THE EFFECT OF DIGITAL DRAWING TOOLS ON IMAGINATION IN ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION :

A THESIS SUBMITTED BY

HAWAR HIMDAD JAMAL

TO THE COUNCIL OF THE FACULTY OF ENGINEERING UNIVERSITY OF SULAIMANI AS A PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN ARCHITECTURAL ENGINEERING

UNDER SUPERVISION OF

ASST.PROF.DR. AMJAD MUHAMMAD ALI QARADAGHI

2014 A.D

2714 K.

1435 H.

‫ِيم‬ ‫ِب ْس ِم ه ِ‬ ‫الر ْح َم ِن َّ‬ ‫ّللا َّ‬ ‫الرح ِ‬ ‫ق ِْ‬ ‫ان ِم ْن َعلَ ٍ‬ ‫ك ْاْلَ ْك َرُم * الَِّذي َعلَّ َم‬ ‫ق * ا ْق َْأر َوَرُّب َ‬ ‫اسِم َرِّب َ‬ ‫ق * َخلَ َ‬ ‫ك الَِّذي َخلَ َ‬ ‫اْل ْن َس َ‬ ‫﴿ ا ْق َْأر بِ ْ‬ ‫بِاْل َقلَِم * َعلَّم ِْ‬ ‫ان َما لَ ْم َي ْعلَ ْم ﴾‬ ‫اْل ْن َس َ‬ ‫َ‬

‫صدق ّللا العظيم‬ ‫(سورة العلق‪)5-1‬‬

Certification of The Supervisor I certify that this thesis entitled “The Effect of Digital Drawing tools on Imagination in Architectural Education” was prepared under my supervision at the University of Sulaimani, Faculty of Engineering as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Architectural Engineering.

Signature: Supervisor: Dr. Amjad Muhammad Ali Qaradaghi Academic Degree: Assistant Professor Date:

/

/2014

Certification of Head of The Department Committee on Graduate Studies (Higher Studies Affairs)

In view of the available recommendations I forward the thesis for debate by the Examining Committee.

Signature: Name: Dr. Abdullah Yussif Al-Tayyib Academic Degree: Professor

Date:

/ /2014

Acknowledgements

The preparation of this research would not have been possible without the valuable guidance of my supervisor Dr. Amjad M. Qaradaqi. Therefore I would like to thank him for his expert, sincere and valuable advices. I thank Dr. Abdullah Yussif Al-Tayyib for his comments and suggestions which have been helpful for completing this research. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Saeed S. Hamadameen from University of koya, Dr. Mahmood Khayat, Dr. Omar Ibraheem Aziz (Omar Patti), Dr. Yousif Hama Salih, , Dr. Faris K.O. Nadhmi and Dr. Ismael M. Saeed from University of Salahaddin for their tremendous role in the practical part in this research.

I take this opportunity to record my sincere thanks to all the faculty members of Architectural Department/University of Sulaymani and Architectural Department/ University of Koya as well as the Fourth and Fifth stage students 2013-2014 for their co operations during the practical part of this research.

Many thanks to my supporting family for their support throughout my personal and academic life. I also place on record, my sense of gratitude to one and all who, directly or indirectly, have lent their helping hand in this venture.

Hawar Himdad Jamal

Dedication

To My father, the rock of stability throughout my life. My mother, the debt I could never repay and the blessing I am afraid of vanishing. My husband, assisting me every step of the road. My brother, whose trips back home always lighten our days. My sister, my best friend even through the darkest times. My little sister, whose help and support is beyond her size and age. My son, the source of distraction and without whom this research would have been completed a year earlier but life would be empty. My daughter, who arrived just in time to share the last moments of this work with me.

“The Effect of Digital Drawing Tools on Imagination in Architectural Education” Researcher: Hawar Himdad Jamal

Supervisor: Dr Amjad M. Ali Qaradaghi

[email protected]

[email protected]

Abstract This work is aiming to find the effects of digital drawing tools on imagination in comparison to the conventional drawing tools within the educational frame. Architectural design has utilized digital technology from the conceptual design phase all the way to the final stage. Although the utilization of this implementation is strongly criticized as well as commercially demanded, it is in architectural academics where the strong controversy around the negative aspects concerning the use of these digital tools arises. From there the significance of this study started, seeking to find the effects that the different types of tools have on students’ imagination. This study has taken imagination factor since the highest level of mental abilities is found in this specific faculty and design students cannot permit any obstacle in front of their imagination design capabilities. The problem upon which this study is based is that beside the fact that the digital technology is a dialectic issue in the educational framework, its effects are also unknown as far as the students’ imagination capabilities are concerned. The case study involved the comparison between two groups; one group relying strongly on digital tools while the other depends merely on conventional tools, herein are students’ imagination capabilities as well as drawing abilities investigated. A test was designed in order to investigate the imagination as well as drawing capabilities. The students’ level of imagination (which consists of two level; creative imagination and reproductive imagination) is investigated by means of an evaluation form filled out by their design teachers. Also the teaching staff opinions were taken from each student group by means of a questionnaire. This study finds: There is a positive relationship between drawing and imagination capabilities. And students using conventional drawing tools merely have a higher imagination capability score as well as drawing capabilities score. The majority of teaching staff finds that students with higher capabilities in drawing by conventional tools encompass also a higher capability in imagination. Keywords: Architectural Design Education, Design Imagination, Conventional Drawing Tool, Digital Drawing tool

Table of Contents Quran text Certification of supervisor Certification of head of the department committee on graduate studies Certification of the discussion committee Acknowledgements Dedication Abstract Table of contents List of tables List of figures Introduction General framework

I IV V VII IX

The theoretical framework Chapter One Previous Literature Chapter one framework Preface 1.1 Previous literature 1.1.1 Ela Çiland Oya Pakdil (2007) 1.1.2 Burcu Senyapili and Yncy Basa (2006) 1.1.3 Nada Bates-Brkljac (2010) 1.1.4 Chaoyun Liang et al. (2012) 1.1.5 Karim Hadjri (2003) 1.1.6 Rodney S. Earle (2002) 1.1.7 Mehmet Erkoc et al. (2013) 1.1.8 Sine Dougall and Gaby Pfeifer (2012) 1.1.9 José Duarte (2009) 1.1.10 Marco Frascari (2011) 1.1.11Ashraf M. Salama (2007) 1.1.12 T. Alkymakchy (2010) 1.1.13 R. Thienmongkol (2008) 1.1.14 Shubber Mun’im (2004) 1.1.15 Marwan Ahmed (2010) 1.1.16 Ibrahim Aziz (2007) 1.1.17 Alkinany and Diwan

1 2 3 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 19 20 20 I

1.2 Literature analysis 1.2.1 Findings of literature analysis 1.3 Research problem 1.4 Research objectives 1.5 Research methodology 1.6 Limitation of key terms used in this research Chapter Two Denominators of Imagination and architectural Design Part One; Denominators of imagination Preface 2.1 Imagination defined 2.1.1Imagination and linguistic terms 2.1.2 The definition of imagination 2.1.3 The function of imagination 2.1.3.1 Imagination and fantasy 2.1.3.2 Imagination and memory 2.1.3.3 Imagination and perception 2.1.3.4 Imagination and creativity 2.1.3.5 Imagination and knowledge 2.1.4 Types of imagination 2.1.4.a Passive- and active imagination 2.1.4.b Spontaneous and controlled imagination 2.1.5 Levels of imagination 2.1.5.a Reproductive imagination 2.1.5.b Creative imagination 2.1.6 Imagination in varying fields of science 2.1.6.a Imagination in psychodynamic perspective 2.1.6.b Imagination in biology 2.1.7 Proposals related to imagination 2.1.7.a Imagination and visualization 2.1.8 Theories related to imagination 2.1.8.a Imagination and brain dominance theory 2.1.8.b Picture Theory 2.1.8.c Description theory Part Two: Imagination and architectural design 2.2 Imagination and architecture 2.2.1 Imagination in design 2.2.2 Imagination in drawing Summary of chapter two

II

22 26 27 27 27 28

29 29 30 30 31 31 32 33 39 43 44 44 46 47 47 49 52 52 53 55 55 57 57 59 60 61 61 63 65

Chapter Three Drawing tools and architectural education Part One: Drawing tools 3.1 Preface 3.2 The definition of tool 3.3 Tools in art 3.3.a Camera obscura 3.3.b Photography 3.3.c Technological shift in art 3.4 The definition of drawing 3.5 History of drawing tools 3.6 Drawing mechanisms 3.6.a Classification according to factures 3.6.b Classification according to trace 3.7 The classification of drawing according to purpose 3.7.a Presentation drawing 3.7.b Instruction drawing 3.7.c Consultation drawing 3.7.d Experiential drawing 3.7.e Diagrams 3.7.f Fabulous drawing 3.7.g Proposition drawing 3.7.h Calculation drawing 3.7.i Exploratory drawing 3.8 Drawing and architectural design 3.8.a proposals on drawing 3.8.b The design process 3.9 Drawing tools in architectural design 3.9.1 Conventional drawing tools 3.9.2 Digital drawing tools 3.9.2.a Types of digital tools used in design process 3.10 The role of computers in the design process 3.10.a The computer as oracle 3.10.b the computer as draftsman 3.10.c The computer as modeler 3.10.d The computer as a critic 3.11 Drawing tools and Non-standard architecture 3.12 Drawing tools and crafts Part Two Drawing and imagination in architectural education 3.13 Drawing in architectural education III

67 67 68 68 69 70 72 73 74 74 75 76 76 77 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 80 80 82 83 83 85 88 90 90 91 97 92 93 95 97

3.13.a Architectural education 3.14 Architectural drawing and cognition 3.14.a Drawing and sensation 3.15 Drawing and imagination 3.16 Research hypothesis Summary of chapter three The practical framework

97 105 105 106 111 112

Chapter Four The case study Part One: Construction of measuring tool 4.1 Preface 4.1.1 Research approach 4.1.2 Research composition 4.1.3 Variable selection and research limitation 4.1.4 Study components 4.1.4.a Study population 4.1.4. b Study timing 4.1.5 Data collection tools 4.1.5.a Student evaluation form 4.1.5.b Student imagination test 4.1.5.b.1 The test design 4.1.5.b.2 Face validity questionnaire 4.1.5.c Students’ grades evaluation 4.1.5.d Questionnaire form 4.1.6 Statistical methods used Part Two: Application and discussion 4.2 Preface 4.2.1 Evaluation form results 4.2.2 Student imagination test results 4.2.3 Students grades’ evaluation results 4.2.4 Questionnaire results Part Three: Conclusions and recommendations 4.3 Preface 4.3.1 General conclusions 4.3.2 Conclusions from theoretical part 4.3.3 Conclusions from practical part 4.3.4 Recommendations List of tables 1.1 Literature analysis IV

113 113 113 113 114 114 115 115 116 116 116 117 117 117 118 119 119 123 132 134 142 142 142 144 145 22

2.1 Indicators of imagination 2.2 Brain dominance theory 2.3 Derived elements of chapter two 3.1 Comparison table of drawing tools 3.2 Relation of imagination indicators and drawing characteristics 4.1 Measurement indicators 4.2 Study population 4.3 Face validity referees 4.4 Correlation of imagination indicators 4.5 Correlation of evaluation form and student test 4.6 Students’ test results 4.7 3Dmax capacities 4.8 Sketchup capacities 4.9 Spearman correlation students’ grades 4.10 Chi-square for design definitions List of figures 1.1 Structure of chapter one 1.2 Structure of previous literature 1.3 Elaboration of research problem 1.4 General and specific research objectives 2.1 Structure of chapter two 2.2 Brain regions showing imagination and memory activities 2.3 Imagination is the highest level of brain function 2.4 An object can be seen as several 2.5 The relation between imagination and perception 2.6 Creative ideas 2.7 The process of creativity 2.8 The model of imagination and creativity 2.9 Hierarchy for imagination 2.10 Types of imagination 2.11 Controlled and spontaneous imagination 2.12 Gestalt and imagination 2.13 Picture theory of imagination 2.14 Imagination model in design 2.15 Drawing as a bridge 2.16 Drawing and imagination 3.1 Structure of chapter three 3.2 Evolution of tools 3.3 Camera obscura 3.4 Vermeer’s master piece V

51 58 66 86 110 114 115 117 121 122 123 128 129 133 136

1 26 27 32 33 34 39 39 40 42 43 46 47 56 59 63 63 64 68 69 69

3.5 Artistic subject 3.6 Revolution of communication mechanism 3.7 Relation between drawing process and building process 3.8 Fantastic drawing 3.9 Conventional drawing tool 3.10 Unlimited drawing 3.11 Unlimited drawing 3.12 Digital drawing tools reliance 3.13 Forms and drawing tools 3.14 Architectural project 3.15 Architectural project 3.16 Relation between drawing and locality 3.17 Drawing and senses 3.18 Vision 3.19 The cognitive operation and vision 3.20 Variance in view 3.21 Rearrangement 3.22 Mirroring 4.1 Structure of chapter four 4.2 Data collecting tools 4.3 Capacities in drawing tools n1 4.4 Capacities in drawing tools n2 4.5 Preferences digital tools 4.6 preferences digital tools in academic year 4.7 Student scores 4.8 Curriculum definitions 4.9 Design definitions 4.10 Role of computer 4.11 Teachers’ opinions 1 4.12 Teachers’ opinions 2 4.13 Drawing stimulating imagination 4.14 Relation between drawing and imagination 4.15 Hand drawing and imagination 4.16 Creative- and reproductive imagination 1 4.17 Creative- and reproductive imagination 2 References

VI

71 74 75 84 84 84 85 86 93 94 94 95 105 106 108 109 109 109 116 128 128 129 130 130 135 135 136 137 137 138 138 139 139 140 147

Introduction Digital technology shapes our lives disregarding our age, job and activities. However, it’s large impact and inevitable influences have raised much controversy which made the introduction of any technology opposed as much as it is welcomed into society. As we are confronted with new tools daily, the humanity seems to be destined to live by these tools that in the long run are considered indispensable. However many researches are conducted concerned with the influences of digital technology. A worthy point to notice is that the effect of digital technology is mostly investigated out of physical and pragmatic viewpoint. We know for instance what kind of impact technology developments has had on the human lifestyle, from the tools we wake up with, transport, communicate, and travel…and so on. The introduced changes will eventually have a hidden effect, a metaphysical influence. As example the psychological discomfort due to the fastened rhythm of our contemporary lifestyle, mostly caused by the developments in technology. Quite comparable in architecture; immediately after the Second World War, the need for the use of technology in order to build in mass production was substantial. But only after a while were the effects of the soulless modern architectural creatures rejected by some. What is important here is to denote that technology, being a physical tool, has firstly a physical influence that will be followed by a metaphysical, a hidden, influence. Logically, the use of digital technologies such as CAD within the architectural education will predictably have an underlying metaphysical effect, a student that designs with digital drawing tools “thinks”, “imagines” and “percepts” his design differently than someone designing by hand. This difference is caused by the hidden influence of technology, a hidden influence will only affect a hidden aspect in design such as; creativity, imagination, perception, artistic value and aesthetic taste all of these are considered significant in shaping the designer. Although the essence of the architectural education is to “teach” students how to become a designer, and train to produce a physical object, the architectural education must be very alert as far as these so called hidden effects goes due to their substantial importance in shaping the actual designer. Architecture has made many implementations of digital technology from the design process all the way to the finishing stage. This implementation has been criticized over the centuries. But most importantly for this study is the critique found within the academic frame and in architectural education in specific. This critique is of course concerned with any negative influences the used technological VII

tools may have on students’ design capacities. Nevertheless, there is a divide in believes; while many architectural departments have restricted the use of digital tools to a small range, many others have completely left their restrictions up to the students. Since architectural design is based on creativity and vivid imagination, it is claimed that these digital tools are tools for creativity while others are seeing them rather as an obstacle. Under the above presented conditions, the necessity of this study is directed to provide detailed data about the effect of the digital tools on the students’ design capacities as far as the factor of creative imagination goes, and since imagination is largely underinvestigated and students are mostly evolved in drawing, it is in the synergy between drawing tools and imagination where the essence of this study lays. Previous studies have demonstrated the importance of imagination in the educational process as well as the substantial need for imagination and drawing in architectural education in specific. However there is no global applicable data available to indicate the relation between digital drawing tools and design students’ imagination. The foregoing facts have subsequently structured the research problem which is the unavailability of desirable denominators in order to determine these relations. The objective of this study is to define the effect of digital drawing tools implementation on imagination. The general research objective is to find the applicability of the drawing tools in broad; this factor involves the role of design studios as well as design instructors within the architectural education context. Hence, this study has started with a theoretical survey consisting of three chapters and ending with the application of study which is discussed in the final chapter. In chapter one; the previous literature review in terms of the research subject discussed. From there is the research problem as well as the research objective identified. Chapter two investigates imagination in varying fields of science in addition to its importance in drawing, design and architectural education. Chapter three finds its essence in a comprehensive investigation of drawing types and drawing tools in the context of cognitive science regarding the creativity and imagination factor. This chapter ends with the formulation of several hypotheses to be tested in chapter four. The final chapter, chapter four, deals with data analysis and result discussions reaching the final conclusions of this study to enhance and support the previous scientific findings that relate the types of drawing tools to imagination.

VIII

General Research Framework (Source: Researcher)

IX

X

CHAPTER ONE Literature review

Theoretical Part

CHAPTER ONE

Literature Review

Studies within the architectural field

Studies outside the architectural field

Analysis of previuos literature

Research Problem

Research Objectives

Identification of main definitions Figure 1.1 Chapter One Structure (Source: Researcher)

Chapter One – Previous Literature

1

Chapter One Literature Review Preface: This chapter studies a broad range of previous literature related to the research to define the main axis of the study. In order to provide the study the needed data on the subject, are the chosen literature found both inside and outside the architectural frame. After pointing out the related aspects of each literature, have been analyzed to define the bases of this study. In order to gain the broadest possible image on the subject, the literature is outlined within the following table: Literature Review Inside Architecture

International Literature

Outside Architecture

Local Literature

International Literature

Local Literature

Karim Hadjri (2003)

Shubber Mun'im (2004)

Rodney S. Earle (2002)

O. Aziz (2007))

Burcu Senyapili, Yncy Basa(2006)

Ashraf M. Salama (2009)

R. Thienmongkol (2008)

M. Ahmed (2010)

Ela Cil, Oya Pakdil (2007)

N. Alkymakchy (2011)

Chaoyun Liang et.al (2012)

Alkanani, Diwan (2012)

Jose Duarte (2009)

G. Pfeifer, (2012)

Nada Bates-Brklaj (2010)

M. Erkoc, C Erkoc, Z. Gecu (2013)

Marco Frascari (2011)

Research Problem

Research objective

General Research Methodology

Figure 1.2 The Strcuture of literature review (Source: researcher)

Chapter One – Previous Literature

2

1.1.1 “Design Instructor’s Perspective on the Role of Computers in Architectural Education”, By: Ela ÇİL and Oya PAKDİL1 (2007) - Study significance: This study has found its motivation in the “divide among the design faculty around the world between those who see computers merely as tools and those who see them as parts of a different design thinking and mechanism fostered by the digital media” (Çil and Pakdil, 2007, p.123). They find the significance of this study and exploration of the aforementioned of the issue in the fact that in the METU 2 was the first graduate program specializing in CAD established in Turkey. - Study objective(s): Considering the objectives of this study they state that “Our aim is lesson contributing to the discussions on the nature of change that is possible with computers in the architectural studio or how to integrate such changes with the conventional education” (Çil and Pakdil,2007, p.124), here they rather attempt to understand and describe the atmosphere within which such transformations may occur. The objective of the research is to explore and identify the instructors’ conceptualizations and evaluations of the relationship between design and computers in education. - Study approach: A survey was conducted in between members of the faculty by taking a case study approach. This survey was designed on the concept that they “think that the opinions related with computers in education are inseparable from the opinions related with the design process in general and architectural design education in specific” (Çil and Pakdil, 2007, p.124). Hence they’ve designed a survey of 12 questions which aim to illustrate some possible patterns and commonalities in conceptualizations and evaluations of the design instructors. - Findings and conclusions: The findings of the survey portray an idea about the divide between lecturers, the main aspects to be at stake according to the study are; “issues related with the students’ computer use in their designs, such as proficiency in CAD, authenticity and identity are problematic, cognitive skills are seen to be at stake in this case” (Çil and Pakdil, 2007, p.124). As they conclude further that the instructors’ concerns on computers “as they see them as a threat to perceptual and representational skills that an architectural student should have” but they also have the tendency to think that computers are the first among many reasons that can cause a student to fail at their design work. Also the aspects “visual thinking” comes into play as well as “spontaneity” and “eye-hand contact” but without going any deeper on them. The 1

Teachers in Bosphorus university in istabul/turkey METU refers to Middle East Technical University in Ankara/Turkey (Source: www.metu.edu.tr accessed on October 2014) 2

Chapter One – Previous Literature

3

study also finds that majority of opinion is that the computers in design “are not fully incorporated either by the students or their CAD instructors”, while only a few see that the computers do not have the capacity to play a larger role than just an instrumental one. Another important finding is that “instructors think that computers are necessary, almost inevitable, in professional practice, but skeptical of their use in education, and then it is tempting to claim that instructors perceive professional practice and education as two separate worlds in terms of design processes” (Çil and Pakdil, 2007, p.134), but yet their belief in the importance of democratic and open atmosphere in the studio indicates that there is a foundation for experimentation on design process and pedagogy. This study is as it states an attempt to understand the atmosphere in which the use of computers/CAD is absorbed by investigating the instructor’s perspective on this issue. Hence, it does its survey based on the idea that the instructors’ definitions about design are involved in the formation of their perspective on the role of computers in the design education. However the study does find specific answers to the questions raised throughout the literature review, but lacks the objective to investigate deeper into the aspects some mentioned cognitive and perceptual issues. By further investigation on these aspects the following question may be answered; how and why do the academic design process and the professional practice differ from one another. 1.1.2 “The Shifting Tides of Academe: Oscillation between Hand and Computer in Architectural Education”, By: Burcu Senyapili and Yncy Basa3 (2006) - Study significance: This study is sourcing from the vacillation in choosing hand or computer for design presentation in academia, “Although the computer emerged as very powerful alternative presentation medium, it could not sweep away the hand totally” (Senyapli and Basa, 2006, p.273). As their belief about this vacillation is further explained that this vacillation cannot only be due to the positive and negative aspects of both media they’ve found the need to investigate this phenomenon. - Study objective(s): The objective of this study is to find the underlying cause of the above mentioned vacillation between hand- and computer presentation. In search for the “hidden” factors contributing to this phenomenon by underlining the oscillation of 3

Senyapili and basa are teachers at the Department of interior Architecture and Environmental Design in faculty of Art, Design and Architecture- bilkent university in Ankara/Turkey (Senyapli and Basa, 2007, p.273).

Chapter One – Previous Literature

4

the recent years’ graphical communication between presentation media; hand and computer. As they add another pole to their objective “This paper is positioned between the two poles; recognizing the factors that form this oscillation and considering their implications for the future” (Senyapli and Basa, 2006, p.274). - Study approach: The study is made with a group of second year students within an interior architecture curriculum. The students were required to use both media for the same task; subsequently their satisfaction and evaluation were examined through a questionnaire. What is important to mention is that the focus was not on design but rather the presentation of simple geometric shapes. - Findings and conclusions: After finishing the presentation tasks the students were asked to fill in the questionnaire that offered the following results; the majority of the students acknowledged the advantages of drawing by computer over hand drawing, especially in terms of practicality, ease of learning and executing, economizing of time, and using less physical effort. However, their study also showed that “when it comes to enjoyment and feeling designerly, students prominently gathered around hand drawing” (Senyapli and Basa, 2006, p.274). Interestingly, however most students acknowledged the computer tasks were easier, they added to this that the artistic warmness of hand drawing and its capacity to reflect their full abilities does have the overhand. “ This study shows that there is a prevailing belief in a strong relationship between hand and creativity among design students”, they also predict that the critical look of the students to computer assisted drawings in terms of lack of identity seems to ensure that the role of hand will preserve its validity in the future. Another conclusion made by the authors is “computers’ digital perfection leaves limited scope for the concepts such as identity, authorship etc. Instead, computer drawings display a technical anonymity. Architecture’s ambiguity of self definition; art/science, leads to the oscillation between pencil/computer” (Senyapli and Basa, 2006, p.276).

This study examines the students’ preferences in terms of use of handand computer drawing. Throughout the study is the hand strongly linked to the aspects of creativity, personal touch, author identity, and etc. At the end is concluded that the ongoing oscillation between hand and computer as far as the presentation phase goes is comparable with architecture’s ambiguity of definition between art and science. And as this is one of their questions for prospective studies, this study has answered a question to raise another intriguing one.

Chapter One – Previous Literature

5

1.1.3 “Artistic Representations of Architectural Design Schemes: Forms, Compositions and Styles”, by: Dr. Nada Bates-Brkljac4 (2010) - Study significance: The author introduces the study by stating “It might be thought that the architectural representations made by computers are simply technical representations of architectural schemes, and have no artistic qualities” (Brkljac, 2010, p.1). Regarding this statement she mentions Nadin’s opinion on this issue, elaborated in her book “Emergent Aesthetics-Aesthetics issues in computer art”. - Study objective(s): In this study the author argues that these representations are or can be artistic. The objective lays in testing the hypothesis set by the author throughout the previous literature as the author claims; “My claim is that the growing ease with which it is possible to create representations using computer software, does not lessen the need for an artistic eye, the ability to translate an old form into a new, nor makes new form and composition less able to communicate the essence of the project, together with an understanding of the craft the computer is performing” (Brkljac, 2010, p.2). Hence, the main objective of the study has been the examination of the interrelationship between traditional and computer generated modes of the artistic representations. - Study approach: In order to examine the above mentioned relationship, the study analyzes the three architectural aspects of shape, form and composition and four case-based analyses were conducted. This study’s empirical approach is including the method of analysis used by historians and critics in architecture from the renaissance to today explains the author. - Findings and conclusions: As far as the general findings is concerned, Brkljac says, “traditional forms and compositions of architectural representation are not significantly altered when new techniques are applied, instead they continue using the pre-existing conventions. The result is an expanded potential that can be realized by employing and interpreting the established conventions, forms and styles” (Brkljac, 2010, p.4). However, in terms of styles there are some advantages of computer generated photorealism which combines computer generated images with photography. They are as art, always reflections of the talent and skill of the creator and his/hers use of artistic license. In summary, it is concluded that the use of the computer technology in architecture, does not only accelerate drawing process that had been previously carried out by hand, but “opens up a potential not attainable on the drawing board, one with an enormous capacity for the extension of the forms of 4

PhD Bates-Brkljac is teacher at the Faculty of Environment and Technology from University of the West of England in Bristol/UK (Brkljac, 2010, p.1).

Chapter One – Previous Literature

6

architectural representation. The result is a greater freedom of expression, which demonstrates that architectural representations, as ever, belong to both, art and architecture.” This study starts with a claim that the computer generated representations can be as artistic as the traditional hand drafted ones. However, logically, in order to undergo this comparison both modes of representation need to undergo the same analysis process to identify not only their case of artistry but also their aesthetic values. 1.1.4 “How Learning Environments can Stimulate Student Imagination”, By: Chaoyun Liang et al.5 (2012)

- Study significance: The instructions and conversations set up by the educational instructors enable the growth of students’ skills and understandings. Nevertheless, fabricating such meaningful experiences not only requires a significant amount of expertise, but also creativity and imagination, state writers “It involves imagining how learners learn; how they respond to a task; where, with whom, and how they work; using which resources under which circumstances; and over what timescale” (Goodyear & Retalis, 2010 from Liang et al. 2012, p.373).

The direct essence of this study lays in the followed announcement “Until now, few studies have clearly discussed imagination in the field of educational technology, let alone developed an evaluation tool for assessing imagination stimulation” (Liang et. al. 2012, p.366). - Study objective(s): The authors of this study claim the purpose as follows “to investigate an array of environmental factors that can stimulate imagination and explore how these factors manifest in different design phases” (Liang et. al. 2012, p.367). Hence, this study is willing to focus on what factors are stimulating imagination throughout the design process. The underlying reason for this is “Designers need to have imagination to forecast emerging technologies and their potential applications” (Liang et. al. 2012, p.367).

- Study approach: The environmental factors are subdivided into four dimensions; physical component, organizational measure, social climate, and human aggregate. The physical component consists of the natural environment such as weather, location, etc. as well as the man-made environment such as the architecture, sound, facilities, etc. The organizational measure is concerned with the rules and legislations. While the social climate stresses on the subjective views of the 5

Prefessor at Department of Information Communication, Yuan Ze University in Taoyuan/Taiwan (Liang et. al. 2012, p.366).

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participants the human aggregate is focusing on the collective characteristics of the people who inhabit the environment. “Based upon the literature reviewed previously, nine items were created to represent imagination characteristics, and 21 items were created to represent various environmental influences” The nine characteristics of imagination were as follows; exploration, intuition, sensibility, and crystallization; while some are more practice-oriented, such as: effectiveness, novelty, transformation, elaboration, and productivity (Liang, Chang, Chang, & Lin, 2012 from Lang et. al.2012, p.368). The items were scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1= strongly disagree to 5= strongly agree. A pilot study was also conducted consisting of 60 students in the educational technology field to examine the constructed scale. Based on the satisfactory analytical results, the formal questionnaire was confirmed. In the questionnaire, students were asked to determine the level of agreement with each imagination characteristic, and the strength of influence that each environmental item had on their imagination in the current design phases. Although the design process is iterative, a systematic approach of instructional activities that allow students to gradually grasp complicated concepts is often times needed. The questionnaire was thus distributed in three different periods which represented the three instructional design phases of analysis, design/development, and implementation/evaluation during the fall semester of 2011. Data collection of each survey was conducted by well-trained graduate assistants who were accompanied by the class instructor. - Findings and conclusion: The results of this study indicated that imagination is consisted of several characteristics: productivity, transformation, sensibility, intuition, novelty, exploration, effectiveness, crystallization, and elaboration. But the following question is raised at the end of the study “However, we ask ourselves, can these nine characteristics represent imagination in full? In other words, are there any other characteristics together with the present ones which can signify imagination thoroughly?” (Folkmann from liang et al., 2012, p.380). The social climate was claimed to have the greatest effect on stimulating the student’s imagination, followed by the organizational measure, human aggregate and physical component. This study also found that there was a significant relationship between imagination and environmental factors, though the correlation coefficients were not considered high. In addition, according to the recent studies in learning environments, student learning should be separated as an independent variable to be studied. It is the authors’ belief that an excellent designer who is capable of simulating invisible possibilities is only able to because he or she has an exceptional imagination. Compared to concepts such as personal characteristics and inner

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psychology, external environments are factors which are easier to grasp and shape. It is also easier to adjust the learning environment with different instructional strategies than to change an individual’s characteristics or psychology. The learning environment and curriculum must inspire students’ passion for excellence, nurture their curiosity, develop their imagination, empower their professional life, and awaken their spirit for an unknown future. This study has a novel subject which emphasizes the stimulation of imagination in design education. However, the need for this study lies within the changes aroused due to the affects of technology the study is not focusing on the effects of the used tools but merely on the students’ environment. Hence, the substantial need for imagination study is from here concluded and this study can lay bases for following studies. 1.1.5 “Bridging the Gap between Physical and Digital Models in Architectural Design Studios”, By: Karim Hadjri6 (2003) - Study significance: The essence of this study is found in the fact that “The advance of technology in the areas of building, environmental control and computing, meant that architectural teaching processes needed to adapt to the increasing use of modern tools”. However, in many schools of architecture, computer technology is not adequately integrated into the curriculum, because first, its introduction means that there is a need for an important change in the way architectural design is taught particularly in studios, and then, the learning outcomes of digital modelling are not known or understood (Hadjiri, 2003, p.2). - Study objective(s): Traditionally, students produce very accurate scaled physical models as part of their design development, but struggle to recreate them digitally for further analysis and improvement. This paper presents a recent experience related to the introduction of a new course on 3D digitization and modelling. This was done with the aim to bridge the gap between physical and digital models produced by students as part of their design development exercise. - Study approach: A preliminary research into scanning and digitization methods including Photogrammetry was necessary in order to assess their suitability to the project requirements. This resulted in the production of a course unit addressing the different scanning and digitization methods available. The objective of the course was to effectively use a tracking device (Microscribe 3D) to digitize complex physical models, and therefore create very accurate digital copies. Digital models 6 Teacher at Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University (Hadjiri, 2003, p.1).

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were then improved to allow an understanding of the design - space, form, materials and light – through visualization and animation, especially during jury reviews and final presentations (Hadjiri, 2003, p.3). - Findings and conclusions: Three-Dimensional Digitization allows the production of accurate digital copies of physical models. In addition, 3D modelling has enabled an understanding of the capabilities and limitations of CAD. The experience presented in this paper has shown that the digitization process is simple and straightforward, but the next step, which is the 3D modelling, was troublesome. Students’ deficiencies in 3D modelling knowledge and their misconceptions about CAD have created unnecessary burdens to the course development. Students were encouraged to explore complex building forms in the conventional way, and then create an accurate physical model half way through the design exercise that lasts about 12 weeks. This was followed by the digitization process and the 3D modelling. Students had to use AutoCAD to digitise but were free to select any 3D modelling software for the next stage of their design work. Given that the curriculum offers later a course in advanced CAD applications, namely 3D Studio Max, students attending the design course were not skilled enough to handle complex 3D modelling. This meant that the result of the 3D modelling was limited to simple surface modelling and basic animations. There is no doubt that 3D digitisation is a very useful tool that helps recreate complex physical models. However, the product of mechanical tracking requires considerable editing, which is time-consuming and necessitates expert knowledge in 3D modeling (Hadjiri, 2003, pp.5-6). This study is grounded on the phenomenon that digitization of architectural projects take place during the design process. The requirement for this is revealed where the need for elebration and analysis arises. However, the students’ deficiency in the needed softwares and the exact procedures leads to poor work and production. Another issue mentioned in this study is when the following is stated “Not surprisingly, digital technology is allowing students and designers to explore new areas without restraining their imagination in order to produce buildable complex designs such as Frank Gehry’s work.”. Nevertheless this quote does raise the questions: is this true? And why? 1.1.6 “The Integration of Instructional Technology into Public Education; Promises and Challenges”, By: Rodney S. Earle7 (2002) Any innovation is filled with promises and challenges. Hence, the need to focus on the teacher and the learner and not the technology -through the curricula 7

Earle is Professor in Department of Education at Brigham Young University, Utah/USA

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and practices- will bring teachers and learners together. Contrary to critical comments about the poor quality of technology research, Margaret Honey at the Education Development Center recently testified that one can find more than enough empirical evidence that technology does have a positive impact when the right conditions are in place. She concluded that, if technologies are to be used to support real gains in educational outcomes, six factors must be in place: leadership, solid educational objectives, professional development, adequate technology resources, time, and evaluation. Additionally, Norris, Smolka, and Soloway, in a convergent analysis of technology studies, have identified their set of critical conditions as access to technology and time on task, adequate teacher preparation, effective curriculum, supportive school/district administration, and supportive family. In other words, establish appropriate conditions by converting restraining forces to facilitating factors. Such remarkable interactive technologies deserve the opportunity to deliver on their promises and meet (or even exceed) their potential (Earle, 2002, pp. 5-13).

This book gives a scope on the importance of integrating technology into the educational system. However, in order for this to work well, many aspects should be in place. This means when the conditions are not sufficient many matters will inevitably go wrong and the right integration will not take place. This book also mentions several aspects that are valuable for further research such as the critical conditions mentioned above. 1.1.7 “The Effects of Using Google Sketch Up on the Mental Rotation Skills of Eighth Grade Students”,By: Mehmet Fatih Erkoc8,Cigdem Erkoc9 and Zeynep Gecu10 (2013)

- Study significance: Understanding the positions and the relationships between the objects, and reposition and visualize the views from different angles of these objects mentally is an extremely important skill for human being. Many literature calls this ability also spatial ability, which is one of the reasoning skills that is a capability of visualizing the three dimensional objects, imagine different perspectives, and comprehend the relations between objects. - Study objective(s): The aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of Google SketchUp, which is a computer aided (CAD) software, on mental rotation skills of eights grade student. 8

Res. Ass. Mehmet Fatih ERKOÇ, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology 9 Information Technology Teacher at the GSD Education Foundation 10 Res. Ass. Zeynep GECÜ, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology

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-Study approach: For the purpose of this study in the academic year of 2011-2012 a treatment was conducted with 62 students during six weeks. The study was carried out in accordance with a quasi experimental research with pretest and posttest design. The “Van Den Berg11 mental rotation test was used to determine mental rotation skills of the students, participating the research study , as pretest and posttest. During the four weeks, the students in control group tried to draw the different views of unit cube models developed by researchers on an isometric paper. In the same duration, the students in the experimental group tried to draw the same models with the help of Google Sketch Up software. - Findings and conclusions: In order to identify whether there was a significant difference between the pretest scores of the two groups. A t-test analysis was carried out. Hereby the t-test showed significant higher results for the control group. As the results for the posttest also was higher than the pretest. Hence, the results contradict both the research hypothesis as well as the noted related previous literature discussed throughout the study. Both of these suggested that the use of dynamic geometry software and computer aided activities would improve mental skills of learners (Erkoc and Gecu, 2013, pp. 286-292).

This study is noting the problem of teaching mental skills and the use of different tools in the process. While many previous literature advices the use of related computer software, this study contradicts with this hypothesis. Thus, this study recommends further investigation for comparing the virtual and physical medium in order to conclude which media is most efficient tool. 1.1.8 “Personality Differences in Mental Imagery and the Effects on Verbal Memory”, By Sine McDougall and Gaby Pfeifer12 (2012) - Study significance: Few studies to date have investigated the way in which differences in personality may affect the underlying cognitive processes, such as mental imagery, which may bring about these performance differences. The research which has been carried out to examine the relationship between extraversion and imagery ability has been inconclusive. An early study carried out by Huckabee, for example, found that introverts assigned higher imagery scores to concrete nouns than extraverts.

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Van Den Berg test was constructed using India ink drawings. Each stimulus was a two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object drawn by a computer. The image was then displayed on an oscilloscope. Each image was then shown at different orientations rotated around the vertical axis 12 Teachers in Psychology Department, University of Bournemouth in the United Kingdom

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- Study objectives: The main objective of this study has been to investigate two main axis; (a) whether there are any systematic differences between introverts and extraverts in the vividness of the imagery they report and (b) whether their recall is affected in a way which is systematically related to their reported vividness of imagery. The current study re-examined both of these possibilities. - Study approach: This study was based on two methods; first method was the assessment of the participants’ personality according to Eysenck Personality Inventory. This test investigates and diagnoses the introverts and extroverts. In the second part participants in these two groups were then presented with a verbal memory task in which they were asked to recall concrete, homonymous, and abstract nouns. The relations between the vividness of imagery, neuroticism and personality type are investigated. - Findings and conclusions: There were personality differences in visual imagery ability; extraverts reported significantly higher subjective mental imagery than introverts. One of the aims of this study was to re-examine the relationship between perceptions of imagery vividness and extraversion. The findings showed that extraverts reported more vivid imagery than introverts. However, these reports of imagery vividness did not translate into better recall for extraverts, even for concrete stimuli which were more likely to elicit the use of imagery (McDougall and Pfeifer, 2012, pp. 1-12). This study shows significant previous studies and hypothesis that connect personality differences with imagery. Showing the extraverts noting higher vividness of mental imagery while not scoring significantly higher memory recalling compared to the introverts. 1.1.9 “Inserting New Technologies in Undergraduate Architectural Curricula”, By: José Duarte13 (2009) - Study significance: This paper describes a set of courses and labs created to materialize the virtual design studio within a new program in architecture. - Study objective(s): The goal was to provide students with state of art technology and prompt the use of such a technology in a natural way in the design process. - Findings and conclusions: When the courses and labs were created the expected results were: (1) to support architectural teaching and research; (2) to investigate how computers and information technology can be integrated in the design process; (3) to create a 13

Teacher at The Design Education in Technical University Lisbon, Lisbon/portugal

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research environment that supports creative and innovative design teaching and practice; (4) to develop new expertise oriented towards new architectural and building solutions; (5) to provide technology-oriented consulting services to the AEC industry. These results were achieved to a certain extent. The technology was successfully integrated in the architecture program and use of the skills that students acquired in the described courses has extended to other courses. Finally, the courses and the labs have contributed for increasing the students’ employability. In summary, the described curricular tools, the authors believe, satisfy the three criteria that should be at the core of university education: academic satisfaction, achievement of specialized professional skills, and contribution for the economic development of society (Duarte, 2009, pp. 423-427). Also this study is one which is concerned with the implementation of design technology within the academic frame. Furthermore, similar to the others, it is concerned with the pragmatic procedural aspect of the tools. Hence, the additive aspect to such studies is to study underlying aspects for gaining a comprehensive whole. 1.1.10 “Eleven Exercises in the Art of Architectural Drawing; Slow Food for the Architects Imagination”, By; Marco Frascari14 (2011) This book represents eleven servings of, according to the writer, “Slow food”, for the architectural imagination as opposed to the tasteless “Fast food”, which dominates many drawing tables and digital tablets. “In non-trivial architectural drawings, imagination, fantasy, vision and memory, combined with sensual perceptions and projections, are all part of cognitive cluster.” But despite the power and ubiquity of graphic images, educational curricula continue to pay little attention to graphics training in education. Frascari explains the essence of drawing on two basic levels; mental level and practical level. As for the mental level, “architectural drawings are a class of peripheral and internal representations, one of many cognitive tools that facilitate the relationships between imagination, memory and thinking.” Architects’ thinking ability is limited simultaneously by the amount of information and data they must keep in mind, by the number of mental operations they ought to apply to data and the detailed information that they are handling in conceiving buildable artifact. As for the practical level, “Architects express their thinking about a construction externally by drawing manually or digitally on different kinds of supports, and they examine, interpret and, perhaps, reinterpret them.” This book restates the opinion on digital tools in the course of drawing and design several times. “[…] Digital technologies have increased unnecessarily the 14

Frascari was an architectural theorist and director of the David Azrieli School of Architecture and Urbanism at Carleton University in Ottawa/Canada, died in 2013.

