KATHOLIEKE UNIVERSITEIT LEUVEN FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CULTURES AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

Transforming Ugandan Women’s Livelihoods Through Entrepreneurship Promotor : Prof. Dr. M. BREUSERS Second reader : Prof. Dr. S. VAN WOLPUTTE

MASTER THESIS submitted to obtain the degree of Master of Science in Cultures and Development Studies by Frank SANDS

academic year 2011-2012

Abstract: In order to introduce and evaluate entrepreneurship training programs for women as a development initiative, this paper investigates women operating Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) in Kampala, Uganda to better understand women’s motivations and challenges and to what extent their livelihoods have been transformed by the Entrepreneurial Training Programme (ETP), a joint initiative of the Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) and Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA). Furthermore the trend of development initiatives which are encouraging people and women in particular to become entrepreneurs will be critically evaluated. In addition to in-depth interviews that were conducted to gain insights from fourteen women ETP-trained micro entrepreneurs and three others, the results of the 2010 Evaluation Report of the ETP prepared by an independent Uganda-based management consultancy will be reviewed. The women entrepreneurs in this study were motivated by pull factors, such as the need for self-fulfilment, work flexibility and a challenge. Dissatisfaction with salaried jobs or general lack of employment opportunities and insufficient family income were among the factors that pushed them into selfemployment. They perceive self-discipline, bookkeeping, flexibility, customer-service and passion for entrepreneurship as key success factors. Lack of access to financial capital, gender discrimination, family relationships and family commitments which create workhome conflicts are among the major obstacles facing these women entrepreneurs. Keywords: Micro entrepreneurship, livelihoods, empowerment, MSE

multiple-case

analysis,

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Foreword This thesis would have been impossible were in not for the patience and kind assistance of many individuals in Uganda, Iceland and Belgium, whom I would like to extend my gratitude, including: Geir Oddsson, PhD; Programme Coordinator, ICEIDA in Uganda - and his wife Ragna Björk for their hospitality and kindness. Leslie Mutaumba Male, Finance & Admin, Project Officer, Entrepreneurship Training Programme – for his thoroughness and organizational skills. Sarah Kyejjusa Bazibu, Lecturer/Business Development Advisor, Makerere University Business School for her insight and optimism. Auðbjörg Halldórsdóttir, my wife; for her endless patience and encouragement. Victoria Leigh, my mother; for her excellent advice and creativity.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract Foreword CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Background of problem 1.3 Entrepreneurship Training Program (ETP) 1.4 Statement of the research problem 1.4.1 Objectives of this study 1.4.2 Research questions 1.4.3 Reasons for selecting this problem 1.5 The significance of the study 1.6 The limitations of the study 1.7 Organisation of the thesis CHAPTER TWO: THE RESEARCH SETTING 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Location & population and economy of Uganda 2.3 The region of the study, Kampala 2.4 Entrepreneurship development in Uganda 2.5 Women in Uganda 2.6 Women & the MSE sector in Uganda 2.7 Chapter summary CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW OF KEY CONCEPTS, IDEAS AND PROCESSES 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Theoretical perspectives 3.2.1 Micro and small enterprises defined 3.2.2 Informal economy defined 3.2.3 Women’s empowerment defined 3.2.4 Livelihood defined

2 3

7 7 11 15 18 19 19 20 20 21

22 22 23 24 25 27 29

30 30 30 31 32 32 4

3.2.5 Who is an entrepreneur? 3.2.6 Can entrepreneurs be created? 3.2.7 Profiles of female entrepreneurs 3.2.8 Gender, gender relations and empowerment 3.3 Chapter Summary CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Justification for the area of the study 4.3 Target population and study units 4.4 Research design 4.5 Statistical design 4.5.1 Types and sources of data 4.5.2 The sample & procedure for selecting sample 4.6 Operational design 4.6.1 Variables investigated (Quantitative) 4.6.2 Variables investigated (Qualitative) 4.6.4 Methods of data collection 4.6.5 Data analysis 4.7 Concerns for validity and reliability 4.8 Chapter summary CHAPTER FIVE: THE FINDINGS ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Characteristics women micro entrepreneurs 5.2.1 Gender of ETP trainees 5.2.2 Women microentrepreneurs’ education profile 5.2.3 microentrepreneurs’ business status 5.2.4 Formal business registration of ETP trainees 5.2.5 Access to finance of ETP trainees 5.2.6 Impact on record keeping 5.2.7 Change in business health 5.2.8 Trainee’s Perception of the ETP 5

32 33 34 35 36

38 38 38 39 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 43 44 45

46 46 47 48 48 49 49 52 54 55

5.3 Profiles of women’s microenterprises 57 5.3.1 Ownership of women’s microenterprises 57 5.3.2 Formalisation of women’s microenterprises 57 5.3.3 Sectors of women’s microenterprises 58 5.3.4 Background/profile of ETP trained women’s microenterprises 60 5.3.5 Performance of ETP trained women’s microenterprises 64 5.4 Attitudes of ETP trained women microentrepreneurs 65 5.4.1 Critical success factors according to ETP trained women entrepreneurs: 65 5.4.2 Handling Conflicts: family relations & the business 69 5.5 What women microentrepreneurs perceive to have gained by participating in the ETP 73 5.6 Factors limiting the attainment of women’s empowerment among ETP trained microentrepreneurs 73 5.7 How have women ETP-trained microentrepreneurs translated their changes in well-being into changing their gender relations individually and within their households and community? 74 5.8 Is the theoretical underpinning of the study consistent with related international literature? 75 5.9 Chapter summary 76 CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 6.1 Introduction 77 6.2 Summary 77 6.3 Conclusions 78 6.4 Contribution of the study 78 6.5 Suggestions / Policy Recommendations 79 Appendix i 80 References 81 6

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction In this chapter the introduction will be presented and divided into the following nine sections: ii) background of problem; iii) UIA’s Entrepreneurship Training Programme (ETP); iv) statement of the research problem; v) objectives of the study vi) research questions; vii) reasons for selecting the problem; viii) significance of the study; ix) limitations of study x) organization of this thesis 1.2 Background of problem Gender inequality hinders development and dramatically reduces a country’s domestic output. (iTouwen, A. 1996 p.15) Embedded discrimination against women is endemic in the majority of Less Developed Countries (LDC’s) in spite of the best efforts of women’s organizations worldwide. Despite decades of development interventions to aid women and address gender inequalities, progress is hard to identify and in some cases seems to have been reversed. Many argue that development initiatives are bound to failure as long as women continue to be excluded and discriminated against. ii ( Young, K. 2002 p.321) As feminists have long pointed out; for women to ever have the opportunity to develop, they must be empowered in order to have the agency they need to challenge patriarchy and global inequality (iiiBecker, M. 1999 p.21) Uganda is “a patriarchal society where men are the dominant players in decision-making, although women shoulder most reproductive, productive and community management responsibilities, many of which are not remunerated or reflected in national statistics” iv ( MGLSD 1997 p.3). The fact that land inheritance is mainly patrilineal means that ownership of registered land is overwhelmingly in the hands of men; women own just 7% to men’s 93% which is symptomatic of women’s economic dependence on men. (vMukasa et al., 2005.) 7

In the 1970’s Women in Development (WID) was generated in response to mounting evidence that women were not benefiting from development initiatives as well as their male counterparts. (viJoekes, S. 1990) The WID concept was meant to bring women’s equality into development initiatives in order to insure that gender inequality would be addressed directly in a variety of areas, including issues such as industrialization, food and agriculture, science and technology and social development. (viiMbughuni, P. 1994. pp. 213-216) However WID was criticized for ignoring the root causes of gender inequalities and failing to take into account social processes affecting the lives and reproductive roles of women. WID projects had women working more without alleviating other responsibilities and division of labour in terms of gender was reinforced rather than redefined. Finally, a top-down management style left out women’s input into planning processes leaving them as beneficiaries rather than collaborators in their country’s development. (viiiKarl, 1995:100) By the 1980’s Women in Development had received enough criticism that a paradigm shift was required that would alleviate women’s concerns and bring them into the mainstream of the economy. Gender and development (GAD) was the natural answer to these criticisms; an evolutionary step in development approaches which made women more active participants and took into account how a society assigns gender roles, expectations and responsibilities ix ( Africa Recovery-United Nations, 1998). GAD was brought to the forefront of development by the World Bank in 1994 with the objective of addressing the various constraints that perpetuate differences between men and women and constrain development effectiveness (xTouwen, A. 1996: p.15). However, critics point out that GAD, despite its progress from WID, has not addressed the fact that women continue to sacrifice their independence and agency in order to become mothers and wives. Also it should be understood that GAD is not a total rewrite of WID, but more of an extension and correction in the long road towards eliminating gender discrimination in development. (xiKandiyoti, D. 1990. 21) As Uganda’s economy continues to exhibit rapid growth relative to many of the world’s recession-market economies, the dominance of 8

the private sector is increasingly bolstered by the micro and smallenterprise (MSE) sub-sector, of which women’s businesses are a large proportion (45%) and which accounts for approximately 90% of the private sector. Uganda’s MSEs make up some 75% of Uganda’s Gross Domestic product (GDP) and employ more than 2.5 million people. With MSE employment growth at an estimated at 25% per annum, the Ugandan MSE subsector is a prime source of new jobs. The development community has long recognized the importance of the informal sector of the Ugandan economy among the impoverished and lower-income as a means of providing basic goods and services. (xiiStevenson, L. 2005) While men in Uganda have had the benefit of being able to earn income from a variety of sectors, women who were in previous decades left to earning income from laboring in agriculture in the absence of paid employment have become highly resourceful in creating and operating competitive businesses, especially MSEs. (xiiiEntrepreneurship & Regional Development: 2009)

While women’s MSE business activities in Uganda managed to relieve women of the burden of un/underemployment and provide them with some income to reduce their poverty, numerous constraints continue to hold women back - a dearth of available capital or finance including other resources; technology, education and basic business skills. As women who traditionally are responsible for home-making without appliances and child-rearing without day-care, a lack of time is a pervasive problem. In addition to having to deal with usually male-dominated and often corrupt officials’ gender discrimination, women have to contend with their own husbands’ envy and abuse of their business capital in trying to earn a living through business. (xivNaituli et al. 2006) Gender relations are discriminatory against women in the vast majority of patriarchal societies, which is manifested in decision making, division of labor, access to resources, freedom of time and of movement where men are clearly dominant. Men have immense control of women because gender relations embody ideas, values and identities; allocate labor between tasks, activities and domains, determine the distribution of resources and because gender relations assign authority, agency and 9

decision-making power. (xvKabeer, N. 2003. pp 169-193) A number of market, government, educational and systemic “failures”, deficiencies in institutional arrangements, and gender discrimination combine to adversely affect women’s access to education, training, management development, credit, professional business development services, market information, representation and other economic resources and opportunities. Women entrepreneurs in sub-Saharan Africa face a daunting array of challenges arising from the socio-cultural, economic, legal, political, and technological environments in which they live. Moreover, unfavourable conditions in local regulatory, normative, and cognitive systems place additional burdens on women who desire to become entrepreneurs or to expand an entrepreneurial business. (xviAmine, L. 2009, pp 183-211) As Sen & Parpart argue: “We reject the belief that it is possible to obtain sustainable improvements in women’s economic and social position under conditions of growing relative inequality, if not absolute poverty, for both women and men. Equality for women is impossible within the existing economic, political, and cultural processes that reserve resources, power and control for small groups of people. But neither is development possible without greater equity for, and participation by women. (Sen & Parpart in Desai & Potter, 1988)

