol of a unpopular concept. (Parrillo 584) Various theories have attempted to explain the proximate causes of prejudice, but human beings are complex creatures. None of these factors discussed, on their own, can provide an adequate explanation for the cause of prejudice. What these factors have revealed is that prejudice is either a complex product of these four factors, or results from the stress of social forces at work in a society such as economic conditions, stratification, and hostility towards other outward groups. (Parillo 590) WHO IS INNOCENT? Lee Mun Wah, a Chinese American filmmaker produced a documentary, “The Color of Fear,” providing a glimpse into the attitudes and feelings revolving around race politics in America. The race workshop consisted of eight male participants, and Wah himself. The ethnic makeup of the group consisted of: two African Americans, two

Sullivan - 7 Chinese Americans, one Japanese American, two Mexican Americans, and two Euro Americans. This powerful film gave voice to the underlying emotions and perceptions that strain the relationships of the various ethnic groups in American society. It also illustrates what Shelby Steele observes “the allure of race as a human delineation is the very shallowness of the delineation it makes. Onto this shallowness – mere skin and hair – men can project a false depth, a system of dismal attributions…These dark projections then rationalize the pursuit of power.” (Steele 605) Steele suggests that the racial conflict in America has always been a “struggle for innocence.” Whites claim innocence and therefore are entitled to privilege and power subjugating blacks (after all, weren’t Europeans here first?). Blacks, he argues, used the innocence that grew from their long subjugation to seize more power. Both groups understand that to lose innocence is to lose power, because for one to be innocent, someone else must be guilty. As such, these games create a hidden investment in racism, so as to maintain or alter the balance of power. (Steele 605) Throughout the history of human civilization, social relationships have always been defined by power. Stratification, social status, and prestige are tools to claim power for one group over another. In Wah’s film, this drama of innocence is played out between two of the participants: Victor, an African American and David, a Euro American. David claimed his innocence by asking, “Is clinging to your heritage the problem? Why can’t you be like us? We are all humans.” Victor reacted in an opposite manner, but still claiming his innocence by assigning blame. He said, “Racism is a white problem…American is white is human…Why can’t we all pretend to be white?” (Color of Fear) These views are not

Sullivan - 8 uncommon. There have been many instances when I have heard whites describe their frustration with people of color, accusing them of fanning the flames of prejudice by playing victim, thus creating their own problems. People of color have responded by assigning the blame on whites. Both sides claim innocence by seeing what they need to see to justify their respective worldviews. Steele calls this seeing for innocence. (Steele 606) In other words, we need to see our own goodness and superiority, giving justification to minimizing the voices of other. President George W. Bush recently declared himself “color-blind” pointing to Colin Powell and Condoleeza Rice as examples. In stark contrast, the television images pouring into our homes after the Katrina disaster, demonstrated that we are anything but a color-blind society. How can any of us claim innocence when thousands of our fellow citizens were forced to live in dehumanizing conditions, as the evacuees of New Orleans had to endure, and the slow response of the state and federal governments to provide aid? IS THERE HOPE? The great Buddhist philosopher, Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) wrote, “Undisciplined persons are as limitless as space; you could never overcome them. If you conquer the single mental state of anger it is like vanquishing all your enemies…Similarly, I cannot change external things, but when I can change my state of mind, why do I need to change anything else?” (Tsongkhapa 153) If there is no biological basis to race, the underlying premise collapses. How can racism be supported? Sociologists and psychologists alike point to beliefs, perceptions and stereotypes as causal factors of prejudice, which are products of enculturation and socialization. Human beings are cultural creatures not bound by biological determinism. Steele suggests that both black and white Americans

Sullivan - 9 fear the sacrifices and risks that true racial harmony demands. “And though fear always seeks a thousand justifications, none is ever good enough, and the problems we run from only remain to haunt us.” (Steele 612) Fear and anger certainly play into scapegoating, self-justification, and the game of innocence. As such, we are all victims of prejudice inasmuch as we continue to perpetuate the myths and beliefs of stereotypes and our seeing for innocence. If one believes this, then there is hope that we can change, beginning with the examination of our own perceptions and attitudes toward others. C.P. Ellis, the former KKK member, realized that the fight was pointless and exhausting. He found himself in a near impossible situation working with Ann Atwater, a “militant black woman” to solve social problems facing both of them. He began to see that he had a lot more in common with Ann than he realized. He said, “I begin to see, here we are, two people from the far ends of the fence, havin’ identical problems, except hers bein’ black and me bein’ white.” (Terkel 597-598) These differences we claim to have are only skin deep. This is not to say that we should gloss over the seemingly intractable problems facing all Americans, but instead we should recognize that our underlying belief that our problems are rooted in our racial differences is patently false. People of all colors want to be happy. We all have children. We want them to grow up in a better world. We want to have roofs over our heads, to be free from suffering, to have a little piece of the American Dream. Racism is the enemy, not our cultural differences. The game of innocence only adds fuel to the fire. The first step is to examine our own minds and come to recognize that we are more alike than different. The next step is to have an open dialog with each other and really listen to each other. It will not be easy. Centuries of prejudice, pain and

Sullivan - 10 suffering must be dealt with and worked through. Steele concludes, “It would be right to suggest courage as an antidote to fear, but the glory of the word might only intimidate us into more fear. I prefer the word effort – relentless effort, moral effort.” (Steele 612) This is the essence of democracy, the willingness to engage in public debate and discourse for the good of the collective. It is indeed the effort that counts. If we don’t do it, who will?

Sullivan - 11 WORKS CITED Colombo, Gary, Robert Cullen, and Bonny Lisle, eds. Rereading America: Cultural Contexts for Critical Thinking and Writing. 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2004. Ford, Jack. “Women in Hate Groups.” 20/20. Jorde, Lynn B. and Stephen P. Wooding. “Genetic variation, classification and ‘race’.” Nature Genetics. Vol. 36. No. 11. November 2004. Jurmain, Robert, Lynn Kilgore, and Wenda Trevathan. Essentials of Physical Anthropology. 6th ed. Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth, 2006. Marks, Jonathan. “Black, White, Other.” Natural History. December, 1994. Parrillo, Vincent N. “Causes of Prejudice.” Colombo, Cullen and Lisle. 577-590. Steele, Shelby. “I’m Black, You’re White, Who’s Innocent?” Colombo, Cullen and Lisle. 602-612. Terkel, Studs. “C.P. Ellis.” Colombo, Cullen and Lisle. 591-601. Tsong-kha-pa. “The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path of Enlightenment” Vol. 2. Translated by the Lamrim Chenmo Translation Committee; Joshua W.C. Culter, Editor-In-Chief. Boston: Snow Lion Publications. Wah, Lee Mun. “The Color of Fear.” StirFry Productions. Watchel, Paul L.. “Talking about Racism: How Our Dialogue Gets Short-Circuited.” Colombo, Cullen and Lisle. 613-627. Westboro Baptist Church. “Coretta Scott King is in HELL!” 28 Apr 2006. < http://www.godhatesamerica.com/html/corettascottking.html>