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number of images that architects have to handle; the seductive “coolness” of digital representation fascinates architects, clients and architectural students – paradoxically even before they have enrolled in their first design studio. Many are won over by the striking otherworldliness of digital imaging, while others are swayed by the notion that using digital representations will expedite the conceiving of buildings, but above all there is the belief that digital imagery grants instant legitimacy to architectural proposals through a superficial of completeness without considering that this pseudo-completeness hides a loss of rigor” (Frasacari, 2011, pp. 2-27).

This book makes a strong relation between imagination, drawing and education. Statements about the importance of imagination for architectural education as well as drawing for imagination are noted throughout the book. Although these opinions relate significantly with many other literature based on the implementation of digital tools, these opinions remain words since the book does not solve any problems by practical application. 1.1.11 “An Exploratory Investigation into the Impact of International Paradigmatic Trends on Arab Architectural Education”, By: Ashraf M. Salama15 (2007)

-Study significance: While the development of Arab architectural education avows that there has been continuous influence of worldwide trends on the educational process, architectural schools in the Arab world are often accused of being largely unconcerned with the debates and trends raised by the international community. Testing this hypothesis required tracing three major paradigmatic trends in Arab architectural education: environment-behavior studies, sustainability and environmental consciousness, and digital and virtual practices. There is in fact a great deal of discussions in design and architecture circles on these trends, and widely varying opinions as to why and how they need to be introduced in architectural curricula. An investigation of 14 programs in 8 Arab countries was conducted based on literature reviews and preliminary content analysis of the online and printed prospectuses. The analysis reveals that in some programs courses addressing these trends have not reached mature levels, while other programs were able to address the balance between the trends in their curricula. The paper concludes by a prologue for the future of Arab architectural education, arguing for balancing and harmonizing these trends, adapting them to the norms defined by a particular culture or a locality, while integrating them into studio teaching practices. 15

Salama is Chair Professor in architecture and the Founding Head of theDepartment of Architecture and Urban Planning at Qatar University in Qatar/UAE (www.ashrafsalama.net accessed on October 2014)

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- Findings and conclusions: It would appear that most schools that offer courses in CAD and digital applications did not go beyond skill development in utilizing these technologies in design. Some schools appear to be unwilling to face the financial as well as the logistical burdens and the pedagogical uncertainties involved in converting from paper based educational process to paperless design practices. Their reluctance is to avoid the challenge of paradigmatic shift within a traditional design culture that continued for decades (Salama, 2007, pp.31-38). This subject is closer related to the local conditions due to its research problem. The major findings in this study is that the schools are unwilling to face the so called uncertainties that come with the shifting towards the digital education approaches, hereby is asked; what are these uncertainties and how effective could they be on students’ professional future. This study also suggests the difference between the academic and professional requirements. 1.1.12 “Thinking Performance Comparison of the Designer in Architectural Education between the Use of Digital and Traditional Method”, By: N. T. Alkymakchy16 (2011)

- Study significance: “It is obvious to argue that the current era is a computer age which dominates scientific and academic fields, and thus have formed a new language used in most life disciplines. Since the architecture is the reflected mirror of the culture, social and technological development over the generation of idea, till building construction. Many schools of architecture try to catch up with this trend by inclusion of computer studies into their educational curriculum to fit what is required from students in the exercise of the profession, without looking deeply at what can affect the design thinking productivity”. Thus the research is based on the hypothesis; designers productive thinking has a direct proportional relation with the increase of the number of design elements and the duration of these relations. And on the contrary the designers thinking productivity decreases with the decreasing of design elements and decrease of their relations, meaning the less time these relations remain during the design mission. -Study objective(s): This study aims at comparing design performances between the digital medium and the traditional sketching medium in the early stages of architectural design. The research sample in this case are the final stages of the architectural 16

Alkymakchy is Assistant Professor at Architectural Department/College of Engineering/University of Mosul in Iraq.

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education (fifth stage students), with the objective to investigate the nature of influence the digital environment has on the design proposals. - Study approach: After the theoretical framework the researcher proposes a study experiment. The data collection relies on Retrospective Protocol Analysis of the student sketches. The sample consist of 10 students 5 in the group and 5 in the control group, working in four design sessions each session taking one hour in the design studio. The analysis depends on an equation containing the following variables; Design segment (a design idea that resembles a part of the design solution), Segments association (the relation chosen by the designer, such as functional relations, shape relations, etc), Length of segment association (The time range in which these relations continue during the design stage). The Linkograph was used to explain the nature of relations of each design. - Findings and conclusions: This study finds that the traditional medium is more performing regarding productive thinking. The early design language is vague and uncertain; both of these aspects help to create the conversation between the design and solution. While the digital medium demands a high level of crispness, which is not available at this early stage. The digital medium creates a kind of fixation of the mind creating a distance between the designer and the needed intuitive and divergent thinking which lead to creativeness and inventions (Alkymakchy, 2011, pp. 20-31) This study takes the difference between the architectural education and profession into account. And finds that students designing with the digital tools have decreased productive thinking. What this study is not taking into account are the long term effects of these tools and not only the short term effects on a certain design mission. 1.1.13 “Using Digital Design Tools in the Character Design Classroom”, By: R. Thienmongkol17 (2008)

- Study significance: Graphic design courses are also affected by digital technology. This is because computer technology and related software have offered teachers and students a source of authentic materials, tools for communication and collaboration, and tools for improving their design skills. Furthermore, these technologies have been seen as useful tools for graphic design. Advances in digital design tools have created remarkable new ways to present works of art and the high cost of creation can be decreased. Thus, the use of digital design tools in the 17

Thiemingkol is from New Media Department, Faculty of Informatics Mahasarakham University in Thailand (www.ijssh.org accessed at October 2014)

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graphic design classroom can help the students to be active participants in class. On the whole, the computer technology and related software also increases numerous works of art. This paper presents an experience of using digital design tools in the character design classroom. These materials have become a necessity for a classroom instruction. However, it can be found that although the character design classroom needs effective digital design tools that are easier to use for design working, these tools should be used based on appropriateness. The teacher should have enough knowledge and skill in the digital design tools because the teacher must be able to advise the appropriate digital tools for students that can help the students to work well in this area (Thiemingkol, 2008, p.191). -Study objective(s): The aim of this paper is to present an experience of using computers and related electronic resources in the classroom instruction of graphic design, especially in the area of character design. In general, there are several digital design tools that can be used for this class, for example, digital camera, illustrator program, and Photoshop software. However, given the infancy of this trend, students do not hesitate to proceed but they are not sure which tools work well and which are likely to fail. Occasionally, it is possible that using convenient tools without sufficient knowledge could lead to poor work. Thus, using the digital design tools in the character design classroom, the teacher should have enough experience of those digital resources. This is because although the character design classroom needs effective digital design tools that are easier to use for design working, those should be used based on the experience of the teacher. If the teacher is able to advise the appropriate digital tools for students, it also helps the students to make good work. Significantly, students’ imagination and ability are not limited by any digital resource (Thiemingkol, 2008, p.192). - Study approach: In this character design classroom, in early assignment, students must submit their works based on the traditional design materials and digital design tools, respectively. Then, all of digital tools are guided in the first time and students choose a tool for working by themselves. In that time, although students do not hesitate to proceed but they are not sure which tools work well and which are likely to fail, it is possible that using convenient tools without sufficient knowledge could lead to poor work. Thus, providing new activities in the character design class is necessary. Students still submit their character sketches in the format of the traditional design materials before using any digital tool (Thiemingkol, 2008, p.194). - Findings and conclusions: This paper presents an experience of using digital design tools in the character design classroom. The digital tools have come to play a central role in

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education. Teachers can benefit from these resources because computers have become a necessity for a classroom instruction. Meanwhile, most students will have considerable experience with them as well. Moreover, we always discuss and comment on the works together. A lot of students can improve their skills and they can make suggestions to their friends. That means this teaching and learning process can help students work better. Based on new activities in class, students can create and achieve better works. Finally, the use of digital design tools can provide a positive influence on the learning success of the character design course. The wide range of digital technologies effect has affected all the art and design fields. This study covers the implementation of traditional and digital character design respectively and emphasizes that miss election and poor knowledge during the digital design phase will respectively lead to poor work quality. Therefore, each designer and each design needs suitable software and teaching staff’s awareness is also of substantial importance. 1.1.14 “The Contrived Architectural Form in Design Methodology Framework”, By: Shubber Mun’im18 (2004) One of the important modern features is the information exchanging among the science fields. This research is in the intersection and cross-fertilization of Art and Science to enlighten methods transformation in-between them. Importance of this intersection stems from the transformations of Science methods into Art, it occurs without change or edition of the art demands, the unique of idea and uniqueness form as a main feature. The interval of (creative-methodology) is the core of chapter one and when defined its vocabularies the general framework has been formed. The creative definitions are divided into two groups, the first group is related with result quality (newness-value) and the second group is related with process (analysis-synthesis). When the design methodology’s principal (The control of process is given the control of quality). So the relation between creative and methodology is process. Process studies uncovered imagination as a main channel, which support the creative action. In the same time the mental fixation is the main obstacle in this channel, and all the creative process depended on motivation. The (newness, value, analysis, synthesis, imagination, mental fixation and motivation) formed the general framework of this research, which is the main tool in the evaluation of the literatures review in chapter two. Third chapter cleared the neglecting of form value.The third chapter’s studies have been discussed through the general

18

Mun’im has written this unpublished research as part of MSc degree requirements in 2004

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framework. So the research aim was to build a new methodology treated with architectural form value and its newness. Architectural form is the area of research. Chapter four is theoretical framework, which tries to treat the gap between research aim and methodology literatures. It is tried to support the imaginations role and remove the mental fixation from the creative process, in addition that the treatment of the architecture form value remained as a main aim. Chapter five is concluding design methodology and concludes some indicators that support the designer in his methodology applications. The new methodology is not a creative framework only, but to explore the capability of the architectural formalization (Mun’im, 2004, pp. 3-6). This study is searching for creative design methodology to gain a unique architectural product. These methodologies are found at the intersection of the so called “science-art intersection” where the creative forms are derived by several computer software. Important to this study is that the author finds these creative forms are sourced from the “imagination channel” which is supporting the designers’ creative actions. However, the link between creativity and imagination is mentioned here, but the link between the imagination and this software is not mentioned. 1.1.15 “Mental Imagery and its Relations with Spatial Perception; A Field Study of Engineering Mechanics students from Damascus University”, By, Marwan Ahmed (2010)

- Study significance: The performance and success in each field of education depends on varying capabilities. The success of engineering students demands a high level of imagination and spatial perception and in most countries such profession acquires an aptitude test since only the results of high school do not complete the characteristics of these professions. Thus the engineering mechanics student needs perceptual and imaginative capabilities in order to perform his/her job. -Study objectives: The most important question this study wanted to answer was; Is there a relation between imagination and spatial perception? This was divided into two sub objectives, the first one wanting to find the performances on both an imagination test as well as a spatial perception test, while the second one wanting to find the influences of gender and educational year have on the performances of the tests. -Study approach: This study takes an analytical descriptive approach due to its importance in psychological studies. The sample for this study consisted of 134 students from third and fifth stage. The tests were firstly administered for validity and stability by applying the tests twice on the same sample population.

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- Findings and conclusions: There was a positive relation found between the imagination test performances and the spatial perception test. Also male students did score higher in the spatial perception compared to the female. There was no significant relation found between the tests and their education years, hence both perceptual and imagination capabilities are skills each individual possesses. 1.1.16 “Brainstorming and Its Trace in Creative Thinking”, By: Omer Ibrahim Aziz (2007)

This book is originally a scientific research later published. With the aim of investigating creativeness, this book emphasizes the important relations between creativity, visionary and psychological. Creative personalities see a problem “differently” due to their flexible way of thinking enabling them to solve problems creatively. They also have the ability to be persistent and handle ambiguous situation in which other personalities tend to surrender. Furthermore creative personalities are adventurous and taking risks. In the discussion of defining creativity the following characteristics are considered substantial; curiosity, imagination, exploration and inventiveness. According to this book the term creativity is used in much literature as synonym for imagination, originality, divergent thinking as well as inventiveness. Although the book mentions the relation between imagination and creativeness as well as creative personalities several times, it does not investigate this relationship nor does it go deeper into the literature related to this subject. This is caused by the fact that investigating this subject is not targeted in this study. 1.1.17 “The function of artistic education in developing imagination and creation of mental images of students and its role in visual thinking”, By: Majid Nafi’ Al-kinany and Nizal Nasir Diwan (2012).

- Study significance: The researchers find that imagination, being a high mental process and very important thought process, is a reflection created by mental images of the precedent perceptions. And the artistic education including music, drama, design as well as drawing makes the imagination process for students more evocative. However, many education institutes do not show necessary interest to these experiences and utilize the time specified for these subjects to complete the requirements of other subjects, regarded more important to these institutes. From this point of view, the writers state that the need for students to express ideas in complete freedom will revisit experiences and visual perceptions which play a significant role in the development of his imagination as well as mental imagery.

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This study finds its significance in the importance of fine arts for developing imagination and visualization of objects which can be helpful for the requirements of other scientific fields. -Study objectives: The study is revolving around some basic questions that form the research problem as well. These questions include; is it possible to develop students’ imagination and mental imagery through gained experiences in artistic education? How does imagination, mental imagery and perception relate to one another? Could mental imagery be measured through the application of elements and principles of artistic work? -Study approach: The two researchers have based their finding upon “a surveillance study and literature in the field of fine arts and art education through the mental operation (attention, sensual realization, imagination, mental imagination, remembering, thinking and others) for the learned individual for these practicing the artistic skills”. - Findings and conclusions: The finding of this study is that it appeared that there is an emphasis on the artistic aspect for the help in the development of the imagination and the construction of mental image as well as the cognitive skills. That is done through different skills which need the training of senses in general and the vision sense in particular as to how to realize the sensational part size, color, touch, harmony, shadow, light and the three dimensions (depth). The memory could be trained and activated through concentration on the process of assembling of the competent of the artistic work and creating a linked texture of these components. Thus all the senses can be trained by means of artistic elements and principles in order to provoke the imagination. This study’s significance is strongly relating to the current study, since the essence of imagination and how to train this aspect is discussed, as well as the artistic aspects of this research could be seen as important to the architectural student. However, this study does not specify how exactly the artistic elements and principles are utilized in this process, this gap perhaps is created due to the fact that this research is a theoretical research, although covering an important issue for education in general and design education in specific.

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1.2 Literature analysis: In table (1-1) are the main items regarding the previous literature elaborated, Table 1-1 The analysis of previous literature (Source: Researcher)

#

1

2

3

4

Deficiencies related to this study

Focus of the literature

Aspects related to this study

“Design Instructor’s Perspective on the Role of Computers in Architectural Education”

Defining the reasons for divide between design instructors’ opinions on the use of computers in design education

Instructors find that computer is a threat to young students’ cognitive and perceptual skills, as they obstruct visual thinking and eye-hand contact. But they also find that computers are inevitable and necessary for the professional practice.

This study sets a strong base for further study on the students’ skills. Since it is just focusing on the opinions and not investigating these opinions.

“The Shifting Tides of Academe: Oscillation between Hand and Computer in Architectural Education” “Artistic Representations of Architectural Design Schemes: Forms, Compositions and Styles”

Finding the reasons why students still oscillate between presentation by hand and computer This study aims to determine that the architectural representations made by computers do have artistic quality.

This study finds that the students feel more motivated by hand presentations since this reflects their full capacity.

This study focuses on presentation only. This does not give a scope of the whole design process.

This study finds that the use of computer opens up more potential and results in greater freedom of expression.

This study is a poetic explanation of the case rather than an elaborated comparison between both medium, hand and computer.

This study focuses on the imagination as a pillar for students and attempts to find ways to stimulate it

This study develops an evaluation tool for assessing imagination in education. The tool is then used to test the students’ environmental factors affecting their imagination.

But this does not investigate the effects of the tools used during their education but rather on the students’ environment.

Title

“How Learning Environments can Stimulate student Imagination”

Chapter One – Previous Literature

#

5

6

7

8

Title

“Bridging the Gap between Physical and Digital Models in Architectural Design Studios”

“The Integration of Instructional Technology into Public Education; Promises and Challenges”

“The Effects of Using Google Sketch Up on the Mental Rotation Skills of Eighth Grade Students”

“Personality Differences in Mental Imagery and the Effects on Verbal Memory”

Focus of the literature

This study finds the need for digitization of students’ works in order to keep up with the professional requirements.

This study is emphasizing the fact that computers do need to be integrated in the curricula. This study attempts to compare Google Sketch Up software with traditional tools, in order to decide which one helps with students mental rotation abilities. This study is a synergy between the relations of personality, memory and mental imagery.

23

Aspects related to this study

This study claims that students that are able to produce accurate scaled physical models, fail to recreate them digitally.

However there are six aspects that need to be in place; leadership, solid educational objectives, professional development, adequate technology resources, time and evaluation.

This study is close to the current research for its essential comparison between a digital and conventional tool.

This study tests imagination and relates it to memory as well as the personality differences.

Deficiencies related to this study This study states that students and designers using digital technology will be able to produce complex designs without restricting their imagination, but no further elaboration is given. In order for any mode of technology to be integrated correctly there is need for these six basic aspects to be offered. This Study does not cover the architectural field, nor does it apply the study on adult education, which is the case of architectural education

This study raises the question of; does the design personality also relate to imagination in the same way that was notable in this study.

Chapter One – Previous Literature

#

Title

Focus of the literature

9

“Inserting New Technologies in Undergraduate Architectural Curricula”

This study is concerned with integrating computers in the architectural teaching process.

10

“Eleven Exercises in the Art of Architectural Drawing; Slow Food for the Architects Imagination”

A book that emphasizes the importance of drawing and imagination for the design process as well as the design education

11

“An Exploratory Investigation into the Impact of International Paradigmatic Trends on Arab Architectural Education”

12

“Thinking Performance Comparison of the Designer in Architectural Education between the Use of Digital and Traditional Method”

This study focuses on the implementation of digital technology in the Arab world.

This study investigates the differences in productive thinking created by the medium in which the student works.

24

Aspects related to this study

Deficiencies related to this study

This study finds that the computers can be successfully integrated in order to enhance the economic and professional requirements.

This study is not investigating the design skills of students, it rather is concentrating on the market requirements only.

This book clearly states that there is strong relation between imagination, drawing and the ways or tools used during the drawing process.

Since this literature does not include any empirical research which could be accepted as more objective.

It finds that the schools are unwilling to convert from paper based educational process to paperless design practices.

This study raises a phenomenon to be investigated and that is if there are any design skills related aspect considered.

This study compares both digital and conventional media, in order to investigate the nature of effect the media have on thinking.

This study is not aiming for the more psychological aspect of the young designers.

Chapter One – Previous Literature

#

13

Title

“Using Digital Design Tools in the Character Design Classroom”

Focus of the literature

25

Aspects related to this study

This study It finds that the miss examines the use election of the digital tool of digital and poor knowledge during designing tools in the design phase lead to the graphic design poor work quality. classes.

Deficiencies related to this study This study suggests that each designer and each design needs suitable software in order for work quality to be accepted. However the study related the creative forms to be sourced from the imagination channel, which is supporting the creative actions, but the relation between imagination and these softwares is yet to be investigated.

14

“The Contrived Architectural Form in Design Methodology”

This study is searching for a creative design methodology to gain a unique architectural product.

The creative products, in this study, are derived from by several computer softwares.

15

“Mental Imagery and its Relations with Spatial Perception; A Field Study of Engineering Mechanics Students from Damascus University”

This study evolves around the fact that imagination and spatial perception are substantial capabilities needed within the engineering education.

This study tests imagination in an academic frame and finds the relations between imagination and spatial perception capacities to be significant

This study is outside the architectural frame and only uses a single test in order to test the imagination.

This book states that there are substantial relations between both creativeness and imagination.

The strong statement made through this book on imagination will need further investigation in order to be helpful during the architectural education

16

“Brainstorming and its Trace in Creative Thinking”

This book tests the trace of brainstorming on creative thinking

Chapter One – Previous Literature

17

“The function of artistic education in developing imagination and creation of mental images of students and its role in visual thinking”

This study discusses the need for imagination for the student, as well as the artistic aspect provoking it.

26

This study finds that the imagination could be significantly stimulated by means of the artistic education training.

This rather strong statement is not further investigated in applicable tools for training in this aspect.

1.2.1 Findings of literature analysis: According to the analyses the ideas on the implementation of digital tools in architectural education are divided. While some previous literature find it of major importance to integrate the digital technology in the design education, others resist this idea because of uncertainties. In general, the evaluations of previous literature lead to the following findings;  Firstly, there is concern about the inferences of digital technology with the educational process in general and the students’ design skills in specific.  Secondly, the effect of the use of digital tools on the students is yet unknown.  Thirdly, the concern about the use of digital tools for professionals is not as much as young students. As seen in figure 1.3 it is clear that the phenomenon of different attitudes towards the implementation of digital drawing tools is most probably caused by the unclear effects on the students’ imagination being a profound factor of creativity as it is a substantial character of design and essential for the architectural education. The phenomenon of different attitudes concerning the use of DDT in architectural education. There is uncertainty considering the implementation of the DDT in architectural education General research problems The influence of DDT on the designers’ imagination is unknown. The influence of DDT on the students’ design imagination is unknown

The effect of DDT on design students imagination is unknown Specific research problem Figure 1.3 The elaboration of research problem (Source: Researcher)

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1.3 Research problem: The literature review in paragraph 1.2, which provides data regarding imagination as well as drawing tools, clarifies that it does not cover the effect of drawing tools on imagination on both theoretical and practical levels. This leads to a case of uncertainty regarding the implementation of these drawing tools. And the deficiency of academic resource initiates the need to emphasize the research problem as; “the availability of thus far undecided denominators to formulate the theoretical framework of effect of digital drawing tools on students’ imagination”. 1.4 Research objective(s); The goal of this research is to improve architectural education from the technological integration viewpoint. The main objective is to define the effect of digital drawing tools implementation on imagination. Figure 1.4 shows that the general research objective is to find the applicability of the drawing tools in broad; this factor involves the role of design studios as well as design instructors within the architectural education context. General

Finding the applicability of digital drawing tools to architectural education. Finding how educational structure in the architectural design studio can be formed based on integration of digital drawing tools. Finding the role of design educators in architectural design education in leading and stimulating imagination and raising the students’ capabilities in creativity and innovation. Finding the general tools to stimulate imagination in design process in the architectural design studio educational context.

Specific

Finding the effects of digital designing tools on imagination as this is considered a significant creative skill of architectural design(ers) Figure 1.4 The general and specific research objectives (Source: Researcher)

1.5 General research methodology: Firstly a theoretical frame will be built up. Then the theoretical denominators will be applied in a practical framework, from which results and conclusions are derived. In specific four major procedures will take place which include the following; 1. Building a theoretical framework considering the architectural education. 2. Concluding imagination denominators according to their relation with digital design tools in architectural design.

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3. Application of the concluded denominators on two sample groups. 4. Finding and analysis of results to conclude bases for digital drawing tools effect on imagination.

1.6 Limitations of key terms used in this research: 1.6.a Drawing tools: A tool, in any form, represents an extension of the user’s abilities. Digital drawing tools are resembled by the use of digital devices and are called CAD (Computer Aided Design) systems (www.encyclopedia.com). They evolve many types of sophisticated tools, but this study takes the these tools into consideration that are commonly used by the local students such as Auto-CAD, 3D-Max, SketchUp, Revit, ArchiCAD. Conventional drawing tools are in accordance with past traditions which are common and generally accepted. In this research they are resembled by the pencil and paper tools. 1.6.b Architectural Education: “Architectural education develops the capacity in students to be able to conceptualize, design, understand and realize the act of building within a context of the practice of architecture which balances the tensions between emotion, reason and intuition, and which gives physical form to the needs of society and the individual” (Unesco, 2005, p.2). And since the main objective of architectural education is evolving around designing, this research is taking only that into consideration and not other subjects that are also taught during the educational process. 1.6.c Imagination: Imagination is the ability to form images in the mind that are not present to the perceived world and is related to the creative powers. Imagination is a central formative power behind the creation and the life of design objects (Folkmann, 2010, p.12).

CHAPTER TWO Denominators of imagination in architectural design

Theoretical Part CHAPTER TWO Part One Denominators of Imagination Definition of imagination

Function of imagination Types of imagination Levels of imagination Proposals related to imagination Theories related to imagination Part Two Imagination and architectural design Imagination and architecture Imagination in design Imagination in drawing Figure 2.1 Structure of Chapter Two (Source: Researcher)

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Chapter Two Part One: Denominators of imagination

Preface: Imagination has from time to time captured the attention of many great thinkers in philosophy, psychology, and the arts. Researchers are coming to pay more attention to the relationship between the sciences, arts and spirituality. New conceptions of both imagination and education seem fated to play important roles in such a project. This chapter is not concerned only with the architecture, creative arts, and arts education, but with a much broader range of subject areas including philosophy, psychology, neuroscience, science education, arts education. Hence the chapter has found its essence in the definition of imagination as far as terminology, philosophy, and psychology goes. Also its relation with other mental acts is processed. The second division gives space to the role of imagination in architecture as well as design and its process. The chapter ends with conclusions on both divisions from which basics of the practical study is drawn.

2.1 Imagination defined: 2.1.1Imagination and linguistic terms: In his book The embodied image, Pallasmaa points out that “Words, such as ‘image’, ‘to image’, ‘to imagine’, ‘imagery’, ‘imagination’, ‘imaginal,’, ‘imaginary’, mental image, primal image, affective image, …..form a host of poorly defined and loosely used concepts and words” (Pallasmaa,2011,p.32). The lack of understanding and definition, he finds, has created a culture of poor understanding and tolerance for human emotion, mental imagery and imagination, and eventually the poor understanding of the creative capacities. (Pallasmaa, 2011, pp.33-37). The need for definition also arises in cognitive sciences where the question if theories of “imagery” could be called theories of “imagination” (Thomas,1999, p.23). Hence, in general, any writing considering imagination finds the need for (re)definition of imagination to begin with. Therefore the short dictionary definitions are summed below: - Image; An image is usually used as synonym for picture, it is an artifact that depicts or records visual perception, for example a two-dimensional picture, that has a similar appearance to some subject–usually a physical object or a person, thus providing a depiction of it. - Imagery; Imagery is considered the formation of mental images, figures, or likenesses of subjects or images. In psychology they are called mental images produced by the action of imagination.

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- Imagination: The faculty of imagining, forming mental images or concepts which are not present to the senses. Also considered the ability to face and resolve difficulties (www.dictionary.com). 2.1.2 The definition of imagination; The definition of ‘imagination’ in the Concise Oxford Dictionary (6th ed.) runs as follows: ‘Imagining; mental faculty forming images or concepts of external objects not present to the senses; fancy; creative faculty of the mind.’. The definition of ‘imagination’ that Simon Blackburn provides in The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy: “Most directly, the faculty of reviving or especially creating images in the mind’s eye. But more generally, it means the ability to create and rehearse possible situations, to combine knowledge in unusual ways, or to invent thought experiments” (Blackburn,1994, p.187). However Aristotle finds that the imagination is a kind of bridge between sensation and thought, supplying the images or ‘phantasms’ without which thought could not occur. Descartes argued that the imagination was not an essential part of the mind, since it dealt with images in the brain whose existence – unlike that of the mind – could be doubted. Kant held that the imagination was fundamental to the human mind, not only bringing together our sensory and intellectual faculties but also acting in creative ways (Thomas,1999, p.41). For Descartes and Empiricists and Hume, the object, the thing being imagined, is the focus of imagination (Warnock, 1976, p. 28). This object is generally treated as a mental representation of some sort that exists in the brain and can be viewed by the “mind’s eye” with differing degrees of intensity For Descartes, “to imagine is nothing else than to contemplate the figure or image of a corporeal thing” that is already experienced in the world. This position, later elaborated by Hume, when extended to include the totality of experienced material things, inaugurates the longstanding idea that what imagined is formed from a combination only of images of things which are experienced external to the body. This either implied or even necessitated a distinction between what is “imaginary” mental images and what “real” corporeal things are, and imbued within all forms of cognition, including imagination, a parallel separation between “fiction” and “truth.” (Decartes,1993, p. 53) For Kant, imagination is the mental faculty that allows for synthesizing sensual events into discrete categories of experience such that perceiving is not one continuous and undifferentiated flow of sense–data but instead involves the collecting and classifying of sense–data based on previous experience with similar types of worldly phenomena. Imagination, in Kant’s view, is inherent in perception, not separate from it, because in the act of perception imagination provides the categories into which appearances of things are placed, and in that

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moment constitutes “apprehension” of them. This apprehension is mediated by imagistic schemata. (Kant, 1965, p.120) The differences in definition lead to the following classification 1. Imagination as ability: o A human ability is responsible for the creation of images in the mind’s eye. It is also seen as a mediating faculty between the other human faculties. o A mental capability that enables the human being to create mental images, these mental images are processed in the mind and stored in the human memory. 2. Imagination as process: o A psychological activity synthesizing between memory and perception and created mental images. And these components of past, present and future compose a novel structure.

2.1.3 The function of imagination: The function of imagination is commonly noted as mediating between other human faculties. Hence, the function of imagination is associated to the other mental acts. The occupations of imagination are in this section investigated accordingly. 2.1.3.1 Imagination and fantasy: Etymologically, ‘imagination’ derives from the Latin word imaginatio, while ‘fantasy’ and ‘fancy’ derive from the ancient Greek term phantasia. Phantasia derived from the word Phaos, means light. In the works of Plato and Aristotle, phantasia meant the power of apprehending or experiencing phantasmata (‘phantasms’). In the Concise Oxford Dictionary (6th ed.), ‘fantasy’ is defined as follows: ‘Image inventing faculty, esp. when extravagant or visionary; mental image, daydream; fantastic invention or composition, fantasia; whimsical speculation.’ The noun ‘fancy’ is defined in a similar way. Compare this with the definition of ‘imagination’ cited ealier. ‘Fancy’ is given as one of the meanings of ‘imagination’, but here is nothing ‘extravagant’, ‘whimsical’ or ‘fantastic’. (The Concise Oxford Dictionary treats ‘fantasy’ and ‘phantasy’ as mere variants, but it is sometimes suggested in literary contexts that ‘phantasy’ indicates a more elevated or visionary power (Brann 1991, p.21). o Hence, ‘fantasy’ has more connotations of unreality or delusion than ‘imagination’ does; thus, imagination is merely limited by the perceptual factor than fantasy.

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2.1.3.2 Imagination and memory: “During the past few years, there has been a dramatic increase in research examining the role of memory in imagination and future thinking.” (Addis et al, 2012, p.677). This work has revealed striking similarities between remembering the past and imagining or simulating the future, including the finding that a common brain network underlies both memory and imagination, see figure 2.2. A number of key points that have emerged during recent years, focusing in particular on the importance of distinguishing between temporal and nontemporal factors in analyses of memory and imagination, the nature of differences between remembering the past and imagining the future, and the finding that this network can couple flexibly with other networks to support complex goal-directed simulations. (Addis et al, 2012, pp. 677-694)

Figure 2.2 A subsystem of brain regions is more active when participants imagine events in either the past or future, relative to when they remember real past events or complete a control task. The line graph illustrates the weighted average of activation across all voxels associated with a particular condition across the length of the experimental tasks. (Source: Addis et al., 2012, p.689)

Memory and imagination have been shown to be affected by one another, found through research in Long's book My Brain On My Mind, "Images made by functional magnetic resonance imaging technology show that remembering and imagining sends blood to identical parts of the brain.” (Long, 2012, p.27). An optimal balance of “intrinsic, extraneous, and germane” form of information processing can heighten the chance of the brain to retain information as long term memories, rather than short term, memories. This is significant because experiences stored as long term memories are easier to be recalled, as they are ingrained deeper in the mind. Each of these forms requires information to be taught in a specific manner so as to use various regions of the brain when being processes. "The imagination effect increases with an increased intrinsic cognitive load". This information can potentially help develop programs for young students to cultivate or further

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enhance their creative abilities from a young age. The neocortex and thalamus, see figure 2.3, are responsible for controlling the brain's imagination, along with many of the brain's other functions such as consciousness and abstract thought. Since imagination involves many different brain functions, such as emotions, memory, thoughts etc., portions of the brain where multiple functions occur, such as the thalamus and neocortex, are the main regions where imaginative processing has been documented. The understanding of how memory and imagination are linked in the brain, paves the way to better understand one's ability to link significant past experiences with their imagination. (Long, 2012, p. 28-34). o Imagination and memory demand similar brain activity. Hence, the neurological relation between the two is substantial. o Imagination is affected by the amount of intrinsic cognitive load. This shows the need for developing programs for young students in order to enhance their creative abilities. o Other brain functions such as consciousness, emotion, memory and abstract thought are involved in imagination. This has caused to note the imaginative processing in brain regions where multiple functions occur. 2.1.3.3 Imagination and perception: Figure 2.3 The mammal brain consists of three brians developedduring diiferent evolutionary periods. The oldest type “According to Aristotle is the reptilian brain, it controls the basic bodily functions. The is a necessary second oldest is the Limbic system containting the thalamus and imagination in charge of survival and reproduction. The last is the neocortex ingredient of perception itself” which is the seat of many high-level brain functions. (Source: http://www.wisdompage.com/FlawsInMentality.html) (Casey, 2000, p.145). Piaget defines imagination in relation to perception as follows; “Perception is the knowledge of objects resulting from direct contact with them. As against this, representation or imagination involves the evocation of objects in their absence or, when it runs parallel to perception, in their presence. It completes perceptual knowledge by reference to objects not actually perceived.” (Jackson,2009,p.19). McGinn, however, follows philosophers such as Reid and Sartre who draw a fundamental conceptual distinction between images and percepts and, thus, imagination and perception. It is not possible to get a grip on the concept of mental imagery without recognizing its fundamental kinship with perceptual experience. McGinn initially approaches the issue via Hume's well known version of the continuum theory. Hume held that percepts and

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images (impressions and ideas, in his terminology) (Thomas, 2010, p.30), differ only in their degree of "vivacity" (by which he meant something like vividness). They differ in the "force and liveliness" with which they strike the mind. Imaginings do not become percepts just because they are forceful and lively enough to fool the human being; but Hume's account seems to entail that they should. McGinn lists nine respects in which, he thinks, imagery and perception really do differ see below: (Thomas, 2010, pp.84-96) 1. Will: One freely chooses to imagine pretty much anything and at any time, but one perceives only what he is exposed to. 2. Observation: Perception can bring new information about the current environment, but imagination cannot. 3. Visual field: Eyes can only take in things within a physiologically fixed angular field of view, and the things seen must always appear at some particular location in this visual field. Imagination, by contrast, suffers from no such limitations. 4. Saturation: McGinn is aware of the misleading notion of the ancient argument that mental images can be indeterminate in a way that percepts cannot. However, he defends the related view that perceptual experiences are always "saturated", whereas images are typically unsaturated or "gappy": an object, such as a face, may be visualized without every detail, every shade of color at every point, being specified. 5. Attention: "I can pay attention to what I am seeing or I can fail to pay attention to it; but I do not have this choice in the case of images: here I must pay attention in order to be imaging at all. . . . [I]mages necessarily involve attentive intentionality . . . . [O]ne has to attend to the object of the image in order for the image to exist". (Thomas,2010, p.32). 6. Absence: By perceiving something, this implies that something is really there in the world, present to the senses. By contrast, when imagining something, this implies that it is not there, not present to the senses. 7. Recognition: One knows the identity of the object of one's imagining simply in virtue of the fact that one has chosen to imagine that thing. No further act of recognition is needed in order to identify it. By contrast, perceiving what something is does require an act of recognition, because the identity of the object is determined not by the will, but by how the world is. 8. Thought: Although one can perfectly well be seeing X and, simultaneously be thinking of Y, one cannot be imagining X and simultaneously be thinking of Y. 9. Occlusion: Unlike real things, imaginary things do not block or occlude the visual scene. “If there is a tree in front of us, we will not be able to

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see whatever might be hiding behind it, but if we imagine a tree in front of us, however vivid it may be it will not hide anything that is really there.”(Thomas,2010, p.38). In a comparison between imagination and perception it is concluded that the importance of imagination lays in the following: o Imagination is a needed component in perceptual knowledge, when running parallel to it completing the perceptual knowledge process. o Imagination is free of will o While perception is limited, Imagination is not limited by the visual field o Imagination is an action where unsaturated images are to be produced. o There is substantial need to pay attention during imagination. o The procedure of imagination does not need recognition, while this is needed during perceiving. o One can see X and be thinking of Y, one cannot imagine X and be thinking of Y; meaning that the focus of imagination is stronger than vision. o Something perceived will occlude something behind it, but imagining something will not occlude other objects at any time. In his book Imagining, Casey stated that imagination and perception in fact have been interpreted differently by different philosophers. What he does is an attempt to classify the relation between the two in terms of statements given by his precedent philosophers. “The two acts have been regarded alternatively as modes of each other, contraries of one another, conjugate acts…and much more rarely as equal but independent acts.” (Casey, 2000, p.127). As he goes on “Imagination itself is an extremely elusive act…[this] means that imagining is exceedingly hard to describe in its own term, and thus its relationship with other mental acts and notably with perception, is correspondingly difficult to pinpoint.” (Casey, 2009, p.128). The classification of relation is according to their continuity and discontinuity; 1- Relation of continuity: This criterion limits itself to four fundamental ways in which imagination and perception are shown to be continuous with each other.

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1.a: Continuity of content: Here the imagined content must resemble the perceived content. The basis for this claim is the epistemological thesis that what is imagined has no source other than perception itself. According to the necessitarian view, then, the content of imagining is ineluctably a repetition or recombination of what we have already perceived; hence a complete analysis would reveal a close correspondence between any given imagined content and the content of some previous perception or set of perceptions. (Casey, 2000, p.133). 1.b: Continuity of concealed and unconcealed components: The fact that every act of perception is inherently partial and is never able to encompass all of the object it aims at gives rise to a second way in which perception and imagination are continuous with each other. At any given moment, some aspects of the perceived object will escape the perceiver’s apprehension. This is the most obviously true in the case of visual objects, as one can imagine parts of an object outside the perceptual field. (Casey, 2000, p.136). 1.c: Continuity in aesthetic experience: Casey lays this type of continuity in the “spectator’s” identification with an artistic work. This is an imaginative extension of perception; this is the “imaginative reconstruction of the artist’s original experience of imagining. (Casey, 2000, p.140) 1.d Continuity of seeing as: The final continuity between perceiving and imagining is found in the phenomenon of seeing as. To perceive something as such-and-such is to engage in a form of interpretative activity not found in ordinary passive perceiving. To see the classical Duck-Rabbit of Gestalt psychology as a duck or as a rabbit is not merely to register passively what is perceived. The perceiver does not so much imagine as determine which aspect he will see, and the range of determination is limited by the two perceived characters; either the duck or the rabbit. It is true that a certain amount of imaginative activity may be helpful in envisioning an aspect that one has not yet managed to grasp. But once both aspects have been recognized, it becomes a matter of choice in whichever the perceiver wants to apprehend at that moment. An example given by Wittigenstein is that of a scalene triangle, see figure 2.4, lying on its longest side, as Wittingstein quotes; “This triangle can be seen as a triangular hole, as a solid, as a geometrical drawing, as standing on its base, as hanging from its apex; as a mountain, as a wedge, as an arrow or pointer, as an overturned object which is meant to stand on the shorter

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side of the right angle, as a half parallelogram, and as a various of other things” (Wittigenstein; Casey,2000,143).

2- Relation of discontinuity: This second criteria explains in what imagination and perception differ from one another without denying their actual common aspects; 2.a Discontinuity in the mode of approach: 1- Traversing space: In the approach of perceiving a certain phenomenon, one must Figure 2.4 This triangle can be regarded as representing any number of things, and there is move in a continuous manner through a no way of predetermining precisely in how many given stretch of space that lies between the ways it could be seen. (Source: Casey, 2000, p.142) present position and the location of the approached object. While imagined movement is for most parts discontinuous and lacking a constant spatial setting. (Casey, 2000, pp.151-152). 2-Intermediate objects; When approaching an object in the perceptual world there are typically encounter entities or events along the chosen route. These events will leave the sense of keeping a position behind the perceiver as he passes by. The existence of such events is minimal in the imagined world. Even if such intermediate events occur, they lack the stability of leaving traces. In fact once any imagined event has disappeared they have to be re-imagined. 3-The approached object: In approaching a certain object, it will increase in size as the perceiver walks closer to it. However, this is not the case in imagination, the imagined objects are not increasing in size gradually, nor does it take up a larger proportion of the imaginative presentation. 2.b Discontinuity in the existence of horizon: The perceptual field furnishes a background for what is to be perceived thematically and it also allows a certain location in space. The perceptual field is the basis for transfer in space; this is including both motion and change in space. “The imaginative experience contains no exact equivalent of the perceptual field. Its world-frame of space and time most closely corresponds to this field in terms of function and structure.[….]But the world-frame cannot,……, be considered a field in any strict sense.” (Casey, 2000,

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p.155). What is also a mentionable point for Casey is while the imagination has no

field or external horizon, the imagined objects also have relatively no connection with other objects. For instance in perceiving an object, its relations with the surrounding is to be strictly determined. (Casey, 2000, p-p.146-173) - Imagination is mostly a recombination and repetition of the perceived world. - In the case of visual objects, while parts of an object escape the perceiver’s apprehension, the imagination will complete the image in the mind’s eye. - When a perceiver is admiring any artistic product, it is the faculty of imagination which is responsible for the emotional involvements. - To perceive something as such-and-such is to engage in a form of interpretative activity not found in ordinary passive perceiving. To be able ‘to see as’, one must be in possession of a certain inner imaginative relations. - The imagined world differs from the perceived world, since the imagined lacks the continuous spatial settings. - In the perceived world, the previously perceived objects will leave a certain sense of tracing behind, while this is not the case of imagining. - Imagined objects have to be imagined differently in order to see the object increased in size, while in perceiving one can achieve this by motion and spatial movement. - While there is a strict perceptual field, the imagination does not have such thing. Imagined objects do not have a certain location according to a horizon, nor do they have a certain relation to surrounding objects. In his book, Berns specifies three main characteristics of people that are able to think differently and therefore are found at a higher level of creativity. These characteristics are; a different perception, the ability to handle fear and social intelligence. In the course of explaining innovation, Berns states, “Imagination runs perception in reverse”. In a recent study conducted by him were applicants asked to imagine a certain visual scene with the eyes closed, and what the brain scans showed was the same circuits were used by the brain as if the applicant actually looks at the visual scene. He then concludes that the reason why this is important for creativity is because the same limitations that apply to the visual perception also apply to creativity. Novel ideas are also seen as heavily influenced by past experiences therefore he states that the brain has to be constantly stimulated with newness; “The surest way to spark imagination is to confront the perceptual system with people, places and things it hasn’t seen before” (Berns, 2008, p.38).