xvii

In short women in Uganda are facing significant obstacles to achieving their potential in business and in other domains of control. Whatever progress women make towards gender equality it must be recognized that in this age of cost-effectiveness and efficiencyorientation within development initiatives and indigenous efforts to promote economic growth, women’s continuing disenfranchisement is one of the biggest drags on development. In addition to examining a entrepreneurship training program meant to partly address this problem of inequality among Ugandan women, this paper will look at the problems that prospective women entrepreneurs in Uganda face and their attitudes toward their businesses. In recognition of women’s aptitude for operating MSEs and the vital role that micro-businesses play in development, a number of actors 10

including Ugandan government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGO) and foreign national development agencies have begun in earnest to promote education for women in starting and running businesses. Studies have shown that government’s support and encouragement of individual’s entrepreneurial behavior have a positive impact on the country’s economy. (xviii Payne & Bartell, 1995.) The Entrepreneurship Training Program (ETP) which will be described below, aims to bring valuable business skills to Ugandan men and women. This thesis would be incomplete in ignoring the potential negative aspects of entrepreneurship; the inevitable ramifications must be acknowledged and examined. It must be asked how success or failure of women’s entrepreneurship is judged. How do women entrepreneurs regard the risks and competition while attempting to balance the needs of their families and the long hours of their businesses? The positive aspects of women’s entrepreneurship is readily recognized as a means of circumventing existing power structures, embedded gender inequalities and gaining agency through improved financial status. But the fact that self-employed women in MSE businesses have few if any employees and are invariably responsible for the family and household necessarily results in a significantly higher workload and accompanying stress. Therefore it is necessary to take into account how well-being is assessed; both through outside sources including the ETP’s own evaluation report as well as the qualitative research conducted by the researcher. 1.3 ICEIDA/UIA Entrepreneurship Training Program (ETP) The ETP is, as its name suggests, designed to train individuals in the art of entrepreneurship. The following quotations are taken from interviews with those that designed, founded and maintain the program and are perhaps the best descriptions of the ETP. “...focused on micro/small & medium enterprises in Uganda and ...a specific focus on women and gender equality in the recipients of the training. ...there is a great need to increase the skills of the capacity 11

of the private sector especially in the micro/small side of the scale, increase their business skills and provide them with the tools to be able to grow their businesses and increase their income...” Geir Oddsson, PhD; Programme Coordinator, ICEIDA in Uganda What are ETP’s goals? “Mainly to ensure that entrepreneurship can be able to cut across every sector and also in every part of Uganda. What we do is to train every person to be able to start up a business. So the goal is to ensure that at least every Ugandan will be able to access the basic necessities of life. And in this way we are trying to eradicate poverty from Uganda whereby every person will not just be dependent on each other but will be able to start something which can help them to generate money. So that is the main goal of the ETP. In addition we also want to be able to empower individuals to be able to start something and then be able to earn a living. That is the main goal of the ETP.” Prof. Sarah Kyejjusa Bazibu, Lecturer/Business Development Advisor, Makerere University Business School “The project currently has about 150 trainers spread all over the country. The initial phase of the project was to cover the Northern region but gradually with the Belgian funding coming in, it was possible to cover the entire country. ...Our advantage is that the trainers in different parts of the country speak the different languages so when we train people that can not understand our languages we have trainers that can translate into the local languages. The training practically covers four modules; business basics, business planning, enterprise management as well as social and personal aspects of business. ...The impact that it has had on entrepreneurs is quite massive. Participants were often shocked to realized how important it is to keep records. After training, they started doing that and it’s amazing how big their businesses have grown, from very small, even minute businesses something small but worth millions and millions of Shillings.” Leslie Mutaumba Male, Finance & Admin, Project Officer, Entrepreneurship Training Programme. 12

ETP, as it is commonly known, is an an entrepreneurship training initiative created to address the need to increase the skills and the capacity of Uganda’s private sector. ETP targets those intending to start business, or those whose businesses are in the early stages or expanding as well as those running Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs). Following a request in 2005/6 from the Ugandan government for the development of an Entrepreneurship Training Program based on Reykjavik University’s eponymous pilot project, a program document was written which lead to the creation of ETP. Currently covering all regions of Uganda, ETP was aimed at local male and especially female entrepreneurs to support the Micro to Small- and Enterprises (MSE) sector of the Ugandan economy while simultaneously addressing gender inequality by enabling entrepreneurs to access and utilise appropriate business skills, information, networks and services. Other areas of focus include existing companies in agribusiness and service sectors and individuals with retail operations who want to diversify into valueadded activities. In the selection of the target beneficiaries, emphasis is given to women and rural Ugandans. Entrepreneurship training was originally intended to educate some 1,260 MSE entrepreneurs in five districts in Uganda, with eight ‘first generation’ trainers and twenty-one ‘second generation’ trainers.(xixETP Evaluation Report, 2010) ETP was financed by Iceland’s International Development agency, ICEIDA, from its inception until 2010 but continues with support from the Belgian government. The Uganda Investment Authority (UIA), which implements and maintains the ETP, was created in 1991 with the goal of attracting and enabling outside investment to Uganda while simultaneously supporting and promoting domestic business interests. Although the original focus was on larger investors in recent years the UIA has shifted towards facilitating MSEs on recognition of the vital role that smaller businesses play in the Ugandan economy.(xxETP Evaluation Report, 2010)

In 2004, ICEIDA and the UIA began a needs assessment of small businesses in Uganda and discovered that the available entrepreneurship training programs in operation they were not 13

successful in attracting and meeting the needs specifically of micro entrepreneurs and especially of women. Small business operators typically were wanting in basic business skills and related information and services. The joint assessment also found that rural entrepreneurs were more often unreached by any kind of commercially available entrepreneurship training. Due to a lack of marketing resources and poorly designed training materials, rural business was not receiving the attention it needed to make a significant impact on helping rural entrepreneurs out of poverty and increasing the flow of money into the local economy. The needs assessment made it clear that there was a genuine demand for a training program constructed on an entirely new model which would focus on meeting MSE needs by building capacity among entrepreneurs across the country. Under the central control of UIA, ETP was financed by ICEIDA and designed in collaboration with Ugandan stakeholders including Uganda Women Entrepreneurs Association Limited (UWEAL), Makerere Business School (MUBS), Management Training and Advisory Centre (MTAC), Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development (MOFPED). During the first three years of ETP’s implementation the partners collaborated on implementation and monitoring, including the recruitment of the first and second generation of trainers, organizing and managing the education of these trainers and in cooperating to perform Business Health Checks on the trainees’ businesses. While concentrating on poverty alleviation and sustainable livelihood ETP promotes productive employment and gender equality, contributing to the empowerment of Ugandan women through employment generation and income distribution. The ETP’s main aim of promoting entrepreneurship through the improvement of existing and new MSEs is realized by developing basic business skills, keeping track of trainees and their businesses and promoting networking. Despite the original objective of educating some 1,286 entrepreneurs over the first three years of the program, after five years of educating men and women in the fundamentals of running a successful 14

business, some ten thousand had been trained in various parts of the country of which 53% are women. The popularity of the program is due in no small part to its cost and simplicity; ETP is free of charge and applying for acceptance involves the completion of a simple registration form, either at UIA offices or online. The ETP training lasts five days during which four modules are covered including; business basics, business planning, enterprise management and social and personal aspects of the business.(xxi ETP Evaluation Report, 2010) 1.4 Statement of the research problem At least since the 1970’s, development practitioners have been attempting to formulate an appropriate intervention to transform women’s status in-and-outside the home. A significant number of interventions have been planned and implemented over the intervening years, including raising women’s status through access to education, training and health and family planning services.(xxii Collier, P. 1988) In the realm of politics and government, already a number of countries have mandated a minimum proportion of female-to-male representatives and many constitutions have been revamped to officially recognize women’s rights. (xxiiiMukangara, F. 1997) In terms of Economics over the last twenty years women in LDC’s have been encouraged through microfinance and business training initiatives to become ever more entrepreneurial; starting businesses, taking loans and hopefully prospering enough to generate income and create employment. (xxiv von Bulow, et al. 2002) In spite of researchers’ efforts to understand the problem there is little in the way of a clear answer as to why women in LDC’s, even with all the changes described above, have failed to rise to the men’s level in terms of status and gender relations; remaining effectively marginalized in the development process. (xxv Jahan, R.1995 p.826). Downsizing within the public and private sectors has heightened job insecurity and brought lower pay and higher unemployment levels with low-income women remaining the most vulnerable. In response to this ongoing lack of employment opportunities men as well as women are turning in ever greater numbers to the informal sector as 15

micro entrepreneurs.(xxvi Beneria in Grasmuck & Espinal, 2002 p.242) Without any union organizations or other worker support systems, the self-employed have no minimum wage on which they can rely during difficult times, nor do they enjoy any sort of job protection, maternity leave or benefits of any kind. While these micro entrepreneurs manage to generate income and thus support themselves, the vast majority of them survive on extremely low revenues. (xxvii Malhotra et al, 2002 p.24) Because the entrepreneurial work that women perform in the informal sector; such as cooking, growing vegetables, milking, making textiles and so on is often related to typical female domestic roles, some point out that gender inequalities are thus perpetuated rather than dismantled. (xxviii Mbilinyi, M. 1999b) In the development community there has been a widely held faith and a general assumption that helping women into starting and operating businesses would bring them greater equality and economic relevance. However many experts in gender studies have found that women working in the informal sector are perceived as neither entrepreneurial nor economically significant and thus fail to break through the glass ceiling of gender inequality. (xxix Beneria in Grasmuck & Espinal, 2002 p.242)

Concurrent to this debate on women and entrepreneurship there has been discussion among scholars on the ideology of women’s autonomy which considers the plausibility of women’s independent income leading to greater independence from men’s income and thus would ameliorate women’s status in the community as well as in the home. However, there appears to be mounting evidence to demonstrate that gender inequality is more tied to issues that have little to do with materials goods or higher income level; such as ideological and cultural values that effectively maintain women’s subordinate status by constraining the behaviours and expectations of women.(xxxSocial Watch E-Newsletter, 12/2003) Female entrepreneurs face additional constraints in the form of the many roles they must play as a result of division of labor based on gender, obstacles to accessing credit and skill-training based on 16

prejudice against women, and perhaps most significantly a lack of self-esteem due to a lifetime of male-dominance indoctrination which inhibits women from essential risk-taking.(xxxi Safsa et al; 2000 p. 242)

Thus it is vital for the purposes of this thesis to make a contribution to the ongoing discussion on gender and development by examining the views, experiences and insights of women entrepreneurs who have taken part in entrepreneurial training development initiatives. There is a general lack of women’s entrepreneurship development studies and very little to be found on the relationship between women’s microenterprises, livelihoods and empowerment. Following this vein, while there are countless programs across Africa that seek to promote women’s entrepreneurship the overall impact of such initiatives is questionable.(xxxii Social Watch p.167) A deeper grasp of such an intervention would undoubtedly be a positive contribution to our understanding of such programs as a whole and may help in designing the interventions of the future. It is therefore appropriate to explore the impact of the UIA’s Entrepreneurial Training Programme in order to widen our experience and narrow the knowledge gap in the area.

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1.4.1 Objectives of this study The primary objective of the study was to explore and to describe the extent to which the UIA’s Entrepreneurial Training Programme has impacted the livelihoods of participating women microentrepreneurs in Kampala, Uganda. The following secondary objectives were formulated to contribute to meeting the main objective: • • • • • •

To identify the motivations of women microentrepreneurs who participated in the ETP. To find out the attitudes of women entrepreneurs who participated in the ETP. To discover factors limiting the attainment of women’s empowerment among ETP trained microentrepreneurs. To investigate gender inequality from the perspective of women microentrepreneurs who participated in the ETP To examine women entrepreneurs’ opinions of the ETP To explore related international literature in order to provide the setting for the research questions.