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The relation of imagination and perception Relation of continuity

Continuity of content

Continuity of concealed and unconcealed components

Continuity in aesthetic experience

Relation of discontinuity Discontinuity in the mode of approach Continuity of seeing as:

Traversing space

The intermediate objects

Discontinuity in the existence of horizon

The approached object

Figure 2.5 The relations between imagination and perception (Source: Researcher accoring to Casey’s proposal)

2.1.3.4 Imagination and creativity: Many studies conducted in the architectural research are considering creativity a pillar of inventive design process as well as the final product. Throughout these studies different attempts are seen to define the term of creativity and its essence in architectural design. In this part the creativity is firstly elaborated, then its relation with imagination; -Defining creativity: According to the Oxford dictionary creativity means “Having the ability to create”, is “characterized by originality of thought; having or showing imagination”. While the main definition according to Wikipedia is “Creativity refers to the phenomenon whereby a person creates something new (a product, a solution, a work of art etc.) that has some kind of value. What counts as "new" may be in reference to the individual creator, or to the society or domain within which the novelty occurs. What counts as "valuable" is similarly defined in a variety of ways”(www.wikipedia.com). However, there are two groups of Figure 2.6 The arrangement of ideas; showing the relation between unique, useful and excisting ideas (Source: Amabile, 2004, p.44)

definition; A product focused group and a process focused group. The first

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one defines creativity as the ability to produce (original, unexpected) and appropriate (useful, valuable) productions. The second one finds that it is a process in which an individual becomes more sensitive to problems, lack of information and no homogeneity of issues; he also becomes more able to discover problems and search for solutions (Sternberg, 2004, p.375). The first approach concentrates on the creative result; its emphasis is on the uniqueness and value of the result “The dissimilarity of a new idea with previous ones will increase its expedience” (Amabile, 1996, p.40) The 3 circles in figure 2.6: the small 4 in the centre resemble the existing ideas, while the second circle, unique ideas, tries to make as much distance with the existing ones as possible, then comes the third circle, useful ideas, which attempts to come nearer to the existing ideas. It is the space in between 2 and 3 that is most remarkable, this exemplifies the struggle between novelty and expedience. Any human act that gives rise to something new is referred to as a creative act, regardless of whether what is created is a physical object or some mental or emotional construct that lives within the person. While the second approach (figure 2.7) concentrates on the process of creativity, there is a general definition of a circular process that goes through 3 main stages. 1- The unfreezing of a system in order to rearrange and repair. 2- Moving is meant by shifting the behavior of a system towards a new level 3- Refreezing is the last step in which the new system consists. This approach believes that the creativeness comes by analysis and synthesis, meaning that a creative idea is established only after the accumulation of information in the human imagination, the dominance of the intellect is by then the only obstacle for creativity (Amabile, 1996, p.42). Unfreeze system

Refreezing system

Analysis Moving sytem Synthesis

Data accumulation in imagination Intellect

Admittance Obstacle

Figure 2.7 Shows the process of creativity; One path leading to data accumulation in imagination, which admits a refreezing in the system, the other meeting intellect is considerd an obstacle (Source Researcher according to Amabile)

That there is an intimate tie between imagination and creativity is an ancient theme that can be traced back at least as far as Plato. “By the time of the Italian

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renaissance, imagination had become the primary vehicle of human creativity, being entrusted with autonomous creative powers of its own” (Casey, 2000, p.183). A philosophical definition of creativity in relation with imagination is noted by Gaut to be: Creativity is defined as originality, value and flair; while imagination is “thinking of something without athletic or existential commitment, i.e. without commitment to its falsity, existence or non-existence.” (Gaut, 2003, p.148). Another statement is concluded; that there are many cases of imagining that do not count as genuinely creative, and that there are no necessary relations between imagination and creativity. As according to Gaut the creativity is devided upon two main forms; Passive creativity and Active creativity. “Passive creativity occurs when the subject is unaware of the process, if any, which has occurred to produce the creative outcome. The outcome simply ‘pops into the head’.” (Gaut, 2003, p.156). In contrast active creativity occurs when the subject actively searches out various solutions, curiously trying out different approaches, and in the course of this activity comes upon a solution. Hence, the solution will not emerge unawarely ‘in a flash’. As far as the correlation between creativity and imagination goes, Gaut points out also two models of how imagination can be involved in the creativity; A display model and a search model. In the Display model the imagination displays the results of creativity to the creative person, but does not itself generate the results, which arises from some other source such as unconsciousness. While in the latter model, search model, the imagination is involved in grasping and searching through a range of different possibilities and then selecting the most appropriate one (Gaut, 2003, pp. 148-173). Later another third model is added by Beaney, the so called connection model, which is derived from the Euclidean geometry . This model lays in “Bringing the two [models] together….is what makes possible the solution, and it is to the imagination that we assign this bringing together.” (Beaney, 2010, p-p. 201-202).

“If this is right, then we might see the example as illustrating Kant’s distinction between the reproductive and productive imagination. The imagination may have both a reproductive role, in recalling and displaying previous ideas or results, and a productive creative role, in selecting and connecting some of those ideas or results.” (Beaney, 2010, p. 202).

Chapter Two: Denominators of imagination

Imagination as display model Passive creativity

• Imagination as source of creativity • Unconcious creative results

Imagination as search model Active creativity

• Imagination as vehicle of creativity • Conciuos search ideas • Conciuos results

42

Product focused creativity

Process Focused creativity

Imagination as connection model Figure 2.8 Imagination model: Imagination as connection model between passive and active creativity (Source: Researcher according to Beany’s proposal)

Vygotsky points out that “Every invention, whether large or small, before being implemented, embodied in reality, was held together by the imagination alone. It was a structure erected in the mind through the agency of new combinations and relationships.” (Vygotsky, 2004, p.7). The creative activity, based on the ability of our brain to combine elements, is called imagination or fantasy in psychology he states later on the same page. But actually, imagination, as the basis of all creative activity, is an important component of absolutely all aspects of cultural life, enabling artistic, scientific, and technical creation as well. In this sense, absolutely everything that was created by the hand of man, the entire world of human culture, as distinct from the world of nature, all this is the product of human imagination and of creation based on this imagination ( Vygotsky,2004,p.10). Kant also recognized a connection between imagination and creativity. “So the mental powers whose combination (in a certain relation) constitutes genius are imagination and understanding. One qualification is needed, however. When the imagination is used for cognition, then it is under the constraint of the understanding and is subject to the restriction of adequacy to the understanding’s concept. But when the aim is aesthetic, then the imagination is free, so that, over and above that harmony with the concept, it may supply, in an unstudied way, a wealth of undeveloped material for the understanding which the latter disregarded in its concept” (Kant, 1987,p.185).

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A hierarchy of imagination as proposed by Maeda and Brennan, a four tier structure inspired by Abraham Maslow’s seminal Hierarchy of Needs. Brennan had a clear mental model of why “teaching creativity doesn’t work but expanding their imaginations might work better”. The basic thought is that in order to get patients to take control of their health, they need to imagine what it looks like to be healthier. From this the hierarchy was developed: it proceeds from the base level of human reflex to the apex of imagination which is according to them “boundless creativity.”

Figure 2.9 Hierarchy of imagination; The highest level of imagining is completely unconstrained and pure in form (Source: www.lemonsblack.com)

At the base of the pyramid is human reflex, the response to a stimulus. One level above it is problem solving which doesn’t require creativity, and is no more than a set of processes that can be activated. Above that is creativity, “an elevated form of problem solving that involves invention and improvisation”. And at the very top is imagination, which is “boundless creativity.” (www.lemonsblack.com)

To put together the main definitions of imagination and creativity: The following three points serve to summarize the definition of creativity so far: -A creator is one who, through the power of imagination, achieves a novel synthesis of extant ideational elements, novel at least insofar as he/she is concerned. -A creation represents the simple embodiment of this new combination of ideational elements. -Put most simply, to create is to combine existing elements in new ways. Concluding two main features; first, imagination provides a kind of cognitive freedom important for creative thought and action. Second, imagination can be used in more or less controlled ways. And imagination is to be considered the base for all human existence.

2.1.3.5 Imagination and knowledge: When Einstein was asked: "How do you account for your discoveries? Through intuition or inspiration?"He replied: "Both. I sometimes feel I am right, but do not know it. When two expeditions of scientists went to test my theory I was

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convinced they would confirm my theory. I wasn't surprised when the results confirmed my intuition, but I would have been surprised had I been wrong. I'm enough of an artist to draw freely on my imagination, which I think is more important than knowledge. Knowledge is limited. Imagination encircles the world." (Millman, 2007, pp. 191-201). Imagination is elevated to a position of central prominence within kant’s epistemology; “a blind but indispensable function of the soul, without which we should have no knowledge whatsoever”. It is indispensable because it is the source of all intellectual synthesis in the understanding, such synthesis is what first gives rise to knowledge. Consequently, imagination is again made basic to understand, the faculty of knowledge. (Kant; Casey, 2000, p.222). Imagination is essential to understand knowledge, and therefore passes an elevated level. Imagination is called the source of all intellectual synthesis as well which will give rise to knowledge.

2.1.4 Types of imagination; 2.1.4.a Passive- and active imagination: In general there are two types of imagination distinguished (Table 2.4). Imagination can be either active or passive. It is active if one is creating new and original images. It is passive if one is attuning one’s mind to externally produced images. - Active imagination: All that humans do is first imagined. This type of imagination requests concentration and blockage from any external interference. Jung saw active imagination as the most direct way of relating to the unconscious. Active imagination can involve a consistent and continuing dialogue with the unconscious. In the concept of analytical psychotherapy as developed by Jung and his associates, an important therapeutic aim has been the establishment of a consistent dialogue with the unconscious. Many shamanic traditions use forms of active imagination to develop their own inner process of creative visualization. Marie von Franz, Jung's colleague, has defined four stages or steps in the process of active imagination: 1. Being alone by oneself and settling the thoughts of ego; consciousness having to give space to the unconscious: Using drawing, painting, clay modeling rather than words, can help to reduce ego interference and conscious control. In active

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imagination we always need to develop the attitude of the child at play. This means taking play seriously which as adults we can find quite difficult. Jung writes of how "the creative aspect of the imagination frees us from our knowledge, and raises us to the state of one who plays." We need to reach that place before active imagination can really begin. The importance of consciousness leaving place for unconsciousness is central for the active imagination to begin with. 2. Starting to make contact with the unconscious: usually in the form of images, fantasies, and emotions; these are then written down, drawn or painted to give them an external form: Moves on further to giving expression to the inner voice of the unconscious, either in writing or some other medium. Active imagination is defined by the relationship between ego and unconscious and not by the particular medium employed. However, if someone is skilled in one medium, it is usually better to begin active imagination in a different medium because skill relates more to ego control than expression of the unconscious. It is substantial to make contact with the unconsciousness using a medium. But what here is emphasized is that a skillful medium is more related to the ego and therefore should not be used. 3. The ego reacts by confronting the emerging unconscious material that has come up. Once the voice from the unconscious has been given form, the ego can relate to it. The ego needs to recognize that the inner event, whatever has come out of the unconscious, is just as real as any outer event, even if it exists in a different space. There has to be a creative confrontation and a relationship formed between ego and unconscious, ego and Self. 4. Conclusions to be drawn and enacted in life. Once the ego has heard and listened to and confronted the voice of the unconscious - Passive imagination: Passive imagination can occur in two ways. The first way (Active-Passive Imagination) is to actively create an image of some existing being or object or situation, but then release the image from active imagination and let that image attune itself to the actual being or object and pick up information from it. The second way (Passive-Passive Imagination) is to simply leave the mind in a completely passive state, so that it can receive any images sent to it or that are floating around in the atmosphere. (Spottiswood, 2001, pp. 1-4).

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Types of Imagination

Active imagination: For new original images

Characteristic: It is directly related to the unconciuosness

Process: 1. Reduction of Ego inferences. 2. Contacting the unconciusness, Self. 3. Creative confrontation and relationship formed between Ego and Self. 4. Conclusions enacted in life.

Passive Imagination: For attuning to externaaly produced images

Process: - Active-passive imagination: actively creating a and image and then releasing it to attune itself to the actual being. - Passive_passive Imagination: To keep the mind in completely passive state to receive any images.

Diagram 2.10 The types of imagination,showing the trwo types of imagination and characteristics (Source: Researcher according to Franzs’ prposal)

Active imagination is important for the architectural field, in which there is search for new images. To this type it is central for the ego to leave place to the Self. Then a certain medium is used in order to make contact with the unconsciousness, skillful media are to be avoided as they related merely to the ego. After this the ego related to the unconsciousness and conclusions are enacted in life. 2.1.4.b Spontaneous and controlled imagination: To understand spontaneous imagining it is helpful to contrast it with the activity of controlled imagining. Casey described controlled and spontaneous imagining which he terms "traits of imagining" (Casey, 1991, p.63). (Figure 2.6) He describes controlled imagining as a willful effort to manipulate images in the mind which is characterized by three sub-traits: 1. Initiation 2. Guidance, and 3. Termination. Whereas spontaneous imagining is described as self-generating and is characterized by the sub traits: 1. Effortlessness, 2. Surprise, and 3. Instantaneity. Casey demonstrates that although the traits of spontaneous and controlled imagining tend to complement each other they are nevertheless exclusive, meaning that, when imagined, it will be either spontaneous or controlled in

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character in a given moment and cannot be both "at the same time," although in practice the two acts of imagining often appear in close proximity and can give rise to each other in a symbiotic1 interplay (Casey, 1991, pp. 65-73).

Controlled Imagination Initiation: A formal acceptance or admission of the process Guidance: Directed towards a mean in view Termination: Bringing to an end with a conclusion

Spontaneou s Imagination

Effortlessness: passive and involving no effort Surprise:To come upon or discover suddenly and unexpectedly Instanteity: Completement within a moment

Figure 2.11 Controlled and spontaneous imagination, where as each one has own characteristics and exclusivity, they work in close interaction. (Source: Reasearcher according Casey’s classification)

The classification of spontaneous and controlled imagination is to be compared to the passive- and active imagination. Controlled imagination has more connotations of active imagination, while spontaneous imagination is merely related to passive imagination. Both groups seemingly act in close interaction, where each is exclusive.

2.1.5 Levels of imagination: On a recent mission of exploring indicators of imagination, Liang et. al, the researchers define two categories of imagination; reproductive imagination and creative imagination. (Table 2.1) From the related literature, nine indicators were compiled to assess the human imagination. 2.1.5.a Reproductive imagination: Reproductive imagination is defined as follows: “Reproductive imagination is the type of imagination people use to reproduce in their minds either images described by others or images from their own experience which lack the completeness and fidelity to make them true memories.” (Liang et al., 2012, p.367) 1

Symbiosis: is the close and often long-term interaction between two or more different biological species (Source:www.wikipedia.org). The word is here used by analogy, referring to the close interaction between spontaneous and controlled imagination.

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there are four indicators that the authors relate to the reproductive imagination which are; transformation, crystallization, effectiveness, and elaboration. - Transformation: According to Ribot, an essential element of imagination in the intellectual sphere is the capacity of thinking through analogies. The core principle behind analogy is transformation. Analogies occur not from thinking about a singular object, but from connecting one object or one field to another. It is stressed that this transformation enables children to learn how to control a situation through the use of symbols, “In play, thought is separated from objects and action arises from ideas rather than from things: a piece of wood begins to be a doll and a stick becomes a horse…” (Vygotsky; Liang et al, 2012, p.367). This ability helps people in dealing with unpredictable problems by using existing experiences. (Liang et al., 2012, p.367)

This suggests that transformation as indicator of imagination represents the ability to perform tasks by transforming knowledge across multiple fields of study. - Crystallization: According to Aristotle, imagination bridges “images” and “ideas,” implying that rational thought takes place in the form of images, and are stored and combined in one’s imagination. Ribot indicates that imagination can be reduced to three forms: sketched, fixed, and objectified. This demonstrates that no matter the form, imagination can facilitate people’s abstract ideas into concrete subjects. Vygotsky stated that imaginative activities are crystallized in culture. He finds that all objects of common life appear as a crystallization of the imagination. (Liang et al., 2012, p.367)

Crystallization emerges as indicator of imagination represents the ability of individuals to express abstract ideas by using concrete examples. - Effectiveness: Every invention results from a particular human need, acting within its own sphere and for its own special purpose. Under these circumstances, the aim of the invention is clear, therefore the imagination is influenced directly by the creation of end products and limited within certain constraints. Betts in 1916 mentioned that people are in danger of drifting into daydreams, unless their imagination is guided purposely. Reiner and Gilbert further confirmed that imagination is goal-oriented, based on prior experiential imagery. Folkmann in

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2010 also believed that a sharp focus in imagination will often be associated with a goal-oriented process that is close to the given requirements as stated by the client. (Liang et al., 2012, p.367)

Therefore effectiveness represents the ability of individuals to generate effective ideas to a desired goal. - Elaboration: Through acts of dissociation and association, an inventor’s imaginative constructs are challenged, sorted out, broken up, corrected, narrowed, and united, until they are adapted to a social consciousness. Reiner and Gilbert also indicate that people can ”zoom in and out” to inspect particular imaginary situations, transfer objects, and predict paths of imaginary objects. Valett contended that incubation is an important way to facilitate imagination. This is a time where internalization of acquired knowledge and experience occurs whereby the ends of imagination would gradually emerge and take shape. Similarly, Folkmann claims that the process of focusing and defocusing is open to ongoing reformulation. Due to the process’s functional position in the interface between the inner consciousness and outer world, it lies in an area between clear and rational discourse and inaccessible mental space. (Liang et al., 2012, p.368) Elaboration is the ability of individuals to seek improvement by thinking formally about ideas. 2.1.5.b Creative imagination: “In more advanced levels of development, creative imagination emphasizes the attributes of initiation and originality. Creative imagination is the function which is present in the great discoveries and achievements of humankind’s scientific, artistic, literary and technological revolutions (Colello; Liang et al., 2012, p.367). The indicators of creative imagination are as follows: exploration, intuition, novelty, productivity, and sensibility. - Exploration: Valett illustrated that children explore the world through play, and then satisfy themselves through exaggerations of their intuitive impressions. Thomas finds that the process of controlled perceptual exploration takes individuals from a vague appreciation to a detailed understanding of reality. Colello also asserted that imagination consists of the possibility of creation as a qualitative leap, which allows one to explore, dare, and challenge institutional

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order, and thus overcome limits. In addition, Folkmann in 2010 claimed that imagination can be seen as a structure in consciousness that negotiates, exchanges, and explores between the known and unknown (judged by the amount of presupposed knowledge). (Liang et al., 2012, p.368) Exploration as indicator of imagination and represents the ability of individuals to explore the unknown. - Intuition: Ribot held that in an individual’s imagination, every intuition becomes concrete as a judgment and equivalent to a conclusion, which leads to a foresight of the future. Reichling contended that intuition could be defined as an immediate mode of knowing, knowledge gained directly as an insight, or a grasp of the whole. Reiner & Gilbert supported that intuition leads people to test various thoughts, and possibly gain unexpected outcomes. Townsend anchored that the thrill of validation results in a more harmonious interaction between imagination and intuition. If people utilize more intuitive representations, then their imagination would last longer. (Liang et al., 2012, p.369) This means that intuition is an important indicator of imagination which represents the ability of individuals to generate immediate links to a target. - Novelty: The Platonic philosophy associates imagination with novelty, creativity, and irrationality. Imagination takes images from one’s past experience or that gleaned from the work of others, and puts them together in new and original forms. Imagination is an inventive power which allows the ability to see old characteristics in new relations, and thus build new constructions out of old components. Beaney in 2005 contended that someone who is imaginative is good at creating new possibilities, and he/she is able to offer fresh perspectives on what is familiar. (Liang et al., 2012, p.369) Novelty is here accounted as indicator of imagination which represents the ability of individuals to create uncommon ideas. - Productivity: Imagination corresponds to four particular sets of conditions: quantity of images; quantity and intensity of images; quantity, intensity and duration of images; complete systematization. According to Ribot, mental images

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could teem, break apart, and associate in various ways, but could still be assessed in terms of quantity, intensity and duration. All these evolving conditions of imagination are related to physical dimensions of imaginative productivity, continuity and fluency. Therefore, someone described as imaginative might be able to come up with original ways of seeing or doing things in a short period. (Liang et al., 2012, p.369)

Productivity is thus another indicator of imagination which represents the ability of individuals to generate numerous ideas. - Sensibility: All forms of creative imagination imply elements of feeling. Similarly, all emotional dispositions may influence the creative imagination. Because inventors strive to achieve their goals and overcome problems, they will often experience painful struggles in thoughts, feelings, and emotions during creative activity. Ricoeur suggested that these feelings are not merely inner states, but are really “interiorized thoughts”. Reichling also confirmed that feeling, in terms of imagination, is assigned a cognitive dimension. In addition, Vygotsky in 2004 believed that the ability to control imagination comes with the maturation of emotion. Gajdamaschko also stated that even if the construct of the imagination does not correspond to reality, the feelings it evokes are real. (Liang et al., 2012, p.369)

Sensibility is thus concluded to be an indicator of imagination which represents the ability for individuals to arouse feeling during the creating process. Table 2.1 Indicators of imagination according to Liang et al. (Source: Researcher according to Liang et al)

Indicators Creative imagination

1 Exploration 2 Intuition 3 Sensibility 4 Productivity 5 Novelty Reproductive imagination

characteristics A mental function emphasizes the attributes of initiation and originality in an advanced level of development, this function is present in great discoveries and achievements of human kind. Individual likes to explore the unknown Individual often comes up with new ideas through intuition Individual often helps himself to imagine through feelings Individual has constantly new ideas about the design Individual often has uncommon ideas compared to others A mental function for reproducing images in mind. Reproductive imagination is the type of imagination people use to reproduce in their minds either images described by

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Effectiveness

7

Transformation

8

Crystallization

9

Elaboration

52

others or images from their own experience which lack the completeness and fidelity to make them true memories Individual often completes tasks by focusing on effective ideas Individual thinks flexibly and is able to transfer ideas to multiple fields of tasks Individual is good at expressing abstract ideas by using concrete examples Individual improves his thoughts by focusing on thinking formally on ideas

2.1.6 Imagination in varying fields of science: To completely understand human behavior, psychologists use five different perspectives. These perspectives are the behavioral, psychodynamic, cognitive, humanistic, and biological The behavioral perspective finds that the environment determine behavior, whereas the psychodynamic perspective states that unconscious and past events decide the behavior The humanistic perspective focuses on self-actualization and the importance of choosing for oneself, and the biological perspective states that genes are very influential in behavior (McGraw-Hill , 2004, p.34). The cognitive perspective is commonly studied in psychology, and it deals with problem solving and internal mental processes (Garvey et al., 1999, p.12). 2.1.6.a Imagination in psychodynamic perspective; According to Brann, which’s study involves the work of 450 writings, as these works make clear, there exists no integrated account of the nature of imagination or its role in cognition. Despite this lack of agreement, or perhaps even because of it, some familiarity with the controversies and figures in the field would be a plus point. An example of such a controversy is provided by Harris. Disputing the widely accepted Freudian and Piagetian notions of the dominance of rational thinking over imagination in childhood development, the writer agrees with Bleuler’s view that imagination develops out of the child’s grasp of reality and represents a more sophisticated mode of cognition. Building on Bleuler, Harris highlights three key claims supported by her research: that pretend play is not present in infants but emerges only in the second year of life, after which it becomes increasingly elaborate; secondly, that the great apes only demonstrate occasional pretending, indicating that ubiquitous pretend play is a distinctly human

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characteristic; and thirdly, that it is the absence of early imagination and not its presence that it is pathological. Indeed, one of the key tools used to diagnose autism is a noticeable lack of the ability to play (Harris, 2000, p.6). The view of rationalism overshadowing imagination is strongly rejected and the view of imagination being developed out of grasping reality is here accepted. This conclusion relates to previously mentioned relation between imagination and cognition where the imagination effect is increased with the cognitive load. The influence of Freud’s negative view of imagination can be seen in Piaget’s insistence that play does not accommodate itself to reality but rather adapts reality to suit the self and its pleasure needs (Harris, 2000, p.3). Positioned within the emerging field of cultural psychology, Harris provides a demonstration of the two contested conceptions of how the mind works, that has developed since the early decades of the cognitive revolution in the 1940s and 50s: the mind as a computational device, and the mind as both constituted by and realized in the use of human culture. Harris suggests that both perspectives enhance the understanding of the nature of knowing. He also signals the importance of the narrative mode as an instrument of meaning making; imagination is the source of meaningful experience offering a rich heritage of stories, drama, myths and ritual. Accounts of mind that neglect or downplay this dimension are necessarily incomplete. (Harris, 2000, p.8)

In brief this section concludes the following; Imagination is the source of meaningful experience offering a rich heritage of stories, drama, myths and ritual. As well as the enhancement of understanding and the nature of knowledge. 2.1.6.b Imagination in Biology: The brain is not only the organ that stores and retrieves the previous experience, it is also the organ that combines and creatively reworks elements of this past experience and uses them to generate new propositions band new behavior. If human activity was limited to reproduction of the old, then the human being would be a creature oriented only to the past and would only be able to adapt to the future to the extent that it reproduced the past. It is precisely human creative activity that makes the human being a creature oriented toward the future, creating the future and thus altering his own present (Vygotsky, 2004, pp.12-20).

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More evidence to the power of imagination comes from Doidge, who gathers stories from patients suffering mental limitations imposed by brain damage who are able to overcome their disabilities by virtue of the brain’s plasticity. The stories tell of a woman born with half a brain that rewired itself to work as a whole, blind people who learn to see, learning disorders cured, IQs raised, aging brains rejuvenated, stroke patients learning to speak, children with cerebral palsy learning to move with more grace, depression and anxiety disorders successfully treated, and lifelong character traits changed. In a chapter devoted to imagination, Doidge observes that “imagining an act and doing it are nor as different as they sound. When people close their eyes and visualize a simple object, such as the letter a, the primary visual cortex lights up, just as it would if the subjects were actually looking at the letter a” (Diodge, 2007, pp.203-204). Elsewhere he argues: “Everything your ‘immaterial’ mind imagines leaves material traces. Each thought alters the physical state of your brain synapses at a microscopic level. Each time you imagine moving your fingers across the keys to play the piano, you alter the tendrils in your living brain” (Diodge, 2007, p.23). The brain plasticity is responsible for the close relation between action and imagining. So the acts of performing an action as well as imagining the performance differ only in term since both leave mental traces. Every action the immaterial mind, or the mind’s eye, conducts leaves material traces. However, Doidge notes that the same plasticity that promotes positive transformation can also entrap human being. It is the plastic nature of the brain that contributes to the damaging effects of television viewing in early childhood, to the potentially harmful effects of propaganda on the young, and to the rigid effects of ageing if the mind is not kept active (Diodge, 2007, pp.306-311). Doidge concludes: “the elucidation of human neuroplasticity in our time, if carefully thought through, shows that plasticity is far too subtle a phenomenon to unambiguously support a more constrained or unconstrained view of human nature, because in fact it contributes to both human rigidity and flexibility, depending upon how it is cultivated” (Diodge, 2007, p.318). A statement made by Mendizza (1992) was “Constant visual stimulation devalues the meaning of words; it retards the capacity to create inner images and blinds children to their own infinite possibilities. The failure to develop imagination during early childhood is the root cause of our national education crisis which is now impacts our economic competitiveness, national security and personal freedom” (Discovering Imagination https://ttfuture.org/files/2/pdf/mm_imagination01.pdf). Memory and imagination have been shown to be affected by one another, found through research in Priscilla Long's piece My Brain On My Mind "Images made by functional magnetic

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resonance imaging technology show that remembering and imagining sends blood to identical parts of the brain.” (Priscillia, 2005, p.27). Concluded points from this segment would be: The brain’s plasticity has great relations with the power of imagination. However this plasticity can work on two poles, one positive pole is when patients with physical brain damages eventually retrain their brains to do the work of a total brain. But the negative pole would be the brain damages of young children caused by watching television due to the same plasticity.

2.1.7 Proposals related to imagination: This section will discuss a number of proposals that directly or indirectly are related to imagination or its criterion. 2.1.7.a Imagination and visualization: Thomas discussed the theory of mental images and claimed that imagery arises from the interpretative aspect of perception (‘seeing-as’) (Thomas, 1997, 102). “Imagining may also involve visualizing, fantasizing, and pretending” (Beaney, 2010, p. 35). Currie indicates that “[….] imagery has perception as its counterpart[…]; it is a kind of imagining which apes certain identifying features of perceptual experience. Perceptual experience is always of the particular rather than the general. So we could expect that perceptual imagining would always be particular also. The right conclusion here seems to be that there are kinds of imagining that are particular, and kinds of imaginings that are not. Visualization is one of the former kinds” (Currie; Beaney, 2010, p. 267). “The activity of visualizing ideas is a combination of perception and imagination. Although mental images often appear spontaneously in response to sensory perception (something heard, touched, tasted, smelled, or seen), we have the innate ability of envisioning recollected or imagined images through the mind’s eye” (Baskinger and Nam, 2006, pp. 1-3).

Imagination is considered a counterpart of perception. It involves visualizing, fantasizing and pretending. Visualization is a general form of imagining; it combines perception and imagination and enables the envisioning through the mind’s eye. 1- Mental rotation abilities: Kant discussed the transcendental imagination and its relations with Euclidean geometry, Kant believed that the source of creative imagination laid in the productive/ transcendental imagination. Construction in

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Euclidean geometry proceeds in accordance with the first three postulates; drawing a line between any two points, extending a line, and drawing a circle with any given radius and centre. But these postulates presuppose that these operations can be carried out in the inner space imagination if not in the actual world. The presentation of space depends on the transcendental imagination (Beaney, 2010, p. 106).

There have been attempts in the cognitive psychology including the previous mentioned geometry. In 1971 Roger Shepard and Jaqueline Metzler published a paper in science which was called ‘Mental rotation of three-dimensional figures’, herein the investigation on people’s ability to transform images mentally was reported. This experiment has created a common base for many other recent studies. In the experiment of a mental rotation test, the subject is asked to compare two 3D objects and state if they are the same image or if they are mirror images. Commonly, the test will have pairs of images each rotated a specific amount of degrees. Some pairs will be the same image rotated, and others will be mirrored. The subject will be shown a set number of the pairs. The subject will be judged on how accurately and rapidly they can distinguish between the mirrored and nonmirrored pairs (Shepard and Metzler, 1971, pp. 701-703). The ability to mentally transform three-dimensional figures is considered a source of creative imagination, which by its turn lays in the productive/transcendental imagination 2- Visual impression flexibility: A remark made by Wittigenstein on the phenomenon of “seeing as” being highly influential in imagination. In seeing the same image as something else the image does not change nor does the ‘organization’ change. It is the inner picture that changes due to a change in the visual impressions. Thus to Figure 1.11Gestalt’s Duck-rabbit theory, in seeing a duck or a rabbit is caused by change in the inner ‘See as’ instead of ‘seeing’ the one must picture, this flexibility is crucial for imagination capacities. possess flexible visual impressions in order to imagine a different organization. A sample given by Beaney is Gestalt’s Duckrabbit theory (figure 2.6); in seeing both duck and rabbit the organization remains

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the same only the ‘inner organization’ changes. This flexibility implies that there are many ways of seeing one object. (Beaney, 2010, pp. 143-148). “Perhaps even more obviously, scientific creativity also involves seeing as, seeing the world in a particular new way, and, thereby, imagination. Scientific theories induce us to see (in literal or extended sense) aspects of the world as we would not otherwise have seen them” (Thomas, 2010, p. 67). Another important statement noted by Thomas is "what seems crucial to the imagination is that it involves . . . perspectives, new ways of seeing things, in a sense of "seeing" that need not be literal" (Hamlyn:Thomas, 2010, p.67). Thomas also concludes an important issue considering this research “the understanding of creative imagination might be approached through the investigation of our capacity for seeing as” (Thomas, 2010, p. 96). Flexibility in visual impressions causes a change in the way a perceiver sees an image. The perceiver’s inner organization changes in order to imagine a different image than seen at first or in general. Hence, as previously mentioned, the understanding of creative imagination might be approached through the investigation of ‘seeing as’ capacity. 2.1.8 Theories related to imagination: The following theories are derived from theories of imagery in the cognitive science. 2.1.8.a Imagination and brain dominance theory: In chapter one as well as in chapter two the essence of the brain and its performances regarding imagination are discussed. However another proposal concerning the brain performances in accordance with imagination and creativity could be found in the Left brain- Right brain theory (Dew, 1996, p.1). - Left brain right brain theory: “Roger Sperry, a Nobel Prize winner, initiated the study of the relationship between the brain’s right and left hemispheres. Sperry found that the left half of the brain tends to function by processing information in an analytical, rational, logical, sequential way. The right half of the brain tends to function by recognizing relationships, integrating and synthesizing information, and arriving at intuitive insights” (Dew, 1996, p.1). In the study individuals were connected to a machine that mapped brain activity by lighting up to show which part of the brain was active. In a typical experiment, the researcher gave each subject a series of tasks to perform, and then recorded which side of the brain was most active. Results indicated that activities involving numbers, logic, word

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puzzles, sequential tasks and analysis were more active on the left side of the brain; whereas activities involving music, imagination, colors, or creative expression were more active in the right hemisphere. Evidence suggests that the right-brain has a global bias while the left-brain has a local bias. In other words, the right hemisphere sees the picture and the left hemisphere sees the components of the picture (Eric, 2000, p. 14). Table 2.2 Left brain- Right brain dominance theory showing the main characteristics of the left and right brain part (Source: Eric, 2000, p16)

-

-

Left Hemisphere Controls right motor and sensory activities. It is the location of reacting, language, and handwriting. Has the centers for speech and hearing. Left Hemisphere Style

Linear - Processes information from part to whole takes pieces, lines them up, and arranges them in a logical order, then it draws conclusions. Sequential It is a list maker and would enjoy making a master schedule and doing daily planning. Completes tasks in order and takes pleasure in checking them off when they are accomplished. Symbolic - Has no trouble processing symbols such as letters, words, and mathematical notations. - It is good ad memorizing. - Prefers distinctions. Logical - Makes decisions based on logic – proof. - Looks at differences. - Is planned and structured. - Prefers established, certain information. - Prefers talking and writing. - Prefers multiple choice tests. - Sees cause and effect Verbal Has little trouble expressing him/her self in words.

Reality-Based - Deals with things the way they are. - Wants to know the rules and follow them. - Adjusts to the environment.

-

Right Hemisphere Controls left motor and sensory activities. It is the location of special relationships, artistic expression, and visualization.

Right Hemisphere Style Holistic - Processes information from whole to part - starts with the answer and sees the big picture, not the details, first. Random - Flits from one task to another. - Gets many things done but without having addressed priorities.

Concrete - Wants to see, feel, or touch real objects. - Prefers to see words in context and how formulas work. - Prefers connectedness. Intuitive - Makes decisions based on gut feeling – what “feels” right. Is fluid and spontaneous - Prefers elusive, uncertain information. - Prefers drawing and manipulating objects. - Prefers open ended questions. - Sees resemblances. Non-Verbal - Knows what something means but often - has trouble finding the right words - Needs to back everything up visually – write things down. Fantasy-Oriented - It is creative. - Remembers well anything he/she becomes emotionally involved in during the learning

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Makes up rules to follow when there are no rules.

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-

process. Is sometimes unaware of consequences.

2.1.8.b Picture Theory: This theory holds that having visual imagery involves having entities, in the head or in the mind, which are functionally equivalent to inner pictures. These pictures are thought of as being composed of copies or remnants of earlier sense impressions, complexes of visual sensations, which were themselves picture like. "Picture" is strictly appropriate only to copies in the visual mode (upon which most discussions of imagery concentrate) (Matthews, 1969, p. ). - Contemporary "Quasi-Pictorial" Theory: Kosslyn draws his theory from an analogy with computer graphics, and its basic form is illustrated in figure 4. Data from which images may be constructed are stored in long term memory in the form of "deep representations. But these are not directly available to consciousness. They are analogous to the files in which data is saved by a computer graphics program, and on the basis of which actual, viewable pictures are constructed on the computer's CRT monitor. Kosslyn's theory is explicitly based on this "CRT metaphor". He holds that "quasi-pictures" or "surface representations" are constructed on the basis of the information in deep representations. This construction takes place at a functionally defined neural locus that he calls the "visual buffer". Once the quasi-picture is established, it is available to consciousness as an image, Figure 2.12 The quasi-pictorial theory of imagery. The system is and, furthermore, information considering whether a fox has pointed ears. A "quasi-picture" is that was merely implicit in the constructed in the visual buffer, on the basis of a description in long term memory, and the "mind's eye" analyses it to extract the required deep representation (such as information. (Thomas, 1997, p.97) the pointedness of the fox's ears, in the depicted example) can be extracted from it by the postulated "mind's eye function". Clearly Kosslyn thinks of the visual buffer as also being a stage in

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perceptual information processing, and in more recent work he has explicitly identified it as composed out of the several retinotopic maps of the brain's occipital cortex (Thomas, 1997, p.97). The quasi-pictorial theory is based on the theory that visual imagery consists of entities in the mind equivalent to pictures. Data from which images are constructed are stored in the long term memory. This data is not directly available to the consciousness, thus first a quasi picture is established and that picture is presented to the consciousness.

2.1.8.c Description theory: Description theory is also known amongst psychologists as "propositional theory", because the data structures that it takes to embody mental images (and percepts too) are regarded as expressing propositions descriptive of the relevant perceptual scenes. When such structures are the end product of perceptual processes, one is perceiving; when they are constructed inventively, or retrieved from memory, one experiences imagery. In effect, the data structures are sentences in an inner language, and the core commitment of description theory is that such language-like representations are sufficient to account for all genuinely cognitive processes, including the experimental effects attributed to imagery (Thomas, 1999, p.215). The description theory is a reaction on the picture theory where the supporters find that there is very little to the similarity between having a mental image of X picture and seeing X, apart from the fact that both these experiences in some ways resemble the experience of actually seeing X. It is true that pictures (paintings, drawings, photographs, videos, etc.) provide a familiar and relatively well understood example of how one can have an experience as of seeing something that is not actually present. Indeed, pictures may be the only familiar example of this, apart from mental imagery itself. However, it does not follow that mental images must therefore be a species of picture. The easy analogy may be a false one. Mental images, after all, are not similar to pictures in many other respects: they are not t be turned over and look at the back of them; they do not need to be in front of the eyes for you to see them; they do not normally seem to be located on a surface; and there is little reason to think that they are normally flat (www.plato.stanford.edu). The description theory, contrary to the picture theory, finds that the data stored in the human mind does not necessarily have to be picture like and states they are language like. Thus there is a case of structures, if these stuctures are an end poroduct of a perceptual experience, one experiences, and when these are products of memory or collected inventively, one experiences imagery.

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Chapter Two Part Two: Imagination and architecture 2.2 Imagination in architecture: “Architectural imagination is one of those critical faculties of the human mind that resists any adequate definition. To describe it as creative, conscious, intuitive or insightful ideas elaborated through a graphic media is quite inadequate, because each of these terms will remain fuzzy under a deeper scrutiny. One might argue that a definition is unnecessary, since a tacit understanding of this phenomenon exists, and one can safely assume that everyone who knows how to live well can be engaged in thinking in architecture (Frascari, 2011, p.179). “Creative architectural design is, in my opinion, just the same as any other creative thinking or design. That what a human does, but a robot is not able to do. Creative design is, among others, the ability even to find solution models for architectural design from everyday life. The ability to make a proposal, forget it, start again from the beginning and thus make several proposals and maybe go back to the start, or combine these into a final solution. The ability to study a problem from many angles. The ability not to lock yourself onto the first idea. The ability to solve an unexpected problem with the means available, which one often has to discover and compose by oneself. The ability to use your imagination” (Haapasalo, 2000, p. 117). “A common definition of imagination as an autonomous mental act includes the power of the mind to form a mental image or concept of something that is unreal or not present. This defi nition is important in understanding architectural sketching as a creative endeavor, because not knowing how mental impressions originate leads creative people not to speculate, but to proclaim that they came from imagination” (Smith, 2008, p.43). Architectural imagination is related to creativity, consciousness, intuition. Meanwhile creative architectural design is strongly connected to an only human capability, and which a robot cannot perform, the imagination. Its process is described to be flexible, exploring as well as productive. 2.2.1 Imagination in Design: “Mostly, the process of design combines some of the cognitive activities of normal seeing with the activities of visual imagination. The particular unique process of design is a kind of constructive perception. This leads us to a critical cognitive tool of the designer, the line sketch” (Ware, 2008, p.152). “A first and obvious instrument that is always at the disposal of designers is their own imagination. When

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designing a product, the imagination of designers allows them to anticipate future forms of use” (Verbeek et. Al, 2006, p. 393). “Understanding mental images is critical because design is a creative process wherein some parts are done as mental images, and some parts are done by a sort of hybrid between mental imagery and normal seeing where design elements are cognitively added to incomplete sketches” (Ware, 2008, p.150). “Design Methods was developed by John Chris Jones and others in reaction to the scientific reductivism of the post–World War II. It recognized a new way to solve the world’s problems by striking a balance between intuition (imagination, experience, and beliefs) and logic (objectivity, phenomenology, and repeatability)” (Stewart, 2008, p. 57). In a theoretical contribution to design epistemology Folkmann claimed that imagination relates to the start of the design process as either an overall conception of the design as a whole, or a more experimental exploration for details. Both positions clearly state the success criteria for the design task in terms of productivity. There is a structural model of imagination in design given by the researcher which depends on three main criteria which are; 1) Presupposed knowledge: (Known vs. Unknown); “Mental setting that embraces the openness of the interface between known and unknown may make it possible to let the inner space of imaginings develop into something new in the design process” (Folkmann, 2010, p.4). 2) Imaginative starting point: (Whole vs. Detail); The whole and detail, abstract or concrete, general and particular. In fact the relationship between abstract and concrete, or general and particular, has been widely debated within traditional aesthetic theory. “A noteworthy point in this kind of theory is that the general and the abstract play a constitutive role for aesthetic objects, as their wider implication of meaning lies exactly in the abstract conceptual […] constructions of the aesthetic work, while the specificity of the aesthetic creation lies in the extension and implication of the singularity of the aesthetic creation: The concentration of meaning is constructed from the bottom-up with a base in sensual matter” (Folkmann, 2010, pp.4-5).

3) Degree of focus: (Focusing vs. Defocusing); Focusing and defocusing is here used as a method of “divergent thinking which refers to the general process of thinking of unusual associations”; thus it may be “important to deliberately defocus one’s attention when attempting to discover creative solutions to a problem”. Absolute focusing and defocusing cannot, however, be attained simultaneously. Instead, focusing and defocusing can be present in various degrees at the same time, or a design process may involve variations in focusing strategies (Folkmann, 2010, pp.5-6).

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Figure 2.13 Structural model of imagination in design showing the three main axises (Source: Folkmann, 2012, p. 3)

Regarding the relations between Imagination and design 2.2.2 Imagination in drawing: “The phenomenon of drawing lies prominently between the imagination of the architect and the design of a building” (Fraser & Henmi, 1994, p. viii ). In their book Envisioning Architecture , recognize that drawings, like sketches, have the potential to multiply thought and create a chain of associations that lead to new ways of seeing and understanding. Here it is evident that the acts of visual dialogue enrich the entire process, “Just as an author inserts his or her conceptual presence into a drawing through a mode of seeing, interpreting, and changing a scene, drawing tools impose a material influence. Drawing thus intervenes between an author and their ideas being considered, becoming in effect a third presence. In this sense, drawing is not a transparent translation of thought into form, but rather a medium which influences thought just as thought influences drawing ( Fraser & Henmi, 1994, p. viii) “The impetus for this book grew out of many years of observing sketches. After a period of time, certain themes began to emerge. In an obvious way, memory, imagination and fantasy were clearly qualities of sketches, since these three faculties of the mind are tied to creativity and image-making” (Smith, 2008, p.10). Drawing is the bridge between design and imagination. The drawing, by becoming a visual dialogue, has the potential to lead to new ideas by offering a new way of seeing. Design

Drawing

Imagination

Figure 2.14 Drawing seen as the bridge between design and imagination (Source;Researcher)

And Smith ends chapter three of his book with the following “Memory, imagination and fantasy drive the activity of sketching. These complex mental faculties are the mind’s image-making functions. When sketching, the architect is constructing images whose use depends on anticipation and intentionality. The making of these images stems from memories of past experiences. Reorganized, the images translate experiences into a new form. The sketch becomes the dialogue and also the facilitator of these processes which, because of human touch, is an extension of the thinking faculty for architects” (Smith, 2008, p.97). “Drawing is a natural, often spontaneous, human response. Even young children……draw

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intuitively in an effort to describe what they see, to represent what they know, and to express how they feel” (Ching, 1990,p.5). Later in his book Drawing; a creative process he states; “Drawing is more than a manual skill; it is a visual thought process which depends on our ability not only to see but also to visualize” (Ching, 1990, p.10).

The human touch is an extension of the thinking faculty, thus the sketch (made by memory, fantasy and imagination) becomes a dialogue tool due its spontaneity, intuitive character and benefit as a visual process instrument. “[Drawing] is fundamentally a means of vision and expression. [It] relies on clear vision [and requires] thought which, in turn, builds understanding……..The knowledge and understanding gained through drawing from life directly enhances our ability to draw from imagination….Ideas can be made visible in a drawing to promote visual thinking and further stimulate the imagination” (Ching, 1990, p.5)

Vision

Thinking

Drawing Expression

Understanding

Promoting visual thinking

Stimulating imagination

Figure 2.15 Drawing and imagination according to Ching (Source: Researcher according to Ching)

“Appropriately, the discussion of image, its text, and context can be investigated for its influence on the imagination and design process of architects. In this age of extensive computer use and the proliferation of visual stimulus, it is essential that architects question and interpret the media they utilize. By exploring the historical role of sketches as instruments of thinking, commonalities and differences will surface. From these, one may ascertain a definition of architectural sketches and expose their importance in the production of architecture” (Smith, 2008, p.1)  Drawing is a human response. Used for describing what they see, expressing how they feel or representing what they know. Hence drawing is a tool for emotion, knowledge and expression.  Drawing could indicate not only the way one sees but also how one visualizes.  Drawing is a means of vision and expression, which requires thought and in turn is building understanding. The process of drawing promotes visual thinking, and accordingly stimulates the imagination.

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Summary of chapter Two This chapter has attempted to discuss the basic aspects of imagination as well as its role in drawing and design. Through this chapter the following important points have been concluded: Imagination is defined as a human ability as well as a mental process. On the one hand imagination is human ability which is responsible for the creation of images in the mind’s eye. It is also seen as a mediating faculty between the other human faculties. On the other hand it is considered a psychological activity synthesizing between memory and perception and created mental images. And these components of past, present and future composing a new creative structure. It has a substantial role in the performances of other mental actions such as in; fantasy, memory, perception and creativity. Imagination is mostly a recombination and repetition of the perceived world. In the case of visual objects, while parts of an object escape the perceiver’s apprehension, the imagination will ‘finish’ the image in the mind’s eye. When a perceiver is admiring any artistic product, it is the faculty of imagination which is responsible for the emotional involvements. To perceive something as such-and-such is to engage in a form of interpretative activity not found in ordinary passive perceiving. To be able ‘to see as’, one must be in possession of a certain inner imaginative relations. The imagined world differs from the perceived world, since the imagined lacks the continuous spatial settings. In the perceived world, the previously perceived objects will leave a certain sense of tracing behind, while this is not the case of imagining. Imagined objects have to be imagined differently in order to see the object increased in size, while in perceiving one can achieve this by motion and spatial movement. While there is a strict perceptual field, the imagination does not have such thing. Imagined objects do not have a certain location according to a horizon, nor do they have a certain relation to surrounding objects. As for the role of imagination in architecture, it has two essential significances. The first significance is in the design and its process, the second one lays in the essential role imagination plays in drawing. As the main criteria derived from this chapter can be seen in table (2.3)

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Basic Element

Table 2.3 Derived elements from chapter two (Source: Researcher)

Sub Element

Types of Imaginatio n

Spontaneous Imagination Controlled Imagination

Indicators of Imagination Effortlessness Surprise Instantaneity Initiation Guidance Termination Effectiveness

Imagination Essence

Transformation Reproductive imagination

Crystallization

Elaboration

Levels of imaginatio n

Exploration Intuition Creative Imagination

Sensibility Productivity

Sources of imagination

Novelty Nonexisten t aspects

Existing aspects

Past Future

Present

Characteristics

Individual imagines in apssive state of mind Individual works in the the active state of mind, to the passive, back to active. Individual often completes tasks by focusing on effective ideas Individual thinks flexibly and is able to transfer ideas to multiple fields of tasks Individual is good at expressing abstract ideas by using concrete examples Individual improves his thoughts by focusing on formalizing ideas Individual likes to explore the unknown Individual often comes up with new ideas through intuition Individual often helps himself to imagine through feelings Individual has constantly new ideas about the design Individual often has uncommon ideas compared to others

Memory Day drawing and fantasies

Mental imagery

Perception

Visual perception

CHAPTER THREE Drawing tools in architectural education

Theoretical Part

CHAPTER THREE

Part One Drawing tools

Definition of tools and drawing tools

Drawing mechanisms

Types of drawings

Drawingtools in architectural design

Computer as a drawing tool

Part Two Drawing and Imagination in architectural education

Drawing in architectural education Architectural drawing and cognition

Drawing and Imagination

Figure 3.1 Structure of Chapter Three (Source: researcher)

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Chapter Three Part One: Drawing Tools 3.1 Preface: This chapter is dedicated to the drawing tools used in architectural design. It aims to define the digital drawing tools and conventional drawing tools, as their differences and common grounds are to be pointed out. The architecture of today is different from the past. One of the factors causing this, are the tools used through the design process and the building processes. The previously discussed controversy, as seen in chapter one, as well as the drawing and drawing tools’ roles in architectural education will be discussed through this chapter. 3.2 The definition of Tool: According to the references, perhaps it is most efficient to give a definition of tools by means of a comprehensive introduction. A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process. Informally the word is also used to describe a procedure or process with a specific purpose. Tool use by humans dates back millions of years (See figure 1.1), and other animals are also known to employ simple tools. Tools that are used in particular fields or activities may have different designations such as "instrument", "utensil", "implement", "machine", or "apparatus". The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is "equipment". The knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology (www.wikipedia.com).

Tools are arte facts that are made to extend human abilities. Classically, tools are pragmatic extensions for the hand to let the human control and manipulate the physical environment. “You probably think of a tool as something to hold in your hand. It is something to extend your powers: a piece of technology, or applied intelligence for overcoming the limitations of the body” (McCullough, 1996 p. 59). The German word for tool, Werkzeug, literally means “stuff to work with” or “stuff to create a work with”. This definition has broadened with the development of human culture. Tools are among the most reliable gauges of human progress. The broad stages of early human history, in fact, are identified primarily by the types of tools developed and during each cultural period, such as the Stone Age and the Bronze Age. The tools of a given age are revealing indicators not only of a society’s achievements but also of its aspirations and limitations (Palladino,2007,p.X). Tools have always been a powerful propeller of human evolution. In fact, until the late eighteenth century, the use of tools was regarded as the main

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distinguishing property between humans and animals. This view can no longer be held and is now more differentiated. Human tool use is in principle much more advanced, e.g., tools are used to produce other tools, retained for repeated use, and tool-sets are built for special domains and even specialized workshops (Greenberg, 1993, p. 23).

A tool is a physical item that extends human abilities and powers that is used to achieve (a) certain goal(s). The use of tools by humans is advanced and is also used in order to produce new tools. Tools are seen as motivation for human evolution and subject for evolution themselves. Tools are strong indicator for the time and place.

Figure 3.2 Showing the human versus tool evolution and "the influence of tools on the evolution of mankind" (Source: Knorig, 2008, p.18)

3.3 Tools in art: This paragraph discusses the history of different tools in the artistic fields as well as their influences on the course of artistic theories and phenomenon. The aim of this section is to relate the influences of technology on art, as it is closely related to architecture. 3.3.a Camera obscura; An advancement in science and technology that precedes photography and is connected to it is the implementation of the camera obscura in fine art. Similar to the photographic camera, the camera obscura creates a projection of light onto a dark screen, but without the ability to capture the image on a surface. The seventeenth century Dutch artist Johannes Vermeer is believed to have used this device while preparing paintings. Currently the photographic perspective is commonplace, but at that time the use of this device must have been a novelty, producing an effect that surprised and delighted viewers. Thus, science has subtly altered the way in which an artist perceives the world. According to Albergotti, “The camera obscura was a starting point for the artistic imagination but not the total explanation of Vermeer’s art” (Albergotti, 2009, p.190).

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Figure 3.3 A drawing showing how the camera obscura worked, it was a tool to see with. (Source: Albergotti, 2009, p.191)

Vermeer’s use of the camera obscura is an example of an artist using a scientific and technological advance to produce art that is more closely aligned with his imaginative view of it. Vermeer’s use of the camera obscura was an innovative process and a predecessor for the transformation that the invention of photography unraveled during the nineteenth century. The camera obscura model, dominant in early modernity, assumed a rational observer to be set apart from a “pre-given world of objective truth” (Crary, 2012, p.40). The observer’s visual perception was a “mechanical apparatus” that infallibly transcribed reality. The body’s other senses did not pollute this efficient, direct, and objective process (Crary, 2012, p.39). Even before the rise of photography there have been attempts to use mechanical devices during the artistic works. Camera obscura is seen to be such a device that used as observers visual perception. But although the device is seen as a start point of artistic imagination but by far not the explanation of the artistic value. This mechanical tool was seen as an objective apparatus for artistic perception that could not be influenced by other human senses. Figure 3.4 Vermeer’s master piece, “girl with apearl earring”, where he used camera obscura (Source:www.wikipedia.org)

3.3.b Photography: Ehrlich points out the following in his book Technology and the Artist, “To the nineteenth century artist, photography represented two very basic problems. The first was the simple matter of competition… but in addition to this, photography also seemed to challenge a fundamental prerequisite for art,

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the need for a disciplined hand-craftsman in the creation of art” (Ehrlich,1976,p.217). In the nineteenth century, the ever important function of creating an art object by hand was being diminished by science and technology, and many traditionalists discredited photography because of this technicality. Nevertheless, with or without the credit from conservative artists, photography still developed because of its industrial and commercial advantages. The early success of photography in industry and business is due to its swift, economical techniques, its accurate, pictorial representation, and its quality reproduction of images (Ehrlich, 1976, p.219). During the fifteenth century, printmaking was adopted by artists for its reproductive value, and in the nineteenth century, photography was accepted as one of the fine arts (Jones, 2010, p.2). A current view is “it is as if the threat of the camera has been left behind a long time ago, despite the ironic fact that many of the computer-generated sequences and juxtapositions stem from investigations that started through photographic manipulation” (Cook, 2012, p.199). Photography has caused the problem of competition as well as the problem of neglecting a hand-craftsman in its process, but it was also discredited due to its technicality. Nevertheless photography still developed due to its swift, economic advantages, accuracy in representation and ability to reproduce images. Another significant finding is an analogy of photography in art and computer in architecture where the raised reactions could be interrelated. 3.3.c Technology shifting art: The camera led artists to question the validity of photography as a fine art, painters began to rethink the definition of painting since photography assumed the functions of representational art. At the beginning of the twentieth century when photography succeeded as the dominant representational medium, painters were hard-pressed to expand the terms of what a painting could be, and thus painting underwent a dramatic change toward abstraction. Although photography did not singlehandedly cause artists to consider new modes of painting, it certainly had an impact on artists at the time. (Jones, 2010, p.4). As Orvell in the book After the Machine finds the use of machinery as an art subject in Precisionist photography: The camera, in the hands of the modern artist, was functioning as an instrument for reforming perception, a way of relating the new vision to technology and art. Rather than seeing technology as a force that intervened between the individual and reality, the machine became a way of creatively ‘deforming’ reality and even mastering it. Technology became a creative force for the artist by being defined as a new ‘screen’ or ‘filter’ through which the world was experienced (Orvell, 1995, p-p.9-11). Orvell notes that early twentieth century artists were using technology in their creative processes to bring about new forms of existence. Science and art,

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although separate from one another, can also be directly related, as seen in Sheeler’s Industry. “Sheeler utilizes technology to explore new modes of creativity and imagination”. The artists who accepted photography’s role in the pictorial arts and reacted accordingly has now been recognized for their novel innovations in painting and avant-garde thinking. Acceptance of photography meant more than an admission that science and technology were important influences; it also meant recognition of the fact that older standards were no longer applicable. Sheeler is not just representing machinery; but is rather conceptually referencing the way an industrial machine is constructed from many individual parts that work together with one larger motive. Sheeler is also signifying through his photography that machines are the products of humans; therefore, whatever is made by a machine is ultimately the product of human participation (Orvell, 1995, p. 220). Photography not only replaced illustrative, pictorial painting, but paradoxically aided its progression in modern art as painters reacted to photography’s dominance in the illustrated field. “The invention of new technologies enables artists to implement new tools for novel creations that have not previously been revealed by past artistic practices” (Orvell,1995, p.221).

Figure 3.5 Sheeler’s Industry showing not only the tool for artistic means has changed but also the artistic subject (Source: Orvell, 1995, p.221)

“Architects and designers must design something that does not yet exist. Whereas the work of a painter might legitimately remain focused on the reception and interpretation of sensation from the visual world, that of the architect and designer must be directed squarely at the task of constructing something that does not yet exist” (Cooper, 2007, p.11). The rise of photography has brought an evolution into the fine arts and due to its many advantages the camera was, eventually, accepted in the fine arts. However this shift in the arts has had an impact on the conventional painting by the change toward abstraction and change in artistic subjects.

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The strong relation between art and science is emphasized; science in this case is changing the artistic perception and creative imagination by inserting new tools to change vision and hereby the perception as well. The task of an architect being similar to an artist also differs potentially since the existence of subjects created. 3.4 The definition of drawing: The oxford dictionary of architecture contains no entries for ‘drawing’, ‘representation’, ‘presentation’, or ‘drafting’. The impoverished nature of entries concerning architectural drawing can be illustrated by the entry for ‘perspective’: “Method of representing graphically an object as it appears to the eye, suggesting three dimensions” (Wood, 2002, p. 13). The closest related terms to drawing are as follows: - Diagram: “A diagram is not a sketch (therefore it evokes nothing, points to nothing), and a diagram is not a plan (therefore it cannot be built). It is a kind of ‘neither/nor’ of delineation, a neutral zone, where certain relations are mapped precisely but without affect, with no qualitative information; there is, one might say, nothing superfluous in the diagram”. “The diagram in architecture persists in predominantly falling into the definition of a line drawing of some kind. The residual persistence of the diagram as a ‘thing’ that then becomes instrumental (as a kind of truck that enables design to set out on an exploratory journey) sits awkwardly within the diagramming aspirations voiced in contemporary discourse”. The diagram is the place of a mapping and remapping in which finitude is always an effect of an ineliminable infinite” (Wood, 2002, p. 314).

- Drafting: All the vital items of the architect’s stock-in-trade can be painlessly assimilated whilst the student gradually acquires fluency in draughtsmanship (Wood, 2002, p. 315). “Until the latter part of the twentieth century, all architectural drawings were manually produced, either by architects or by trained (but less skilled) draughtsmen (or drafters), who did not generate the design, although they made many of the less important decisions. This system continues with CAD draughting: many design architects have little or no knowledge of CAD software programmes and rely upon others to take their designs beyond the sketch stage” (www.wikipedia.org). - Drawing: The act of drawing is a crafty knowledge long considered the cardinal virtue of architects. To draw, means first of all, to look with one’s eyes, observe, discover. To draw means to learn, to see how things and people come about, grow, prosper and die. One needs to draw in order to absorb what is seen, so that it remains recorded for the entire lifetime in our memory (Wood, 2002, p. 316). - Sketch: The fantasy sketch is rooted in the work of the late 18th century French visionary architects Claude Nicolas Ledoux, Etienne Louis Boullée, and

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Jean Jacques Lequeu, whose drawings expressed utopian ideas without regard to their structural and economic feasibility (Wood, 2002, p. 321). -Image: Eisenman states; “I think people have images, preconceived images. Most people design with an image in their head; the drawing is a materialization of the visual image” (Wood, 2002, p. 320). “Architectural drawings are representations that facilitate the understanding of buildings, conditions, processes and events in human worldmaking…” (Frascari, 2011, p.2). “Architectural drawing is a way of acting. It is a particular way of exploring the built environment because drawings are the very condition of architectural experimentations; they exist before tectonic experiences could take place” (Frascari,2011, p.5). “No matter how stunning its technique or elaborate its image, it exists as a means to an end. Architectural drawing is simply a tool for design and communication” (Porter, 1997, p. 9). Having subtracting the definition of drawing from its design counterparts, the architectural drawing is a tool for seeing, recording and materialization of the mind’s images. This tool is a means for thinking, communication as well as expressing. 3.5 History of drawing tools: Tools evolve gradually through a process of small improvements, use and rejection. The finest tools are a result of a timeless anonymous evolution, and especially identifiable designer tools usually remain as momentary curiosities that do not become part of the real ancestry of the particular tool. These tools are usually anonymous products that possess unarguable beauty brought about by the functional requirements and the anonymous tradition that has gradually perfected the object (Pallasmaa, 2009, pp. 46-49). The industrial age brought with it machines capable of reproducing objects and greater availability of tools to achieve more advanced operations. But the true current advance is brought by the computer age. “It is the computer and computer-aided design (CAD) that have radically transformed the practice of architecture. Now, we seem to have come full circle: from a time when all buildings were custom made, to the standardization and mass production of the industrial age, and now, with digital technologies, back to the customization of each building or object” (Palladino, 2007, p.X). “[Drawing] tools originated as copies of the hand tools used in construction sites, consequently drafting tools embody in themselves the norms and the kinesthesia of architectural making.”(Frascari, 2011, p. 53). However in Gibson’s proposal, the architecture has moved from being rooted in chirographic culture to a typographic one while screens, mice and keyboards are the substitution of traditional drawing tools. As he makes the distinction between the photographic and chirographic pictures, which literally means pictures formed by the working of luminosity and pictures made directly by

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hand. The current addition to these types is a third set; typographic pictures. These are pictures produced through the “black box” of the computer. When projected or printed, these typographic pictures will resemble photographic or chirographic pictures, but instead they have been produced by digital transformations by clicking and typing (Frascari, 2011, pp. 53-54). Drawing tools are originated as copies of the human hand tools used on the construction site; hence the drawing tools embody the ability to feel the movements in architectural making. The evolution of tools has also caused the architecture to return to a state where buildings were custom made. Like any other types of tools, drawing tools are subject for evolution and the most significant evolution processes are; Chirographic, Photographic, and Typographic. Figure 3.6 The revolution of communication mechanisms in architecture. The start of architectural communication was oral, then it progressed into the chirography phase where the communication was mainly hand drawn. The third phase is the photographic era parallel to the introduction of the camera, and now the current typography phase lead by the computers. (Frascari, 2011, p.55)

3.6 Drawing mechanisms: According to Frascari, there are different drawing factures connecting the construction and use of buildings with the sensorial cosmology of its inhabitants and makers. The facture of signs that is used to generate traces during construction also forms the basis for sorting the facture of the marks used in architectural drawing. 3.6.a Classification of drawing factures: These factures fall into three categories (Frascari, 2011, p.31): 1- Marks made directly by the human body: scratches, grooves, furrows in clay or soft materials, smears or smudges contrasting materials with hands and fingers on surfaces and by spitting paint from the mouth. In drawings there are no transformations; the only difference is that the support is different from the construction site. 2- Marks made by wood, bone, stone, and metal tools, an enhancement of the previous class of signs; these tools adapt themselves to different surfaces and they become complex instruments that in addition to marking can guide the drawing; tools of this kind range from brushes,

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pencils, pens, scribers and chalk to templates, elipsographs, proportional dividers and pantographs. 3- Signs made with light and shadows: the historical range of these kinds of signs extends from contemporary laser tracers to shadow casting and tracing as described by Vitruvius in the discipline of dialing. In drawing factures, the range goes from blueprints to digital screens. Similar connection between the drawing and nature of material is made by Lawson; “designers know something about the real world materials and objects they are working with. More importantly, good designers seem to work with the nature of those materials and objects rather than against it” (Lawson, 2004, p.80). Drawing tool • Suitable materiality

Support surface • Soil nature

Architectural drawing • Erected building

Figure 3.7 Diagram showing the close relation of drawing process with the building process (Source: Researcher according to Frascari)

There is a connection between the signs that are used to generate traces during construction and the facture of marks used in architectural drawing. Types of factures are divided into three main types; marks that are made directly by the human body, marks that are made by other materials that are an enhancement of the first class of signs and signs made by light and shadow. 3.6.b Classification of drawing tools according to trace: In the factures to which these productions of signs belong, surfaces play an essential role because tools do not translate ideas but produce ideas with their interaction with the surface. Hence, the classification of drawing tools according to their relation with surfaces are categorized as follows: 1- Scoring tools; they are sharp or dull tools that cut, incise, notch, etch, slice, gash, scratch and nick the surface. They are chisels, gouges and the like. In this case the support contains the vestiges. 2- Tracing tools: they are charred, chalky or waxy tools but always friable; these tools leave part of their matter on the surface by scouring. They include pencils, chalks, and pastels. In this case the support holds the marks. 3- Depositing tools: the tools do not act unless they are loaded. They set down pigment by spraying or by dragging liquid, viscous or powdered materials. They are pens, brushes, and markers. In this case the supports retain the traces by absorption.

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4- Luminous tools: they do not touch the support and they act by light and shadows; the drawings disappear as soon as the energy feeding the instrument or the light sources casting the shadows are interrupted. They are mostly digital tools. A proper selection of supports on output can preserve the drawings, but they are byproducts and, most of the time, they are fashioned to emulate any of three previous classes of tools (Frascari, 2011, p-p 30-32). Drawing tools are essentially to be classified according to the relation of drawing tools and drawing support surface. Drawing tools are thus classified as follows; - Scouring tools, the tool leave make a certain change on the support surface. - Tracing tools, the tool leaves parts of itself on the support surface. - Depositing tools, the tools are to be loaded with other material, and that other material is left as trace on the support surface. - Luminous tools, they do not touch the surface. They are digital tools that act by light and shadows and the drawing disappears as soon as the energy feeding is interrupted. This type of tool is imitating the three first types. 3.7 The classification of drawings according to purpose: “Designers produce many different kinds of drawings for several different purposes”. Each of these types of drawings has its own characteristics as well as purpose. The type of drawing is mostly, mysteriously, recognized only by a look (Lawson, 2004, p. 34). In fact Fraser and Henmi have already analyzed specifically architectural drawings and suggested a classification system which offers a starting point. They identified five types of drawings which they called ‘referential drawings’, ‘diagrams’, ‘design drawings’, ‘presentation drawings’ and ‘visionary drawings’. Accordibly, the further elaboration is conducted by Lawson, the proposed classification of eight drawing types is represented as follows: 3.7.a Presentation drawing: These are the drawings through which designers communicate their work to clients and others from whom they may need some agreement, consent or permission to continue. The main purpose here is to convey information about the current state of the proposed design. The intentions of these drawings are either for convincing the client of the design, or for propaganda purposes. These drawings are conducted almost when the design process is already completed and of least reliability compared to the other types of drawing. The presentation drawings are efficient at the last design stages; these convey information about the current state of the

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proposed design and are meant as tools for communication between designer and client. 3.7.b Instruction drawing: These drawings are intended as an unambiguous one-way form of communication from designer or design team to constructor or supplier. They are mostly done after the designed object is largely resolved and they contain certain knowledge in the form of instructions for those responsible for physically creating the object. There are two variants. In some cases the drawing shows only the final form and constituent parts of the object while in others the drawing also shows the intermediate methods of construction. Examples of the latter might include those notoriously unhelpful drawings which accompany flat packed furniture from certain well-known retailers who prefer to leave their customers to perform the final construction. These drawings contain instruction for builders, thus a communication tool between the designer and the builders’ staff. 3.7.c Consultation drawing: Consultation drawings could be thought of as a special category of presentation drawings in that they are primarily intended to convey information from designer to client or user or other participant in the design process. However, these drawings are done not so much to convince as to elicit a response in order to assist in the designing process itself. They may therefore be intended to layout the bounds of knowledge and certainty about the state of the design so far. Typically designers’ drawings indicate uncertainty through style. A rough sketchy freehand style with a soft pencil is more likely to indicate the lack of definition compared with a more precise line drawn mechanically with a pen. A further possibility here is the presentation of two or more alternatives done deliberately to elicit a reaction from other participants that will help to arrive at a resolution. These are uncertain design drawings where they are meant to layout the bounds of data regarding the design; this type of drawing is used to communicate with the client during the design process. 3.7.d Experiential drawing: Designers tend to draw habitually and certainly more often than just when designing. This turns out to be important evidence about both what designers know and how they think. There is some recent growth of concern in design education about the extent to which this sketching activity may be declining. The development of cheap photography made it easier to record experiential knowledge without the effort of sketching. Advent of global image searching and retrieval on the Internet with engines such as Google may even reduce the incentive to make your own recording at all. The now commonplace use of CAD may mean that many young designers do far less physical drawing and may not be developing sketching skills. These drawing evolve around sketches made by the designer for means of

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recording experiences; these experiences could be either perceived or imagined. 3.7.e Diagrams: Diagrams include all those drawings that we might normally describe as charts or graphs. They also include ‘diagrammatic representations’, or drawings which have so few of the physical or visual qualities of real objects that they cannot be considered pictorial. These are obviously ‘thinking’ drawings. They are used to express some circumscribed characteristics of the objects being designed or the nature of the problems being solved so that they focus attention solely or chiefly on those characteristics. the most well-known application of the diagram to design is the so-called ‘bubble diagram’, used by architects or planners when laying out the rough sizes and relationships of elements in the problem. The diagram in fact only works if you play by the rules. As soon as you break those rules the drawing appears to be unambiguous on a matter that is actually rather uncertain, which is a most dangerous state of affairs. These are thinking-drawings, used during the solving of certain problems. This is communication tool between the designer and himself (or a design team member). 3.7.f Fabulous drawing: Also defined as highly speculative drawings, Fraser & Henmi called it “visionary drawings”. They have many of the characteristics of both proposition drawings and presentation drawings. They are usually considered to be artistic and they are ‘fabulous’ in the sense of having an intention behind them to express wonderful or fantastic qualities. These drawings are not used to test an idea but rather to let it flourish and develop so they are usually ‘uncritical’. They suspend disbelief and criticism and realism. Such characteristics it seems are important in assisting the development of creative thought in some of its stages. Many famous designers are well known for their fabulous drawings, such as Gehry. Most of his sketches are to be recognized and may even reveal from what building the drawing is. Such drawings also carry great dangers for the designer. Those who teach design are familiar with the student work that exploits such a drawing type perhaps deliberately in order to avoid the resolution of ideas into a working single whole. Powerful and imaginative but ‘fabulous’ drawings can be tools in the design process, but design is normally meant to come to a workable single end result and that definition cannot be expressed in the fabulous drawing however beautiful. “Visionary drawings do not stand outside the basic scheme of architectural development- iy just, sometimes, wants to make a leap forward” (Cook, 2012, p.73). These types of drawing indicated most fantasy and are uncritical and are helpful for development of creative thought. Although the danger for students regarding this type of drawing lays in the potential of avoiding the workability of design and focusing only on fantastic ideas.

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Figure 3.8 Peter Cook, Sponge City, acrylic paint, 1975 (Source, Cook, 2012, p.72)

3.7.g Proposition drawing: Is right at the very centre, the heart of the design process. These are drawings where a designer makes a ‘move’, or proposes a possible design outcome. Of course they are but to varying degrees, which depend both on the nature of the design problem and the personal or team qualities, habits and preferences of those doing the designing. Designers describe this also as temporarily freezing something in order to explore the implications of it. The drawing then seems to ‘talk back’ to the designer and the conversation proceeds. These drawings have achieved a point applicable for critique and are a tool for communication at the midpoint of the design process. 3.7.h Calculation drawing: Are drawings that are effectively made as an alternative to doing some calculations. How high will a roof reach if it is at 30 degrees over this building? What distance will the staircase travel to reach from one floor to the next? How large would a radius of an arc be that connected these two lines? And etc…Drawing for designers have increased their potential so far as a thinking tool that they could be also used as calculation tools. 3.7.i Exploratory drawings: These drawing are early at the design stage and are meant to be quick and efficient. The designer explores different possibilities at this stage of design. “The designer should always record exploratory ideas with any accompanying notes on a sketchpad or in a sketchbook (logbook) with bond paper. Many architects keep sketchpad or sketchbooks on hand at all times for the express purpose of recording their design ideas. A sketch journal or visual diary can be invaluable reference source during the design process” (Yee, 2013, p.71). A designer explores ideas by means of exploratory drawing, sketches, which record ideas valuable during the design process.

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3.8 Drawing and architectural design: “In architecture, design and drawing are inseparable” (Brawne, 2003, p.83). “The term ‘design’ is widely thought of as the expression of images in the form of pictures or sketches; in other words, it is strongly associated with art or drawing” (Nagai, 2011, p.6). According to Cross, is the most essential design activity is the production of a final description of the arte fact. This, he explains, “has to be in a form that is understandable to those who will make the arte fact”. The most widely used form for communicating the creative idea is drawing or sketching. Drawing not only informs the communication of design, it also enables evaluation of design ideas; it allows the designer and others to check and evaluate the design proposal before deciding on the final version (Cross, 2000 ,p.14).

Design is strongly associated with art and drawing. The significance of drawing not only lays in the communicative role, but also the means of evaluating the creative work is achieved through drawing. 3.8.a Proposals on drawing: Richards gives some other advice regarding the exploratory drawings, “The ideas [advices] comprise a tool box of tips and techniques, gleaned from years of project work and mentoring of young designers, that can make hand drawing more quick and efficient – a spark plug for rapidly exploring ideas and drawing others into the conversation” (Richards, 2013, p.27), the nine key advices are as follows:  Simplify tools: Simplifying the tool will save the decision time of what tool to use as well as the development of mastery as they become intuitive extensions of the brain and hand, taking the emphasis off “creating a drawing” and keeping it on the immediate visual impression or idea.  Simplify message: It is rather better to create several small drawings each communicating a key idea rather than attempting to convey an epic drawing.  Work small: Working small forces the designer to simplify, simple sketches can produce a greater volume of visual ideas and spurring more thoughts and images. These small drawings can also be easily resized, copied and scanned and uploaded onto the web.  Simplify technique: It is important that the techniques used are of second nature for the designer. Meaning that these techniques are to be mastered and this is generally caused by employing them consistently to the work.

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 Attack the drawing: Just getting started is the key to any successful sketch, hence make the start and from there the needed overlaying, modification and refinement can take over.  Drawing people first: For lively results and easier sense of proportions, one can start to draw some figures first, causing more convenience during the process.  Composition with dark tones: Working different tones in order to create strong pattern creates more understanding for the drawing.  Looseness in drawing: A rough freehand sketch, prepared quickly in the excitement of capturing a new idea has a human quality that is very hard to replicate in a subsequent process of refinement. Restatements and small mistakes in perspective are precisely the elements that brand an image as an honest expression of the creative moment.  Annotation: Handwritten notes can be both an appealing visual element and a source of deeper insights on sketches. It encourages feedback and fosters conversation while contributing life and freshness to the image (Richards, 2013, pp. 26-45). The previously mentioned are keys to explore by means of drawing, which is a means to creativity. The essence of the preceding list of advices lays in simplicity in general; simplifying tools in such way that the tool is a natural extension of the mind and hand. Working small, simplifying message as well as the technique will lead to a larger volume of visual ideas as well as revisions for later work. To start with a drawing with confident and allowing later refinements and modifications later, these refinements can also indicate a looseness of the drawing that points to a creative expression. Working with several tones as well as figures increases sense of proportion, convenience as well as understanding. Finally a drawing can be intensified by use of annotations. In his book Drawing: A creative process, Ching gives attention to some drawing characteristics that should be taken into account while drawing. As follows: Shapes: “As we draw the edges of positive shapes, we should also be acutely aware of the negative shapes we are creating. While we normally perceive spatial voids as having no substance, they share the same boundaries as the forms they envelope, the negative spaces share the contour lines that define the edges of positive shapes” (Ching, 1990, p. 62)  Proportion and scale: To ensure that drawing elements remain in their proper place and relationships, one must pay attention to proportion and scale. “Proportion is a matter of ratios, while ratio is the relationship 

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between any two parts of a whole…..Related to proportion is the idea of scale. Scale refers to apparent size, a technique used to show scale is to insert images of people” (Ching, 1990, p. 65).  Visual judgment: The ability to estimate dimensional relationships is at the root of all objective drawing. To do this one must be able to hold a visual measuring stick in the mind’s eye (Ching, 1990, p. 68).  Figure-ground relationships: “When a figure crowds its background field or overlaps other figures in its field, it begins to organize the surrounding spaces into recognizable shapes. A more interactive and integrated figure-ground relationship develops. Visual movement occurs between positive and negative shapes and the resulting tension creates visual interest” (Ching, 1990, pp. 70-71).  Light and shadow: The way light is reflected from a form’s surfaces, creating areas of light, shade, and shadow, gives important clues to its three-dimensional qualities (Ching, 1990, pp. 73-74). Another important mentioned by Mary Stewart is “keeping a journal or sketchbook [which] is an ideal way to record ideas and create connections” (Stewart, 2008, p.130). Edwards finds “a surprising number of experienced and successful architects kept a personal sketchbook and others commonly used sketches of the site to influence their design thinking. Sketching was seen to be useful in terms of visual thinking, in undertaking spatial analysis and in carrying out site investigation. Such sketches were not just views but rough plans and analytical studies of existing buildings. The discipline of looking through drawing was as important as the role of sketching in mere recording of site features” (Edwards, 2008, p.258). In fact many great architects hold sketchbooks to record, and even architectural universities demand to get an insight on students’ sketchbooks, even if they are free to represent projects by means of digital tools (www.cod.edu).

The main drawing characteristics are important for the value of drawing, but keeping record of these drawing is even more significant since they are to be used in later stages of design as well. A drawer should have the following criterion in mind; the relation between negative and positive spaces, proportion and scale, dimensional relationships, figure ground relationships, and light and shade to enhance the three-dimensional characteristics. 3.8.b The design process: In Christopher Jones’ definition, a designer is seen in three different ways; that of creativity, that of rationality, and that of control over the design process. From the creative viewpoint, the designer is a black box out of which comes the “mysterious” creative process; from the rational viewpoint, the

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designer is a glass box inside which the designer knows exactly what he is doing and why he is doing it (Jones,1970, p.28). The first theory is that the designer is interpreted as a black box. As externalizing the experiences the designer has while using a tool is of great importance. Researchers can only observe his artifacts and products. The human designer is like other animals, capable of doing tasks without clearly defining how he did it. Take for instance walking, a simple task but it is hard to describe how the human body performs this action. This simple process is just as mysterious as the creative process of designing. There are theories about how the human brain produces these results, but there is no certainty, one of the reasons for this is the extensive amount of data a designer can access during his design process. (Lawson, 1997, p.32). The second, the “glass box” is a neologism, presumably referring to the fact that the researcher has insight in what happens in the mind of the designer. It is this situation that most designers would reject. In order to achieve such a transparency the designer must represent design problems as clear as logical structures. This increased precision in the definition of a design problem would sharpen the conception of what the design process involves. In this method the designer is much alike to a computer; the designer only operates using the information directly fed to him, and follows a series of planned steps until the solution is found (Lawson, 2004, p.36). The insight of main two theories of the design (process), indicates the importance design research as well the problematic of these kind of research since they work under a high level of uncertainty and potentiality of dialectics. 3.9 Drawing tools in architectural design: In architectural design, the classification is made between traditional drawing tools and digital drawing tools, this section will be focusing on these two types of tools. 3.9.1 Conventional drawing tools in architectural design: In his essay, Paul Emmons brings a fresh perspective to the humble pencil, celebrating its unparalleled utility as a communication tool. David Thompson offers the unique viewpoint of the enthusiastic collector of conventional drawing tools, reminding that such devices often have remarkable personal significance to an architect. These drawings are the simplest type of tools that are usually a physical type (Palladino, 2007, pp. 8-29). “Since many [architects] believe that the art of drawing well is based on the quality and the beauty of the instruments, they have strived to obtain ebony rulers, dividers, squares, and magnetic compasses made of glided brass or even silver….Although we know that nothing we have made could be improved or made more perfect, many have become persuaded that we were using exquisite

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instruments, and having seen that they were plain brass ones, they became puzzled. That is why every individual should use [instruments] that the best serve him, the ones his hand is accustomed to use and that suit his purpose” (Frascari, 2011, p.183). Tom Porter and Sue Goodman (1988) claim that “in the wake of rapidly advancing computer-graphics technology, drawing by hand remains undisturbed as the central activity in the process of design” (Lawson, 2004, p. 32).

Figure 3.9 Showing a number of conventional drawing tools (Source: Palladino, 2007, p.67)

However, “Typically, drawings are created in analog and move toward digital as they are refined. For example, many design concepts will start with sketches, progress to CAD alternatives, and then are refined and rendered for client presentations” (Cantrell & Michaels, 2010, p.34). “Moving to the techniques now available to us through the ability of the computer to be linked to the modeling machine, we have moved right into a condition that seems to have obviated the very need for making drawings” (Cook, 2012, p.195). “If we allow that the need for a drawing to be specifically on paper, or on a flat surface, made with lines or with patches of identifiable territory, presenting an identifiable image or pattern, is too limited, and if we allow that it can span a wider range of visual territory (ofcourse created through a range of media impulses), then we admit as a ‘drawing’ a figuration like that of tobia Klein [and Lebbeus Woods]” (Cook, 2012, p195).