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1.4.2 Research questions The major research question for the study was: To what extent and in what ways have the livelihoods of women micro entrepreneurs been impacted by their participation in the ETP? The following secondary research questions were formulated in order to get data for answering the major research question: • • •

• •

What are the profiles of microenterprises owned by women microentrepreneurs who participate in the ETP Program? What challenges and/or advantages, if any, do women entrepreneurs face? In what ways have women ETP micro entrepreneurs translated their well-being changes into changing their gender relations individually and within their households and community? What are the factors limiting the process of empowerment by ETP-trained women microentrepreneurs? Is the theoretical underpinning of the study consistent with related international literature

1.4.3 Reasons for selecting this problem Women’s empowerment is goal number three of the Millennium Development Goals as well as a very topical subject today in developing countries like Uganda. At the same time there has been a growing interest since the 1980’s in entrepreneurship in general and women’s entrepreneurship in particular in both the industrialised and developing countries. The second reason is that studies and academic papers on women’s empowerment are scanty, geographically unevenly distributed and skewed focus-wise as well as institutionally narrow. The limited empirical work done on women’s empowerment has also focused on the impact of

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microfinance or entrepreneurship.

credit-based

microenterprises

rather

than

1.5 The significance of the study The study explores one of the most important and topical development issues of today not only for developing countries but for all countries in the world, namely women’s empowerment as shown in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). More specifically, it examines women’s empowerment through microenterprise development, which is one of the approaches considered to have a greater potential to empower the disempowered. The knowledge generated by this study may be useful not only to Uganda but also to other developing countries in the area of women entrepreneurship development and empowerment. The findings of the study with regard to the impact of the ETP on selected empowerment variables are likely to be of interest to policy makers and development practitioners in government, such as Iceland’s Development Agency, ICEIDA, that initiated the ETP in conjunction with Uganda’s UIA, non-governmental organisations and in the donor community as well as to business development service providers. 1.6 The limitations of the study Discovering the amount of influence and scope that the ETP had in transforming women’s livelihoods had a number of limitations. Firstly, the sample of respondents in the quantitative research were just under 10% of those trained, of which women were approximately half, while those of the qualitative research numbered only 14; comprising more of a focus group than a statistically valid group size. Secondly, apart from their five days of business training, ETP participants had unequal access to financing, which is at least as 20

likely a critical success factor as the ETP training itself. This situation gave rise to the problem of making comparisons among ETP participants. Because interviews were conducted at UIA or business premises that were subject to frequent interruptions and there was limited time with most interviewees, information collected was often less thorough than had been hoped. It is also quite possible that ETP trainees may have provided less truthful information in a rational attempt to project better than average results and to enhance their self-image. This was largely so when no business had been started since the training or the lack of clear improvement in the existing business. (xxxiii ETP Evaluation Report, 2010)

1.7 Organisation of the thesis The rest of the thesis is organised as follows. Chapter Two presents the research setting. Chapter Three explores the relevant literature, theoretical perspectives and evidence from practice. The research methodology and procedure are discussed in Chapter Four. Chapter Five presents the analysis and discussion of the findings while Chapter Six presents the summary, conclusions and potential contribution of the study.

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CHAPTER TWO: THE RESEARCH SETTING 2.1 Introduction Chapter Two describes the research setting, meant to give useful background information about Uganda, the country in which the study was conducted. This chapter is divided as follows: (i) location, population and economy of Uganda; (ii) the region of study, Kampala; (iii) entrepreneurship development in Uganda; (iv) women in Uganda; (v) women and the micro and small enterprises sector in Uganda; and (vi) chapter summary. 2.2 Location and population and economy of Uganda The Republic of Uganda located in landlocked East Africa has substantial natural resources. More than 80% of the work force is employed in agriculture, with coffee being its main export.(xxxiv International Entrepreneurship, 2012) Agriculture accounts for almost 40% of GDP, 85% of export earnings and 80% of workforce employment.(xxxv African Development Bank, 2005). Despite its yearround growing season and fertile lands Uganda is ranked among the world’s poorest, at 154 out of 177 countries.(xxxvi ilo.org, 2012) In terms of Purchasing Power Parity, some 38% of Ugandans live on less than US$ 1.25 while 65% survive on less than US$ 2.00 per day.(xxxvii worldbank.org, 2012) In recent years Uganda’s economy has become relatively prosperous with a stable currency, low inflation and more modest population growth. Literacy, employment, and immunizations are all up while the birthrate and HIV/AID’s incidence continues to decline.(xxxviii worldbank.org,2012) The population of Uganda is approaching 33 million with a median age of 15 years.(xxxix CIA worldfactbook, 2012) Ugandans, despite a colonial past and decades of immigration from South Asia, are overwhelmingly of African descent, consisting of thirteen principal groups with their respective languages and cultures. English is the official language of Uganda, though the largest spoken language is Luganda.(xlundp.org, 2012) The average age of an entrepreneur in Uganda, nearly half of which are women, is 35; Nearly two-thirds of 22

these people are in business to make a living. The percentage of individuals aged 18 to 64 active in either starting up or managing a new enterprise is nearly 30% which ranks among the highest in the world.(xli Fast Company,2012) 2.3 The region of the study, Kampala After suffering through decades of dictatorships and civil war, Uganda’s capital city has managed to establish and maintain relative stability, prospering and developing especially in the last decade to become one of the most important hubs of Africa. The liberalised economy has attracted a high number of businesses to Kampala, which in turn have drawn massive amounts of workers and their families to the once modest city, which as recently as 1991 was estimated at some 750,000 inhabitants. Today, the daytime population is in the 2.5 to 3 million range.(xliiallafrica.com, 2012) Despite its best efforts to become cleaner many areas of the city are plagued by rubbish dumped along potholed roads. The city generates an estimated 1,500 tons of garbage daily but has the capacity to pick up only 500 tons a day. Kampala has a skyline and street system much like other modern cities. Traffic jams in Kampala are particularly chronic, intractable and a drag on the country's economy, consisting of large numbers of ‘bada-bada’ taxi-motorbikes and taximinibuses. In 2007, the mayor announced plans to introduce a congestion fee but this has yet to be implemented.(xliiiNewvision magazine,2007) The population today is estimated by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics at about 1.7 million while others guess at between 2-2.5 million. Only 10% have access to the city's sewer lines, which means vast majority use traditional pit latrines.(xliv UBOS, 2009)

Apart from the corruption, heavy traffic and air pollution Kampala is actually considered by many to be a pleasant city with relatively low street crime, populated by friendly and helpful people. Worth noticing is that there are fewer slum areas in and around Kampala compared to the many of the larger cities of Uganda’s neighbors. 23

2.4 Entrepreneurship development in Uganda Over the past decade a significant philosophical shift has taken place in the development world, emphasizing privatization, market participation, microfinance, and other approaches to poverty alleviation over top-down, statist interventions.(xlvUkpere & Witbooi pp. 5646-5657, 2011)This change has become a driver of entrepreneurship in Uganda in particular. Entrepreneurship development in Uganda from 1986 to date has benefitted from a market-driven economy. Before that time civil wars had destroyed state enterprises, forced peasant farmers off their land and into urban areas and generated an exodus of the Asian community that had dominated trading sector for most of the 20th century. In recent years, Asian investors/entrepreneurs have been returning and reclaiming property, reestablishing businesses and helping to boost the economy.(xlvi Rooks, et al, 2009) Although agriculture is the main sector of the economy, economic growth is being driven by services and trade. Despite its ranking among the poorest countries in the world the Ugandan government’s economic reform policies, infrastructure projects and domestic security initiatives have resulted in a real annual GDP growth rate of 6.9%. With 3.1 million entrepreneurs and Total Entrepreneurial Activity index of over 30%, the highest of all countries analyzed in 2004, Uganda appears at first glance at least to be an entrepreneur’s paradise. Most analysts seem to agree that Uganda’s economy has great potential. (xlvii Kappel & Ishengoma, 2011, 352–365) The question remains, however, whether these industrious, competitive business-minded Ugandans are in fact of the Schumpeterian type of creative entrepreneurs that drive innovation and promote structural change thus transforming and developing the economy or more barely-surviving microenterpreneurs, 66% of whose businesses are unregistered and 27% of whom pay no taxes or dues whatsoever.(xlviii Walter et al, 2003) Although start up businesses in Uganda were traditionally never formally licensed or registered, due to the benefits of networking, 24

education and more influential trade organizations for entrepreneurs this is gradually changing. While entrepreneurship in Uganda is evidently based mostly on necessity there is significant opportunitybased business activity; indicated by the high number of well-paid employed individuals who start their own businesses. One price of all this experimentation is a substantial business failure rate; some 30% of the entrepreneurs close their businesses within the first year and 50% of businesses fail overall. Nevertheless a high rate of failed business owners re-start a business within three years. (xlixWalter et al, 2003, p 11)

Better-educated men aged 30 on average make up a slight majority of entrepreneurs while women are very actively engaged in start up businesses and ownership. Culturally, business is viewed with optimism and ownership is well respected. Ugandans cite independence as a key motivating factor in starting a business, feeling that entrepreneurial activity is a better way to make a living, particularly given the dearth of available alternatives.(lRooks et al, 2009) In recent years, despite continued high growth, Uganda’s business climate has deteriorated. The Ugandan position in relation to the macroeconomic environment, public institutions and infrastructure has worsened. MSEs’ growth potential is hampered by limited access to productive resources, high taxes and lack of market access. There is much potential and a wide scope of opportunities, both for rural and agriculture-linked MSEs and for linkages with MSEs competing in national, regional and international markets. In order to penetrate differentiated market segments, MSEs will need to be repositioned to produce higher quality products and undertake joint marketing strategies. This can be encouraged by facilitating MSEs’ participation in sub-contracting arrangements, trade fairs and joint marketing. MSEs’ growth benefits from access to business development services and finance as these resources may enable a firm to produce quality products and access the market at lower transaction costs.(li Ishengoma & Kappel 2011, 352–365) 25

2.5 Women in Uganda Nearly two decades ago the OECD made an encouraging statement that would resonate throughout the world: ‘improving the status of women is a necessary precondition for sustainable and equitable development’(liiDFID report, 1995, p. 183) Despite the substantial economic and social responsibilities that women in Uganda bear including primary responsibilities for agriculture, childcare and homemaking; women's roles are evidently subordinate to men’s. Uganda is a patriarchal societies in which women confront an oppressive, subordinate situation which limits their access to and control over educational, opportunities, political participation, work or legal rights.(liii Uganda country study, 1990) Economically women make up nearly three-quarters of the informal non-waged, unskilled and drudgery technique-based labour force sector. Women are less involved in the labour market than men and suffer from lower wages, which is more likely due to labour market discrimination than to educational differences.(liv Boyd, R. pp. 45-46, 1989) Women represent 80% of the agricultural labour force, are responsible for about 80% of food crop production and provide 60% of the labour for cash crop production. Even in paid employment, women are more likely than men to be in low-status, poorly-paid jobs.(lvStevenson & St-Onge, 2005) In terms of education, women are about twice as illiterate (43%) compared to men (26%) which is even more extreme in rural areas. Despite the free universal education policy girls are more often not sent to school. Of those sent to school, the majority drop out. Ugandan women suffered disproportionately during the civil wars of the 1960’s and 1970’s. Women's work during these troubled times became more time-consuming; the erosion of public services and infrastructure reduced access to schools, hospitals, and markets. Travel to nearby towns was often impossible. However, some women feel that the war years’ disruption of normal family life strengthened their independence, allowing them new opportunites for acquiring economic independence through entrepreneurialism. (lvi Uganda country study, 2005)