Figure 3.10 Lebbeus Woods, System Vien Installation view, 2005 (Source: Cook, 2012, p.195)

However the definition of drawing can be even broadened further. And even the need for the classical definition for drawings can be seen avoided. The pencil remains a radically distinctive tool with a personal significance to the architect. However many believe in the need for new tools and their beauty that has caused the fact that tools have been subject of progress and improvement and each tool has been an invention of this time. The need for each individual to choose an instrument that

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suits his needs the best rises with the rapid increasing of new tools. However the conventional drawing tools have not lost their central position to the design process, as the start of design process starts with the conventional tools and is later transmitted to the digital tools with intention of refinements. 3.9.2 Digital drawing tools in Architectural design: The computer has widened the definition for tools even further. It has stimulated the creation of an endless range of tools for any purpose. If one accepts the synonym of “software tool” for “software application”, then the computer is certainly the tool with which the most other tools, and also the most complex, were ever built (Kolarevic, 2003, p.66). The role that computers have in the architectural design process has grown from the first introduction of digital drawing systems in 19601, to the current integration of digital design systems. It is recognized that architecture, and design in the broadest sense, is depending on geometry. During the last few years a change is identified in the way architects design; architects Figure 3.11 Tobias Klein, Facade of the are starting to shift away from primarily altar space in the inverted chapel pf Our Lady de Regla, Cuba, Synthetic designing the specific shape of a building to Syncretism project (Source: Cook, 2012, p.196) setting up the geometric relationships and principles described through parametric relations (Kolarevic, 2003, p.69). “The rise of Building Information Modeling software recasts the computer as a tool of data representation rather than drafting and will challenge the very definition of a “set of drawings.” Increasingly, output is not limited to paper: so-called “3D” printers and CAD-CAM technologies translate digital instructions directly into models, prototypes, and, ultimately, actual building elements” (Palladino, 2007, p.21). According to Abu Fathl, although the digital drawing tools are a small portion of all the given tools above, the commercial needs to keep up with the modern progresses has caused a large number of architectural schools inline towards the use of digital media as seen below (Alkymakchy, 2011, p.25).

1

In 1960 Sutherland introduced the SketchPad system. This was the first Computer Aided drawing system that used direct communication through the use of a special pen, instead of written code. ((Kolarevic 2003).

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Figure 3.12 A chart showing the digital drawing tools used throughout EU, showing a strong reliance on the digital software as well as the freehand drawing (Alkymakchy, 2011, p.25)

The implementation of digital drawing tools has changed the geometry on which architecture strongly depends. Also the paperarchitecture is hereby shrunken due to the BIM software that can directly be linked to modeling machines and even creates building parts. Though the need for schools to implement digital tools are considered commercial needs and in context with the profession. A comparison made with aims of comparing the design with conventional method to the digital method (Hasan, 2007, p.390). Table 3.1 Wang's convetional versus digital comparison table (Source: Hasan, 2007, p.391)

Comparison Levels of expression design

Digital method Does not depend on hierarchal expression

Methods of expression Design decisions

Not restricted and depends on personal skills Decision making is a continuous process Computer rules Using computer capacities in problem solving Approach is not restricted

Followed rules Design problems Design processes Basic knowledge Work flow Evaluation Time

Conventional Method in Depends on a hierarchical expression and increased elaboration through development design Conventional drawings and models Specific decisions in specific drawings Profession and drawing rules Conventional problem solving method Holistic approach and ending with details Conventional way of data systemization Slow Personal method Less time needed at the start

a

Digital ways of data systemization fast Practical method Equal amount of time needed

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87 and more time at the end Fixed to the drawing

during the process Easy way of changing

An insight of the differences and the common grounds of both used media is important, thus the preceding table shows that while the conventional method is slow, personal and more static, the digital method is practical, fast and unfixed. “As a tool of the architect’s imagination, the pencil, along with paper, may be the most vital device in architects’ attempts to see into the future. As John Robertson, librarian of the London Royal Society, wrote in “A Treatise of such Mathematical Instruments as are usually put into a Portable Case”, “There is not a more useful instrument for ready service in making sketches or finished plans than a black-lead pencil.” Although the computer has become widespread in architectural practices, the image of the architect continues to be closely identified with the simple wood-cased lead pencil. The relationship of the drafter with the pencil is so intimate that it is used metonymically: the architect is a pencil” (Palladino, 2007, p.31). “Ideally, digital and analog media find a middle ground, where an exchange of information can occur. As a designer, you need to understand how drawings inform one another in order to make decisions at each stage of representation process. The final result for either medium is to create drawings that accurately represent design ideas, evoke the experiences being designed, and contribute to the design process” (Cantrell, 2010, p.36). “Understanding the fundamentals of drawing is essential, but it is not exclusive to either medium. The contemporary design world fully embraces both mediums as valid methods to represent projects and explore design ideas” (Cantrell, 2010, p.4) ” It can be argued that analog rendering and sketching is quicker and more natural than using digital media. The lack of a “natural” feeling is specifically attributed to the hardware and software that mediates our ability to directly manipulate the drawing surface and/or media using our hands. The main advantage of digital media is its editability and efficiency, but these are things that must be considered during all phases of the representation process. A drawing created digitally is no more editable or efficient than an analog drawing unless the tools are used correctly. This requires the designer to use a process that is both systematic and natural. It is important to define what is meant by the terms editability and efficiency” (Cantrell, 2010, p.17). He also states that “Many other creative relationships truly integrate both media rather than isolating one from the other” (Cantrell, 2010, p.22). The need for architects to integrate a natural as well as a systematic media into their design process is the base to many creative relation ships. However the intimate natural sense of the ceonventional drawing tools is

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here also valued. The essense of drawing is to understand the fundamentals as well as the correct use of any chosen tool to work with. 3.9.2.a Types of Digital tools used in Design process: At this moment there are a number of digital tools available that can help the architect perform the task of exploring. These can be divided into two categories (Kilian, 2006, p.136) : a) Simulation and Analytical tools b) Parametric tools Each of the tools in these categories has their own field of expertise and application. What they all have in common is that they can be used to drive the exploration of the design space by externalizing the constraints and constructing the design space. By determining the strengths and limitations of each of the tools the designer can choose the right tool.

- Simulation and Analytical tools: The computer simulation of building performance is aimed at the prediction and understanding of the way a design will appear and behave. The use of digital tools has gone through numerous stages of development of changing into what it is today. In its early phases, its main purpose was that of scientific and military calculations. By taking over the labor intensive calculations needed to simulate tidal changes, economic events and projectile flight paths the computer proved its use as a tool to help the human to simulate and analyze the world around him. This application causes a significant growth in the use of digital tools. Nevertheless the architectural practice faces the dilemma that they simply cannot possess all the knowledge in all fields of expertise required to perform successful simulations. In this field specialists deal not only with the development of the tools but also their use thereby increasing the distance between the design profession and the tools (Degelman, 1990, p.32).

The advantages are easy to define; by taking over a lot of work of the designer, he is able to foresee and thereby react on the various aspects of the design before it is realized. This is also its main shortcoming; for a simulation or analysis, the design must be well on its way. To be able to perform a simulation the designer must have good understanding of where his design is going and what it is he wants to simulate. The process of simulating and analyzing is largely one directional; based on the model used a set of data is generated (Kilian, 2006, p.139). Simulation and analytical tools are used in the design process to test building performances and predict and understand the way a design will

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behave eventually. This tool was firstly used in the scientific and military field only later developed and implemented in the architectural field. However there are some problems recognized such as; the required knowledge needed for performing of such a tool, tracking with the swift development of tools that cause the distance between the tools and the design profession to increase. On the other hand, the advantages of these tools are not to be overlooked. They preserve time in order for the designer to be able to foresee problems even before they are realized. Except the performance of such simulation requires a good design understanding, as this process is directional and is based on the used model and generated data. - Parametric tools: Geometry has always played a central role in architecture discourse. It is recognized that architecture, and design in the broadest sense, is dependent on geometry. Parametric tools that are used for modeling transform the way designers treat the creation of geometry. Architects are starting to shift away from primarily designing the specific shape of a building to setting up the geometric relationships and principles described through parametric relations. Alexander already predicted this when discussing the increasing complexity of design problems the practice has to deal with. Parametric design can provide a dominant conception of architectural form by describing a range of possibilities, replacing the known with a variable and singularities with options. In parametric design, it is the parameters of a particular design that are defined, not its shape. By assigning different values to the parameters, different designs or configurations can be created. Such a parametric and editable approach to design offers a high degree of freedom of geometric control combined with the ability to quickly generate variations. The main impact of such a design approach is best shown in the decision making process. Using conventional design tools the designer is forced to make early design decisions in order to make progress in the level of detail. In a parametric approach, the ability to make an associative model to which other components can be related, can allows designers to postpone the decisions to be made until we are ready to evaluate them (Kilian, 2006, p.179). The shortcomings of parametric design approaches primarily deal with the complexity and uncertainty of the design in its early stages. Dealing with building parametric models demands for a certain amount of structure and definitions that are not always present in this early stage. This needs a lot of thinking on forehand whereas this time might better be spent on the design exploration itself instead of on the tools to make it possible (Kilian, 2006, p.182). “There is little conceptual difference between the analog tools that once sat on the architect’s drafting table—pencils, triangles, compasses, scales—and their early digital counterparts in CAD. As with early word processors that mimicked

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the typewriter, the first generation of computerized design tools was intended to replicate hand drafting, replacing the hand-drawn line with its plotted counterpart. While for many practitioners the tools were effective time and money savers, the end product was the same: a two-dimensional drawing on paper. Those who chose to stay with their mechanical pencils and T-squares could effectively produce the same realization of their vision” (Palladino, 2007, p.109). On the other hand architects’ limitations and abilities to manipulate their media affect the outcome of the design. “Unless the architect has expertise in the operation of CAD, a design using this medium may lack definition and become mediocre because the computer might make rectangles more easily than other shapes” (Smith, 2008, p.20). Design and architecture are both strongly depending on geometry. Parametric tools are used in modeling and change the way a designer deals with the shape geometry. In the parametric design it is the variables that define the early design stages and not the shape, contrasting the conventional design process where such a decision is made at the start. Parametric tools are offering more geometric help and freedom. However these tools demand many structure and definitions early in the design process, the time needed for this can better be used in the design exploration. Another vital point to note here is that the users of conventional tools could effectively produce the same realization of their vision. 3.10 The role of computers in design process: This section discusses the most common roles a computer could play regarding the design process. This classification is mainly according to Lawson; 3.10.a The computer as oracle: “The first serious attempts at computer-aided design positioned the computer as an ‘oracle’ or font of wisdom. In this role, the computer actually produces a design proposition” (Lawson, 2004, p.65). But rather than giving samples of this particular phenomenon in the book, the writer openly asks; “So why is it with all the power of modern computers and the sophistication of contemporary computer science we see almost no use of computers in this ‘oracle’ role in the design fields studied in this book?” (Lawson, 2004, p.66). The answer of this question is simply given holding the integrative task of a holistic design in perspective. Although a developed and sophisticated design software tool could give an optimal design proposition in accordance of individual criteria such as energy consumption, circulation, construction costs, lighting and so on. The individual outputs of such a case may not be as useful, since there is no rational way in trading off all the variables against one another. In fact design depends on several different cognitive tasks, though highly promoted by the Artificial intelligence, but yet the computer can only manipulate symbolic

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representations of knowledge while the cognitive science has struggled to represent design knowledge in such a purely symbolic manner (Lawson, 2004,pp.66-67).

An ambitious idea about the use of the digital drawing tools in design is to use the computer to come up with the design proposition; however this proposition will not lead to an integrative design proposition. Since the computer is only able to give propositions according to one or few variables and not every aspect of the design. 3.10.b The computer as draftsman: There is currently high familiarity with using digital tools as a drafter in architectural design. “In fact computer-aided drafting is now commonplace in many design fields and most certainly in architecture, though it is really at the stage of production or presentation drawings that the existing technology comes into its own” (Lawson, 2004, p.67). The most useful areas used in, is perhaps when a drawing needs to be developed, edited and altered. The separation of creating and that of producing and reprinting makes it possible to reproduce and also in many scales. Also repetition and transformations offered by the computer are powerful timesavers. “In fact they enable the management of information in so many ways that they have distinct advantages over purely manual drawing techniques. However, these advantages largely become apparent not at the designing stage, but at the later presentation and instruction drawing stage” (Lawson, 2004, p.68). Lawson later states that there is a problem case concerning the knowledge in the computer and the human mind, and how the communication between these two powerful partners takes place. Some of the problems are numbered as follows: The first problem is at the ergonomic2 level; when drawing with a mouse, it has the disadvantage of not being at the point where the mark is made, while the pen on a tablet or touch sensitive screen is. The drafting with a mouse or even a pen is reported by architects to be “too remote”. Three main causes for this are named “First, there is no friction between pen and screen so they get no ‘feedback’ from the movement. Second, the mark made does not respond to pressure or speed of movement in a predictable and expressive way. Third, an interaction between the first two problems is that the designer gets no feedback feeling from variations in pressure and speed of movement” (Lawson, 2004, p. 68) The second problem is at the converse level; Architects make marks during their design, these marks represent something. While working with a digital tool, whether sketchpad system or CAD system, the marks are respectively stored in the system either as pixels or as vectors. But there is no evidence that the design knowledge is pixilated or vectored, thus the begin data 2

Ergonomics: “The branch of engineering science in which biological science is used to study the relation between workers and their environment” (www.wikipedia.org)

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presented to the digital tool differs from the actual designer data causing a problem of interface. The data does not resemble what the designer is working with. These digital tools are not as immediate, sensory and flexible as the pencil and paper (Lawson, 2004, p-p.69-70). The draft capacities of computer come to use during the presentation and production stages, due to its potentials for refinement. Development, reproduction and repetition are certainly important at these stages. The reason why these tools are to be mostly used at the later design stages is due to their characteristics that cause no feedback to the designer. Also the fact that digital media is not as immediate, sensory and flexible has pushed its use to the later design stages. 3.11.c The computer as a modeler: The computer as geometric modeler is really an extension of the drafting role into three dimensions. Freer forms of representation are enabled by spline curves which can have continuously changing radii. In the three dimensional modeler, these are replaced by the more complex equations of planes and curved surfaces. However there are some problems in using these tools; the software that is driven by the complex mathematics of such esoteric devices as Bézier curves or non-uniform rational B-splines is hardly user-friendly. The user of a two-dimensional drafting package can easily enter a line by pointing to either end or a circle by pointing to its centre and any point on its periphery. And it certainly is not an intuitive way of drawing. Even Gehry, one of the famous names related to free form computerized architecture, does not work directly on the computer but sculpts physically with much more plastic materials such as paper. In fact Lindsey (2001) tells “Gehry does not like the way objects look in the computer” and that he avoids looking at the computer screens in the office. Zeara (1995) claims that “the computer was introduced into Frank Gehry’s office in a way that would not interfere with a design process that had been evolving over thirty years” (Lawson, 2004, p-p. 7374)

The use of 3d modeling by computer software is rather complex but offering a freer forms of representation. The inferences of the digital tool with the design process seems to be avoided as seen through the introduction of these tools to Gehry’s offices. 3.10.d The computer as a critic: The essence behind this usage is the improvement of prediction in design. This could help the design process in many aspects, energy consumptions, daylight level, noise transmissions and etc… But the applications of these tools bring some problems along such as; the time taken to input all this information is such that one can really only afford to do it once the design is pretty well finalized. This too is one of the main obstacles in using virtual reality in design. This then is not computer-aided design but computer-checked design or

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computer visualized design. The computer is certainly acting as a design critic but rather too late in the process to be constructive (Lawson, 2004, p-p. 76-78). To predict design performances and improve accordingly is essential for any design process. Although, the time needed and the fact that the design must have been semi-finalized to implement such functions, make this process to occur very late at the design stage. 3.11 Drawing tools and Non-standard architescture: The tools used can have an impact on the design. In the era of the master builder the architect had to consider both designing and constructing his design. When an “innovative” design was made, it was the architect who had to think about how to construct it. Most of Sydney opera house was done based on experience and making models (ranging from scale models to life size mockups). If the technology or technique to construct it was not Figure 3.13 Surface developments in CATIA for the EMP project, are engaged due to the use of digital tools available the design was showing how free forms(Lindsey 2001 p. 68) considered not buildable. Nowadays the range of tools is much larger compared to earlier era’s. This is where the earlier described feedback loop fits in, a seemingly not buildable design might be possible with the introduction of new tools. This counts for the so called freeform and double curved shapes, which are hard to draw using simple 2D drawing techniques. The introduction of the 3D digital model made it possible for the designer to create and construct shapes which seemed impossible before. A good example is the Disney Concert Hall designed by Gehry, when it was designed in 1989, it seemed impossible to construct the design within budget, mainly because of the complex geometry which proved very difficult and expensive to create. The project came to a halt, and was not continued until almost 10 years later. In these years Gehry’s architectural practice invested a lot of time in the research in digital technology. In that time they did 13 projects in which each took a step forward in using these tools until in the end Gehry’s office had the knowledge to complete the design for the Disney Concert Hall (Lindsey, 2001, pp. 87-89). The use of digital tools has not only lead to complex designs but also to the construction of complex designs. Since in earlier era the need for novel constructions was the architect’s full responsibility and depending on

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his ability for construction proposals. Even now, at the time of Gehry, the construction is architects’ responsibility but with the aid of digital tools. That using tools for other purposes can deliver good results is shown by a design made for the Yokohama Port Terminal by Foreign Office Architects (FOA): It is their habitual use of CAD and computers to design their structures, rather than physical models, that means that FOA can take this adaptive, procedural approach. To cope with the complex shapes and forms, the architects used techniques from rollercoaster design to engineer the complex curves and intersecting surfaces of the design. During development, the transformation of one part of the continuous surface inflected the whole design as it would in a rollercoaster design (Kleinman, 2006, p.2) Figure 3.14 Zaha Hadid, The Peak, Hongkong 1982 (Source: Cook, 2012, p.63)

Zaha Hadid’s epoch making vision (See figure 3.12 and 3.13) of Hong Kong when designing The Peak in the winning completion in 1983 was never built. It comes to a point where her process of drawing had developed into a sophisticated sequence of both elimination and augmentation. With confident lines and clear coloration; with an establishment of clear priorities and a team of assistants. The same confident lines can be found in a later work, carrying with them her discovery of a more voluptuous physiogonomy such as that in the 2006 Phaeno Science Centre in Wolfsburg Germany (Cook, 2012, p.63). “Significantly, Zaha Hadid calls her architectural drawings ‘paintings’ perhaps in an attempt to distance them from conventional images. Nevertheless they still inevitably remain analogues”

Figure 3.15 Zaha hadid Phaeno Science Center, Germany 2006 (Source: Cook, 2012, p.62)

(Brawne, 2003, p.84)

In the case of Gehry, Goel finds the use of new tools enabled them to produce a certain shape. But a tool can also have a negative influence on the design. An extensive study done by Goel revealed that when the designer is

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forced to use only symbolic systems, such as the ready-made shapes generated by digital design programs, in some cases resulted in a reduction of the creative qualities (Stone, 2005, p.144). “Actually a very great deal of what is described as computer-aided design is in reality computer-aided drawing and is therefore of interest to us here in a similar way that manual drawing is. In fact computer-aided design has turned out to be rather a disappointment so far. There is little evidence that it has significantly improved the quality of design or made designing a better experience” (Lawson, 2004, p.64). The term of computer aided design could be substituted by the term computer aided drawing and therefore finds its importance parallel to the conventional drawing. Due to the limitations of symbolic systems it is shown to reduce creative qualities. However these digital tools have had enormous impact on the non-standard architecture. 3.12 Drawing tools and crafts: Cook states that “If we allow that the need for a drawing to be specifically on paper or on a flat surface, made with lines or with patches of identifiable territory, presenting an identifiable image or pattern, is too limited, and if we allow that it can span a wider range of visual territory then we can admit that as a ‘drawing’ a figuration Figure 3.16 frank Lloyd Wright’s drawing for the Living City, showing the relation between drawing and local srafted materials like that of Tobias klein’s (www.safewright.org) façade of the chapel of Our Regla for Havana” (Cook, 2012, p.195). As Cook states earlier in his book that one only has to glance at Frank Lloyd Wright’s Living City drawings with its implication of endless Midwestern plains and soft, crafted materials and gruffly polite Midwestern conversation values. This is an example of a natural expression through the medium of the deftly stroked color pencil (Cook, 2012, P.10). In a context where Wirkkala speaks about the interaction of two handactivities, drawing and model making, the argument that even in the age of computer-aided design and virtuall modeling, physical models are incomparable aids in the design process of the architect and the designer. “A drawing or

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sketch is an idea which provides the basis to start work. I make dozens and sometimes hundreds of sketches. From them I select those that offer some potential for development. For me it’s important to see the object as a concrete thing before sending it to the manufacturer. Making the model is an essential aspect of my work. I produce it from some solid material. I don’t make just one, but several models which I can compare and then select one to continue working on. In this way the ides becomes clearer and the mistakes more apparent” (Wirkkala, 2000, P.21). Importance of the physicality of design lays in the fact that architects move freely in the imagined structure, however large and complex it may be, as if walking in a building and touching all its surfaces and sensing their materiality and texture. This is an intimacy that is surely difficult if not impossible, to simulate through computer-aided means of modeling and simulation. Drawing and models have the double purpose of facilitating the design process itself and mediating ideas to others (Pallasmaa, 2009,p-p 59-61). In the quest of value and admiration of artistic works, David Pye classifies the types of workmanship into two types; First, the ‘workmanship of risk’, and second, the ‘workmanship of certainty’. He finds that “All the work of men which have been most admired since beginning of our history have been made by the workmanship of risk” (Pallasmaa, 2009, p.73). This is a rather thought provoking separation that Pallasmaa applies directly to the architectural drawing and the traditional versus digital in specific, where the risk indicates any mental uncertainty involved in the design process (Pallasmaa, 2009, p.76). Physicality during the design process is significant for the architect to move freely around the imagined object. This aspect comes to its true nature in drawing as well as modeling, through an intimacy not provided by the digital tools. Another important note to make here is the mental uncertainty causing value and admiration. This uncertainty is merely related to the conventional tools.

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Chapter Three Part Two: Drawing and Imagination in Architectural Education 3.13 Drawing in architectural education: 3.13.a Architectural education: -The essence of drawing in architectural education: The architectural education gained much attention from the time of renaissance in the fifteenth and sixteenth century. And it is no obvious argue that the architectural profession at that time was very closely linked to the craftsmanship and experienced practices (Salama, 1995, p.15). Since the “Technical Rationality holds that all professions should be taught as engineers still are taught: first the relevant basic and applied science, then the skills of application” (Brooks, 2010, p.244). Schön strongly disagrees with Technical Rationality on this point. He argues that all professional skills are mastered by critiqued practice. He argues that this is true of medicine, law, the ministry, architecture, art, music, social work, and indeed engineering. Medical education recognizes this, and from third year on, students spend more and more of their time in clinics, in grand rounds, and taking responsibility for patients. Architectural education has never lost sight of this truth, so studio dominates in all years” (Brooks, 2010, p.244). The language of communication in architectural education is drawing. The importance of drawing skills are substantial for architectural students. Most architectural schools have adopted the design studios in which students are designing by problem solving (Salama, 1995, p.21)

In a paper, Frascari discusses that for the first time a leading Renaissance architect such as Leon Battista Alberti was allowed to practice architecture, for the first time, away from the building site at the drawing board. Thus, early architectural drawings developed from and represented the procedures of on-site building construction. For example, construction lines in drawings simulate the pulling of ropes on site, dimension lines imitate staffs with tied ropes, and centerlines stand for plumb lines. Over the centuries, these drawing techniques slowly became conventionalized as self-referential drawing symbols. As architectural drawings become mere diagrams, their connection to constructing buildings has been lost. The making of architectural drawings best translates to the construction of buildings not as simulation but as an analogous representation provoking possibilities in the interpreter’s imagination. As

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drawing material represents building material, the challenge for the pencil is to engage the material imagination of the architect despite being removed from the construction site” (Palladino, 2007, p.33). Donald Norman, in his essay Why design education must change, states “In the early days of industrial design, the work was primarily focused upon physical products. Today, however, designers work on organizational structure and social problems, on interaction, service, and experience design. Many problems involve complex social and political issues. As a result, designers have become applied behavioral scientists, but they are woefully undereducated for the task. Designers often fail to understand the complexity of the issues and the depth of knowledge already known. They claim that fresh eyes can produce novel solutions, but then they wonder why these solutions are seldom implemented, or if implemented, why they fail. Fresh eyes can indeed produce insightful results, but the eyes must also be educated and knowledgeable. Designers often lack the requisite understanding. Design schools do not train students about these complex issues, about the interlocking complexities of human and social behavior, about the behavioral sciences, technology, and business. There is little or no training in science, the scientific method, and experimental design” (Binder et. Al., 2011, p.IX-X). The design student needs to be educated in design as well as the complex social, technological, behavioral and political aspects faced during the design profession. The importance of design studio lays in the fact that the students’ needs to gain skills of application, thus the simulation of real building design and construction is very essential. Architectural education’s first location was on site. The current drawing analogies are also derived from the construction site, and their strong connection with the construction has been lost. But yet the drawing material should represent the building material. -The use of drawing tools by students: “In architectural education the temptation to focus on the contrasts between traditional and digital media seems irresistible. On the one hand is the belief that digital media will not only provide new opportunities but render other media obsolete. On the other side is an equally strong commitment to the importance of the qualitative impacts of traditional media.There solution of these contrasting positions lies in two critical perspectives-the question of appropriateness of media and the concept of media integration” (Laseau, 2001, p.233). Since there is seems to be need for both kind of digital as well as conventional media brings the question of choosen appropriate media as well as proper integration into the educational system. According to Lawson, there is a strong tendency in universities to commonly see students of architecture presenting schemes that look as if designed to show off their powers on the computer. Such schemes include

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impressive examples of rotations, extrusions, and all the manipulative tricks so effortlessly available in the software. “The skill of a really good designer of course is to edit out such nonsense. It is possible, for example, for an architecture student to gain only a borderline pass for the final thesis design and then win the national CAD prize!” (Lawson, 2004, p.75). Super-realistic computer renderings carry a sort of credibility in the current televisual society which hand-drawn images lack. There seems to be a case of danger in Lawssons’ view; before computers the student architect had to learn to draw in order to design and also in order to see and record. It was of course possible that very poor architecture could be presented so beautifully that one was deceived. But the sensibilities needed to draw well and to design well are sufficiently similar for this hardly ever to happen. Not so now with computers, there may be a danger of deskilling drawing on the computer leaving young designers unable to draw by hand well enough to record and sketch. He earlier mentions that drawing is very central to the design process. A young student learning to design may well be advised not to rely heavily on CAD in the formative years if that led to neglecting the development of drawing skills so central to design thinking (Lawson, 2004, pp. 70-75). “It remains commonplace today that, even in this paperless electronic era, a true architect cannot think or talk without a pencil to sketch ideas. Just as the new representational technology of pencil and paper challenged Renaissance architects to rethink the nature of their work away from the construction site, today’s new representational technology must find ways to nurture the material imagination” (Palladino, 2007, p.35). The digital media has gained a credibility caused by the current televisual society. However a case of danger occurs, since the sensibilities needed to draw well are equal to the sensibilities to design well, however this drawing capacity does not apply on the digital media thus poor designs could be presented deceitfully. This justifies the central position of drawing for architecture, and strong reliance of students on the CAD should be avoided to evade the problem of deskilling drawing skills. Current design practice and education paradigms assume that hand-made sketching and manual model making are essential skills for creative design. Both sketching and rapid model-making seem to support ambiguity and flexibility better than computational modeling or detailed drawings. Although evidence exists to support the adequacy of ambiguity in early concept formation in general (Visser, 2006, p. 153). “A design specialist can be considered as one who can rapidly and recognizably, express ideas and shapes by drawing, and who can also change and adapt them at will. So in design education, the development of the expression of ideas by drawing must have a central role” As well as the increase of verbal perspectives, one of the most frequently used strategies in the development of perception is the teaching of drawing. Since

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lack of ability in drawing can limit visual and spatial imagination, it follows that drawing lessons take a central position. Just as a successful writer must have verbal skills, the designer needs visual expression skills to be creative at this level (Tschimmel, 2011, pp.227-228). Perception development can be accomplished by means of teaching drawing. Drawing abilities are useful for visual and spatial imagination. In architectural education the expression of ideas using drawings should be central. Ambiguity and flexibility are characteristics of hand-made sketches essential for creative design. It is rather the curricula where the dissimilarity of these architectural schools lays; where one relies on the methodology of Intuitive thinking, and the other methodology is Exposure thinking. The value of architectural education is measured by the student’s capacity for productive problem solving and their unique thinking attitudes. “Unfortunately hand drawing for designers is still largely taught as traditional (and sometimes time intensive) “rendering” techniques – a premeditated exercise to construct illustrations that justify or clarify a finished design. This dated approach has been largely tossed out by design schools and replaced with digital rendering, and rightfully so – it fails to use both hand sketching and digital media to the best advantage” (Richards, 2013, p.25). However another announcement made with respect to the different images produced during the design process “the student and practitioner should, however, remember that it is the design that matters, not the images of it, which can be manipulated with ever greater finesse. Although the photography/CAD interface can amplify the architectural imagination, the process of design remains a difficult probing activity” (Edwards, 2008, p.85). As Richards continues to say that the need to draw quick and fluid sketches at the early conceptual levels and being finally illustrated by the great advantages of the digital media is important for the current era. As the both unique strengths of both media are to be taken advantage at their appropriate place in the creative process. The focus should then not be on specific rendering techniques but rather at visual thinking and rapid visualization (Richards, 2013, pp. 25-27). According to Edward’s comprehensive interview with several leading architects “CAD is not only rarely employed as a design tool at the early stages of concept gestation by the country’s senior architects, it is felt by many interviewed to hinder initial design investigation. Several architects deliberately avoid its use until the building has been relatively resolved by other means. In fact, the view expressed by some was that the use of CAD too early undermined architectural exploration and had a detrimental effect on the quality of architectural though” (Edwards, 2008, p.258).

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During conceptual phase there is need for quick and fluid drawings, especially in the curerent computer era. The strengths of both media should be taken advantage of, with a focus on visual thinking and vizualization. The use of CAD too early at the design stage hinders the design investigations and underdetermine the architectural exploration effecting the quality of architectural thought negatively. “We can conclude that the main objectives of design education should be the development of process related skills, instead of giving too much attention to the designed products in project classes. Learning is a process of the selfdevelopment of the cognitive system, which occurs through the perception and construction of meanings. Thus, learning through construction seems to be the most appropriate way of building knowledge structures in the students’ minds and for transforming the students into creative design thinkers. And in this process, the training of perception plays an important role……Owing to the impossibility of teaching creative perception theoretically, design education can only create the conditions which lead to attentive and focused perception, and to the emergence of new ideas and perspectives” (Tschimmel, 2011, p.228). And perhaps as Edward Gibbon states “Every man who rises above the common level has received two educations: the first, from his teachers; the second, more personal and important, from himself” (Brooks, 2010, p.243). 3.14 Architectural drawing and cognition: In the search of outlining how designers think, Bryan Lawson asserts that sketches represent a sort of hypothesis or “what if?” tool (Lawson, 2006, p. 79). Suwa and Tversky similarly argue that sketching enables designers to see unanticipated relations and features that suggest ways to refine and revise ideas and they called this process as “having a conversation with one’s self”. “Drawing is an elemental action. It belongs with counting and speaking to the field of the initial forms of cognition” (Frascari,2011, p.4). And “In terms of modern cognitive theory we must assume that there is some sort of correspondence between what is happening in the designer’s mind and the representation that is made in the drawing” (Lawson, 2004, p. 33). For designers, sketches are the time-honored cognitive tool, though now computer screens frequently replace pencil and paper. Designers report having a kind of conversation with their sketches, drawing them, inspecting them, finding new things in them, and redrawing, a productive cycle that enhances design (Tversky and Chou, 2011, p. 211). “It is apparent that the designer who is sketching is performing some pretty clever mental operations. An object in the mind is shown as it would appear in the conventions of the drawing which is being worked on” (Lawson, 2004, p.70).

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Drawing, regarded as a cognitive action, has a strong correspondence with what is happening in the mind of the designer. And therefore it is used for refining and revising ideas. According to Goel, sketching enables the creative shift to new alternatives that he calls “lateral transformations” in the solution space. Goel presents evidence, based on protocols of design sessions, relating to both the overall design process and to the specific role of sketching within that process. He compares the effects of different drawing techniques on the cognitive design process and highlights the importance of using ill-structured representations for ill-structured problems which are corresponding to using "fuzzy" (ambiguous, ill-defined) drawings instead of "hard-line" (well-defined) drawings during the early design process. Goel claims that because free-hand sketches in the early design process are "dense" and "ambiguous", they work well for exploring design ideas. He, then identifies two types of transformations in the drawings. There are lateral transformations where the movement is from one idea to a different idea and vertical transformations where one idea is transformed to a more detailed version of the same idea. Goel associates lateral transformations with unstructured, ambiguous sketches and claims that they occur in the preliminary design phases while vertical transformations occur during the refinement and detailed design phases and are associated with more detailed, precise and unambiguous drawings. He claims that, compared to free-hand sketching, the computer based drawing system is non-dense and unambiguous and should consequently make lateral transformations difficult (Goel, 1995, pp. 23-28). The importance of the hand lays in Heidegger’s view as stated “Every motion of the hand in every one of its works itself through the element of thinking, every bearing of the hand bears itself in the element. All the work of the hand is rooted in thinking” (Pallasmaa, 2009, p.47). The ambiguous, dense and fuzzy properties of hand sketches are important for the occurrence of lateral transformation of ideas, where one idea leads to another idea. This type of transformation is considered essential compared to the vertical transformation which is characterized by refinement and detailing. Computer based drawings are based non-dense and unambiguous making these lateral transformations difficult. “The experience of drawings is a surprisingly multi-sensual one, involving not only the sight of the mark made but also the tactility of a soft pencil drawn across textured paper, the sound of a pen scratching in a sketchbook, even the smell of ink or paper. Each drawing tool and surface has its own proclivities, engaging in a dialogue of action with the user” (Fraser & Henmi, 1994, p.162). “The ideal sketches are those that evolve from intuition indirectly guiding the hand, more than the mind directly guiding the hand. Also, combinations of images and words enrich the process. Freehand conceptual

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sketching is the most potent means of generating ideas for any type of design. It is unlikely that any medium will fully supplant the immediacy and directness of freehand drawing. In architectural design recording and evolving ideas as they occur is of utmost importance, and this oldest and most primal method of recording ideas is still essential (Yee, 2013, p.68) The tacticle feedback from a drawing tools is considered important here by causing the occurence of a dialogue. The property of a drawing beeing lead by the intuition rather than the mind, highlights the significance of intuition for the creative process. The immdeiacy and directness of a drawing for recording as well as evolving ideas is of extreme importance for the conceptual design. “The process whereby cognitive activities become automated is absolutely critical in the development of expertise because of the fundamental limitations of visual and verbal working memory capacities. If a set of muscle movements involved in drawing a circle on paper becomes automated, then the designer has free capacity to deal with arrangements of circles……. A cognitive tool can be a map or a movie poster, but increasingly cognitive tools are interactive and computer based….. Computer-based cognitive tools are developing with great speed in human society, far faster than the human brain can evolve. Any routine cognitive task that can be precisely described can be programmed and executed on a computer, or on millions of computers. This is like the automation of a skill that occurs in the brain of an individual, except that the computer is much faster and less flexible” (Ware, 2008, pp. 171-172). There is a limited visual and verbal human working memory capacity which makes the automation of tasks of great importance. The speed of the computer as well as its rigidity is here mentioned in comparison to the human cogtitive capacities. According to Ching the creative drawing relies on the following criteria: 1- Intuition: “We must rely on intuition as a guide in the search for possibilities and to outline choices. Intuition, however, is based on informed experience. We cannot draw on intuition and draw out what is not already within each one of us. Still, drawing can lead the way in this intuitive search for ideas and provide a transition from present to future possibilities” (Ching, 1990, p.184). 2- Fluency: “To be fluent in the creative process is to be able to generate a wide range of possibilities and ideas. To be fluent in the drawing process is to be intuitive when placing pencil to paper, responding with ease and grace to one’s thoughts. We must be able to keep up with our thoughts, which can be

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fleeting…..A quick mode of drawing is necessary to capture a brief moment in the flow of ideas, which cannot always be directed or controlled. Fluency in drawing therefore requires a freehand technique, with a minimum of tools. Related to fluency is the idea of efficiency….. Efficiency in drawing, and the resulting increase in drawing speed, comes with knowing what to draw and what to omit, what is necessary and what is incidental. This knowledge too can only come with experience and a seeing eye” (Ching, 1990, p-p 186-187). 3- Flexiblity: “To be flexible is to be open to exploring a variety of approaches as new ideas and possibilities arise. Flexibility is important because how we draw affects the unconciuos direction of our thinking and how our visual thoughts are formed and articulated” (Ching, 1990, p.188). 4-Ambiguity: “The creative process occurs over uncharted territory. To pursue what we do not already know, it is necessary to have a sense of wonder, the patience to suspend judgement, and a tolerance for ambiguity. In accepting ambiguity, we unfortunately lose the comfort of familiarity. Dealing only with the clearly defined and the familiar, however, precludes the plasticity and adaptability of thought necessary an any creative endeavor. Tolerating ambiguity allows us to accept uncertainty, disorder, and the paradoxical in the process of ordering thoughts” (Ching, 1990, p.190). In a notion of the essential interaction between imagination and dreaming Frascari states “Architectural drawing is a facture combining action with thinking, the act of drawing gives architects a pause, in a dream-like state, to think about what they are drawing, which is pending in the drawing facture” (Frascari, 2011, p.153). In a cognitive comparison between the different types of tools, Ware states that all cognitive processes become more and more automated and demands less high level of attention, thus using any tool by any individual will eventually need less effort (Ware, 2008, pp. 177-178). On the argument that digitized drawing is easier to excecute pallasmaa finds “Work that is too simple and repetitious kills ambition, self-esteem, pride and, finally, the craft itself” (Pallasmaa, 2009, P.63).

The preceding shows that free-hand sketches, besides their function as representations for external memory aids, enable the designers to engage with a reflective conversation with the situation, to discover unexpected clues about their designs, and to generate creative shifts to new alternatives. Through Goel's study, it is shown that it is the uncertain, ambiguous character of free-hand drawing that opens ways to new discoveries and creative shifts to new alternatives that he calls lateral transformations.

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3.14.a Drawing and sensation: Douglas Cooper starts the discussion of vision with the question that “if vision by it self is insufficient for the perceptions of daily life, is it equally suspect as a foundation for learning to draw?” (Cooper, 2007, p.10). He, according to Kimon Nicholaides, addresses the issue of students’ problems with design;”I had observed that the drawing of those who had subsequent difficulty in design drawing had lacked a quality evident in the works of those who had not. Where their drawings seemed inactive and purely visual, those oftheir more successful colleagues, though often less skillful, seemed gestural, rough, and tactile by comparison……Much of what Nicholaides wrote seemed to indicate a distrust of vision, usually he frames the act of drawing in away analogous to touching. When students draw contours, they begin by imagining their pencil is actually touching the surface of the figure” (Cooper, 2007, pp.10-11). According to him, a good place to start with excising the perceptual experiences in architectural design, is with “ Nicholaide’s deep distrust of vision and his sense that drawings gain strength when founded on the sense of touch rather than vision alone” (Cooper, 2007, p.31).

With similar idea, in his book The eyes of the skin; Architecture and the senses, Pallasmaa discusses the significance of the tactile sense in the human life relying on medical evidence he states that “The skin is the oldest and the most sensitive of our organs, our first medium of communication, and our most efficient protector. Figure 3.17 "When students draw contours, they begin by imagining their pencil is actually touching that surface" (Source: Cooper, 2007, p14) Even the transparent cornia of the eye is overlain by a layer of modified skin. Touch is the parent of our eyes, ears, nose and mouth. It is the sense which became differenciated into the others, a fact that seems to be recognized in the age-old evaluation of touch as the mother of the senses” (Pallasmaa, 2012, p.12). “The eye is the organ of distance and separation, whereas touch is the sense of nearness, intimacy and affection” (Pallasmaa, 2012, p.50).

The need for touch in addition to vision is needed for the drawing to gain strength. Since the eye is the organ of distance and separations while the touch is the sense of nearness, intimacy and affection.

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“A wise architect works with his/her entire body and sense of self” (Pallasmaa, 2012, p.13). Since “in creative work, both the architect and the craftsman are directly engaged with their bodies and their existencial experiences rather than focusing on an external an objectified problem” (Pallasmaa, 2012, p.13). According to Hegel, “the only sense which can give a sensation of spatial depth is touch, because touch senses weight, resistance, and threedemensional shape (gestalt) of material bodies, and thus makes us aware that things extend away from us in all Figure 3.18 "Vision and the tactile sense are fused in actual lived experience" (Source: Pallasmaa, 2012, p.31)

directions……Vision reveals what the touch already knows” (Pallasmaa, 2012, p.46).

3.15 Drawing and imagination: “Nowadays…They [People working in the subject of Artificial Intelligence] know that it is uncomplicated to develop computer-processing systems that can straightforwardly substitute the work of engineers, lawyers, and physicians, but it is an impossible Sysphean task to develop systems that can replace draftspersons, cooks, rotisseurs, gardeners, and architects …..[because these professions,] practice imagination and base their profession on analogies, homologies and demonstrative metaphors generated by conjectural imagination that transcends professional boundaries (Frascari,2011, p.6).

Pallasmaa however, sees the pencil as a bridge between the architects’ imagining mind and the image appearing on the paper. In the ecstasy of work draughtsman forgets the hand and the pencil and the image itself emerges as if there were an automatic projection of the imagining mind (Pallasmaa, 2009, p.17). The relevant connection, according to Ludwig Wittigenstein, between hand and mind is once again raised by the thought that the brain does not live in the head even though it is its formal habitat. It rather reaches out to the body and even the developments of the human brain capacities may be result of the hand evolution, unlike many may tend to think (Pallasmaa, 2009, p.33). In addition to the tool, the skilled practice of a craft involves imagination with the hand; every masterful exercise of craft projects determined intentionality and an imagined vision of the completed task or object at hand. Richard Sennet makes two basic arguments about the interaction of the bodily actions of the hand and imagination; First, that skills, even the most abstract,

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begin as bodily practices; second, that technical understanding develops through the powers of imagination: The first argument focuses on the knowledge gained in the hand through touch and movement. The argument about imagination begins by exploring language that attempts to direct and guide bodily skills (Sennet, 2008, p.35).