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Since the mid-1980’s, the Museveni government has pledged to eliminate discrimination against women in official policy and practice. The Ugandan constitution has concisely stated that women:“shall be accorded full and equal dignity of the person with men.” And that: “women shall have equal treatment with men and that right shall include equal opportunities in political, economic and social activities.”(lviiArt. 33, Constitution GoU) Finally, in reaction to the difficulties of changing deeply-entrenched attitudes toward women and to ensure that a minimum of women are represented in at least the lower echelons of government a further step was taken: “One third of the membership of each local government shall be reserved for women.”(lviiiArt.180, Constitution GoU) These fundamental changes to women’s legal status in Uganda are laudable and have without question made the struggle for equality somewhat easier but real change has been slow in coming. To this end women have been appointed to a wide range of positions in the Ugandan government, civil service, police and even the military where it is increasing common to see armed women soldiers. 2.6 Women and the micro and small enterprise sector in Uganda “Everyone knows a woman is trustworthy, is faithful; so there are many chances for a woman to succeed...” Maria Lubega; ETP trainee & Microentrepreneur, poultry & egg farming

While on average some 15% of women in developing countries will start a business, Uganda women have the highest rate, at nearly 30%, of entrepreneurial activity. “Women become entrepreneurs in order to balance work and family.”(lixKirks & Belovics, 2006. pp. 50-62) In their motives whether or not to become an entrepreneur, women are less concerned with making money and often choose entrepreneurship as a result of career, or lack thereof, dissatisfaction.(lxCromie, 1987. pp. 251-261) While research shows similarities in the personal demographics of men and women entrepreneurs there are differences in business and industry choices, financing strategies, growth patterns and 27

governance structures of female-led ventures. (lxiGreene et al, 2003) Ugandan women's participation in economic activities has moved beyond traditional agriculture into the local market economy over the last few decades. Women’s time constraints and low levels of education and work experience are major inhibitors to their full participation in the formal sector. Women are increasingly involved into small businesses and self employment ventures in both urban and rural areas, with vocal support of the Ugandan government: Our policy aims at strengthening the position of women in the economy by raising the value and productivity of their labour and by giving them access to, and control over productive resources. By productive resources, I mean land, capital, credit, seeds, fertilizers, tools, water, energy, education, information et-cetera.lxii (Uganda Pres. Museveni, 1998) Nevertheless, few women-owned enterprises are able to grow beyond the micro level, due to a range of socio-economic and cultural obstacles that make it considerably more difficult for women than men to grow a business.(lxiiiSnyder, 2000) The number of employed in Ugandan MSEs is around 2.3 million. Based on a labour force estimate of about 12 million, MSE employment accounts for almost 20%, and over half of these workers are actual MSE owners.(lxivMFPED, 2004) About 90% of operators in the MSE sector had primary level education. Most entrepreneurs in the MSE sector did not have any formal skills training; instead, they learned on their own or by working with small-scale enterprises. The MSE sector in Uganda includes three million farm households and about one million formal and informal enterprises comprised of retailers, processors and repair shops. MSEs employ 90% of nonfarm economically-active people; employment is concentrated in the sub-sectors of trade, restaurant, agriculture and manufacturing.lxv Vending, petty trade, liquor making, and vegetable selling are some of the more common women-operated MSEs. An estimated 1.4 million women either own an enterprise younger than 42 months or are in the process of trying to start an enterprise. Nearly 90% of economically active women work in the the informal economy, 28

either self-employed or as unpaid family workers. More than half of these informal workers are market and street vendors. (lxvi Walter et al, 2003)

Despite the demonstrated importance of the MSE sector in Uganda and the on-going reforms to improve the situation MSE entrepreneurs face a number of constraints, including; inadequate and undeveloped infrastructure; poor business development services; negative attitude by some top policy makers towards micro entrepreneurs, and a confusing legal framework. (lxviiMbilinyi, 1999) 2.7 Chapter summary The purpose of this chapter was to present the research setting by providing information relating to the location, population and economy of Uganda; the region of study, Kampala; entrepreneurship development; women in Uganda; and finally women and the micro and small enterprises sector in Uganda.

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CHAPTER THREE: A LITERATURE REVIEW OF KEY CONCEPTS, IDEAS AND PROCESSES 3.1 Introduction This chapter presents the literature for the study. Section two focuses on theoretical perspectives, under which major concepts are discussed and defined. These include micro and small enterprises (MSEs), livelihood, informal economy, women’s empowerment, entrepreneurs and entrepreneurship development, as well as gender, gender relations and power. 3.2 Theoretical perspectives 3.2.1 Micro and small enterprises defined While the Ugandan government defines MSEs as micro businesses with less than five employees,(lxviii UIA, 2009) there is actually no general consensus for a standard definition of MSEs in operational terms. Because nearly all operate in the informal sector they do not pay enterprise-related taxes and there is generally no reliable statistical data at all on micro enterprises in developing countries.(lxix Tarmidi, 2005) MSEs are managed by their owners and are more often family businesses and operate seasonally which ties their success to the entrepreneurial and managerial capabilities of the owners. MSE owners are generally weaker in terms of education, access to technology and capital.(lxxTarmidi, 2005) Depending on the source, MSEs are enterprises with up to and including 9 full-time employees, (lxxiMbaguta, 2011) or are defined as business undertakings employing less than 5 people, value of assets excluding land, buildings and working capital is below Ush 2,5 million; and annual turnover is below Ush 10 million, which is the threshold for business related tax.(lxxiiKushnir, 2010) Finally, one further version of MSEs describes them as businesses with fixed assets valued less than US$ 2,500; employing 4 or less persons, local authority registered and mostly home-based, or as any business 30

whose total investment excluding land, machinery and buildings does not exceed US$ 10,000 and where the annual turnover does not exceed US$ 20,000 but is registered with the Ministry of Commerce, Trade and Industry. (lxxiii Whitman SoB; Syracuse U., 2011) For the purposes of this thesis the definition of a Ugandan MSE would be any owner-operated start-up enterprise that generates income primarily to support the owner. 3.2.2 Informal economy defined ‘Practically all micro enterprises and some small-scale enterprises can operate in the economy, although they do not have any legal entity. They are known as the informal sector.’(lxxiv Tarmidi, 2005) The informal sector, or informal economy, is broadly characterised as consisting of units engaged in the production of goods or services with the primary objective of generating employment and incomes to the persons concerned. In other words, the informal economy consists of un-registered businesses that pay no taxes and heed neither regulations nor laws. These units typically operate on a small scale and at a low level of organisation with little or no division between labour and capital as factors of production. Labour relations are based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees. (lxxvOECD glossary, 2012) The informal economy is comprised of informal employment without secure contracts or benefits, informal small unregistered or unincorporated enterprises, unpaid family workers, and informal employment outside of informal enterprises including domestic workers, temporary, casual or part-time workers, et-cetera. (lxxvi Becker, K. 2004)

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3.2.3 Women’s empowerment defined In the World Bank’s definition women's empowerment is the “expansion of freedom of choice and action” (lxxvii worldbank.org, 2012) or, even more simply women’s empowerment means increasing agency. Another version of women’s empowerment is more specific, consisting of five issues: women's sense of self-worth; their right to have and to determine choices; their right to have access to opportunities and resources; their right to have the power to control their own lives, both within and outside the home; and their ability to influence the direction of social change to create a more just social and economic order, nationally and internationally.(lxxviii UNPIN, 2012) 3.2.4 Livelihood defined Simply put, livelihood comprises the capabilities, material and social resources and activities required to make a living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks, maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets while not undermining the natural resource base. (lxxix Scoones, I., 1998) Livelihood implies more than just making a living, it encompasses way and styles of living. Livelihoods are both individually and jointly constructed and represent patterns of interdependencies between the needs, interests and values of particular sets of individuals. Variations of somewhat similar livelihood strategies can be viewed as different culturally defined modes of living and represent different actors' attempts to structure their lives. (lxxxLong, 1997)

3.2.5 Who is an entrepreneur? An entrepreneur is quite simply ‘one who undertakes’ from the original French. Modern English definitions are many and various but all concentrate on two areas; risk-taking and commitment of capital. Simply stated, an entrepreneur is a person who starts a new 32

venture with the goal of growing. Thus, for those whose goal is not necessarily to grow the business then he/she might more acurately be characterized as self-employed or as a business administrator rather than as an entrepreneur.(lxxxi Business Dictionary website, 2012) Lavoi sees the female entrepreneur as “…head of a business who takes the initiative of launching a new venture, who is accepting the associated risks and the financial, administrative and social responsibilities and who is effectively in charge of its day-to-day activities” (lxxxii Moore, 1990). For the purposes of this paper a simplified term will be employed to describe an entrepreneur as an individual who pursues the creation and operation of a business venture, regardless of whether the business can or is intended to grow beyond a given level. 3.2.6 Can entrepreneurs be created? According to the United Nation’s Development Programme’s 1990 report, ‘The basic objective of development is to create an enabling environment for people to live long, healthy and creative lives’ (lxxxiii Alkire, 1990) Development initiatives are many and varied but all share the underlying objective of helping beneficiaries who are attempting to improve their livelihoods. One way to bring about this goal is to assist individuals in acquiring skills that can be used to start and operate businesses which will generate income. The question remains as to whether and how livelihoods can be transformed through enterpreneurship. Entrepreneurship training can positively impact entrepreneurs as it provides the more practical skills that they will require when they are ready to set up their business venture.(lxxxiv Henry et al; 2003) O’Riordan et al see formal education and business skill training as essential to MSE success.(lxxxv REPOA, 1997) Themba et al, for example state that education and training can “strengthen the need for achievement, alleviate fear of failure and enhance self-confidence”.(lxxxvi1999) Rwanshane et al agree that “women entrepreneurs become more confident, motivated and organised after training”.(lxxxvii 2000)