The mind hand connection is automatically projected by the use of a simple pencil, where the pencil could be forgotten due to its automated action.The hand and imagination relation is based on two main arguments, the first is considering the fact that even the most advanced skills start as a bodily function, and second is that the technical understanding are developed by the powers of imagination. Gabriela Goldschmidt maintains that sketching is an extension of mental imagery, while a drawing made by hand is a tool for designers thinking processes. She also asserts that in the process of creative perception self generated sketches are made in the quest for new approaches and perspectives, the designer spends much less energy than in the observation and active interpretation of other sources of imagery (Goldschmidt, 2003, pp.72-76). “Much like nondirected research in the sciences, sketches can be generated for the purposes of speculation and reflection without any immediate goal in mind. Sometimes these highly imaginative doodles are developed without regard for the the pragmatic constraints found in the physical world. Every design professional develops his or her own language in expressing concepts graphically as a way of seeing…. Different types of media directly affect the feeling of space that is perceived. Architects and design professionals have adopted many traditional artistics media […] to express their ideas; now they are beginning to exploit the medium of digital technology” (Yee, 2013, pp. 74-75) “Despite the magical interactions, tools are not innocent; they expand our faculties and guide our actions and thoughts in specific ways to argue that for the purpose of drawing an architectural project the charchoal, pencil, ink pen, and computer mouse are equal and exchangeable is to misunderstand completely the essence of the union of the hand, tool and mind” (Pallasmaa, 2009, p.50). While working on a drawing one concretely touches all the edges and surfaces of the designed object with the tip of the pencil that has become an extension of the fingertips. The hand-eye-mind connection in drawing is natural and fluent, as if the pencil were a bridge that mediates between two realities, and the focus can constantly be shifted between the physical drawing and the nonexistent object in the mental space that the drawing depicts (Pallasmaa,2009, p.60). Also focusing on the increasing specialization and division of labor within the architectural practice itself has fragmented the traditional entity of the architect’s self-identity, working process, and end result. Finally, “the use of the

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computer has broken the sensual and tactile connection between imagination and the object of design” (Pallasmaa, 2009, P.64). The significance of used tools in design can be found in its effects on the union between hand, tool and mind. Whereas the used medium can directly affect the perceived space. The natural and fluent relation between the hand-eye-mind is essential, since the use of the computer has broken the sensual and tactile connection. “We can never draw an exact picture of the future. We can imagine what things may be like in the future, but it is impossible to visualize a precise notion of the future itself” (Taura and Nagai, 2011, p.6). “Images in the mind are first visualized ( a mental act) and then sketched (a physical act). Sketching ideas on paper helps to evolve other ideas; these concepts are constantly evaluated an reevaaluated. The ability to formulate mental images comes with practice. Visualizing everyday objects will form the basis for sharpening the conceptual imagination. As ideas occur, they are put on paper. This is an ideational drawing. An idea on paper is a visual representation of what something may look like conceptually. Some ideas will be discarded; others will be changed, modified, refined and expanded” (Yee, 2013, p.66).

The need for imagination to precede a drawing is noted by the fact that during designs Figure 3.19 Showing that the graphical marks that represent a rose “the very limited garden in one instant may be reconsidered in the next as representing of visual a space for an herb garden. The cognitive operation is a change in the capacity bindings between visual working memory objects and verbal working working memory memory objects. (Source: Ware, 2008, p.162) requires that imagined additions are simple. In order to extend the design in an elaborate way, the imagined additions must be added to the scribble. However, because mental additions have a far lower cognitive cost than adding to the drawing, many additions can be imagined for every graphical addition to the sketch. Mental

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deletions can similarly be proposed and occasionally consolidated by erasing or scribbling over some part of the sketch” (Ware, 2008, p. 162). Thus the imagined subject is preceding the drawing, but also preceding it in each chosen modification. This caused by the fact that mental actions need lower cognitive cost compared to the actual drawing. This action as well as the visualization of simple objects will help to evolve other ideas; since this action is characterized by evaluation and reevaluation. A proposal made by Ching regarding the drawing process enhancing the creative imagination as he makes clear that “the creative imagination regards old questions from a new angle. To see in new ways thus requires a keen power of visualization and an understanding of the flexibility drawing offers in posing new questions and presenting new possibilities” (Ching, 1990, p.192). Thus he points out the following criterion; - Ching’s Proposals on creative imagination: 1- Vary in point of view: Reliance on habbit and convention while drawing can impede the flow of new ideas, since creativity feeds on a fresh eye. One can transform the familiar to the strange and the strange to the familiar (See figure 3.18).

Figure 3.20 Varying in point of view by drawing (Source: Ching, 1990, p.192)

2- Fragment, sort, and rearrange: During drawing the arrangement of information can be varied. This information can be freed from its original context so that it can come together in a new group(See figure 3.19).

Figure 3.21 Fragmenting, Sorting and reaaranging(Source: Ching, 1990, p.192)

3- Mirror images: To see with a fresh eye, one can look at mirror images of drawings(See figure 3.20). 4- Turn an idea over in the mind: It is useful to seea situation from variuos points of view. This is done by thinking of a drawing and hold it in the mind’s eye and attempting to turn it over (Ching, 1990, pp. 192-193).

Figure 3.22 Mirroring images to see differently (Source: Ching, 1990, p.193)

With respect to imagination Pallasmaa states “The computer is usually seen as a solely beneficial invention, which liberates human fantasy and facilitates efficient design work. I wish to express my seriuos

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concern in this respect, at least considering the current role of the computer in education and design process. Computer imaging tends to flatten our magnificent, multi-sensory, stimulaneous and sychronic capacities of imagination by turning the design process to a passive visual manipulation, a retinal journey. The computer creates a distance between the maker and the object, whereas drawing by hand as well as working with models put the designer in a haptic contact with the object, or space. In our imagination, the object is stimulaneously held in the hand and inside the head, and the imagined and projected physical image is modelled by our embodied imagination......Creative work calls for bodily and mental identification, empathy and compassion” (Pallasmaa, 2012. P.14). Another point made regarding the relationship between designer and drawing tool is “Professional CAD software such as AutoCAD is complex and requires both training and experience before the operator becomes fully productive. Consequently, skilled CAD operators are often divorced from the design process. Simpler software such asSketchUp allows for more intuitive drawing and is intended as a design tool” (Wikipedia). A significant point for discussion is the preceding mentioned pacivity of designer during the designing by means of a compter. Especially regarding the role of computers in the design education, is this notion of great importance. Whereas not only the comparison between digital and conventional tool is brought up but also the charasterictics of different digital tools and their different influences. For instance the AutoCAD being complex and requiring training, whereas Sketchup is simpler and used for more intuitive drawing, the main conclusions are. Table 3.2 The relations between imagination indicators and drawing characteristic, showing and attempt to connect the imagination indicators and drawing characteristics (Source: researcher)

Indicators imagination

Characteristics of drawing (process)

Ambiguity tolerance Ambiguity (creative imagination) Working at low levels of certainty Certainty (Creative imagination) Defining structures Structure (Reproductive imagination) High quantity of ideas Lateral Transformations (Creative imagination)

Conventional Drawings

Digital drawings

High

Low

Low

High

Low

High

High

Low

Chapter Three – Drawing tools Elaborating ideas Vertical Transformations (Reproductive imagination) Complexity tolerance Density (Creative imagination) Pressure tolerance Time requirements (Creative imagination) Spontaneous/ controlled activity Expertise level (Reproductive imagination) Sensibility aspect Artistic value (Creative imagination) Sensibility aspect Identity (Creative imagination) Sensibility aspect (Creative imagination) tactile connection

111

Low

High

High

Low

High

Low

Low

High

High

Low

High

Low

High

Low

3.16 Research hypothesis; The unlikelihood for architectural profession to turn its back on modern digital technology causes the requirement for integration of both conventional and digital media in the architectural education. The need for design education to find a proper integration of types of tools is essential due to the connection between drawing and drawing tool. Since any product, as well as process, is affected by the used tools that are considered mediums, it cannot be predicted that there is no relation between digital drawing tools and the skills. The effect of the tools can be found in varying levels depending on the implementation of digital drawing tools. Therefore the research hypothesis is found in following points; Research Hypotheses: - “There is strong positive relation between drawing tool and imagination.” - “Different types of digital drawing tools have different effects on the students’ imagination” - “The creative imagination is especially necessary for visualization skills as well as the drawing skills” - “Freehand drawing and design grades are in close relation due to the relation of hand drawing and imagination and the substantial need of imagination for design” - “The use of Digital Drawing tools emphasize Reproductive imagination, while the Conventional Drawing tools boost the Creative Imagination.”

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Summary of chapter three This chapter attempted to investigate the types of drawing tools as well as their roles in architectural education. The significant relation of imagination and drawing tools was also investigated throughout a theoretical frame, concluding the following; 1. The essence of drawing for the design process as well as the designer is inspected. 2. The different types of drawing and their position in the design process are brought into light. Also the meaning of these drawings is noted. 3. The identification as well as classification of used drawing tools in the architectural education as well as architectural profession has been investigated. 4. Drawing is investigated out of cognitive psychology point of view. 5. The drawing tools and their positions in the architectural education is mentioned, also an insight is given about the students’ use for these tools. 6. At last the relation between drawing, drawing tool as well as imagination is discussed through a theoretical survey.

CHAPTER FOUR The case study

The case study

Axis One

Axis Two

Finding relation between drawing and imagination

Finding the nature of relation between drawing tools and imagination

Investigating students' abilities in freehand drawing and design

Evaluation of students according to imagination indicators

Investigating teachers' opinions by questionaire to be filled out by the architectural department's teaching staff

Testing students' imagination according to designed test including the imagination criteria

Testing the following hypotheses: “There is strong positive relation between drawing tool and imagination.” “Different types of digital drawing tools have different effects on the students’ imagination” “The creative imagination is especially necessary for visualization skills as well as the drawing skills” “Freehand drawing and design grades are in close relation due to the relation of hand drawing and imagination and the substantial need of imagination for design” “The use of Digital Drawing tools emphasizes Reproductive imagination, while the Conventional Drawing tools boost the Creative Imagination.”

Result analysis

Conclusions

Recommendations

Figure 4.1 Structure of Chapter Four (Source: Researcher)

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Chapter Four Case Study Part One: Construction of measuring tools 4.1 Preface: This research has discussed the theoretical aspect of imagination and architectural design education in the previous chapters. The first part of this chapter is considered an introduction to the basic required element of application; it starts with a process of finding a suitable measuring tool for the case study discussed indicators in the theoretical part. 4.1.1 Research approach: In the notion of elementary research categories, there are three main research types. Descriptive research, which is commonly giving a systematic explanation of one or more artifacts. Empirical research, which tests a hypothesis in experimental conditions. The third type, Explorative research, is considered an intermediate form between the two attempting to formulate hypotheses leading to a more focused empirical research. Hence, due to the certain level of novelty of the main variable in this research, the explorative approach of research is to be followed1. 4.1.2 Research composition: The practical part of this research revolve around two main axes. The first one is aiming to find a relation between digital drawing tools and imagination, while the second part investigates the nature of this relation. Based on this aspect will the design of this chapter be prepared as follows; 1. The selection of variables and research limitations. 2. Selection of study components. 3. Data collection- and measuring tools. 4.1.3 Variable selection and research limitation: The elements about imagination, concluded from the theoretical study, will set the base for this chapter and thereby limiting the research boundaries to the variables. (See table 4.1) 1

Jong and Voordt in “Ways to Study and Research; Urban, architectural and technical design”, 2005, p.138.

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Basic Eleme nt

Table 4.1 Table showing measurement indicators for imagination and drawing (Source: Researcher)

Sub Element

Types of Imagination

Spontaneous Imagination Controlled Imagination

Indicator Effortlessness Surprise Instantaneity Initiation Guidance Termination

Measurements of imagination

Effectiveness Reproductive imagination

Transformation Crystallization Elaboration

Levels of imagination

Exploration Intuition Creative Imagination

Sensibility Productivity Novelty

Characteristics

(Right brain function)

(left brain function) Individual often completes tasks by focusing on effective ideas Individual thinks flexibly and is able to transfer ideas to multiple fields of tasks Individual is good at expressing abstract ideas by using concrete examples Individual improves his thoughts by focusing on formalizing ideas Individual likes to explore the unknown Individual often comes up with new ideas through intuition Individual often helps himself to imagine through feelings Individual has constantly new ideas about the design Individual often has uncommon ideas compared to others Envisioning through minds’ eye

Visual imagery

Visualization Visual impression flexibility in seeing different organizations

Measurements of drawing

Message coming through Complexity in drawing Imagination related aspects

Drawing skill related aspects

Effortless object imagination

Effortless drawing capability

Size of drawing Density in drawing View of the drawing Cleanness of drawing Message coming through Complexity in drawing Size of drawing Density in drawing Techniques in drawing Cleanness of drawing

4.1.4 Study components: 4.1.4.a Study population: In the course of theoretical part, there has been direct and indirect data collected about the different attitudes of, local and international, departments of architecture towards the use of different drawing tools.

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Therefore, at first, there was the tendency to compare between the three universities (University of Salahaddin, University of Koya, and University of Sulaimani), but it was found that not all the teachers had the time or the willingness to cooperate. It should be noted that the different universities have different requirements regarding the students’ use for the several drawing tools. Therefore and since this study lies within the academic frame the participation of both architectural students and teachers is valued. Thus the research population is as follows: (See table 4.2) Table 4.2 Study population and samples (Source: Researcher)

Study population Architectural Students: The students of Fourth Stage of University of Sulaimani/ Architectural department. Architectural Students: The students of Fifth Stage of University of Sulaimani/ Architectural department. Architectural Students: The students of Fourth Stage of University of Koya/ Architectural department. Architectural Students: The students of Fifth Stage of University of Koya/ Architectural department. Architectural Teaching staff: The teachers holding Bsc, MSc or PhD degree from university of Sulaimani/ Architectural department. Architectural Teaching staff: The teachers holding BSc, MSc or PhD degree from university of Koya/ Architectural department.

Population Number 34 students 26 students 18 students 13students 25 teachers 16 teachers

4.1.4.b Study timing: The period of this study is divided into two parts; the first part in which the students are evaluated by their design teacher takes place in October 2013. The second part in which the students are examined and the questionnaire is filled out by teaching staff takes place in December 2013. 4.1.5 Data collection tools: Since there are both the teaching staff and students involved, there will be specific data collection tools designed for both groups. (See figure 4.2)

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Datacollection tools

Student evaluation form

Student Imagination test

Students' grades evaluation

Teachers' questionnaire form

Students evaluated by design teachers

Testing students according to indicators

Design grades and Freehand grades are taken into account

Teachers opinions from both universities are investigated

Figure 4.1 A diagram showing the several data collection tools as well as their aims (Source: Researcher)

4.1.5.a Student evaluation form: There will be an evaluation form designed for the design teacher to fill out about the students in order to collect insight data about students. The procedure is as follows. Taking into consideration that the teacher taught students for a whole school year has gained most data about them; the evaluation forms will be filled by the teachers of their previous years. Thus for the fourth stage, the third stage design teacher evaluates students and for the fifth stage students the fourth stage teacher will carry out the evaluation. Each student is evaluated individually according to a nominal measurement, whereas (1) means low, (2) means medium and (3) means high. The Evaluation is based on the main 9 criteria of Reproductive- and Creative Imagination aiming to investigate the nature of relation between the two levels of imagination. As well as their preferences considering the digital and conventional drawing tools. (See Appendix One) 4.1.5.b Student imagination test: 4.1.5.b.1 Test design: A test is designed in order to examine the students according to the main indicators of imagination. The test consists of several parts (See appendix Two). The test contains a personal introduction and personality assessment. As well as two categories, simple2 and a complex3, measurements of the mental rotation abilities. Another category is testing

2 3

This category is derived from the Purdue Spatial Visualization Tests Maeda, Y., & Yoon, S. Y. (2013) From www.aptitute-test.org/visualization skills (accessed on August 2013)

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the creative imagination of students4. Then the visual flexibility of students is tested according to multi organizational images5. The test ends with two drawing based categories. 4.1.5.b.2 Face validity test questionnaire: In order to test the face validity of the imagination test, a questionnaire is designed in which the procedure, aim of the test, the questions as well as the scoring of the test are elaborated (See Appendix Three). Due to the psychological and educational aspects of this subject the questionnaire was presented to the teachers in the Department of psychology and Education. (See table 4.3) Table 4.3 Showing Face Validity referees (Source: Researcher)

Name 1 Dr. Yousif Hama Salih 2 Dr. Saeed S. Hamadameen 3 Dr. Faris K. O. Nadhmi 4 Dr. Ismaeel M. Saeed

Scientific title and specialization Professor/ Psychology Ass. Professor / Educational Psychology Ass. professor/Psychology Professor/ Psychology

Faculty Psychology Education

University Salahaddin Koya

Psychology Education

Salahaddin Salahaddin

4.1.5.c Students’ grades evaluation: For the sake of investigating the level of relation between the drawing skills and students design skills another indicator is included in this study which are the grades of the subject “Free Hand Drawing” and “Architectural Design”. For the subject of free hand drawing the grades of first stage and the second stage are takes for both fourth and fifth stage students. First to third stage design grades are taken for the fourth stage students and first to fourth stage design grades are taken for the fifth year students6. 4.1.5.d Questionnaire form: A questionnaire is designed in order to get an insight on the opinions of the teaching staff of Architectural Department/ University of Sulaimani and Architectural Department/ University of Koya (See Appendix Four). Their

4

The Test of Creative Imagination presented by Janus Kujawski in mid 1990s and new instrument of measurement was presented by Maciej Karwowski in 2008 5 In the book “Imagination and Creativity” Michael Beaney proposes the relation between mental images and visual impressions according to Gestalt and Wittigenstein’s earlier proposals. Michael Beaney is an active University Professor of Philosophy since 1986. 6 The grades are anonymously given by the Examining committee of both Engineering Faculty /Univerity of Koya and Engineering Faculty/ Univeristy of Sulaymani

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personal ideas about different drawing tools as well as their relations with design and imagination are investigated through this questionnaire. 4.1.6 Statistical methods used: Analysis of the collected data will be conducted according to the statistical mean7 data frequency analysis8. As for relation analysis between criteria Chi-square test9 as well as the Spearman Correlation10 and Pearson Correlation11 will be used. As for the comparison of students’ achievements in the tests the T-test12 is to be used.

7

Statistical mean: The statistical mean refers to the mean or average that is used to derive the central tendency of the data in question. It is determined by adding all the data points in a population and then dividing the total by the number of points. (http://www.techopedia.com/definition/26136/statistical-mean) 8 Data Frequency Analysis: this measure the number of times an event occurs throughout the study. (www.wikipedia.org) 9 Chi-Square Test: is any statistical hypothesis test in which the sampling distribution of the test statistic is a chi-squared distribution when the null hypothesis is true. (www.wikipedia.org) 10 Spearman Correlation: is a nonparametric measure of statistical dependence between two variables. It assesses how well the relationship between two variables can be described using a monotonic function. If there are no repeated data values, a perfect Spearman correlation of +1 or −1 occurs when each of the variables is a perfect monotone function of the other.(www.wikipedia.org) 11 Pearson Correlation: Shows the relation between multiple sets of data. And The difference between the Pearson correlation and the Spearman correlation is that the Pearson is most appropriate for measurements taken from an interval scale, while the Spearman is more appropriate for measurements taken from ordinal scales. (www.reserachgate.net) 12 T-test: A t-test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows a Student's t distribution if the null hypothesis is supported. It can be used to determine if two sets of data are significantly different from each other (www.wikipedia.org)

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Chapter Four Part Two: Application and Discussion 4.2 Preface: This part discusses the results from the statistical analysis of the student evaluation from, imagination test, grades comparison as well as questionnaire. 4.2.1 Evaluation form results: The indicators from this section were analyzed compared to one another as well as the imagination test results and grades, since the same students were involved in all 3 sections (See table 4.5). - Creative imagination indicators: Exploration and Novelty showed a weak positive relation13 with the total number of design including digital tools. Whereas Exploration, intuition and novelty also show weak to moderate positive relationship with the students’ familiarity in Revit, as all the imagination indicators except for Crystallization show a weak to moderate positive relation with SketchUp. The weak negative relationship there is with 3DMax is also to be noted here (See table 4.5). The above data can be evidence for a relationship between imagination indicators and the types of digital tools used by the students in the course of their designs. The hypothesis that “Different types of digital drawing tools have different effects on the students’ imagination”, may be confirmed to some extent. - Brain dominance: As for the personality assessment; Exploration, Novelty and Crystallization show a weak negative relation with the left brain score, while showing a weak positive relationship with the right brain score (See table 4.5). Novelty of ideas and explorative characters are (as mentioned in 2.1.5.b) creative indicators and the right brain hemisphere being responsible for the creative human capacities could explain this relation. 13

If Relation = +.70 or higher Very strong positive relationship +.40 to +.69 Strong positive relationship +.30 to +.39 Moderate positive relationship +.20 to +.29 weak positive relationship +.01 to +.19 No or negligible relationship -.01 to -.19 No or negligible relationship -.20 to -.29 weak negative relationship -.30 to -.39 Moderate negative relationship -.40 to -.69 Strong negative relationship -.70 or higher Very strong negative relationship (http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/libarts/polsci/statistics.html)

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- Imagination criteria: The Mental rotation abilities show a strong positive relationship with exploration and novelty, while showing weak positive relationships with the other indicators. And the relations with the complex mental rotation score was in general lower. As for the TCI test (score C); Novelty, productivity and exploration show significantly a moderate positive relationship. The visual flexibility shows the strongest relation with exploration, with novelty coming at the second place; all other indicators come at the third place except for transformation that shows no significant relationship (See table 4.5). The cohesion between the students’ test scores and teachers’ evaluation is noted here, since mostly creative imagination indicators are in positive relation with the imagination test scores. But given that also the reproductive indicators are involved here, these cannot be excluded. This finding shows the need of both, creative and reproductive capacities for the imagination capacities. - Drawing skills: As for the drawing skills, novelty and crystallization show a strong positive relation with the visualized drawing. While the drawing from imagination scores relate respectively strong to novelty, exploration, sensibility and elaboration positively, although all other indicators show a moderate strong correlation (See table 4.5). Also in the previously mentioned finding, it can be noted that a stronger relation exists between the scores and the creative imagination indicators compared to the reproductive imagination indicators. Consequently, according to the last two findings the following hypothesis could probably be verified: “The creative imagination is especially necessary for visualization skills as well as the drawing skills” - Drawing tools: The teachers’ idea about students’ preferences for the types of drawing tool show a weak negative relation between the students’ conventional drawing tools preferences and total number of designs as well as the students’ total number of designs including digital tools. Relation between the 3DMax capacities and the conventional drawing preferences also shows a moderate negative relationship. However the relations with the visual flexibility (B) is noted as weak negative, the relations with drawing from imagination is moderately positive (See table 4.5). This shows that students using the conventional drawing tool more, have designed fewer projects. But also teachers may have a good insight on the students, since there is a negative relation between the designs including digital tools and the conventional tools preferences.

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- Levels of imagination: As far as the comparison between the two groups goes; the T-test shows that there is a significant to highly significant difference between the imagination indicator evaluations . However the evaluation was conducted by four different teachers, the results have shown that the mean average score for the Sulaimani students’ is significantly higher than for Koya students. Another significant difference between the two is the conventional drawing tool use as well as their capacities in these, which show a highly significant difference where the Sulaimani students score higher in these as well (See Appendix Five). Also the Pearson correlation coefficient is showing a strong positive relationship between the creative and reproductive imagination (See Table 4.4). Table 4.4 Showing the Pearson correlation between the levels of imagination indicators, for the teachers questionnaire (N=41) and the students’ evaluation form (N=91).

Pearson Correlations Conventional drawing tools’ creative imagination indicators score Digital drawing tools’ creative imagination indicators score Conventional drawing tools’ imagination indicators score Students’ creative imagination indicators score -

Conventional drawing tools’ reproductive imagination indicators score Digital drawing tools’ creative imagination indicators score Digital drawing tools’ imagination indicators score Students’ reproductive imagination indicators score

Pearson Correlatio n .585**

Sig. (2tailed) .000

41

.633**

.000

41

-.811**

.000

41

.582**

.000

91

N

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

From the above finding there can be concluded that the Sulaimani students are estimated to encompass a higher level of both creative and reproductive imagination. This group is also considered to have better skills in conventional drawing tools. This may perhaps validate the hypothesis “there is a positive relationship between imagination and drawing tools”. But since there is strong positive correlation between the two levels of imagination and the high score of the n2 group has not lead to higher scores in the reproductive imagination indicators, hereby the hypothesis “The use of Digital Drawing tools emphasize Reproductive imagination, while the Conventional Drawing tools boost the Creative Imagination” may possibly be rejected.

32 -0.060 0.103 0.049 0.015 0.150 -0.161 -0.060 -0.042 0.155 0.266* -0.160 0.114 0.033 -0.207-* 0.207* 0.311** 0.233* 0.202 0.141 0.308** -0.025 0.183 0.435** 0.369** 0.566** 0.430** 0.583** 0.550** 0.546** 0.505** 0.567** 1.000 0.432** 0.211* 0.338** -0.338-**

31 0.212* 0.158 0.048 0.108 0.036 -0.032 -0.192 0.042 0.077 0.314** -0.245-* 0.050 0.054 -0.134 0.134 0.305** 0.119 0.226* 0.251* 0.269* 0.010 0.331** 0.167 0.359** 0.598** 0.436** 0.689** 0.550** 0.616** 0.568** 1.000 0.567** 0.523** 0.182 0.116 -0.116

30 -0.126 0.153 0.067 0.066 -0.029 -0.002 -0.092 0.070 0.116 0.389** -0.165 0.079 0.057 -0.113 0.113 0.210* 0.281** 0.011 0.043 0.256* 0.190 0.201 0.265* 0.419** 0.566** 0.654** 0.628** 0.656** 0.679** 1.000 0.568** 0.505** 0.559** 0.286** 0.290** -0.290-**

29 0.062 0.292** -0.028 0.268* 0.097 -0.126 -0.030 0.148 0.253* 0.354** -0.170 -0.001 0.056 -0.243-* 0.243* 0.494** 0.320** 0.258* 0.276** 0.381** 0.141 0.372** 0.487** 0.500** 0.756** 0.708** 0.689** 0.706** 1.000 0.679** 0.616** 0.546** 0.718** 0.173 0.202 -0.202

28 -0.084 0.165 -0.097 0.173 -0.042 0.026 -0.010 0.086 0.162 0.286** -0.210-* -0.077 0.040 -0.189 0.189 0.359** 0.289** 0.087 0.133 0.333** 0.080 0.289** 0.370** 0.359** 0.722** 0.644** 0.698** 1.000 0.706** 0.656** 0.550** 0.550** 0.573** 0.206 0.254* -0.254-*

27 -0.084 0.175 0.022 0.116 0.030 -0.054 -0.085 0.022 0.077 0.216* -0.211-* 0.012 0.059 -0.191 0.191 0.285** 0.284** 0.132 0.179 0.304** 0.136 0.280** 0.346** 0.449** 0.727** 0.646** 1.000 0.698** 0.689** 0.628** 0.689** 0.583** 0.558** 0.149 0.296** -0.296-**

26 -0.162 0.220* -0.089 0.199 -0.056 0.045 -0.069 0.115 0.326** 0.343** -0.133 -0.102 0.059 -0.129 0.129 0.361** 0.330** 0.066 0.080 0.188 0.150 0.265* 0.309** 0.368** 0.715** 1.000 0.646** 0.644** 0.708** 0.654** 0.436** 0.430** 0.605** 0.104 0.197 -0.197

25 0.099 0.279** -0.052 0.247* -0.044 0.031 0.054 0.184 0.254* 0.232* -0.070 -0.010 0.038 -0.234-* 0.234* 0.444** 0.370** 0.203 0.233* 0.313** 0.145 0.426** 0.340** 0.473** 1.000 0.715** 0.727** 0.722** 0.756** 0.566** 0.598** 0.566** 0.594** 0.196 0.192 -0.192 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

Exploration Intuition Sensibility Productivity Novelty Transformation Elaboration Crystallization Conventional drawing score Digital drawing score Conventional preference Digital preference

19

TCI score (B)

Drawing from imagination

18

TCI score (A)

22

17

Complex Mental Image score

Vizualitive drawing

16

Simple Mental Image score

21

15

Right brain score

Image interpretation score (B)

14

Left brain score

20

13

Digital tools preference (Stage)

TCI score (C)

12

Digital tools preference (Process)

Image interpretation score (A)

11

Digital Tool capacities (3DMAX)

8

Digital Tool capacities (Sketch Up )

7

Digital Tool capacities (Archi CAD)

9

6

Digital Tool capacities (ACAD)

10

5

Digital percentage usage (%)

Digital Tool capacities (Revit)

4

3

Design including only conventional tools Design including digital tools

2

Total number of designs

Conventional percentage usage (%)

1

Stage

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Table 4.5 table showing the Spearman correlation between the evaluation form criteria and the imagination test criteria (Source: Researcher)

36 0.401** 0.224* -0.047 0.258* -0.125 0.114 0.014 0.155 0.180 -0.137 0.333** -0.117 0.005 0.029 -0.029 0.002 -0.079 0.105 0.090 0.123 -0.049 0.214* -0.162 -0.375-** -0.192 -0.197 -0.296-** -0.254-* -0.202 -0.290-** -0.116 -0.338-** -0.227-* 0.099 -10.000-** 1.000

35 -0.401-** -0.224-* 0.047 -0.258-* 0.125 -0.114 -0.014 -0.155 -0.180 0.137 -0.333-** 0.117 -0.005 -0.029 0.029 -0.002 0.079 -0.105 -0.090 -0.123 0.049 -0.214-* 0.162 0.375** 0.192 0.197 0.296** 0.254* 0.202 0.290** 0.116 0.338** 0.227* -0.099 1.000 -10.000-**

34 0.259* 0.028 -0.193 0.191 -0.159 0.140 0.066 0.215* 0.115 0.104 0.145 0.164 0.009 -0.243-* 0.243* 0.136 0.173 0.055 0.064 0.154 0.115 0.189 0.144 0.173 0.196 0.104 0.149 0.206 0.173 0.286** 0.182 0.211* 0.174 1.000 -0.099 0.099

33 -0.099 0.295** -0.057 0.277** 0.103 -0.123 -0.082 0.189 0.234* 0.340** -0.152 0.029 0.187 -0.145 0.145 0.414** 0.336** 0.195 0.225* 0.308** 0.181 0.290** 0.365** 0.445** 0.594** 0.605** 0.558** 0.573** 0.718** 0.559** 0.523** 0.432** 1.000 0.174 0.227* -0.227-*

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Drawing from Imagination

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4.2.2 Student imagination test results:

This section discusses the results of a test taken by 91 students. In order to give a scope of the test results, firstly some test results will be introduced (See table 4.6). Table 4.6 Showing the results for a number of students. The both drawings are shown with the student data and scores taken from the test (Source: Researcher)

Visualized drawing

1

The above two drawings show results for a right brained student prefering to use conventional drawing tools for 85% during design being very familiar with ACAD and not familiar with other digital tools, with the following data: Complex mental image score: 5/10, Simple menatl image score 4/10, TCI score (A=3, B=2, C=0), Image intrepertation score A=5 while the B=0.

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2

The above two drawings show results for a left brained student who designs 95% of designs by means of the conventional drawing tools wheres being highly familiar with ACAD and 3DMAX and less familiar with SketchUP, with the following data: Complex mental image score: 2/10, Simple menatl image score 1/10, TCI score (A=0, B=0, C=0), Image intrepertation score A=6 while the B=0.

3

The above two drawings show results for also a left brained student who uses conventional drawing tools for 70% of the design process and is highly familiar with ACAD, 3DMAX as well as SketchUP. And scores the following: Complex mental image score: 2/10, Simple menatl image score 3/10, TCI score (A=0, B=0, C=0), Image intrepertation score A=0 while also B=0.

4

The above two drawings show results for a right brained student using conventional drawing tools for 30% during the design process and is highly familiar with ACAD and 3DMAX with medium familiarity with SketchUP. And scores the following: Complex mental image score: 8/10, Simple menatl image score 7/10, TCI score (A=1, B=12, C=1), Image intrepertation score A=6 while also B=0.

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5

Above and left drawing show the drawings of a right brained student using conventional drawing tools for 40% of the design process and has medium familiarity with ACAD as well as SketchUP. This student scores as follows: Complex mental image score: 8/10, Simple menatl image score 8/10, TCI score (A=1, B=6, C=1), Image intrepertation score A=6 while the B=2.

6

Above and right drawings are of a right brained student using conventional drawing tools for 30% of the design process as having only medium familiarity with ArchiCAD. This student has the following scores; Complex mental image score: 10/10, Simple mental image score 6/10, TCI score (A=2, B=10, C=2), Image intrepertation score A=9 while the B=0.

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7

Above two drawings were made by a right brained student using conventional drawing tools for 35% of the design process as having medium familiarity with ArchiCAD and 3MAX whereas being highly familiar with ACAD and SketchUP. This student has the following scores; Complex mental image score: 9/10, Simple menatl image score 7/10, TCI score (A=3, B=9, C=0), Image intrepertation score A=7 while the B=2.

8

Above two drawings were made by a right brained student using conventional drawing tools for 50% of the design process as having high familiarity with ACAD and SketchUP whereas being medium familiar with 3DMAX. This student has the following scores; Complex mental image score: 10/10, Simple menatl image score 7/10, TCI score (A=0, B=0, C=0), Image intrepertation score A=9 while the B=3.

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9

The above two drawings show results for a student being right brained and uses conventional drawing tools for 45% of the design process being highly familiar with both ACAD and SketchUP. This student scores as follows: Complex mental image score: 9/10, Simple menatl image score 3/10, TCI score (A=1, B=10, C=0), Image intrepertation score A=5 while the B=1.

For the results of the imagination test, as appeared from the T-test the total numbers of designs as well as the designs using only conventional- and digital drawing tools showed no significant differences between the n114 and n2 group. Also the drawing tool percentages given by the students from both groups showed no significant differences, since they were similar (See appendix Five). - Drawing tool capacities and preferences: From the frequency analysis it is shown that the students of n1group believe their capacities are higher in autocad while the n2 group finds a higher capacity in 3Dmax (See figure 4.3 and 4.4).The distribution of familiarity with Sketchup differs however.

14

N= Total number of students, 91 students. (n1) = Number of students from university of Sulaymania, (n2) = Number of students from University of Koya,

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Chapter Four: The Case Study 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Not familiar Low familiarity Medium familiarity High familiarity Autocad

Archicad

Revit

Sketch up

3dMax

Figure 4.3 Chart showing the capacities in digital drawing tools n1

30 25 20

Not familiar

15

Low familiarity

10

Medium familiarity

5

High familiarity

0 Autocad

Archicad

Revit

Sketch up

3dMax

Figure 4.4 Chart showing the capacities digital drawing tools n2

As for the Chi-square test, this shows that there is a strong relation between the universities and the students’ familiarities in 3DMAX as well as SketchUp. Sketchup is related to the n1 group while the 3DMAX is merely related to the n2 group (See table 4.7 and 4.8 ). Table 4.7 Showing the Chi-square test for SketchUp capacities of students from both groups (Source: Researcher)

University

Chi-Square test

Student’s capacities in SketchUp

Total Chi-Square Tests

Total

Sulaimani

Koya

Not familiar

2

7

9

Low familiarity

5

7

12

Medium familiarity

29

12

41

High familiarity

24

5

29

60

31

91

Value

df

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square

14.877

a

3

.002

Likelihood Ratio

14.678

3

.002

Linear-by-Linear Association

14.025

1

.000

N of Valid Cases

91 a. 2 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.07.

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Table 4.8 Showing the Chi-square test for SketchUp capacities of students from both groups (Source: Researcher)

University

Chi-Square test

Student’s capacities in 3DMAX

Total

Sulaimani

Koya

Not familiar

21

0

21

Low familiarity

26

3

29

Medium familiarity

29

12

21

High familiarity

24

16

20

60

31

91

Value

df

Total Chi-Square Tests

Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square

41.882

a

3

.000

Likelihood Ratio

48.759

3

.000

Linear-by-Linear Association

38.904

1

.000

N of Valid Cases

91

a. 2 cells (25.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 3.07.

Relating the preceding finding to the discussion in (4.2.1), one can conclude that the Sketchup is positively related to the students’ capacities while the 3DMAX is negatively related. As for the students’ preferences for using digital drawing tools during their designs the questions were held on two basic suggestions, one was concerned with the design process and the other with the academic year. As for the design process, the largest frequencies of both groups agree with the suggestion to start using the digital drawing tools during the improving concept phase (See figure 4.5). Whereas regarding the use of digital tools preference according to academic years the students in both groups agree to start using digital drawing tools from the third stage. While no one of group n2 chooses to start from the fifth stage or not to use them at all, there are notable cases in the n1 group (See figure 4.6). As for the T-test results it is found that the differences between the two groups according to both suggestions was insignificant (See Appendix Five). 40 n1

20

n2 0 Concept phase

Improving concept phase

Presentation phase

Figure 4.5 Showing the students’ preferences for using digital drawing tools according to the design phase (Source: Researcher)

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20

n2

10 0 From stage 1 From stage 2 From stage 3 From stage 4 From stage 5

None

Figure 4.6 showing the students’ preferences for using digital drawing tools according to the academic year (Source: Researcher)

- The imagination criteria: The results from the imagination criteria from the test included imaginative abilities as well drawings by students. According to the frequency analysis a higher left brain score was noted in n2 compared to n1. Higher right brain score was noted in n1 compared to n2 (See figure 4.7). However the T-test showed that this difference was insignificant (See Appendix five). The students evaluated as left-brained gain lower score in other imagination criteria, since it shows weak to moderate negative relation with all the criteria. In contrary to the rightbrain criteria which gives a weak to moderate positive relationship with these criteria. As it is mentioned earlier, this phenomenon could be explained by the fact: the right brain hemisphere being responsible for the creative human capacities could explain this relation.

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

n1 n2

Figure 4.7 A chart showing the several student scores of both groups (Source: Researcher)

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Higher simple mental rotation score was noted in n1 compared to n2. Higher complex mental rotation score was noted in n1 compared to n2. The differences between the two groups are highly significant in the simple mental image score, while the differences for the complex mental image score are insignificant according to the T-test (See Appendix Five).The correlation between the simple and complex mental rotation is noted to be strong positive in nature. The simple mental rotation score is in moderate to strong relation with all other imagination criteria, while this is not the case for the complex mental score. Another statistically significant relation here is the moderate to strong relation between the simple mental rotation abilities and both levels of imagination as well as the two drawing categories. The simple mental score can be seen as a good indicator for measuring the mental rotation capacities as well as indication for the capability in drawing from imagination and visualized drawing. As for the Test of Creative Imagination scoring, the score of scale A was higher in the n2 group while the B scale was higher for the n1 groups and the C score was similar. While, according to the T-test, all the three criteria show no significant differences (See Appendix five). All three scores have a weak to moderate positive relationship with the total number of designs for the n1 group. In addition the C score indicating the novelty of ideas has a moderate positive relation with the total numbers of designs including digital tools for the n1 group. This criteria also shows a weak to moderate positive relation with all the indicators from levels of imagination (See table 4.5). However the TCI was left blank by many students, for the participants of this section, it is important to note the correlation with the total numbers of designs as well as novelty and other imagination criteria. Meaning that the novelty of ideas is depending on one another, which could prove the consistency of the used measuring tools. Whereas for the Visual impression flexibility, the image interpretation A score of recognizing organizations was higher for the n1 group, while the n2 group had a slightly higher score in the B score. But here only the B score shows a significant difference. This category being divided into two criteria A for seeing excising organizations and B for seeing non-existent organizations, show no significant relations compared to one another. The A criteria shows a moderate positive relation with only drawing from the imagination. While the B

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criteria shows weak to moderate positive relations with most imagination criteria as well as the imagination level indicators (See table 4.5) The previous finding can justify the hypothesis that the flexible capability of seeing more than one organization in images is a creative imagination capacity, and the more organizations are seen the higher level of creative imagination can be assumed. Concerning the two drawing categories, the n1 group scores higher than the n2 group in both sections (See table 4.5). However, for the visualized drawing the differences are according to the T-test considered significant and the drawing from imagination section is seen as highly significant (See appendix Five). The visualized drawing criterion shows weak positive relation with Sketchup capabilities and weak negative relation with 3DMAX capabilities. Applying the previous finding may validate this research hypothesis “different digital tools can influence the imagination capacities differently”. 4.2.3 Students grades’ evaluation results: This section discusses the relations between the Architectural Design grades and Freehand Drawing grades, these grades are also in relation with some other criteria of the imagination test (See table 4.9), as follows; - Freehand drawing grades: In the course of investigating the relation between design grades and freehand grades, it was relied on the students’ grades in both of these subjects. There is in general a moderate positive relation between the average design grades and the average freehand grades. According to Spearman correlation the design grades of first, second, third, and fourth stage show significant moderate positive relation with both freehand grades from first as well as second stage. Also all the design grades from first second and third stage show moderate to strong positive correlation, except for the fourth stage that shows no significant relation with any other design stage. Applying this data to the hypothesis that “Freehand drawing and design grades are in close relation due to the relation of hand drawing and imagination and the substantial need of imagination for design”, assumably approves this hypothesis. - Digital tools capacities: A weak positive relationship has been noted between the first design stage grades and the total number of designs

Design_Stage 1

0.156 0.217* 0.280** 0.011 -0.021 0.004 0.095 0.178 -0.050 0.072 0.176 -0.036 0.086 -0.132 0.132 -0.072 0.030 0.217* 0.223* 0.193 0.019 0.076 0.018 -0.006 0.194 0.112 0.158 0.092 0.149 0.101 0.149 0.050 0.078 0.081 -0.157 0.157 1.000 0.303** 0.328** 0.183 0.355** 0.285**

Design_Stage 2

-0.156 -0.132 -0.038 -0.047 -0.069 0.031 0.236* 0.162 0.093 -0.153 0.606** -0.067 -0.070 0.004 -0.004 -0.306-** 0.022 -0.093 -0.118 -0.026 -0.064 0.057 -0.214-* -0.282-** 0.088 -0.024 -0.006 0.107 -0.014 -0.017 -0.079 -0.021 -0.040 0.150 -0.146 0.146 0.303** 1.000 0.635** 0.255* 0.443** 0.583**

Stage Total Number of Designs Design including conventional tools Design including digital tools Conventional percentage usage Digital percentage usage Capacities in ACAD Capacities ArchiCAD Capacities Revit Capacities SketchUP Capacities 3DMAX Digital tools preference (Process) Digital tools preference (Stage) Left Brain score Right Brain Score Simple mental image score Complex mental image score TCI score (A) TCI score (B) TCI score (C) Image interpretation score (A) Image interpretation score (B) Visualized drawing Drawing from imagination Exploration Intuition Sensibility Productivity Novelty Transformation Elaboration Crystallization Conventional tools score Digital tools score Conventional preferences Digital preferences Design stage 1 Design stage 2 Design Stage 3 Design Stage 4 Freehand Stage 1 Freehand Stage 2

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using only conventional drawing tools. A weak positive correlation between the second design stage grades and the capacities in ACAD are shown, while there is a strong positive relationship between these grades and 3Dmax capacities. A weak positive relation is also noted between the third stage design grades and 3DMAX capacities.