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While most scholars agree that an entrepreneurial career that can transform and improve livelihoods can be developed through entrepreneurial training, (lxxxviii Olomi, 1999, p. 167) there are some detractors who point to a lack of correlation as well as unintended and negative consequences. While Kristiansen states that education and training are key enabling resources for the sustainability of micro and small enterprises,(lxxxix 1996) he finds that the factors more critical to business success lie in social networks rather than enterpreneurship training.(xcKristiansen et al, 1999) Mbilinyi contends that successful entrepreneurship training programs offer a credit package with a follow-up component, rather than just stand alone training.(xci Mbilinyi, 1999) McKee finds a mismatch between the needs of rural women and micro entrepreneurship, favoring an urban environment and technical assistance for MSE training and operation. (xcii McKee, K. 1989) 3.2.7 Profiles of female entrepreneurs Ugandan women’s self-confidence, achievement motivation and ability to take risks are negatively affected by conditioning from an early age which reinforces the presupposes that they will only ever be wives and mothers, that their place is in the kitchen and that they are inferior to men.(xciii Rutashobya & Nchimbi 1996) Lack of business and management skills cause businesses owned by female entrepreneurs to have lower growth and profit potential because they are concentrated in markets with poor demand and poor management. (xciv Kibera & Kibera 1999 p.240) Female entrepreneurs in Africa are more often married with extended families. The majority have limited formal education, parents who are farmers and employed husbands.(xcv Ngau & Keino, 1996) They often lack business experience and pursue traditionally female activities that are easier to manage along side their reproductive roles. Female entrepreneurs avoid taking loans to start their businesses and prefer to rely on their own savings to finance their businesses. Most of their businesses are small, young and homebased (xcvi Rutashobya & Nchimbi, 1996) with low growth and a tendency to remain micro due to family obligations. They are more 34

likely to redirect earnings from their businesses toward the consumption of the household rather than reinvest in their businesses.(xcvii Rutashobya & Nchimbi, 1996) While women micro entrepreneurs have some noteworthy advantages including flexible hours, location on or near their houses, ease of entry and links with local markets, they also face particular challenges in entering new and lucrative markets and expanding their business. (xcviii ilo.org, 2012) Women start new businesses by being alert to existing opportunities and recognizing that they have adequate skills and knowledge. (xcix Langowitz & Minniti, 2007 pp. 341-364) However, women embark upon careers of entrepreneurship more often due to negative push factors, such as low household income, the desire for independence and also received training and perceived marketability of the product.(cHyuha & Turiho-Habwe, 1996) Micro and small enterprises provide employment to poor women who have no other means of income and make a significant impact in reducing household vulnerability to poverty. (ciDejene, 1997) As micro entrepreneurs women are protecting themselves against vulnerability, supporting their children’s education, paying for medical treatment and empowering themselves both socially and politically.(ciiLont & Hospes, 2004 p. 48) 3.2.8 Gender, gender relations and empowerment The concept of gender examines the relations between women and men with the purpose of increasing our understanding of their status and inequalities, roles and capacity. (ciiiPearson, R. 1992) The problem of women and development is essentially one of gender and power relations.(civ Kabeer, 2003 p. 169) Gender relations, constituted in terms of the relations of power and dominance, have been evolving throughout human history. Gender is a social construct which focuses more on social and economic relations between women and men rather than on biological differences.(cvMbilinyi, 1992 p.35) Gender relations are constructed and reconstructed as a result of the 35

behaviour of men and women themselves depending on the changes in economic and historic events in society.(cviMbilinyi, 1992) The practical gender needs of women and men derive in part from their need to provide a livelihood for themselves and their families which must be accomplished within the roles allocated to them by the gender-based division of labour that prevails in their society.(cvii Hilhorst & Oppenoorth, 1992) The dominant gender discourses and practices in Uganda intertwined with Christian and Muslim religious beliefs significantly influence women’s opportunities to work and trade. Women often have fewer of their own resources and poorer access to them than men. Women also have less control over their own time, labour, mobility and less access to formal education and skills training. However as women working in their own businesses are increasing visible some of the gender roles and relations of the locality are being challenged, while others still remain dominant. (cviii ilo.org, 2012)

Men’s and women’s status as defined by marriage is declining which obliges women in particular to take on new roles for their and their families’ survival, including making weightier decisions and branching out into alternative livelihoods. As women gain ownership of livelihood assets and strategies they gain power over their lives, which may result in a better self-image and enable them to acquire the ‘power within’ to live a life with greater gender equality and enhanced human dignity. As assets portfolios have become power centers of change, gender relations are likely to change. Those that acquire more resources shall gain more power.(cixLakwo, 2006) 3.3 Chapter Summary A number of observations can be made from the reviewed literature. One is that by participating in entrepreneurship women are becoming empowered, gaining agency and living more satisfying lives with greater dignity. Another point is that while Uganda has a long 36

tradition of gender inequality, women’s status is undergoing a dramatic evolution. Finally micro enterprises, for the most part operating in the informal ecomony, are an efficient and perhaps inevitable redress to the livelihood challenges of women’s low income and employment.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the methodology and procedure used in conducting the study. It is subdivided into the following sections: (i) area of the study; (ii) target population and units of analysis; (iii) research design; (iv) statistical design, subdivided into: types and sources of data and the sample and procedure for selecting the sample; (v) operational design with the following three sub-sections: variables investigated; methods for data collection and data analysis; and (vi) chapter summary. 4.2 Justification for the area of the study The Researcher’s study was conducted in Greater Kampala, while the Evaluation Report randomly selected 7 districts that covered the major areas where training was undertaken under the ETP. Apart from having a minimum of a hundred trainees and their relative accessibility, the districts were chosen based on the intended targeted areas of the ETP, for example in relatively disadvantaged Northern Uganda.(cxETP Evaluation Report, 2010) In addition to the above reason, Kampala was selected because it is the head office of the UIA’s ETP Programme. Another reason for choosing Kampala was that, as the industrial and commercial capital of Uganda there is a greater concentration and accessibility of ETP trained entrepreneurs. 4.3 Target population and study units The target population for the study were women microentrepreneurs who had been trained at UIA’s Entrepreneurship Training Programme. At the time of this researcher’s visit to Kampala, in April/May 2011, there were some 10,000 trainees who had undergone the week-long ETP throughout Uganda and aside from a few administrators and project managers, exclusively women entrepreneurs were interviewed totalling fourteen in number. These 38

women were asked to come to UIA headquarters for the purposes of this researcher’s academic study by the ETP administrators. The Corporate Links Limited’s Evaluation Report collected data on ETP trainees covering the 2006-2009 period in the Ugandan districts of Mukono, Wakiso, Mpigi, Soroti, Lira, Nebbi and Gulu. The districts of Mukono, Wakiso and Mpigi were all targeted under the Greater Kampala area. To fully evaluate the impact of the project, the Evaluation Report targeted 10% of the trainees to be evaluated, using it as the average sample size (10%) recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for Rapid Assessments and Evaluations.(cxi TG-RAR, 2002) Accordingly, the targeted sample size was 399 trainees randomly selected from the seven selected clusters (the 7 districts) out of the total 3,986 beneficiary entrepreneurs trained over the three year period. 4.4 Research design Methodologically, I have attempted to balance the results of the interviews of my qualitative methods with the quantitative findings of the UIA and ICEIDA’s Entrepreneurship Training Programme’s 2010 Evaluation Report. I have adopted a case study research design and utilized the participating ETP trainees’ individual views with their voices represented in this thesis in the form of relevent quotations around particular themes that were the focus of this research. While qualitative approaches led me to conduct fieldwork in which I held in-depth interviews I also remained aware of, and considered, my personal attributes as a researcher and therefore, the concept of reflexivity became relevant to this thesis. (cxii Gilgun, 2010) I considered ethical issues to protect my participant and analysed findings (while focused on participant meanings) by reflecting, discovering themes, and teaming up emerging ideas. The Researcher’s study was cross-sectional in design because it involved 39

the collection of interview and discussion data at one point in time, namely April/May 2011. The second phase involved selecting a few women microentrepreneurs for in-depth interviews. 4.5 Statistical design 4.5.1 Types and sources of data Two types of primary data were collected: qualitative and quantitative. The bulk of the data were qualitative and were collected using in-depth interviews. Quantitative data, primarily from the Evaluation Report, were collected using discussion interviews and were categorised and treated as categorical data. All the data were obtained from women microentrepreneurs participating in UIA/ICEIDA Entrepreneurship Training Programme. 4.5.2 The sample and procedure for selecting the sample To get the sample for the in-depth interviews, the researcher was obliged to rely on personnel from the UIA in order to include a desired and representative sample of women microentrepreneurs critical to providing answers to the research questions of the study. It is necessary to point out that since the number of available ETP women microentrepreneurs were fewer than anticipated, there was no sampling as such; all were interviewed provided they met the basic selection criteria of operating a business, being female and having been trained by the ETP.

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4.6 Operational design 4.6.1 Variables investigated (Quantitative) The following variables were investigated in the study: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

ETP Evaluation Report: Level of education attained General category of business Formal or informal business Ownership Business performance Access to finance; credit Business plans Record Keeping Business Health Checks Customer care Income Trainee’s Perception of the ETP Evaluating Learning

4.6.2 Variables investigated (Qualitative) 1. Individual profiles 2. Essential ingredients of successful female entrepreneurs 3. How are female entrepreneurs different from male entrepreneurs? 4. Most significant challenges female entrepreneurs must face 5. Life outside of work 6. What especially important was learnt in ETP? 7. Mistakes to avoid? 8. Advice to women considering entrepreneurship 9. Balancing work and family 4.6.4 Methods of data collection Discussion interviews were conducted to generate personal accounts of women entrepreneurship development, livelihoods and 41

empowerment. Such an interview technique was used because they constitute a flexible research strategy of discovery recommended when the purpose is to explore and to describe what is happening about a phenomenon and not to find out the frequency of some predetermined variables.(cxiii Lofland, 1971) Since the present study focuses on women’s livelihood itself as the outcome, the researcher relied on primary data sources consisting of structured interviews using questionnaires and in-depth interviews. The ETP Evaluation Report relied on primary sources included administered questionnaires to beneficiaries, focus group discussions with beneficiaries, key informant interviews with the programme Staff, representatives of partner organisations, and the trainers. The secondary sources included a review of the project documents including but not limited to the existing workplans, progress reports, the log frame, the business health check report and other relevant project literature.(cxiv ETP Evaluation Report, 2010) The researcher adopted video recording for the interview/discussions because of the desire to have complete and accurate data that would not be achieved by following the interview and taking down notes at the same time. The researcher personally conducted all in-depth interviews for three reasons. Firstly, in order to ensure accuracy and consistency of the data collected. Secondly, the size of the sample was small, a factor that made the task manageable. The third and last reason was that it was more convenient and ultimately more efficient for the researcher to contact, locate and negotiate with the interviewees than leaving this task to others. Interviewees who met the selection criteria for in-depth interviews (see 4.5.2) were identified, after which appointments were made. Interviews took between half an hour and one hour. In order to get qualitative information from the programme beneficiaries and stakeholders in the ETP Evaluation Report, a series of evaluation tools were developed including the following: An interview guide for Project Managers and Stakeholders; A questionnaire for trainee entrepreneurs; A questionnaire for Trainers; and a Focused Group Discussion guide for trained entrepreneurs. 42

These tools were discussed with the client and agreed upon prior to their being used to collect raw data in the field. (cxv ETP Evaluation Report, 2010) 4.6.5 Data analysis In-depth interview data Meetings arranged at UIA’s library, 30 April – 02 May 2011. In-depth interview data analysis started during data collection in order to focus the questions and the study as a whole. First, the data were prepared by listening to the interview recordings several times. Then each interview recording was manually transcribed verbatim. Guided by research questions, each interview transcript was analysed for concise thoughts and categories of information using a constant comparison approach. Through an interpretive process, patterns and trends emerged from the data. The emerging patterns and trends were matched with the respective interviewees’ background characteristics. Finally, the patterns and trends were grouped into themes, sub-themes, problems and issues consistent with the research questions and empowerment variables. Survey data Evaluation of ETP Field work 2010 reached 9% (351 responses) of the 3986 trained entrepreneurs. Following the guidelines for best practice, the study collected data on the training programme to whether there was an improvement in the performance of the beneficiary MSEs. This evaluation was meant to determine the rate of this impact, if any.(cxvi ETP Evaluation Report, 2010)

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4.7 Concerns for validity and reliability In order to augment the reliability and validity of the study quantitative and qualitative approaches were employed and their combined: “triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods. This can mean using several kinds of methods or data, including using both quantitative and qualitative approaches”(cxvii Patton, 2002, p.247)

In this study, several measures were taken to ensure the validity of the study. First, in order to have valid descriptions all interviews were video recorded and later transcribed verbatim. It was expected that by so doing the data would not only be accurate but complete as well. Furthermore, the researcher personally conducted all the indepth interviews to ensure consistency of the research process and the resultant data. Interviews were used as the main method of data collection by the researcher. This method allowed the respondents to talk freely and as much as they liked about the topics discussed. The researcher was attentive during the interviews and never interrupted the participants. With regard to ensuring the truthfulness of the data, the researcher took several precautionary measures as follows: Making it very clearly at the outset that the research was part of my Master’s study and that my University sponsored it. This was intended to prevent interviewees from attempting to impress me by giving false but impressive data, in order to coax some assistance from donors. Designing questions required descriptive answers that would not rely on numerical data, making it more difficult to exaggerate or falsify. In order to work towards theoretical validity as well as to guard against researcher bias, the ETP survey and in-depth interview data were held in equal regard in analysing the data.

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4.8 Chapter summary This chapter has presented the research methodology and procedure used in the study. The researcher’s study was conducted in the UIA’s library, ICEIDA offices in Kampala and at sites of entrepreneurs’ places of business around Kampala, Uganda. The research sample comprised 12 ETP-supported women microentrepreneurs. While the The Evaluation Report used quantitative methods to survey nearly 400 ETP trainees, data collection by the researcher was done in the form of discussion/interviews. A number of measures were taken to ensure validity and reliability of the data. The findings are analysed and discussed in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER FIVE: THE FINDINGS ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction In this chapter the analysis and discussion of the findings of the study will be presented. The presentation is organised according to the research objectives and questions and the emerging themes and issues. The chapter is organised as follows: (i) characteristics of women microentrepreneurs, (ii) profiles of women’s microenterprises, (iii) attitudes of women microentrepreneurs, (iv) what, if anything, women microentrepreneurs gained by participating in the ETP, (v) factors limiting the attainment of women’s empowerment among ETP trained microentrepreneurs, (vi) In what ways have women ETP microentrepreneurs translated their wellbeing changes into changing their gender relations individually and within their households and community? (vii) Is the theoretical underpinning of the study consistent with related international literature? (viii) chapter summary. 5.2 Characteristics of ETP-trained women microentrepreneurs In line with the research objectives (see 1.4.1) one of the secondary research questions of the study was: What are the characteristics of the ETP trained microentrepreneurs? In order to answer this question data were collected through semi-structured interviews based on a questionnaire and the results were analysed and compared with those of the ETP Evaluation. The questionnaire was designed to promote discussion among the interviewees of topics relating to the experience of being a woman entrepreneur in Uganda. At the first level of data analysis the interviews which had been video-recorded were transcribed. After careful study the transcribed texts were analysed for commonalities such as themes and word choice. Subsequently the transcribed texts were broken down into individual comments which covered a variety of topics that arose during the interviews and then organized around the topics which 46

generated the most comments and discussion. Comparisons were made between the characteristics found in quantitative-based research of the ETP Evaluation and this researcher’s study sample through qualitative methods as well as those of other relevant and available studies in Uganda. In this manner the reliability of the data collected can be tested and possible explanations for variance may be discovered. Among the variables covered in the ETP evaluations quantitative analysis are gender, education level, formal business registration, access to finance, impact on record keeping, change in business health, and trainee’s perception of the ETP. The qualitative research conducted by the researcher looked at critical success factors for women entrepreneurs, how relationships are affected by being a female entrepreneur, advantages and disadvantages of being women entrepreneurs, recommendations to younger women, attitudes toward and experience with financing and what, if any impact that ETP had on the trainees. These variables are analysed and discussed in the following sub-sections. 5.2.1 Gender of ETP trainees The quantitative analysis based on the responses of ETP trainees in the ETP Evaluation indicates that 48% of ETP trainees were women despite the target of training more women than men. One possible explanation for the low proportion of female participation may be that the majority of the training sessions were held in rural Uganda, which differs starkly in terms of gender equality and opportunities for women in education, jobs and business. Rural Ugandan women continue to be consigened to the kitchen and have primarily responsible for all household chores as men dominate in business, trading and commerce. While Uganda’s capital Kampala as a major metropolis represents a place of greater gender equality only 34% of the ETP trainees were based there, due to the objectives of the ETP to concentrate on training primarily women in relatively conservative Northern Uganda. (cxviii ETP Evaluation Report, 2010) The qualitative 47

analysis was conducted among only women ETP trainees, due to the objectives of this study to focus on women entrepreneurs in Uganda. 5.2.2 Women microentrepreneurs’ education profile The quantitative analysis based on the responses of 9% of the 3986 ETP participants totals 351 responses. The greatist concentration of ETP trainees were those that had either secondary or tertiary level, or some 66%. Approximately 80% of those trained had education above Primary Level, which implies that the trainees could understand the major points of the training that was delivered and also had a capacity to put to use what they had learnt. Just over 71% of ETP trainees had at least a secondary education (cxix ETP Evaluation Report, 2010), which compares favorably with the national statistics where only about 12% completed the secondary level(cxx Unicef & NationMaster website, 2012). Ugandans involved in entrepreneurial activity are overrepresented among those with higher educations and higher monthly income. Twenty-five per cent of adults with primary education were engaged in entrepreneurial activity, compared to 61 per cent of those who had completed college or university. (cxxi Stevenson & St-Onge 2005, p.8) This disparity clearly demonstrates that educated Ugandans are more likely to take part in Entrepreneurial Training than the less educated, which is understandable given that better educated people often have networking advantages and are less likely to be overwhelmed by the intellectual demands made on ETP trainees.

5.2.3 Women ETP trained microentrepreneurs’ business status At least 50% of Ugandan small businesses fight an uphill battle from the start and fail in the first five years.(cxxii Keough, 2002) Of the new businesses started after the ETP consisting of 245 businesses out of 351 responses, 51.6% said the businesses had grown while 6% said the businesses had more than doubled performance. The key reasons attributed by the trainees to this success were keeping better records 48

and having a business plan to guide operations. However, of the businesses started after the entrepreneurship training, 2.8% of them declined after start-up and 1.7% closed. Compared to the African MSE failure rate of up to 75% within the first year and close to 50% of the remaining 30% fail within the next 3 years from inception. (cxxiii Olawale & Garwe, 2010 pp. 729-738) This low rate of business failure is because the trainees had learned better Business Management Skills garnered from the ETP sessions. The ETP also led to an increase in the level of MSE start-ups. The evaluation found that after the trainings, 45% of the trained entrepreneurs started new businesses. 5.2.4 Formal business registration of ETP trainees The ETP evaluation reveals that there was a low level of formal business registration among ETP trainees. Of the MSE businesses started, just over 30% were formally registered. The qualitative research demonstrates a similar number with just three of twelve businesses formally registerd, or 25%. Generally it was claimed that the bureaucratic process of registration and the financial costs attached are the main inhibitors to formal registration. As per the evaluation, of those businesses formally registered, 48% were sole proprietors, 31% were limited liability companies, 14% were partnerships and only 7% were cooperatives.cxxiv (ETP Evaluation Report, 2010) 5.2.5 Access to finance of ETP trainees “The women in the urban centers are able to access finances because there are very many financial institutions that can be able to lend them money.” (cxxv Kyejjusa Bazibu, 2011) Despite the plethora of potential loan providers in Kampala and other larger cities across Uganda finance costs can be prohibitively high for women microentrepreneurs, “To break even on the $100 loan, the MFI would need to collect interest of $10 + 1 + $25 = $36, which is an interest rate of 36%. At first glance, a rate this high looks abusive to 49

many people, especially when the clients are poor. But in fact, this interest rate simply reflects the basic reality that when loan sizes get very small, transaction costs loom larger because these costs can't be cut below certain minimums." (cxxvi CGAP.org, 2012) Naturally the majority of microentrepreneurs including the ETP trainees will need some form of credit in order to start-up and grow their businesses. “Some of the questions that we get from women entrepreneurs that we’ve trained is how they can access funds, how they can access money. This is a big challenge because they have little income that they can dispose of. This limits the amounts of money they can use to start up a business.” (cxxvii Kyejjusa Bazibu, 2011) As Lydia B Nsubuga an ETP trainee points out; Although the government promotes women in a way, we lack security/collateral if you’re going for a loan. Most women in Uganda don’t own property. And if you went for a loan in the bank, they’ll point to the lack of collateral. ‘Do you have a house somewhere?’ And you lose out. They won’t give you a loan and if they did they’d give you little money, it would not be enough for your business. While access to cheap credit is a fundamental for most larger businesses, there appears to be an obvious mismatch between women microentrepreneurs’ needs for affordable loans and the (MFI) micro financial institutions’ willingness or ability to offer affordable loans with little or no collateral. According to the Government of Uganda, the number of MFI beneficiaries is still very low. The documented 196,561 clients (2003) means that only 0.9% of the country’s population is accessing micro finance loans. (cxxviii GoU, 2003) Micro finance institution and bank credit officers may have biased perceptions about women’s potential to be successful, growthoriented entrepreneurs because as mostly men in a patriarchal society they have yet to be exposed to workshops or courses on gender mainstreaming, which are in any case rarely available. As a result, this acute lack of understanding adversely affects the risk profile of female clients.(cxxix Stevenson & St-Onge, 2004 p.xxii) According to Geir Oddsson, ICEIDA Programme Coordinator in Uganda, no more than “...a third of the participants managed to get outside investment or loans to expand their business; everything from street loans, micro-loans and up to loans from regular commercial banks in 50

Uganda.” The lack of access to cheap, no-collateral finance ends up shaping the kinds and sizes of businesses that women entrepreneurs create and inevitably inhibits growth of the Ugandan economy. Qualitative Analysis; Discussion & Answers from question: ‘What if any financing was utilized?’ I went to the Rural Development Bank. I bought, I got a loan. I’m still also paying that loan with the difficulties because the way how my product - I don’t have anywhere - I’m selling it, I’m selling it at our place in Umbumya; I find it very, very difficult. Benedicta Namyonga If you want to go far with your business you have to concern maybe your spouse. And if (he’s) not willing, then you have to maybe take loan. But start talking to him until he understands what your vision is. Okullo Amma ...As for us, we didn’t get any loan. Charlotte Ogaliya ...The production bit of it came in when Unito was given a grant supporting textiles, and for sustainability purposes. That’s how the business has grown. Depending upon the finding that you need to put in place that is how we have grown, slowly by slowly. We’re not taking any loans or whatever. We are managing somehow without it. Grace Angela N Kirabo ...I had some little money in my account, savings. I started small, as low as Ush 100,000 and then for the cakes my husband sponsored my training for me, but I haven’t ventured into getting a loan, a bank loan. Aselle Benna Okurut I didn’t take a loan either from anybody. I had my savings. ... I had to get assistance from my sister in law to buy the machinery. ...Eventually the children went to university and my big girl started subsidizing my business. Now I think I don’t need a loan, I can stand on my own. ....we lack security/collateral if you’re going 51