This finding could lead to the suggestion that different digital drawing tools affect the design students differently in terms of their design performances. - Levels of imagination: The design grades from first and second stage show no correlation with the levels of imagination. However the third design stage shows a moderate positive relation with the creative imagination and a weak positive relation with the reproductive imagination.

However only in one stage, but this correlation does emphasize the essence of imagination indicators for design performances and the creative imagination in specific. Table 4.9 Table showing the Spearman correlation between the students’ grades with evaluation form and the imagination test criteria (Source: Researcher)

Freehand_Stage 1

0.063 0.018 -0.022 0.040 0.059 -0.075 0.068 0.235* 0.149 -0.053 0.191 0.033 0.010 0.047 -0.047 0.006 0.054 0.125 0.150 0.031 0.041 0.271** -0.169 -0.116 0.315** 0.141 0.216* 0.136 0.241* 0.075 0.216* 0.045 0.274** 0.019 -0.018 0.018 0.355** 0.443** 0.346** 0.383** 1.000 0.657** 0.162 -0.157 -0.086 -0.039 -0.124 0.097 0.050 0.059 0.107 -0.219-* 0.320** 0.060 -0.024 0.056 -0.056 -0.108 0.008 0.083 0.109 0.004 -0.017 0.033 -0.184 -0.108 0.228* 0.030 0.110 0.094 0.142 -0.054 0.210* 0.090 0.148 0.209* -0.068 0.068 0.285** 0.583** 0.525** 0.440** 0.657** 1.000

0.507** 0.087 0.022 0.127 0.074 -0.119 0.041 0.224 0.070 0.018 0.212 0.086 0.212 -0.138 0.138 -0.012 -0.033 0.127 0.109 0.126 -0.048 0.246* -0.132 -0.155 0.129 -0.113 0.008 -0.021 0.115 -0.025 0.245* 0.013 0.174 0.217 -0.415-** 0.415** 0.183 0.255* 0.210 1.000 0.383** 0.440**

-0.196 -0.022 0.089 -0.050 0.001 -0.028 0.150 0.006 0.003 0.046 0.243* 0.059 0.093 0.047 -0.047 -0.135 0.172 -0.103 -0.058 0.071 -0.099 -0.033 0.041 0.014 0.334** 0.132 0.320** 0.334** 0.267* 0.212* 0.241* 0.302** 0.239* 0.097 0.156 -0.156 0.328** 0.635** 1.000 0.210 0.346** 0.525**

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Freehand_Stage 2

Design_Stage 4

Design_Stage 3

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4.2.4 Questionnaire results: - Participants’ personal data: There is a significant higher percentage of male teachers noted compared to female teachers. The population according to this questionnaire consists merely of teachers under the age of 30 years. As for the years of experience within academic frame: The highest frequency of years of experience count in the first category of less than 5 years for both of the universities. The population according to this questionnaire consists merely of teachers under the age of 30 years. As for the years of experience within academic frame: The highest levels of years of experience count in the first category of less than 5 years for both of the universities. While the scientific degree was mostly noted to be MSc, many of the participants lacked a scientific title (See Appendix Six). This shows that most of the participants were holding a BSc degree. With the largest numbers of the participants having minimum years of experience. -The opinions on architectural curriculum: The teachers from University of Sulaimania have a higher choice in the need for the architectural curriculum

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to affect the students thinking, while the Koya university staff is divided on both academic and design thinking aspect (See figure 4.8). According to this finding it could presumably be concluded that the teachers of University of Koya have the tendency to choose the architectural profession merely above affecting students’ design thinking. 20 15 10 University of Sulaymania

5

University of koya

0 a) The curriculum should fit what is The curriculum should affect the required from students in the students’ design thinking in order to exercise of architectural profession. generate a successful architect.

Figure 4.8 Showing the architectural curriculum definitions for the participants (Source: Researcher)

-Teachers’ design definition: For the question “Which definition below fits your personal opinion on design the most?” the intuitive and logical aspects of design is a preferred definition in general (See figure 4.9). The Chi-square test shows that the preferred definitions do relate to the university (See table 4.10). 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

University of Sulaymania

0 Designing incorporates both intuitive and logical steps in the process.

Designing is a Designing is a One learns Even though systematic rational how to design one attempts process in process through trail- to explain which one can consisting of a and-error in one’s design explain the ruled base the process. process, there steps taken. system. may be something hidden in the black box.

University of koya

Figure 4.9 Showing the questionnaire participants' design definitions (Source: Researcher)

The two preceding findings show that the teaching staffs’ opinions could probably be related to the universities they are from. Since the majority from Koya staff chooses the intuitive and logical aspect of design, a second large number of teachers from Sulaimani choose the unexplainable black box effect.

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Table 4.10 Showing that the design definitions do differ from one university to another (Source: Researcher) Chi-Square Tests

Value

df

Asymp. Sig. (2sided)

Pearson Chi-Square

10.312

a

4

.035

Likelihood Ratio

12.429

4

.014

Linear-by-Linear Association

2.270

1

.132

N of Valid Cases

41

a. 8 cells (80.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 1.56.

-Computer and digital drawing tools: For the question about the teachers’ familiarity with different digital drawing tools, the teachers of both universities have similar capabilities in digital tools. As for the role of computer in the design process: A modeler and drafter are preferences of Sulaymania University staff, while Koya University staff prefers the computer as a critic and as drafter (See figure 4.10). 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 As an oracle, the computer can produce a design proposition.

As a draftsperson, As a modeler, the As a critic, the the computer can computer is a good computer is a good be only used for tool to use during tool to use for drafting. 3d-modelmaking. improving building performances

University of Sulaymania University of koya

Figure 4.10 The teaching staff opinions on the role of computer in the design process (Source: Researcher)

Whereas about the role of digital drawing tools in academic design, both groups side with the proposal of the design value to be increased by computers. The teachers’ preferences between conventional and digital drawing tools shows the obvious opinion of majority of the teaching staff preferring both types of tools in the design process. The consensus of the teachers to start the use of digital drawing tools in the third academic year, while the highest frequency prefer the use of these tools to be starting at the presentation phase of the design process -How digital drawing tools affect students: In the teachers view, digital tools affect the students’ capabilities (See figure 4.11 and 4.12). The t-test showed significant differences between the teachers’ ideas as far as the effect on creative capacities goes, where positive influences are merely given by the Koya university teaching staff. And also the differences of opinion lay in the

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imaginative capacities, where a large number of teachers believe that digital drawing tools will have a negative influence (See Appendix Seven). 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Students' abilities to come up with multiple ideas Students' sense of motivation Students' design understanding Students' imaginative capacities Students' creayive capacities Students' sketching abilities

Figure 4.11 University of Sulaymania teaching staff opinions on the effects of digital tools on students’ capacities

30 25 20

Students' abilities to come up with multiple ideas

15

Students' sense of motivation

10

Students' design understanding

5 0

Students' imaginative capacities Students' creayive capacities Students' sketching abilities

Figure 4.12 University o Koya teaching staff opinions on the effects of digital tools on students’ capacities

-Drawing characteristics: On the question what types of drawing affect the imagination the most; Sulaymania teaching staff chooses respectively sensory unavailable drawing, antonymous drawings as well as much time consuming drawings (See figure 4.13). While the Koya teaching staff chooses antonymous

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drawings, unambiguous drawings and fixed scale drawings. The frequency analysis shows a relation between the university and the teachers’ choice as far as the “sensory unavailable drawings” goes, since Univeristy of Sulaimania teachers seem to agree that these will evoke the imaginative capacities (Appendix Eight).

The answers to this question show a consensus of the idea that antonymous drawing stimulates imagination. However it is to be noted that the teachers’ opinions do not in general fit to the previously mentioned aspects in chapter three. 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Univeristy of Sulaymania University of Koya

Figure 4.13 showing the teachers answers upon the question "Below are some drawing characteristics listed, in your opinion which ones stimulate imaginative capacities?” (Source:Researcher)

Relation between drawing- and imagination abilities: On the question of “Do students’ drawing capacities relate to the students’ imagination capacities?” the answers were that the majority of both groups finds that there is a positive relation. And the question of “In your opinion, what student has more imagination?” the answers stated that most of the teachers believe that the capability to draw well by hand implies imagination more (See figures 4.14 and 4.15). 30 20

University of Sulaymania

10

University of Koya

0 yes

No

Figure 4.14 the teaching staff opinions about the relation between drawing and imagination, showing most teachers agree that there is a positive relation between drawing and imagination (Source: Researcher)

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25 20 15 10 5 0

University of Sulaymania Students who are able to draw well by use of hand drawings

Students who are able to draw well by using digital tools.

University of Koya

Figure 4.15 The teachers opinions on what students have the most imagination (Source: Researcher)

-Productive and reproductive imagination: According to the Sulaimania teaching staff, the conventional drawing tools are most intuition, sensibility and novelty promoting tools. And the digital tools are more helping with crystallization. The Koya teaching staff finds the conventional drawing tools helping imagination through feelings as well as the promotion of novel ideas. However the Chi-square test shows the dependence of “productivity: Helping students to have multiple concepts about the design” and the university whereas the koya teaching staff sees that the digital drawing tools help students very much with this criteria. Helps students to explore the unknown.

18 16

Helps students often come up with new ideas through intuition. Helps students often to imagine through feelings.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Conventional Conventional Conventional Digital drawing drawing drawing drawing tools (Low) tools tools (High) tools (Low) (Medium)

Digital drawing tools (medium)

Digital drawing tools (high)

Helps students to have multiple concepts about their design Helps students to have uncommon design ideas compared to other students. Helps students to focus only on effective ideas (ideas that are productive). Helps students to be able to transfer ideas from one field to another. Helps students to express abstract ideas by using concrete examples. Helps students to think formally in order to improve an idea.

Figure 4.16 the opinions of teaching staff/ university of Sulaymania on the creative and reproductive imagination (Source: Researcher)

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Helps students to explore the unknown.

16

Helps students often come up with new ideas through intuition. Helps students often to imagine through feelings.

14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Conventional Conventional Conventional Digital drawing drawing drawing drawing tools (Low) tools tools (High) tools (Low) (Medium)

Digital drawing tools (medium)

Digital drawing tools (high)

Helps students to have multiple concepts about their design Helps students to have uncommon design ideas compared to other students. Helps students to focus only on effective ideas (ideas that are productive). Helps students to be able to transfer ideas from one field to another. Helps students to express abstract ideas by using concrete examples. Helps students to think formally in order to improve an idea.

Figure 4.17 the opinions of teaching staff/ university of Koya on the creative and reproductive imagination (Source: Researcher)

The preceding data indicates that the teaching staff groups do differ slightly from each other. For instance the Koya teaching staff believes the digital drawing tools help the student to be more productive by helping with multiple design concepts. The conclusions of this section are numbered as follows: 1. The students have designed only three projects in average by means of conventional drawing tools only. 2. Students prefer the start of using digital drawing tools at the improving concept phase while the teachers prefer this start to be at the presentation phase. 3. Both students as well as the teachers agree on the start of using digital drawing tools at the third stage of the academic years. 4. As for the scores of the imagination test the following explains;  The brain dominance score showed the students of Koya university scored higher in the Left brain scoring while the students of Sulaimania University showed higher scores in Right brain scoring. The left brain score shows the logic tendency of students, while the right score is showing the intuitive tendency of students.

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 In the mental rotation tests the students of Sulaimania university scored higher in both categories of simple and complex mental rotation. Higher scores imply higher visualization skills.  In the test of creative imagination, students of Koya university scored higher on the A scale, showing the level of productivity. While for the B scale the Sulaimania students scored higher, showing transformative abilities as well as elaboration and extent of drawing visualization and productivity. While for the C scale for novelty the average scores were equal.  The visual impression flexibility was measured by two different scales; A measures seeing existing organizations, B measures seeing organizations that do not exist. A score was higher for the Sulaymania students while the B score was equal for both groups of students.  As for the first drawing scores, the Sulaimania students scored significantly higher than the Koya students.  Also in the drawing from imagination section, the students of Sulaimania scored higher in average.  As for the role of the computer in the design process both teachers’ groups agree on the possibility to increase the design value by the computer use. But they disagree on the statement that the designer using digital drawing tools remains an outsider of the design process, since a statistically significant number of Sulaimania teachers believe so.

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Chapter Four Part Three: Conclusions and recommendations 4.3 Preface: The first two parts of chapter four have discussed the elements of application as well as the application and discussions. This third and last part is dedicated to the conclusions of both theoretical and practical part, and recommendations for further research. 4.3.1 General conclusions: The general conclusions made through this study concerning the relations between imagination and drawing tools within the academic frame is as follows; 1. Imagination is a substantial ability required in both the education process in general and design education and profession in specific. 2. The architectural education should create a fair balance between the academia and the architectural profession and thus keeping the requirements of the profession in mind such as the rising need for digital tools. 3. The architectural drawings produced during the design process give an insight on the students’ imagination abilities and improve these abilities at the same time. Imagination’s role is substantial in both drawing as well design. 4. Drawings by both media, digital as well as conventional, are to be properly integrated into the architectural education. 5. This study enhances the need to use simple drawing tools by young students, this goes for both types of tools. 4.3.2 Conclusions from theoretical part: The relation between imagination and drawing tools within the academic frame concluded from the theoretical part is as follows; 1. Imagination is a human ability responsible for the creation of images in the mind’s eye. It is also seen as a mediating faculty between the other human faculties. Imagination is to think of what is absent, unreal or even absurd. Yet it also seems to inform the perception of what is present and real and daily, and so takes part in the most basic levels of thought. 2. Imagination has an indistinct status, seemingly floating between spirit and nature, mediating between mind and body. There is the tendency to conceive of imagination, as the term itself implies, as an image oriented mental activity. Imagination is also regarded as responsible for fantasy, inventiveness and creative, original and insightful thought in general. 3. Imagination’s role in both drawing and design are of substantial importance. The fact that according to much literature the imagination is divided into two main levels; reproductive and the productive or so called

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143

imagination. The latter one is more effective type of imagination in the creative fields in general and architectural design in specific. 4. Imagination could work in to ways, one is reproductive which is needed for completing ones experiences, and the other one is creative which originates in an advanced level of development of originality. It is the later one design education is most interested in 5. Imagination is related to the visual imagery as drawing is related to the visual communication. Hence the essence of imagination is found in visualization of objects as well as the flexibility of visual impressions. The higher the visualization and visual impression flexibility the higher level of imagination. 6. Comparing the drawing tool characteristics and imagination characteristics, the indicators for creative drawing are related to the conventional drawing tools needed for the early stages in architectural design. 7. Recent approaches to education is to enhance creative imagination and not only to educate knowledge. In the architectural education it has always been the case of the significance of creativity and imagination within the academic frame. 8. Architectural imagination is related to creativity, consciousness and intuition. Meanwhile creative architectural design is strongly connected to an only human capability, and which a robot cannot perform, the imagination. Its process is described to be flexible, exploring as well as productive. 9. Imagination is considered a counterpart of perception. It involves visualizing, fantasizing and pretending. Visualization is a general form of imagining; it combines perception and imagination and enables the envisioning through the mind’s eye. 10.The ability to mentally transform three-dimensional figures is considered a source of creative imagination, which by its turn lays in the productive/creative imagination. 11.Flexibility in visual impressions causes a change in the way a perceiver sees an image. The perceiver’s inner organization changes in order to imagine a different image than seen at first or in general. Hence, as previously mentioned, the understanding of creative imagination might be approached through the investigation of ‘seeing as’ capacity. 12. Drawings acquire a certain level of visualization and imagination; the view of an object chosen to be drawn, the density of drawn elements, the size of the drawing even the cleanness of drawing all imply imagination. Drawing is a means of vision and expression, which requires thought and in turn is building understanding. The process of drawing promotes visual thinking, and accordingly stimulates the imagination.

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144

13.The significance of used tools in design can be found in its effects on the union between hand, tool and mind. Whereas the used medium can directly affect the perceived space. The natural and fluent relation between the hand-eye-mind is essential, since the use of the computer has broken the sensual and tactile connection. 14.The ambiguous, dense and fuzzy properties of hand sketches are important for the occurrence of lateral transformation of ideas, where one idea leads to another idea. This type of transformation is considered essential compared to the vertical transformation which is characterized by refinement and detailing. Computer based drawings are based nondense and unambiguous making these lateral transformations difficult. 4.3.3 Conclusions from practical part: 1. The students’ use of digital tools is in general higher than the usage for conventional drawing tools. 2. The most common digital drawing tools are AutoCAD, Revit and 3dmax. While the familiarities differ from one university to the other, the students and teachers of the same department have similar level of familiarity in the three tools. However the results regarding the students’ familiarity suggest a relationship between the types of digital tools used by the student and their scores in the imagination criteria, where SketchUp seems to have positive influence and the 3DMAX a negative influence. 3. Students prefer the start of using digital drawing tools at the improving concept phase while the teachers prefer this start to be at the presentation phase. This difference of opinion lays could relate to the analogy that young architects are merely comfortable with using digital tools. 4. The brain dominance theory, in this study, shows strong relations between the drawing capacities as well as the scores in the imagination criterion. Since the right brained students have higher scores in both sections. 5. Since this study consisted of the comparison between two student groups, one group being obliged by the department to present the design works make by conventional drawing tools and the other being left free to choose the used media. There could be stated that the obliged group scores higher in general in both sections of imagination and drawing. 6. Design teachers seemingly create a good insight in students’ capacities as well as preferences regarding the different tools throughout the academic year, since there was a cohesion noted between students’ scores and the teachers’ evaluation. 7. Design’s logical as well as intuitive aspects are kept as a preferring design definition for both of the teaching staff groups. The differences of

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opinions were mostly noted regarding the effect of digital tools on creative capacities as well as imaginative capacities. 8. As for the role of the computer in the design process both teachers’ groups agree on the possibility to increase the design value by the computer use. But they disagree on the statement that the designer using digital drawing tools remains an outsider of the design process. 9. The results show that all teachers believe there is a relation between imagination capacities and drawing capacities. They also seem to agree that students able to draw well by use of conventional tools are more imaginative than students who are able to draw well by using digital drawing tools. 4.3.4 Recommendations: 1. Architectural students should be admitted according to an aptitude test as well as a personality assessment beside their high school grade averages. 2. The simplicity in tools during early design stage as well as early academic years is highly recommended, this goes for conventional tools as well as digital drawing tools. 3. The architectural education should keep the creative imagination capacities of students in mind throughout the curricula. 4. A balance should be made between the academic frame as well as the professional frame, they should strengthen one another. 5. There is need for students to draw more; a method applied in many universities that are open to the idea of digital drawing tool usage is that each student keeps a personal logbook/sketchbook and this is also a requirement during the design presentations and subject to evaluation. 6. Intuitive drawings should be improved during the early architectural education. Since they stimulate the visualization and imagination. These drawings are merely conduction by means of simple tools that become a second nature. 7. To start a design process as intuitive and holistic as possible remains one of the pillars of creative design requirements. 8. Teaching staff should be highly familiar with several digital drawing tools, in order to help students as well as evaluate their designs. 4.3.5 Recommendations for further research: 1. Since not all the digital drawing tools have the same effects, there is need to investigate the appropriateness of different digital drawing tools in the architectural education. 2. The current pedagogy of conventional drawing tools can be rethought and the way to teach drawing in this digital age can be further investigated.

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61. Krystal, H. (1988) “Integration and Self-Healing: Affect, Trauma, Alexithymia”. Hillsdale NJ: The Analytic Press. 62. Laseau, P., (2001), “Graphic Thinking for Architects & Designers”, John Wiley & Sons, New York 63. Lawson, B. (1997). “How designers think: the design process demystified”. Oxford ; Boston, Architectural Press. 64. Lawson, B. (2006). “How Designers Think” Elsevier,Boston. 65. Lawson, B., (2004), “What Designers Know”, Elsevier, Design and patents act 1988. 66. Lawson, B., Menezes, A. (2006). “How designers perceive sketches” Design Studies, pp. 571-585 67. Liang C, and Hsu Y., and Huang Y, and Chen S., 2012, “How learning environments can stimulate student imagination”, TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology – October 2012, volume 11 Issue 4 68. Liang C., and Chang C., and Chang Y., and Lihn L., 2012, “The exploration of indicators of imagination”, TOJET; The Turkish online journal of education technology, volume 11, issue 3, july 2012 69. Lindsey, B. (2001). “Digital Gehry: material resistance/digital construction”. Basel ; Boston, Birkhäuser. 70. Long, P., (2012), “My Brain on My Mind”, The American Scholar, Vol. 79, No. 1 71. Luria, A. R. (1971). Towards the problem of the historical nature of psychological processes. International Journal of Psychology, 6, 259- 272. 72. Maeda, Y., & Yoon, S., (2013). “A Meta-Analysis on Gender Differences in Mental Rotation Ability Measured by the Purdue Spatial Visualization Tests: Visualization of Rotations”, Educational Psychology Review 25. 73. McCullough, M. (1996). “Abstracting craft: the practiced digital hand”. Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press. 74. McDougall S., and Pfeifer G, 2012, “Personality differences in mental imagery and the effects on verbal memory”, British Journal of Psychology, copy right The British Psychological Society 75. McDougall, J. (1985) “Theatres of the Mind: Truth and Illusion on the Psychoanalytic Stage”, Basic Books, New York. 76. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, (2004). “The Science of Psychology.” (http://highered.mcgraw hill.com/sites/0072563303/student_view0/chapter1/) 77. Millman, D, (2007), “How to think like a great graphic designer”, Allworth Press, New york 78. Orvell, M., (1995), “After the Machine”, Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. 79. Palladino, S., (2007), “Tools of the Imagination: Drawing Tools and Technologies from the Eighteenth Century to the Present”, Princeton architectural press, New York 80. Pallasmaa, J., (2011), “The Embodied Image”, John Wiley and Sons, AD Primers, United Kingdom, First Edition. 81. Pallasmaa, J., (2012), “The eyes of the skin:Architecture and the senses”, Published by John Wiley & Sons, New Jersey 82. Pallasmaa, J., (2012), “The Thinking Hand; Existential and Embodied wisdom in Architecture”, John Wiley and Sons, AD Primers, United Kingdom. 83. Porter, T.,(1997), “The Architect’s Eye: Visualization and Depiction of Space in Architecture”, E & FN Spon, London.

References

150

84. Priscillia, L., 2005, “My brain on my mind”, National Magazine Award for Feature Writing, Summer 2005 issue 85. Richards, J., (2013), “Freehand drawing & Dicovery: Urban Sketching and Concept Drawing for Designers”, Published by John Wiley and Sons Inc., Foreword by Francis D. K. Ching. 86. Salama A., 2007, “An Exploratory Investigation into the Impact of International Paradigmatic Trends on Arab Architectural Education”, GBER Vol. 6 No.1 pp 31-43 87. Sennet, R., (2008), “The Craftsman”, Yale University Press, Lodon. 88. Senyapili B., and Basa Y., (2006), “The Shifting Tides of Academe: Oscillation between Hand and Computer in Architectural Education”, International Journal of Technology and Design Education, Springer copyright. p-p. 273-283 89. Smith, K., (2008), “Architects Sketches: Dialogue and design”, Architectural Press is an imprint of Elsevier, Copyright Kendra Schank Smith. 90. Spottiswood, R., (2002), “Active imagination”, online essay, www.archventures.org.uk/articles/activeimagination 91. Sternberg, R., (2004), “Handbook of creativity”, Cambridge university press. 92. Stewart, M., (2008), “Launching the imagination; A guide to three-dimensional design”, third edition, Published by McGraw-Hill 93. Stone, D., Jarret, C., Woodroffe, M., and Minocha, S., (2005), “User interface Design and evaluation”, Morgan Kaufman publishers, The open university Copyright. 94. Taura T. and Nagai Y., (2011), “Design Creativity 2010”, Springer-Verlag, London 95. Taylor, G.J., Bagby, R.M. and Parker, J.D.A. (1997) “Disorders of Affect Regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness”. Cambridge University Press 96. Thienmongkol R., 2008, “Using digital design tools in the character design classroom”, Proceedings of the Emerging Technologies Conference, University of Wollongong, 18-21 June 2008. 97. Thomas, N. J. T. (1999). Imagery and the coherence of imagination: A critique of White. Journal of Philosophical Research, 22, 95-127. 98. Thomas, N., (2010), “The Multidimensional Spectrum of Imagination: Images, Dreams, Hallucinations, and Active, Imaginative Perception, California State University, Los Angeles. 99. Thompson, J. (2008) Alexithymia: An Imaginative Approach, Psychotherapy in Australia Journal, Volume 14, No 4, pp. 58-63 100. Thompson, J. (2009) “Emotionally Dumb: An Introduction to Alexithymia”, Jessica Kingsley Publishers. 101. Tversky, S., and Chou, Y., (2011), “Design Creativity 2010”, Springer-Verlag, London 102. Unesco, (2011), “Unesco charter for architectural education”, general assembley, Tokyo 103. Verbeek, P., and Slob, A., (2006), “User Behavior and Technology Development Shaping Sustainable Relations Between Consumers and Technologies”, Springer publishing, Netherlands 104. Visser, W., (2006), Designing as a construction of Representations, HumanComputer Interaction, Foundation of Design in HCI 105. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

References

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106. Vygotsky, L., (2004), “Imagination and Creativity in Childhood”, Journal of Russian and East European psychology Vol. 42 no. 1, M.E Sharpe all right reserved, available online (http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygotsky/works/imagination.pdf) 107. Ware C., (2008), “Visual thinking for design”, Elsevier Inc. publishing, USA 108. Warnock, M. (1976). “Imagination”. London: Faber & Faber, University of California press. 109. White, A. (1990). “The language of imagination”. Oxford: Blackwell. 110. Winnicott, D.W., (1971) “Playing and Reality”. Tavistock Publications 111. Wirkkala, T., (2000), “Eye, Hand and Thought”, Werner Soderstrom pulbishing, Helsinki

Web sites: 1. www.aptitute-test.org/visualization skills 2. www.dictionary.com 3. www.wisdompage.com/FlawsInMentality.html 4. www.techopedia.com/definition/26136/statistical-mean 5. (www.reserachgate.net) 6. (http://faculty.quinnipiac.edu/libarts/polsci/statistics.html) 7. http://www.cod.edu/people/faculty/pearson/Images/2201-sketchbook%20examples.pdf 8. www.safewright.org 9. www.wikipedia.org 10. www.metu.edu.tr (retrieved October 2014) 11. www.ashrafsalama.net (retrieved October 2014) 12. www.ijssh.org (retrieved October 2014) 13. www.encyclopdia.com (retrieved October 2014) 14. www.lemonsblack.com (retrieved October 2014)

Arabic references: ‫ الدار‬,‫ االصدار االول‬,"‫ "اللغة السيكولوجية في العمارة المدخل في علم النفسي المعماري‬,)7002( ,‫ الحارث‬,‫حسن‬.1 ‫صفحات للدراسات والنشر‬ ‫دراسة ميدانية على عينة من طالب كلية الهندسة‬:‫ "ألتخيل العقلي و عالقة بادراك المكاني‬,7010 ,.‫مروان‬,‫ احمد‬.7 ‫ العدد الرابع‬,72 ‫ مجلة جامعة دمشق المجلد‬,"‫الميكانيكية بجامعة دمشق‬ ‫ ألناشر دار دجلة‬,‫ الطبعة األولى‬,"‫ "ألعصف الذهنى وأثره في تنمية التفكير أالبتكاري‬,7002 ,.‫ عمر‬,‫ عزيز‬.3 ‫ رسالة ماجستير غير منشور جامعة‬,"‫ "الشكل المعماري المبدع في اطار منهجية ألتصميم‬,7004 ,.‫ شبر‬,‫ فالح‬.4 .‫التكنولوجية بغداد‬ ‫ "وظيفة التربية الفنية في تنمية التخيل و بناء الصور الذهنية لدى المتعلم و‬,)7017( ,.‫ ن‬,‫ و ديوان‬.‫ م‬,‫ الكناني‬.11 ‫ جامعة‬,‫ كلية الفنون الجميلة‬,"‫ تطبيقات عملية في عناصر واسس العمل الفني‬:‫اسهامها في تمثيل التفكير البصري‬ .7017 ‫ لسنة‬701 ‫ بحث منشور في االستاذ العدد‬,‫بغداد‬ ‫ "مقارنة االداء الفكري للمصمم في التعليم المعماري ما بين استخدام االسلوب‬,)7011( ,‫ ناهض‬,‫ القيماقجي‬.12 .‫ جامعة موصل‬,‫ مجلة هندسة الرافدين‬,"‫الرقمى واالسلوب التقليدى‬

APPENDIXES APPENDIX ONE

Appendix One- Student Evaluation form

The Effect of Digital Drawing tools on Imagination in Architectural education Researcher: Hawar Himdad Jamal

Supervisor: Ass. Prof. Dr. Amjad Qaradaghi

Most appreciated teacher, this evaluation form is designed in serve of scientific research. I sincerely ask you to read the note carefully and fill in the form as objective as possible. This research is concerned with the controversial issue of using different drawing tools in the academic frame and their effect on architectural students. Your contribution is highly appreciated, Hawar Himdad Jamal Note:  Key terms: Conventional Drawing tools; Drawing tools that are mostly exemplified by pencil and paper. Digital Drawing tools; Luminous drawing tools, any software that is to be characterized as Computer Aided design. 

 

The Indicators explanation: (Exploration) Individual likes to explore the unknown (Intuition) Individual often comes up with new ideas through intuition (Sensibility) Individual often helps himself to imagine through feelings (Productivity) Individual has constantly new ideas about the design (Novelty) Individual often has uncommon ideas compared to others (Effectiveness) Individual often completes tasks by focusing on effective ideas (Transformation) Individual thinks flexibly and is able to transfer ideas to multiple fields of tasks (Crystallization) Individual is good at expressing abstract ideas by using concrete examples (Elaboration) Individual improves his thoughts by focusing on formalizing ideas The evaluation for each student is to be evaluated individually according to a nominal measurement, whereas (1) means low, (2) means medium and (3) means high. Put ( ) sign to the appropriate answers.

Evaluation form for stage: University: Scientific title: Number of years of experience:

Page 1 of 2

2

Student 5

Student 4

Student 3

Student 2

Student 1 Scores 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Digital Conventional 1 2 3 1 2 3 Students level in conventional drawing tools

Students level in conventional drawing tools

What type of drawing tool does the student prefer?

Elaboration

Crystallization

Transformation

Effectiveness

Novelty

Productivity

Sensibility

Intuition

Exploration

Indicators

Appendix One- Student Evaluation form

1

It should be noted that the students’ right is here are reserved, thus only a sample of the evaluation form is here shown while the original one contains students’ names and is printed on A3 paper.

Page 2 of 2

APPENDIX TWO

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫بةناوى خواى طةورة و ميهرةبان‬ ‫خويَندكارى ئازيز‪.................................................................................................‬‬ ‫ئةم تاقيكردنةوةى بةر دةستت بةشيَكة لة ثيَويستيةكاني تويَذينةوةيةكى زانسيت‪ .‬كة ناونيشانةكةي‬ ‫”‪ “The Effect of Digital Drawing tools on Imagination in Architectural education‬لة اليةن‬ ‫خويَندكارى ماستةر (هةوار هيمداد) بةسةرثةرشتياري (د‪.‬أجمد قةرةداغى) ئةجنام ئةدريًََت‪ .‬ئةمة‬ ‫تاقيكرنةوةيةكى خؤبةخشانةية وة بة هيض شيَوةيةك وةالَمةكانت ناخريَتة نيَو قالبى رِاست و ضةوتةوة‪ .‬شايانى‬ ‫باسة تةنها سوودى ليَ وةردةطرييَت بؤ تؤيذينةوةكة‪ ,‬بة شيَوةيةكى ناو نةزانراو‪ .‬تكاية هةولَ بدة بة باشرتين شيَوة‬ ‫وةالَمى ثرسيارةكان بدةيتةوة و وة ضةند نزيكرت بيَت لة بريو رِاى خؤت سوودى زياترة‪.‬‬

‫هاوكاريتان بةرز دةنرخيَنم‪,‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬

‫ناوى سيانى‪:‬‬

‫‪2‬‬

‫سالَى لة دايك‬ ‫بوون‪:‬‬

‫‪3‬‬

‫قوَناغ‪:‬‬

‫‪4‬‬

‫رِةطةز‪:‬‬

‫‪5‬‬

‫تا ئيَستا ضةند ثرؤذةت ديزاين كردووة؟‬

‫مىَ‪:‬‬

‫نيَر‪:‬‬

‫ذمارةي ديزاين بة تةنها‬ ‫ذمارةى ديزاين بة طروث‬ ‫‪6‬‬

‫ذمارةى ئةو ثرؤذانة ضةندة كة ديزاينت كردوون بة بةكارهيَناني تةنانةت ئاميَرة باو و نةريتيةكان‬ ‫)‪ ,(Conventional Drawing tools‬واتة بة بىَ بةكار هيَنانى بةرنامةكانى كوَمبيوتةر ‪(Digital Drawing‬‬ ‫)‪tools‬؟‬ ‫ذمارةي ديزاين بة بةكارهيَناني تةنانةت ئاميَرة باو و‬ ‫نةريتيةكان‬

‫‪7‬‬

‫ذمارةى ئةو برؤذانة ضةندةكة ديزانت كردوون بة بةكارهيَناني بةرنامةكانى كوَمبيوتةر ‪(Digital Drawing‬‬

‫)‪ tools‬؟‬

‫ذمارةي ديزاين بةكارهيناني بةرنامةكانى كومبيوتةر‬ ‫‪8‬‬

‫بة بوَضونى خوَت‪ ,‬لة كاتى دانانى هةر ديزاينيَك بة رِيَذةى ضةند لة سةدا بةرنامةكانى كوَمبيوتةر بةكار‬ ‫ديَنيت و بة رِيَذةى ضةند ئاميَرة باو و نةريتيةكان بةكار ديَنيت؟‬ ‫بةكارهيَنامن بؤ ئاميَرة نةريتيةكان ‪(Conventional Drawing‬‬

‫‪%‬‬

‫)‪tools‬‬ ‫بةكارهيَنامن بؤ بةرنامةكانى كوَمبيوتةر ‪(Digital Drawing‬‬

‫‪%‬‬

‫)‪tools‬‬

‫‪9‬‬

‫ثيَت باشة لة ض قوَناغيَكى ديزاين بةرنامةكانى كوَمثيوتةر بةكار بهيَنريَن؟ دةتوانيت زياتر لة ‪0‬‬

‫‪Page 1 of 21‬‬

‫‪%011‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫هةلَبذيريَت‪.‬‬ ‫لة كاتي دانانى بريؤكة )‪(Concept phase‬‬ ‫لة كاتي ثةرةثيَدانى بريؤكة )‪(Improving concept phase‬‬ ‫لة كاتي مناييش كردنى كؤتايى )‪(Final presentation phase‬‬

‫‪ 10‬ئايا ئاشناييت لةطةلَ كام لةم بةرنامانةى خوارةوة هةية؟ دةتوانيت زياتر لة ‪ 0‬هةلبذيَريت‪.‬‬ ‫ئاشناييم نية‬

‫كةم ئاشناييم هية‬

‫ناوةند‬

‫زؤر ئاشناييم هةية‬

‫‪AutoCAD‬‬ ‫‪ArchiCad‬‬ ‫‪Revit‬‬ ‫‪Sketch Up‬‬ ‫‪3DMax‬‬

‫‪ 11‬بة رِاى تؤ لة ض قؤناغيَكى خويَندني تةالرسازىدا باشرت واية كة بةرنامةكانى كوَمثيوتةر بةكار بهيَنريت؟‬ ‫دةتوانيت زياتر لة ‪ 0‬هةلَبذيريَت‪.‬‬ ‫لة قؤناغى )‪(1‬وة‬

‫لة قؤناغى )‪(4‬وة‬

‫لة قؤناغى )‪(2‬وة‬

‫لة قؤناغى )‪(5‬وة‬

‫لة قؤناغى )‪(3‬وة‬

‫لةهيض قؤناغيك‬

‫‪ 12‬ضؤن بوو ئيمرِؤ ئة م جل و بةرطانةت لةبةر كرد؟‬ ‫دويَينَ شةو ئامادةم كردبوو!‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫هةر بة رِيَكةوت!‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 13‬ئةطةر بيَت و كار بكةيت لة دونياى فيلم و سينةما ئةوا حةزت بة ض كاريَك زياتر دةبوو؟‬ ‫حةزم ئةكرد كاربكةم وةك ئةكتةرى سةرةكى‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫حةزم ئةكرد كاربكةم وةك دةرهيَنةر‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 14‬كاتيَك سةيري فيلميَكى خةمبار دةكةيت‪ ,‬ئةوا‪.......‬‬ ‫تؤش خةم داتدةطريَت و هةست بة هةلَضوون دةكةيت‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫هةست بة خةم ناكةيت‪ ,‬بةلَكوو بة تةواوى زالَيت بةسةر هةستةكانتدا‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 15‬لة ض وةستانيَكدا باشرت بريؤكةى ديزانت بؤ ديَت؟‬ ‫كاتيَك كة دانيشتووم‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫كاتيَك كة ثالَ كةوتووم‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 16‬ضؤن زؤرينةي برِيارِةكانى ديزاين دةدةيت؟‬ ‫من زياتربة لة رِيَطاى هةست و نةستةكامنةوة برِيار دةدةم‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫من زياتربة شيَوةيةكى ذير و مةنتيقيانة برِيار دةدةم‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 17‬ض كاريَكى بيناكانت بةالوة طرنطرتة؟‬ ‫ئةو خزمةتانةي دةيطةيةنيَت بة خةلَك‬ ‫‪Page 2 of 21‬‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫ئةو هةستانةى كة دةيبةخشيَت بة خةلَك‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 18‬تؤ بة ض شيَوازيَك ئةركةكانى ديزاين رِادةثةريَنيت؟‬ ‫من بة شيَوازيَكي دياريكراو كاردةكةم‪( .‬بؤ منوونة‪ :‬دةست دةكةم بة داناني بريؤكة‪,‬‬ ‫دوواي ئةوة ثالنةكان دةكيَشم‪ ,‬دوواتر واجيهةكان‪ ,‬ئينجا كرت و برجةستةكان‪).‬‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫من بة شيَوازيَكى دياريكراو ئةركةكان ناكةم‪,‬بةلَكوو لة شيتيَكةوة دةضم بؤ سةر شيتيَكى ‪b‬‬ ‫تر‪.‬‬ ‫‪ 19‬كاتيَك كة مامؤستا‪/‬مامؤستايانى ديزاين نةقدت ثيَئةدات‪ ,‬تؤ‪......‬‬ ‫زؤربةى كاتةكان ليَيان تيَدةطةيت‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫زؤربةي كاتةكان ليَيان تيَناطةيت‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 20‬بة بريورِاي تؤ‪ ,‬شيَوازيَكى دياريكراو هةية بؤ هةلَسةنطاندنى ديزاين؟‬ ‫نةخيَر‪ ,‬هةلَسةنطاندنى ديزاين ثةيوةستة بة بار و دؤخةكةوة‪.‬‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫بةلَىَ‪ ,‬شيَوازى رِاست و شيَوازى ضةوت هةية بؤ ديزاين كردن‪.‬‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 21‬لة كاتيَك كة ديزاين دةكةيت‪ ,‬بريارةكانت زياتر ض هةستيَكت ثيَدةبةخشن؟‬ ‫هةسيت ئارامى‪ ,‬حةز دةكةم وا هةست بكةم كةكارةكةم لة مةترسيدا نية‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫هةستى مةترسي‪ ,‬بة المةوة ئاسايية ئةطةر هةستيش بكةم كة كارةكةم لة‬ ‫مةترسيداية‪.‬‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 22‬لة كاتى مناييشكردنةكانى ديزاين (تةقدميةكان)‪ ,‬تؤزياتر بة ض شيَوةيةك هةلَويَست دةكةيت؟‬ ‫‪a‬‬ ‫من بةتةواوى بريورَاى خؤم دةتوامن دةربرِم لة رِيَطاى ووتةكامن‬ ‫من بةتةواوى بريورَاى خؤم دةتوامن دةربرِم لة رِيَطاى ووتةكامن و ئاماذةكردمن بؤ‬ ‫شيتةكاني ديزاين‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 23‬لةض قؤناغيَكى ديزاين زياتر هةست بة ئاسوودةيي دةكةيت؟‬ ‫لة كاتي دانانى بريؤكة )‪(Concept phase‬‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫لة كاتي ثةرةثيَدانى بريؤكة )‪(Improving concept phase‬‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫لة كاتي مناييش كردنى كؤتايى )‪(Final presentation phase‬‬

‫‪c‬‬

‫لة كاتى ووردةكاري كردن )‪(Working drawing phase‬‬

‫‪d‬‬

‫‪ 24‬كاتيَك كة مامؤستا‪/‬مامؤستايانى ديزاين داوات ىلَ دةكةن بريؤكةكةت بطؤرَيت و يةكيَكى تازة بيَنيت‪ ,‬تؤ‪....‬‬ ‫‪a‬‬ ‫هةست بة دلَتةنطى دةكةيت‪ ,‬ضونكة تؤ بريؤكةكةت زؤر بة دلَة‬ ‫دلَطران نابيت ضونكة تؤش بريؤكةيةكى ترت لة ياد بوو‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪ 25‬تؤ زياتر حةزت لة كام وانة ية؟‬ ‫‪Freehand drawing, Perspective, Design‬‬

‫‪a‬‬

‫‪History, Working drawing, Building estimations, Housing‬‬

‫‪b‬‬

‫‪Page 3 of 21‬‬

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

.‫ هةلَبذيَرة‬A, B, C, D & E ‫ وةالَمى رِاست لة نيَوان‬:‫برِطةي يةكةم‬

.I

1.