for a loan. Most women in Uganda don’t own property. And if you went for a loan in the bank, they’ll point to the lack of collateral. ‘Do you have a house somewhere?’ And you lose out. They won’t give you a loan and if they did they’d give you little money, it would not be enough for your business. Lydia B Nsubuga I took a loan from the bank, some small loan, and started my farming, as I told you I’m keeping poultry and piggery and that small shop that I talked about. I took a loan though it’s not very well, I’m not getting so much because I need money which I don’t have right now. I need to get some more money to improve on my business and my farm, animal keeping. Senteza M. Sarah I used my retirement benefits to start the business, I never took a loan or got money from anywhere. Although from time to time you get gifts from... I get money, I get gifts in terms of money from my son most of the time, But the initial capital was from my retirement benefits. Aileen Rulomushana Conclusion: The results of the qualitative analysis indicate that loans were less likely to be accessible due to a lack of collaterel or credit, or were avoided altogether due to high costs and difficult terms, which is consistent with the results of most recent studies that were consulted pertaining to the subject of women entrepreneurs and finance. 5.2.6 Impact on record keeping Before the ETP, only 42% of the entrepreneurs (148) were keeping records while half were not. The capacity of entrepreneurs to successfully manage their MSEs in a competitive manner is largely dependent on record keeping, which allow entrepreneurs to make decisions based on empirical evidence of inflows and outflows, save money and tap into opportunities to expand. Thus, in order to improve upon the internal systems and structures of MSEs, the ETP put particular focus on training in record keeping with the goal of 52

better positioning the MSEs to operate profitably and competitively. Of those keeping records, the evaluation results show that 49% of them (175) say that their record keeping had improved after the training. Of those who did not keep records prior to the training under the ETP, 53% now say they are keeping records which shows a tremendous improvement in the management of the beneficiary MSEs. On the whole, close to 70% of those trained are keeping records compared to 42% before the start of the training. This shows that skills building actually has taken root in form of Better Business Management, which shows an achievement of the programme objective. Key record keeping tools used are receipts, cash books, sales book; purchases books, debtors’ books and creditors’ books. According to the qualitative results conducted by the researcher, good record keeping was a critical success factor: From the Qualitiative Research questionaire: What especially useful was learnt in the ETP? ...how to keep your books… Benedicta Namyonga ...whatever is removed should be calculated for or accounted for. Lybia Kobusinaye ...avoid being careless with bookkeeping. Whatever I spend is recorded. Lydia B Nsubuga ...I learnt to record my transactions, how I spend in that business and how I gain in it. Makasinak Florence In my point of view I’ve tried with my bigger daughters, I do really love them...’Now you’re the one to account for it.’ ...So they balance and realize that the profit margins are small, so they become less demanding…in the process and I’m less stressed sharing the money. Aselle Benna Okurut 53

... make sure you don’t tamper with your capital....we learned how to make accountability for our business. ...we knew how much we spent on them and how much set aside to get a profit. Charlotte Ogaliya Conclusion: The results of the qualitative analysis indicate that accounting or record keeping had become highly-prized as a result of attending the ETP and that it ranked as one of the most important critical success factors in terms of operating MSEs.

5.2.7 Change in business health Under the ETP, nearly 4,000 MSE entrepreneurs were trained in starting new enterprises and better managing their existing and future businesses. In order to evaluate the impact of the training, identify potential problems and offer counselling to entrepreneurs at the midterm level, the ETP coordinators undertook ‘Business Health Checks’, a tool which was developed by the Project Management Team and delivered by key trainers under the ETP. Beginning in 2008, the Business Health Checks (BHC) targeted entrepreneurs who had been trained in 2007 and 2008, reaching some 379 MSE entrepreneurs. The BHCs showed a massive improvement in the status of the MSEs examined, with an 18% increase in employment and found that ETP trained entrepreneurs were increasingly developing business plans for their businesses; from 17% in 2006 to 54% in 2008. Customer care and competitive analysis also showed marked improvement with 63% of the entrepreneurs confirming that they now have Complaint Handling Mechanisms in place for effective and efficient product/service delivery. The BHCs also found that 57% of the entrepreneurs said that their incomes had increased following the ETP by utilizing Better Business Management techniques.(cxxx ETP Evaluation Report, 2010 p. 22)

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5.2.8 Trainee’s Perception of the ETP According to the results of the quantitative analysis found in the ETP Evalutation report, the evaluation determined that the trainee entrepreneurs had an extremely positive perception of the programme with some 90% of the trainees understanding the goals of the training while 64% of the trainees said the training had a positive impact on their business in terms of performance. (cxxxi ETP Evaluation Report, 2010 p.25)

Answers from ETP Trainees; What did you learn from ETP that you felt was especially important? ...how I make marketing and such. What ...I learnt was to know and what products the customer wants and when they buy it and how often they buy. ...How I treat my customers and if I have employees I’m supposed to treat them as human beings. ...how to compete with my competitors. ....I also learned the environment where I’m supposed to set up that business. ...I learnt to record my transactions, how I spend in that business and how I gain in it. ...I also learnt to listen to the customers’ feedback. Makasinak Florence ...I started to work hard and pay myself a salary. ...learned how to manage my human resources; choosing and handling my staff, ...record-keeping also improved. Maria Lubega ...keeping a record… Okullo Amma ...Communication does a lot of business; in how you communicate, your language, your intonation and your body language. ...you also need to know how to use your body language. ...you should know really how to relate with your customers....learned about making a plan, making a budget proposal is very vital and important; making a plan. ...according to plan you make a schedule on how you’re supposed to run your program and what you really need to put in. Katusimeron Grace ...I learnt a lot about the free market and such. ...I get to realize that 55

we’re doing the right business in the right place, basically. Cause we find that where ...teaching us about the various revenue returns, it’s very important....you must pay yourself. ...You’re supposed to get money from the business. ....Why weren’t you paying yourself before and why you’re paying yourself now. What channels have you taken to electrify the problems that weren’t taken initially? So with the ETP I think I can understand this; it was really nice. Mbabazi Elizabeth ...to withstand all the challenges and I need not be discouraged. Because doing a business at times is a risk. ...to be serious in, what, bookkeeping. ...customer care, how you handle the customer, how to keep your books, ...to know the networking nationally and internationally. It is not good to fear any office. You have to, need to network with any people, any person who comes. Lybia Kobusinaye / Benedicta Namyonga ...we learned how to make accountability for our business. ...we knew how much we spent on them and how much set aside to get a profit. Charlotte Ogaliya ...for a business to run, there is a need for systems to be in place. You don’t have really to be all the time moving around - whatever the business - as long as there are systems in place, things work somehow. Grace Angela N Kirabo Conclusion: The results of the qualitative analysis evidently overlap with those of ETP evaluation, that the ETP trainees have mastered the fundamentals of running a business according to internationallyregarded principles and practices, despite the fact that most of their businesses started as a one-woman operations and few have become formalized.

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5.3 Profiles of women’s microenterprises In accordance with the research objectives (see 1.3.2) another secondary research question of the study was: What are the profiles of microenterprises owned by ETP Programme-trained women microentrepreneurs? The data for this sub-research question were collected using quantitative methods for the ETP Evaluation and qualitative methods by the researcher, specifically through semistructured interviews using questionnaires (see addendum). The variables considered include ownership, formalisation, and background/business profile. 5.3.1 Ownership of women’s microenterprises Of the twelve women interviewed, four were co-founders or managers without ownership while the remaining eight owned and managed at least one business. Thus, 75% of the interviewed ETP trainees owned their own business. According to the results of the ETP Evalution, 73.5% of the trainees already owned businesses at the time of the trainings while 24.2% were potential entrepreneurs yet to identify, select and start a business.(cxxxii ETP Evaluation Report, 2010 p. 16) The ownership statistics are thus very closely matched between the qualatitive and quantative results, which suggests a high correspondence between the two studies.

5.3.2 Formalisation of women’s microenterprises Of the twelve interviewed ETP trainees, only three were working for businesses which were formally registered, or 25% versus 75% which were informal businesses. According to the ETP evaluation’s quantitative results, of those businesses formally registered, 48% were sole proprietors, 31% were limited liability companies, 14% were partnerships and only 7% were cooperatives. The evaluation also found that there was a low level of formal business registration. Of the MSE businesses started, only 30.2% of them were formally 57

registered. The main reason put forward for this was the bureaucratic process of registration and the financial costs attached to it.(cxxxiii ETP Evaluation Report, 2010 p. 17)

5.3.3 Sectors of women’s microenterprises The majority of all Ugandan MSEs are in trade-related activities – 62.9% are in wholesale and retail trade and 19.5% are in light manufacturing and agro-processing.(cxxxiv UBOS, 2002) As may be anticipated, there is a great deal of gender segregation in the ownership of MSEs by type of economic activity throughout Uganda. Women owners tend to dominate in Hotels and Restaurants owning 62.4% of the MSEs; Financial Intermediation, owning 68.3%; and Extra- territorial organizations and bodies, owning 55.6%. (cxxxv Stevenson & St-Onge, 2004) The following list is meant to specify the categories of micro enterprises that men and women typically operate (cxxxvi Richardson et al, 2004) Gendered (Typical female MSEs) Food vending Tailoring/batik making Beauty saloons Decorations Local brewing Informal catering Pottery Basket making Informal food processing Neutral Retail shops Crop dealers Horticulture Kiosks Charcoal retailing Restaurants Bars Formal food processing

Gendered (Typical male MSEs) Manufacturing Import/Export Wholesale trade Transportation Tour agencies Estate agents (informal) Hawkers Charcoal wholesaling

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According to the ETP evaluation’s quantitative results, 45% of the trained entrepreneurs started new businesses after ETP training in the following sectors; 26.5% started agri-business MSEs, 21.4% started trade businesses, 22% started manufacturing MSEs while 5% started Service MSEs. Cumulatively, this means that 74% of the entrepreneurs trained identified and started new enterprises after being trained under ETP, implying more entrepreneurs got involved in trade, income generation and national development.cxxxvii In the qualitative research, it was found that the twelve ETP trained women interviewed were operating the following fifteen businesses: Agri-business MSEs – 4 total – 26.7% poultry & egg production (2) farming (1) pig & poultry farming / animal feeds (1) Service MSEs – 4 total – 26.7% cleaning service (1) Real estate management (1) pre-owned clothes sales (1) dog breeding/training (1) Trade MSEs – 5 total – 33.3% Tailoring/textiles (3) Restaurant (1) sales of gift items, crafts & imported goods (1) Manufacturing MSEs – 2 total – 13.3% baker/cake-maker (1) hand-crafts (1) Conclusion: ETP trainees’ participation in founding and operating MSEs is relatively consistent between the quantitative and qualitative results. The greatist differences between the results of the ETP Evaluation and those of the researcher were found in the Service sector 5% vs 26.7%; Manufacturing, 22% vs 13.3%; Trade 21.4% vs 33.3% and 59

least in the Agri-business sector with 26.5% vs 26.7%.