2.

Page 4 of 21

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

3.

4.

Page 5 of 21

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

5.

6.

Page 6 of 21

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

7.

8.

Page 7 of 21

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

9.

10.

Page 8 of 21

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫ئةم شيَوانةى سةرةوة ليَكبدةيت كام لةمانةي خوارةوةت دةست ئةكةويَت؟تكاية لة نيَوان ‪ A,B,C‬هةلَبذيَرة‪.‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪11.‬‬ ‫ئةم شيَوانةى سةرةوة ليَكبدةيت كام لةمانةي خوارةوةت دةست ئةكةويَت؟تكاية لة نيَوان ‪ A,B,C‬هةلَبذيَرة‪.‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪12.‬‬

‫‪Page 9 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫ئةم شيَوانةى سةرةوة ليَكبدةيت كام لةمانةي خوارةوةت دةست ئةكةويَت؟تكاية لة نيَوان ‪ A,B,C‬هةلَبذيَرة‪.‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪13.‬‬ ‫ئةم شةشثالَوَية لة كام بةشانةى خوارةوة خوارةوة ثيَكهاتووة؟ تكاية لة نيوان ‪ A,B,C‬هةلَبذيَرة‪.‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪14.‬‬

‫‪Page 10 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫?=‬

‫كام لةم بةرجةستانةى خوارةوة يةكسانة بة بةشة ناديارةكةى شةشثالَؤى سةرةوة؟‬ ‫‪C‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪15.‬‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫?=‬

‫‪-‬‬

‫كام لةم بةرجةستانةى خوارةوة يةكسانة بة بةشة سةوزةكةي شةشثالَؤى سةرةوة؟‬ ‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪16.‬‬

‫‪Page 11 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬ ‫ئةمةى خوارةوة ويَنةي ياري باوي)‪ , (Rubiks Cube‬تةنانةت بة ‪ 3‬جار سووراندنى الكان كام لةم شيَوانةي خارةوةمان دةست دةكةويَـت؟‬

‫‪D‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪17.‬‬ ‫ثارضة كاغةزيَكى ضوارطؤشة بةم شيَوةيةي خوارةوة قةد دةكريَت بة ثيَي هيَلَة ثضراوةكان‪ ,‬ئةطةر بيًت و بؤ‬ ‫جاري ضوارةم كاغةزةكة قةد بكةيت كام لةم شيَوانةى خوارةوةت دةست دةكةويَت؟‬

‫‪D‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪18.‬‬

‫‪Page 12 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫كام لةمانةى خوارةوة هاوشيَوةي ويَنةكةى سةرةوةية؟‬

‫‪D‬‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪19.‬‬ ‫كام لةمانةى خوارةوة هاوشيَوةي‬ ‫ويَنةكةى سةرةوةية؟‬

‫‪C‬‬

‫‪A‬‬

‫‪D‬‬

‫‪B‬‬

‫‪20.‬‬

‫‪Page 13 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫‪.II‬‬

‫‪Page 14 of 21‬‬

‫برِطةي دووةم‪:‬هةولَ بدة زؤرترين ويَنةى هيَلكارى بكيَشة بة مةرجيَك كة هةرية كةيان شتيَك‬ ‫دةرِبرِن كة ئيَستا بوونى نيية بةالَ م بة بؤضووني تؤ سوودمةندة ئةطة ر هةبيَت‪ .‬ئةم ‪16‬‬ ‫ئةندامانةى لة ويَنةى خوارةوة هاتوون بةكار بيَنة لة ويَنةكانتدا ‪.‬‬

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

Page 15 of 21

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫‪.I‬‬

‫برِطةى سىَيةم‪:‬‬ ‫‪ .A‬ئايا ضى دةبينيت لةم ويَنانةى خوارةوة؟ تكاية وةالَمةكةت بة رِوونى بنووسة‪:‬‬ ‫………………………………………… ‪1.‬‬

‫‪Page 16 of 21‬‬

‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫………………………………………‪….‬‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫………………………………………… ‪2.‬‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫………………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫………………………………………‪….‬‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫…………………………………………‬ ‫………………………………………………‬ ‫…………………‬

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

3. ……………………………………………

-‫ج‬ …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… ………….……………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… 4. …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… ………….……………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………… …………………………………………………… Page 17 of 21

Appendix Two- Student imagination test

5. ………………………………………

……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ………………………………………. ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ………………………………………………

Page 18 of 21

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫‪ .B‬ويَنةى ئةم بةرجةستةية لة ئاراستةى تريةكة ضؤن دةردةكةويَت؟ تكاية ويَنةكة بكيَشة بة‬ ‫جوانرتين شيَوة (بةكار هيَنانى ثيَنووس)‪.‬‬

‫‪Page 19 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫‪ .C‬تكاية ويَنةيةكى بةرجةستةيي دواترين ديزاينيت بكيَشة(بة بةكار هيَنانى ثيَنووس) كة بؤ‬ ‫داواكاري وانةي ديزاين ئامادةت كردبوو و ناوى ثرِؤذةكة بنووسة‪.‬‬

‫‪Page 20 of 21‬‬

‫‪Appendix Two- Student imagination test‬‬

‫‪ .D‬تكاية ‪ :‬ئةطةر هةر تيَبينيةكت هةية لةسةر شيَوازةكاني بةكارهيَناني شيوازة نةريتيةكاني‬ ‫نةخشة كيشان يان بةرنامةكاني كؤمثوتةر لة ديزايين تةالرسازيدا بةرووني بينوسة‪..‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫‪..........................................................................................................‬‬ ‫دووبارة سوثاس بؤ هاوكاريكردنتان‪..‬‬

‫‪Page 21 of 21‬‬

APPENDIX THREE

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Face Validity Questionnaire Dearest Dr…………………………………………………, Before you lays a questionnaire designed in support of an MSc research in Architectural Department named “The Effect of using Digital Drawing tools on Imagination in Architectural Education”. One of the research instruments intended to measure imagination is an Imagination Test designed by the researcher. Below follows a general introduction to the research; 1- Procedural identifications of the key terms; Imagination: is a human ability responsible for the creation of images in the mind’s eye. It is also seen as a mediating ability between the other human abilities. Imagination is to think of what is absent, unreal or even absurd. Yet it also seems to inform the perception of what is present and real and every day. Hence, it takes part in the most basic levels of thought, and is also regarded as responsible for fantasy, inventiveness and creative, original and insightful thought in general. The main functions of imagination are subdivided into two grouping; one is named The Creative imagination and the other is the Reproductive Imagination. Digital Drawing tools: Any tool that is used within the architectural education frame and is characterized as a Luminous tool called CAD-Software (Computer Aided design soft wares such as AutoCAD, 3D-Max, Sketch up…etc.). Opposite to the digital drawing tools there are the so called conventional drawing tools. Architectural Education: Is the institution concerned with the generation of future architects. The value of architectural education is measured by the students’ capacity for productive problem solving and creative thinking attitudes. The language of communication in architectural education is drawing. The core of architectural education is architectural design which is most frequently defined as the imaginative leap from the present reality to future potentials. 2- The imagination test; Consisting from 3 main categories and is aiming to both test the imagination and drawing capacities of fourth and fifth year students of Architectural Department The introduction: is a personal introduction in which the student answers questions about his/her design experiences and preferences as far as the usage of different types of drawing tools goes. The first category: is a personality assessment in which the students answer a number of multiple choice questions with aims of investigating the type of personality related to imagination. Here is one choice related to spontaneous imagination and the other is related to the controlled type of imagination. The second category: is testing the simple mental rotation abilities which test the visualization abilities of the students. The question contains a simple object which is rotated by a certain axis/axes, then the student is asked about another object if this one is rotated by the same rotation then which of the objects A, B, C, D and E is then achieved. Thus the student has to refer to the referent object in order to answer that question1. 1

This category is derived from the Purdue Spatial Visualization Tests Maeda, Y., & Yoon, S. Y. (2013)

Page 1 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire The third category: is testing more complex mental rotation abilities with the same aim as the second category. Only this category contains a more complex form of question where the students do not get a referent object and the questions are not typical. The fourth category: is testing the creative imagination of students. By giving the students a set of 16 elements divided by 4 groups, the students are asked to draw as many schematic drawings as they can. The subjects of these drawings are not limited, but there are only two conditions, one is that the drawings have to represent something that does not exist currently and the existence of such thing would be productive. The second one is that each drawing may not contain more than 16 elements and the drawings have to be name tagged or described in order for the evaluator to understand. The fifths category: this category tests the level of flexibility in seeing different organizations in a certain object. This flexibility implies that there are many ways of seeing one object and the more and the student has abilities to change his/her mental images and there by his/her visual impressions. Here are asset of 5 images given and each one contains 2 scenarios and the students is asked what he/she sees in the images2. The sixths category: This section tests the students’ ability of visualization as well as their drawing skills. Thus there is a simple three point perspective given and an arrow is placed towards one side. The student is asked to draw a sketch of the object how it is seen in the location of the arrow. The seventh category: This last section is asking the student to draw a sketch of one of their last design projects. Here is the student tested on his/her drawing skills, long term memory and design imagination. And due to your profound experiences, is this measurement placed in your hand wishing to get your opinions about its validity or any necessary change(s) and/or addition(s).

Researcher, Hawar Himdad Jamal

2

In the book “Imagination and Creativity” Michael Beaney proposes the relation between mental images and visual impressions according to Gestalt and Wittigenstein’s earlier proposals. Michael Beaney is

Page 2 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire Introduction A personal introduction about the student Criteria Time needed

Question 1 Description Question 2

Stage:

Description

The year of education is to be noted

Question 3

Gender:

Description

The student chooses between (male) and (female)

Question 4

What is the number of projects you have designed until now? The student noted the number of academic projects and if the case professional projects. What is the number of projects you have designed only using conventional drawing tools? The number of project the student has designed using only conventional drawing tools is to be noted What is the number of projects you have designed using digital drawing tools? The number of projects the students has designed using digital drawing tools is noted In your opinion how much do you use conventional drawing tools and how much do you use digital drawing tools? Please specify the percentages The student will note the percentage of using conventional tools and digital tools, the summation of the two percentages should be 100% According to the design process, when do you think it is the best moment for using digital drawing tools? The student chooses between three main steps in the design process; Concept phase, Improving concept phase, Final presentation phase.

Description Question 5 Description Question 6 Description Question 7

Description

Question 8 Description

Question 9

Not approved

Proposed change

15 minutes “This category consists of 11 questions designed to get an insight on your personal experiences and preferences concerning drawing tools, please read the questions carefully and answer as specific as you can.” Name: Here the student writes down his/her full name

Verbal Directions

Approved

Are you familiar with the following digital drawing tools?

Page 3 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire Description

Question 10

Description

The student is asked about five most common digital drawing tools and for each of the five the student chooses between 4 levels of familiarity; not familiar, low familiarity, medium familiarity and very familiar. According to the five academic years in architectural education, when do you think it is the best to start using digital drawing tools? The students chooses between the stages;1,2,3,4 and 5.

Notes:

First category A personality assessment Criteria Time needed Verbal Directions

Question 1

How did you end up wearing these clothes today?

Description

The student chooses from: A- I prepared it yesterday (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) B- By complete accident (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring)

Question 2

If you could work in the movie world, you would….

Question 3

Description

Not approved

Proposed change

15 minutes “This category consists of 14 questions which are meant to investigate how you act in general around your tasks. Please choose an answer between A and B the answer that is the closest to your general way of acting.”

Description

Approved

The student chooses from: A-You would rather be the lead actor (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) B-You would rather be the director (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) When you watch a sad movie… The student chooses from: A- You get emotional (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- You are in complete control of your feelings (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring)

Page 4 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Question 4

Description

Question 5

Description

Question 6

Description

Question 7

Description

Question 8

Description

Question 9

Description

What is the best way for you to finish your design project? The student chooses from: A- I first draw the concept, then the plans, then the elevations, then the sections and perspectives. (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) B- I jump from one sheet to the other (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) In your opinion, is there in general method to evaluate a design project? The student chooses from: A- Yes, there is a right and wrong way for designing. (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) B- No, the evaluation depends on the situation (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) How do you behave during your design presentations? The student chooses from: A- During the presentations I have a hard time expressing my ideas verbally so I tend to talk and point at my work on the wall a lot. (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- During the presentation I am in control of my speech about my work without referring. (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) How would you like to feel while designing your projects? The student chooses from: A- I take risks during my designs (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- I like to feel as not being at risk (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) How do you take important design decisions? The student chooses from: A- Based on logic (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) B- Based on intuition (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) In what design stage do you find yourself most comfortable? The student chooses from: A- During conceptual phase (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- During working drawing phase (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) Page 5 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Question 10

Description

During your design critiques, how well do you understand the teachers’ opinions on your design? The student chooses from: A- I usually understand them (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- I don’t understand them very well (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring)

Question 11

At what position do you get the best design ideas?

Description

The student chooses from: A- In sitting position (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) B- In a casual position, such as lying down. (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring)

Question 12

Which subjects do you prefer?

Description

The student chooses from: A- Design, Freehand drawing, perspective (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- History, Working drawing, Building estimations, housing. (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring)

Imagine, your design teacher tells you to come up with a new concept. How do you react? The student chooses from: A- You become very mad, because you have been working on this concept very hard. (The students gets 1 Description point in the Left brained scoring) B- You get excited, because you already have a new concept in mind (The student gets 1 point in the Right brained scoring) Question 14 What part of a building is most important for you? The student chooses from: A- The sense it imprints on the people. (The student gets Description 1 point in the Right brained scoring) B- The service it offers the people (The students gets 1 point in the Left brained scoring) Notes: Question 13

Page 6 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Second category: Simple mental rotation test Criteria Time needed Verbal Directions

Approved

Not approved

Proposed change

15 minutes This category consists of 10 questions designed to see how well you can visualize the rotation of threedimensional objects. Try to find the right answer between A, B, C, D and E.

Example of question

Scoring

Each multiple choice question has only one good answer, for each good answer is 1 point given. The total score of second category is 10 points.

Notes:

Page 7 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire Third category: Complex mental rotation test

Criteria Time needed Verbal Directions

Approved

Not approved

Proposed change

10 Minutes This category consists of 10 questions designed to see how well you can visualize the rotation of threedimensional objects. Try to find the right answer between the given choices. The schapes on the top combine to make one of the shapes below, which one?

Question 1

Description

The right answer is A The schapes on the top combine to make one of the shapes below, which one?

Question 2

Description

The right answer is A

Question 3

Which of the four bricks on the top combine to make one of the cubes below?

Page 8 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Description

The right answer is C One of the groups of bricks below combine to make the cube shown, which one?

Question 4

Description

The right answer is B

Question 5

Description

The right answer is B

Page 9 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Question 6

Description

The right answer is C With only three turns on a rubiks cube which of the four cubes are possible to attain? See the cube folded and unfolded below.

Question 7

Description

The right answer is B A piece of square paper is folded along the dotted lines as shown below. If you contitue folding along the dotted line, which will result?

Question 8

Description

The right answer is C

Question 9

Which figure is identical to the first?

Page 10 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Description

The right answer, A B C and D Which figure is identical to the first?

Question 10

Description

The right answer is A

Notes:

Fourth category: Creative Imagination test Criteria Time needed

Description

Approved

Not approved

Proposed change

30 Minutes A test sheet is an A4-sized sheet of paper with 16 elements divided four four-element sets- straight lines, dots, curvy lines and semi circles. This category measures the following indicators; -Novelty, the level of originality in ideas. -Productivity, the number of ideas Page 11 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire -Transformation, the flexibility of thought. -Elaboration, the level of elaboration in the drawings.

Verbal Directions

“In this category you find a sheet of paper with 16 figures drawn on it. These are four lines, four dots, four curvy lines as well as four semicircles. Please try to use these elements to draw as many schematic drawings as you can that represent something that does not exist but in your opinion should exist. These might be new appliances, medicines or inventions, but also schematically expressed ideas and so on. The subject of the drawings is not limited. You can use all the sixteen elements or fewer in your drawings, but you cannot use more than the given sixteen figures in each of the drawings. Please try to draw as many such pictures as you can and make sure they are as original as possible. We will not rate your artistic abilities, which fact means the drawing does not have to be nice, but it is about the idea. Please sign each picture and make a short description what the thing presented in it could work for. You have 30 minutes for the task.”

Given 16 elements in four sets

Scoring

Assessing the test takes place on three scales; A, B and C. Scale A Scale A measures the number of pictures drawn in accordance with the requirements of test. All the drawings count, except for; (1) Drawings that are composed of more than 16 elements (NB; unless there exists justified suspicion that the extra element was added through inattention, and eliminating it does not significantly change the drawing itself; (2) Where not signed, meaning it is not known what the picture represents; (3) portray completely imitative things or ideas for example, a drawing portraying a table, signed as “a table”. Page 12 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire Scale B

Scale C

Scale b measures transformative abilities as well as elaboration and extent of drawing visualization and prodcutivity. The results within the B scale are calculated in the following way:

B= result in the B scale Lel.=number of elements used in a single drawing Lst.=number of sets used in a single drawing N=number of qualified drawings Hence, in the scale B the raw result is calculated by summing up the number of sets and the number of elements used in order to create a single drawing. Then the partial sums obtained for each drawing are added up, and divided by the number of drawings. Therefore, the result in the B scale may fall between 2 and 20 points for each drawing. Two points are assigned to the drawing created with the use of a single element (1element + 1set = 2points) , and twenty points are given to a drawing composed of all elements (16elements + 4sets = 20points). This scale is assessing the novelty of created works. As opposed to the previous two scales, it is to a certain context a subjective scale. The scores are as follows (1-low, 2-Medium, 3-High).

Notes:

Page 13 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire Fifth category: ‘Seeing and ‘Seeing as’ Criteria

Approved

Not approved

Proposed change

This section consists from 5 images each containing more than one organization. The assessment in this section is based on the analysis of the answers. This section measures the visual impression of images Time needed Verbal Directions of first section

5 Minutes “Write down what you see in the following figures”

Figure 1

Scoring

A frog (1 point) A horse (1 point) Any other organization seen by the student, will add 1 point to another scoring level, the bonus level.

Figure 2

Scoring

A rabbit ( 1 point) A duck ( 1 point) Any other organization seen by the student, will add 1 Page 14 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire point to another scoring level, the bonus level.

Figure 3

Scoring

A young lady ( 1 point) An old lady ( 1 point) Any other organization seen by the student, will add 1 point to another scoring level, the bonus level.

Figure 4

Scoring

An old man ( 1 point) A man on a horse (1 point) Any other organization seen by the student, will add 1 point to another scoring level, the bonus level.

Page 15 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Figure 5

Scoring

A man (1 point) A lady ( 1 point)

Note:

Sixths category Visualization and drawing

Time needed

Criteria 15 Minutes

Verbal Directions

“In this section you are given a perspective of a object, you are asked to draw the view as it is seen from the arrow.” This section aims for assessing the visualization of the figure as well as the drawing capacities of the student.

Number of figures

1 figure

Approved

Not approved

Proposed change

Page 16 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire

Figure

Scoring

The drawing is to be scored according to; - Drawing a dimensional view or drawing a perspective. (2 points) - Shape, the visualization of object in general. (3 points) - Proportion and scale, the visual judgment and ability to estimate the dimensional relationships. (2 points) - Figure ground relations. (1 point) - Depths, the light and shadow as well as overlapping techniques. (1 Point) - Cleanness of drawing implying confidence during drawing. (1 Point)

Notes:

Page 17 of 18

Appendix Three- Face Validity Questionnaire Seventh category: Drawing from imagination Criteria Verbal Directions

“In this last section is asking you are asked to draw a sketch of one of their last design projects.”

Time needed

15 Minutes

Figure

The student shall draw on one A4 size paper.

Scoring

Here is the student tested on his/her drawing skills, long term memory and design imagination. - Message coming through (3 points) - Complexity in drawing (2 point) - Size of drawing (1 point) - Density in drawing (1 point) - View of the drawing (1point) - Techniques in drawing (1 point) - Cleanness of drawing (1 point)

Approved

Not approved

Proposed change

Notes:

Page 18 of 18

APPENDIX FOUR

Appendix Four- Teaching Staff Questionnaire

The Effect of Digital Drawing tools on Imagination in Architectural education Researcher: Hawar Himdad Jamal

Supervisor: Ass. Prof. Dr. Amjad Qaradaghi

Most appreciated reader, this questionnaire is designed in serve of scientific research. I sincerely ask you to read the questions carefully and answer these questions as objective as possible. This research is concerned with the controversial issue of using different drawing tools in the academic frame and their effect on architectural students. Your contribution is highly appreciated, Note:  Key terms: Conventional Drawing tools; Drawing tools that are mostly exemplified by pencil and paper. Digital Drawing tools; Luminous drawing tools, any software that is to be characterized as Computer Aided design.  Put ( ) to the appropriate answers.

1

Gender: Male

2

Age: Less than 30 years 35-40 years 45-50 years 55-60 years

3

Number of years of experience within the academic frame: Less than 5 years 5- 10 years 10-15 years 15-20 years 20-25 years 25-30 years 30 years or more

4

Educational rank: PhD MSc Diploma Other,………………………………………………

Female

30-35 years 40-45 years 50-55 years 6o years or more

BSc

Page 1 of 5

Appendix Four- Teaching Staff Questionnaire

5

Job title: Professor Teacher

Assistant professor Assistant teacher

Which of these digital tools are you familiar with? Not familiar 6

Low familiarity

Medium familiarity

High familiarity

AutoCAD ArchiCad Revit Sketch Up 3DMax Other,…………………..

7

According to your perspective, what is the most significant task of architectural education curriculum? a) The curriculum should fit what is required from students in the exercise of architectural profession. b) The curriculum should affect the students’ design thinking in order to generate a successful architect. c) Other,………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………….

8

Which definition below fits your personal opinion on design the most? a) Designing incorporates both intuitive and logical steps in the process. b) Designing is a systematic process in which one can explain the steps taken. c) Designing is a rational process consisting of a ruled base system. d) One learns how to design through trail-and-error in the process. e) Even though one attempts to explain one’s design process, there may be something hidden in the black box. f) Other,………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………….

9

In your perspective, what is/are the best way(s) to use the digital tools in the academic design? a) As an oracle, the computer can produce a design proposition. b) As a draftsperson, the computer can be only used for drafting. c) As a modeler, the computer is a good tool to use during 3d-modelmaking. d) As a critic, the computer is a good tool to use for improving building performances e) Other,………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………… Page 2 of 5

.

Appendix Four- Teaching Staff Questionnaire

10

Which statement below fits your personal opinion on the role of digital tools in academic design? a) Digital tools lack the capacity to contribute to the design process b) Digital tools have not been well integrated to the design process; their potential is not fully utilized c) Designers with the digital tools tend to remain an outsider and observer of the design process d) Digital drawing tools help the designer to increase their design value e) Other,…………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………

11

Do you prefer a certain drawing tool for students to use? a) I prefer conventional drawing tools b) I prefer digital drawing tools c) No, I prefer both types of drawing tools d) Other,…………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………...

12

When do you think it is the best to use digital drawing tools according to the academic years? In stage 1 In stage 4 In stage 2 In stage 5 In stage 3 None

13

In which design stage do you think it is most appropriate to use digital tools? a) During conceptual phase. b) During improving concept phase c) During final presentation phase. According to your opinion, how do digital drawing tools affect the architectural students? Negative No Positive influence influence State of influence influen ce

14

low

mediu m

High

low

mediu m

High

Affecting students’ sketching abilities. Affecting students’ creative capacities. Affecting students’ Imaginative capacities. Affecting students’ design understanding Affecting students’ sense of motivation Affecting students’ ability to come up with multiple design ideas.

Page 3 of 5

Appendix Four- Teaching Staff Questionnaire

15

Below are some drawing characteristics listed, in your opinion which ones evoke imaginative capacities? Drawing characteristics Unambiguous drawings Ambiguous drawings Anonymous drawings Antonymous drawings Much time consuming drawings Less time consuming drawings High skill demanding drawings Low skill demanding drawings Sensory available drawings Sensory unavailable drawings Flexible scale drawings Fixed scale drawings None risky drawings Risky drawings ( a high chance of error and having to start over)

16

Do students’ drawing capacities relate to the students’ imagination capacities? Yes No

17

In your opinion, what student has more imagination? Students who are able to draw well by use Students who are able to draw of hand drawings well by using digital tools. How do both conventional drawing tools and digital drawing tools affect the student? Please choose the option which suits your opinion the most. Statements

Conventional drawing tools Low

18

Medium

High

Digital drawing tools Low

Medium

High

Helps students to explore the unknown. Helps students often come up with new ideas through intuition. Helps students often to imagine through feelings. Helps students to have multiple concepts about their design. Helps students to have uncommon design ideas compared to other students. Helps students to focus only on effective ideas (ideas that are productive). Helps students to be able to transfer ideas from one field to another. Helps students to express abstract ideas by using concrete examples. Helps students to think formally in order to improve an idea.

Page 4 of 5

Appendix Four- Teaching Staff Questionnaire

19

In your opinion what is the most substantial problem concerning the students’ use for digital drawing tools? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

20

In your opinion what is the most substantial problem concerning the students’ use for conventional drawing tools? ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………

Page 5 of 5

APPENDIX FIVE

Appendix Five- T-test results for student anaylsis

University Total number of designs Design by only conventional tools Design including digital tools

Sulaimani Koya

Std. Deviation 60 10.683 2.931 N

Mean

31 10.000

3.435

Sulaimani

60

2.983

2.311

Koya

31

3.226

1.668

Sulaimani

60

7.567

3.716

Koya

31

6.871

3.354

Conventional percentage usage

Sulaimani

60 33.683

20.575

Koya

31 36.290

22.591

Digital tools preference (According to process)

Sulaimani

60

2.167

0.642

Koya

31

2.194

0.654

Digital tools preference (According to stage)

Sulaimani

60

2.800

0.953

Koya

31

2.613

0.955

Sulaimani

60

6.550

2.266

Koya

31

6.677

2.613

Sulaimani

60

7.450

2.266

Koya

31

7.323

2.613

Sulaimani

60

7.467

1.751

Koya

31

5.839

2.115

Sulaimani

60

4.933

1.965

Koya

31

4.645

2.090

Sulaimani

60

0.850

1.774

Koya

31

1.129

2.061

Sulaimani

60

3.283

5.046

Koya

31

3.000

5.228

Sulaimani

60

0.283

0.585

Koya

31

0.290

0.588

Sulaimani

60

7.250

1.590

Koya

31

6.452

2.030

Sulaimani

60

0.500

0.834

Koya

31

0.548

0.810

Sulaimani

60

6.275

5.376

Koya

31

3.742

2.523

Sulaimani

60

5.600

2.109

Koya

31

2.694

2.092

Sulaimani

60

2.017

0.792

Left brain score Right brain score Simple Mental Image score Complex Mental Image score TCI score (A) TCI score (B) TCI score (C) Image interpretation score (A) Image interpretation score (B) Visualized drawing Drawing from imagination Exploration

t-test

d.f. P-Value Sig.

0.993

89

0.323

NS

-0.518

89

0.606

NS

0.874

89

0.384

NS

-0.554

89

0.581

NS

-0.188

89

0.851

NS

0.887

89

0.378

NS

-0.241

89

0.810

NS

0.241

89

0.810

NS

3.911

89

0.000

HS

0.649

89

0.518

NS

-0.673

89

0.503

NS

0.251

89

0.803

NS

-0.054

89

0.957

NS

2.061

89

0.042

S

-0.265

89

0.792

NS

2.481

89

0.015

S

6.247

89

0.000

HS

2.294

89

0.024

S

Appendix Five- T-test results for student anaylsis

Intuition Sensibility Productivity Novelty Transformation Elaboration Crystallization Conventional tools score Digital tools score Preferring Conventional drawing tools Preferring Digital drawing tools Design_Stage 1 Design_Stage 2 Design_Stage 3 Design_Stage 4 Freehand_Stage 1 Freehand_Stage 2

University

N

Mean

Koya

31

1.613

Std. Deviation 0.803

Sulaimani

60

2.183

0.748

Koya

31

1.484

0.811

Sulaimani

60

2.350

0.606

Koya

31

1.774

0.762

Sulaimani

59

2.186

0.706

Koya

31

1.710

0.739

Sulaimani

60

2.033

0.780

Koya

31

1.387

0.715

Sulaimani

60

2.100

0.706

Koya

31

1.452

0.675

Sulaimani

60

2.200

0.659

Koya

31

1.677

0.832

Sulaimani

60

1.933

0.733

Koya

31

1.581

0.620

Sulaimani

60

2.083

0.671

Koya

31

1.548

0.723

Sulaimani

60

1.917

0.671

Koya

31

2.000

0.816

Sulaimani

60

0.383

0.490

Koya

31

0.000

0.000

Sulaimani

60

0.617

0.490

Koya

31

1.000

0.000

Sulaimani

60 54.683

4.432

Koya

31 56.161

4.886

Sulaimani

60 54.667

4.853

Koya

31 64.613

5.277

Sulaimani

60 60.650

7.003

Koya

31 65.258

6.083

Sulaimani

60 58.650

7.917

Koya

13 66.923

3.013

Sulaimani

60 55.917

8.030

Koya

31 58.194

7.236

Sulaimani Koya

60 55.333 31 60.000

7.798 8.446

t-test

d.f. P-Value Sig.

4.109

89

0.000

HS

3.929

89

0.000

HS

2.994

88

0.004

HS

3.849

89

0.000

HS

4.213

89

0.000

HS

3.273

89

0.002

HS

2.286

89

0.025

S

3.510

89

0.001

HS

-0.521

89

0.604

NS

4.341

89

0.000

HS

-4.341

89

0.000

HS

-1.456

89

0.149

NS

-8.994

89

0.000

HS

-3.106

89

0.003

HS

-3.693

71

0.000

HS

-1.325

89

0.189

NS

-2.630

89

0.010

S

APPENDIX SIX

Appendix Six – Charts of the teaching staff questionnaire analysis

20 University of Sulaymania

10

University of koya 0 Male

Femal

Figure 1 Showing the male and female participation of the teaching staffs The population according to this questionnaire consists merely of teachers under the age of 30 years (Source: Researcher) 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

University of Sulaymania University of Koya Less 30-35 35-40 40-45 45-50 50-55 55-60 6o than years years years years years years years 30 or years more

Figure 2 Showing the age of the teaching staffs As for the years of experience within academic frame: The highest levels of years of experience count in the first category of less than 5 years for both of the universities (Source: Researcher). 20 15 10 5 0

University of Sulaymania University of Koya Less than 5 years

5-10 years

10-15 years

15-20 years

20-25 years

25-30 30 years years or more

Figure 3 Showing the years of experience of the teaching staffs (Source: Researcher)

Page 1 of 5

Appendix Six – Charts of the teaching staff questionnaire analysis 15 10 University of Sulaymania 5

University of Koya

0 PhD

MSc

BSc

Figure 4 A chart showing the scientific title of the participants (Source: Researcher) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

University of Sulaymania University of Koya None

Professor Assistant Teacher Assistant professor teacher

Figure 5 Showing the job title of questionnaire participants (Source: Researcher) 25 20

Not familiar

15

Low familiarity

10

Medium familiarity

5

High familiarity

0 Autocad

Archicad

Revit

Sketch up

3dMax

Figure 6 showing the digital tools capacities from university of Sulaymnaia teaching staff (Source: Researcher) 15 Not familiar

10

Low familiarity 5

Medium familiarity High familiarity

0 Autocad

Archicad

Revit

Sketch up

3dMax

Figure 7 showing the digital tools capacities from university of Koya teaching staff (Source: Researcher) Page 2 of 5

Appendix Six – Charts of the teaching staff questionnaire analysis The opninions on architectural curriculum: The teachers of University of Sulaymania have a higher choice in the need for the architectural curriculum to affect the students thinking, while the Koya university staff is divided on both academic and design thinking aspect. The Chi- square test shows a positive relation between the teachers’ definitions for the design curriculum (See Appendix). The teachers of University of Koya have the tendency to choose the architectural profession merely above affecting students’ design thinking. 20 15 10 5 0

University of Sulaymania a) The curriculum should fit The curriculum should affect what is required from students the students’ design thinking in in the exercise of architectural order to generate a successful profession. architect.

University of koya

Figure 8 Showing the architectural curriculum definitions for the participants (Source:Researcher) Design definition: The intuitive and logical aspects of design are preferred. The Chi-square test shows that the preferred definitions do relate to the university. 14 12 10 8 6 4 2

University of Sulaymania

0

University of koya Designing incorporates both intuitive and logical steps in the process.

Designing is a Designing is a One learns Even though systematic rational how to design one attempts process in process through trail- to explain which one can consisting of a and-error in one’s design explain the ruled base the process. process, there steps taken. system. may be something hidden in the black box.

Figure 9 Showing the questionnaire participants' design definitions (Source:Researcher)

Page 3 of 5

Appendix Six – Charts of the teaching staff questionnaire analysis Role of computer in the design process: A modeler and drafter are preferences of Sulaymania University staff, while Koya University staff prefers the computer as a critic and as drafter. 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

University of Sulaymania University of koya As an oracle, As a As a modeler, As a critic, the the computer draftsperson, the computer is computer is a can produce a the computer a good tool to good tool to design can be only use during 3duse for proposition. used for modelmaking. improving drafting. building performances

Figure 10 The teaching staff opinions on the role of computer in the design process (Source: Researcher) 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

University of Sulaymania University of koya Digital tools Digital tools Designers with Digital drawing lack the have not been the digital tools tools help the capacity to well integrated tend to remain designer to contribute to to the design an outsider and increase their the design process; their observer of the design value process potential is not design process fully utilized

Figure 11 A chart showing the role of digital drawing tools in academic design (Source: Researcher)

Page 4 of 5

Appendix Six – Charts of the teaching staff questionnaire analysis Tool preferences: The obvious opinion of most of the teaching staff preferring both types of tools in the design process. 25 20 15 10 5 0

University of Sulaymania University of koya I prefer conventional drawing tools

I prefer digital No, I prefer both drawing tools types of drawing tools

Figure 12 The teaching staff preferences as far as the different drawing tools goes (Source: Researcher)

14 12 10 8 6

Univerity of Sulaymania

4

University of Koya

2 0 From stage 1

From stage 2

From stage 3

From stage 4

From stage 5

None

Figure 13 Showing the teachers preferences for using digital drawing tools according to the academic years (Source: Researcher)

25 20 15 University of Sulaymania

10

University of Koya2

5 0 Concept phase

Improving concept Presentation phase phase

Figure 14 Showing the teachers preferences for using digital drawing tools according to the phases of the design process (Source: Researcher) Page 5 of 5

APPENDIX SEVEN

Appendix Seven- T-test for questionnaire analysis

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Affecting students’ sketching abilities.

Sulamani

25

5.56

1.502

Koya

16

5.19

1.424

Affecting students’ creative capacities.

Sulamani

25

4.00

1.683

Koya

16

2.44

1.896

Affecting students’ Imaginative capacities. Affecting students’ design understanding

Sulamani

25

4.08

2.178

Koya

16

2.25

1.571

Sulamani

25

2.92

1.869

Koya

16

2.06

0.854

Affecting students’ sense of motivation

Sulamani

25

2.96

1.594

Koya

16

2.31

1.302

Affecting students’ ability to come up with multiple design ideas.

Sulamani

25

3.36

1.846

Koya

16

2.38

1.258

t

d.f.

P-Value

Sig.

0.790

39

0.434

NS

2.760

39

0.009

HS

2.906

39

0.006

HS

1.718

39

0.094

NS

1.359

39

0.182

NS

1.871

39

0.069

NS

Page 1 of 1

APPENDIX EIGHT

Appendix Eight- Drawing characteristics and imagination (for teaching staff analysis)

Antonymous drawings Sensory unavailable drawings High skill demanding drawings Fixed scale drawings Unambiguous drawings Ambiguous drawings None risky drawings Less time consuming drawings Risky drawings (a high chance of error and having to start over) Low skill demanding drawings

Sulamani No % 12 48.0 14 56.0 9 36.0 8 32.0 7 28.0 8 32.0 8 32.0 7 28.0

Koya No % 7 43.8 4 25.0 5 31.3 6 37.5 6 37.5 4 25.0 3 18.8 4 25.0

Total No % 19 46.3 18 43.9 14 34.1 14 34.1 13 31.7 12 29.3 11 26.8 11 26.8

7

28.0

3

18.8

10

24.4

7

28.0 20.0 16.0 12.0 12.0

2

12.5 18.8 12.5 6.3 6.3

9

22.0 19.5 14.6 9.8 9.8

Much time consuming drawings

5

Flexible scale drawings

4

Anonymous drawings

3

Sensory available drawings

3

3 2 1 1

8 6 4 4

Page 1 of 1

‫تأثير أدوات الرسم الرقمية على التخيل في تعليم التصميم المعماري‬ ‫المشرف‪ :‬د‪ .‬امجد محمد على قه ره داغى‬

‫الباحثة‪ :‬هه وار هيمداد جمال‬

‫‪[email protected]‬‬

‫‪[email protected]‬‬

‫ملخص البحث‬ ‫تهدف هذه الرسالة الى العثور على تاثير أدوات الرسم الرقمية على التخيل بالمقارنة مع أدوات‬ ‫الرسم التقليدية ضمن اإلطار التعليمي‪ .‬وسعت استخدامات التكنولوجيا وأالدوات الرقمية بشكل خاص‬ ‫مجموعة من أساليب التصميم خالل العقدين الماضيين‪ .‬وقد استخدم التصميم المعماري هذه التقنيات من‬ ‫مرحلة الفكرة االولية الى مرحلة التنفيذ و اللمسات األخيرة‪ .‬على الرغم من أن استخدام هذا التطبيق انتقد‬ ‫بشدة اال انه وفي الوقت ذاته فهو مطلوب في سوق العمل‪ ,‬وفي األوساط األكاديمية المعمارية تنامت خالفات‬ ‫كبيرة حول الجوانب السلبية المتعلقة باستخدام هذه األدوات الرقمية‪.‬من هنا جاءت أهمية هذه الدراسة التي‪,‬‬ ‫تسعى الى العثور على تاثيرات األنواع مختلفة من أالدوات‪ ,‬التقليدية والرقمية‪ ,‬على التخيل لدى الطلبة‪.‬‬ ‫وقد اتخذت هذه الدراسة عامل الخيال النها تحتوي على أعلى مستوى من القدرات العقلية النفسية ‪,‬‬ ‫و ذو اهمية فائقة لدى طلبة القسم المعمارى‪ .‬المشكلة التي يستند إليها هذه الدراسة ‪ :‬اولهما هى ظاهرة أن‬ ‫التكنولوجيا الرقمية قضية جدلية في إالطار التعليمي‪ ,‬وآثارها على قدرة التخيل غير معروفة‪ .‬وشملت حالة‬ ‫الدراسة مقارنة بين مجموعتين؛ احداها اكثر اعتمادا على األدوات الرقمية‪ ,‬في حين تعتمد االخرى على‬ ‫األدوات التقليدية فقط‪ ,‬ويتم هنا التحري عن قدرات التخيل لدى الطالب وكذلك قدرات الرسم‪ .‬تم تصميم‬ ‫اختبار لتقييم قدرة التخيل والرسم لدى الطالب و فى نفس الوقت تم تقييم مستوى التخيل (التى يكون من‬ ‫مجموعتين‪ :‬موشرات التخيل االبداعى و موشرات تخيل التوالدي) الطالب من قبل اساتذة التصميم من خالل‬ ‫استمارة تقويمية‪ .‬كما تم أخذ آراء هيئة التدريس عن كل مجموعة من الطالب عن طريق االستبيان‪.‬‬ ‫وجدت هذه ألدراسة‪ :‬ان هنالك عالقة إيجابية بين الرسم وقدرات التخيل‪ .‬والطلبة الذين يستخدمون‬ ‫أدوات الرسم التقليدية بكثرة يكون درجة قدرات التخيل و قدرات فى الرسم لديهم اعلى‪ .‬و وجد ايضا عالقة‬ ‫ايجابية بين التخيل االبداعى و تخيل التوالدى‪ ,‬في حين يرى مجموع هيئة التدريس ان الطالب اللذى عنده‬ ‫قدرة عالية في الرسم باألدوات التقليدية ايضا لديه قدرة تخيل اعلى‪.‬‬

‫تأثير أدوات الرسم الرقمية على التخيل في تعليم التصميم المعماري‬

‫رسالة تقدمت بها‬ ‫هه وار هيمداد جمال‬

‫إلى‬ ‫مجلس فاكلتي الهندسة في جامعة السليمانية‬ ‫وهي جزء من متطلبات نيل درجة ماجستير علوم في الهندسة المعمارية‬ ‫بإشراف‬ ‫أ‪.‬م‪.‬د‪ .‬أجمد حممد علي القرة داغي‬

‫‪ 5341‬هـ‬

‫‪ 4153‬ك‬

‫‪ 4153‬م‬