5.3.4 Background/business profile of women’s microenterprises The results of the qualitative research below are individual and personal accounts of the ETP trainees’ businesses and their relationship to them. While some descriptions are extremely brief others are lengthy and highly detailed, succinctly reflecting the characters of the women and their businesses. I’m Makasinak Florence and my business is, my set-up is, small scale local chicken. I want to, at least to be able to, produce local eggs. Because local eggs are more important to customers, and for layers. I love chicken. Very expensive, more expensive than breeders and layers. So I have a store at the market place. I want to succeed and I want to gain more. I want to gain more because now I’m still at a low level. Yeah, I want to gain more than what I have now. I have twenty female chickens and three cocks. I have like fifty something chicks. I’m Maria Lubega; I’m doing poultry with egg-layers in the Nakasikay district. My name is Okullo Amma, I’m making tailoring business, where we do make school uniforms and other uniforms, like the overall and overcoat and the rest. Then we train young people in tailoring, to become tailors. But there is some challenge because you find that you are the one to provide for them training material also. So there is that that makes it difficult in training them. In my business, there is less to do when the students have holidays - When the students have the holidays we don't even make the uniforms yet. The headmaster wait when the parents pay, that's when they bring orders for uniforms. And even the students who are training, when they are finished in holidays, this is the season when we race. But if they are going back to school now, then we have to begin waking up earlier, at five a.m. In tailoring business, you can’t sleep hungry. Because 60

somebody won’t show up for work with a (torn suit) He has to look for a tailor to fix this. And assuming you want to go to school, you must have a uniform. So in the tailoring business, you can’t go hungry. My name is Katusimeron Grace, I operate a restaurant. My dream is to invest in a hotel. I’m also a musician. My dream is also to excel in music. With the restaurant business, apart from the inflation and other problems, you can never go wrong - people eat at all times. And when you have occasions, yes, they eat - you get big business. Occasions like parties; you go outside ... So that’s the benefit of it. The challenges I find in restaurant business is that sometimes the turnout is really low. You have large (amounts of) food and the turnout is low because for instance it's a Monday. Or you overwork the restaurant: Sometimes, you have undermined your workflow, you know yesterday maybe we had a few, and then we decrease my (work) input. Then people come suddenly and when they get disappointed because your services were not enough today, then they won't come back. And when we prepare much today and they don't come, that is a loss. Also for the music it's not that all the music you produce, your clients are going to like it. So sometimes you produce your music and it hasn't soared (been well-received). So until you produce what they really like… So that is a big input, so it's also a long-term thing, for you to benefit in the music industry. My name is Mbabazi Elizabeth. I’m in real estate management. We deal in buying and selling and leasing of land and property. We are located at Shteentenay, Lakay division. Our company is named CGL properties. I am the main manager. My name is Benedicta Namyonga. I’m making products from used straws. I’m giving service to the community, especially women, I train them to use the straws to make products for their survival. And my product is, like my earrings as you can see, my belt and you can see my handbag. We make bags, doormats; we make buckets and patterned bags. We make so many things from used straws. For me I was a banker for twenty three years, I was working with the bank of Uganda. I left when I was sick with my spinal cord. I could not 61

continue counting money any further. I was advised by the doctor to leave the work. When I left, in 2001, I was on a contract - for twenty three years - I left; I did not get anything. Because I was getting my gratuity every two years which was the money I used to take my children to school. And also I have used that money to build a small house where I am. But I suffered as I was sick; I could not get any person to help me. Suffering for six years. I started looking for something to do. When they were cleaning our place; our place is a slum area, every Saturday at the end of Saturday we cleaned our place. Then I saw straws sticking out of a heap of garbage. I told my friends, ‘Why don’t we make use of these used straws?’ They said ‘No, those are garbages.’ I collected the straws, put them in a plastic bag took them home and washed them. I made a mat from it. I used Ush 200 to buy water and USh 300 to buy a sack of soap. I sold that much; USh 70,000 - I was happy. I had a dream saying that continue this, continue doing this and whatever I was dreaming, it came. Very good product. That’s how I started, after suffering for six years. My name is Lybia Kobusinaye. I'm a trader and I sell second hand clothes. I give them dresses, shoes, bras. I decided to go into that business because I'm a teacher by profession. And as I was a teacher I got the idea to do diploma and to go into business studies as an accountant. And there I found as a teacher that I hardly managed as a single mother caring for my children, for further studies - with our little salary we are getting. And so I started doing that business and that enabled me to survive with my children. I know what it means when you are leaving duty when you are sick. It is the same thing which happened to me which has encouraged me to continue with my work, with my business. Because I also fell out of work with high blood pressure which wouldn’t allow me to continue working. But when I’m working on my own I’m working at my own pace, and I thank God for that. My name is Charlotte Ogaliya. I deal in dog breeding, dog training. It’s a business which my husband started and he started by training dogs. So after I had started progressing, we started together breeding dogs and that’s what we’ve been doing so far. As for us, we had to do this because there was a demand for dog training, but the 62

trainers were few back then. And then again, there was demand for some different breeds of dogs. Whereby we had to, - okay, It’s because there is no money for ‘pah’ now but if there was money, we are supposed to be getting different breeds from different countries then we import them, then we breed the kind of dog that a customer wants when the money’s there and the business is started. My name is Grace Angela N Kirabo. My business is textiles. We do both production in textiles and training in textiles. Basically what we look at is tailoring garments and products. Then we also do surface design; batique, then we also do weaving that is the kind of business that we’re doing; both production and training. My name is Aselle Benna Okurut. I do bake cakes, for commercial and domestic use, for ceremonial cakes in weddings, introductions, graduations, baptisms - any function at all. Secondly I do, I do resell clothes and shoes. I mainly started, because of low capital, started with used shoes and clothes. I have a simple boutique downtown. Yeah, that’s what I do. …as we all know in Uganda, getting jobs is not that easy, rewarding jobs. Most of the time I’m engaged in parttime work. So I realized I had a lot of time that was not being tapped. So coupled with the talents and interests that I had - I love fashion, sometimes, so I really found myself getting interested in these kind of things. So also when I started baking kind of business, the experience started with I was planning a wedding and I realized I was paying so much money for this and yet I feel like I could do it. So I spoke to the lady who made my cake was very nice, so she had me help her to reduce the fee, and that is how I began a business for myself. My name is Lydia B Nsubuga, I have two businesses. I provide services; I have a cleaning service. And, I am a farmer at the same time. Well, I went into business after having been retired early. I had an early retirement and I was still able to do something for myself, so I decided to go into business also to get an extra income. Once you are retired, I had extra responsibilities too. I had children in University abroad; two of them were in universities, one was in Essex. So I had to do something in order to supplement my spouse. And to have an extra income, of course. 63

My name is Senteza M. Sarah, I’m from Makerere University. I’m doing some small business. I started a business, I’m a farmer also. I have a small business selling animal feeds. But also kids portrait and piggery. Because very soon, I will die (laughs). When you’re working for the government you’re not paid much. So I decided to go into business to get some more income. Because, I have to look after my children and my family and as I said before, I think I’m going to die very soon so I need to do something for my future. My name is Aileen Rulomushana. I sell gift items, crafts and imported goods. I went into business after being retired from a mortuary. So I still had children at university and of course I have to eat and take care of my expenses. And besides that also I have a passion for children so I had to save these children’s toys, you know, toy cars, it’s also like it is a social investment or a social responsibility. Because as you sell children toys, you provide them love, they like it and also enjoy it it keeps them busy. Conclusion: The ETP women trainees’ businesses are varied and multifaceted ranging from tiny one-woman operations with only a few dozen hens to large offices, training centers and factories. In each case it is evident that the women entrepreneurs started with few resources and relatively little if any financial assistance which demonstrates their tenacity, vision and belief in their agency to bring about positive change and transform their livelihoods. 5.3.5 Performance of ETP trained women’s microenterprises The sales performance of women’s microenterprises is based on the ETP Evaluation’s collected statistics and indicate a general improvement in more than half of the respondents, however 2.8% of the MSEs declined after start-up and 1.7% closed. Considering that the estimated failure rate of South African MSEs is at least 70%,cxxxviii this is an extremely low. It is estimated that the low rate 64

of business failure is due to the microentrepreneurs’ Business Management Skills, which they had acquired as part of the training. The ETP evaluation also collected results which indicate that of the entrepreneurs who already had a business and were trained, 57.3% of the businesses improved and 7.4% of the business had their performance more than double. This means that 64% of the MSEs whose entrepreneurs were ETP-trained subsequently improved performance,cxxxix which corresponded to the ETP project’s achievement goal. 5.4 Attitudes of ETP trained women microentrepreneurs The ETP trainees that participated in the qualitative research expressed their attititudes on a number of common themes that were in response to the questionaire that they received. After the transcription of the women entrepreneurs’ discussion, the researcher was able to identify recurring themes that were the most prominent; including their attitudes toward what it takes to succeed in business and what are the positive and negative consequences for women who venture into entrepreneurialism. These views are valuable both in terms of reflecting the values of and the experiences of being women entrepreneurs in Uganda. 5.4.1 Critical success factors according to ETP trained women entrepreneurs: Summary: Starting small, ability to work with others as well as independently, being committed, self-disciplined; having a vision, self-knowledge, a plan and courage. Willingness and tenacity to work hard, even in less desirable jobs.

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Responses to question: ‘What does it take to be a successful entrepreneur?’ ...It depends on people’s chances. ...depends how you treat your customers. ...How you manage, how you balance business expenditures and others. ...list your competence(s) to know what kind of business you have; where you are going to set up your business, how is the environment around where you are considering opening your business. The population should match according to what you are going to sell. ...list your competences to know what kind of business to have, are you really going to gain from the business and how are you going to compete in terms of price and market and so on. You should not think ...should be starting with small money, through your own savings, and start a small business. Makasinak Florence ...should have the love for their business ...should know how to use the time. ...should have discipline with your funds. Maria Lubega ...one has to be committed to the kind of business she’s going to do. ...one has to be trustworthy; not to be a liar. ...not to give up. You may not succeed in a day, but you keep trying, so long as you have a vision for that business. You have to endure and through prayer, God can make it. Okullo Amma ...you must have a vision. ...You must see where you are going, and what you want to achieve in the nearby future. You must have a motive and objectives to follow; what you really want and what are you following ...you must have the truths; you must be sure that the relationship you have with your clients is above board, especially for a woman - How do you relate to the others, the fellow women and the men. ...you have to be committed, devoted, and you have to interest and the love of what you are doing. Katusimeron Grace ...I think it’s loving what you’re doing; then you’ll be committed. That can help you to achieve your goals or to move on. Charlotte Ogaliya 66

...it takes, ...interest in the business itself ...to have the drive, the motivation to really run the business. Grace Angela N Kirabo ...you should be able to achieve that thing that drove you into the business ...all your benefits should be seen - to see you gaining towards achieving your vision. ...you can measure yourself as a successful person. If anyone is watching you ... they will benefit from it. Aselle Benna Okurut ...you have to be disciplined, as well as a team player, because you don’t go into business alone. ...you have to be committed to what you’re doing; not jump from here to there. ...you have to research into what you’re going to do, what you’re going to sell to your customers. ...once you have them, you have to know how to keep them, as in customer care. Lydia B Nsubuga You have to interested in what you are and what you know. You have ... to be ambitious in your business. Senteza M. Sarah ...most important thing was planning, planning systematically... market research. ...know how to budget, definitely, to me that was the most important thing ...being persistent. Aileen Rulomushana ...It takes courage, ...it takes focus ...to know where you want to be ...you have to be hard-working and a team player. Nankya Mary Gorretie Responses to question of: ‘What advice would you give to younger women considering a career in Entrepreneurialism?’ ... they should get a dream first. After getting it they should focus on that dream. Yeah. And then put in more effort to implement it. Makasinak Florence ...pray to God to give them a vision, or a picture of a business which they can do. ...be committed to that business. And ...being persistent in the business you excel. Okullo Amma 67

... to have a dream and work hard to live it. ...should also fight hard to invest. As they live their dream they should also invest. Katusimeron Grace ...should know themselves. Get to know your worth. It’s very good to know yourself as a young woman, ...explore your different talents. That way you’re going to get money out of no money in some way. ...Get to know your different skills, get to know your strong points especially; you work with those. You use them as stepping blocks to get to where you want to be, to get the different achievements. Mbabazi Elizabeth ...to become entrepreneurs as early as they can. When they are still strong they have the energy and the brain (laughs). ...They have to love their life. Maria Lubega ...not to discriminate the jobs. Because, the money we are getting, somebody cannot identify that this money, I’ve got it from a person who’s selling ichackos, or from a person who is in Parliament. The money we are using is the same. ...they’re waiting for a white-collar job which is not there....accept any job so long as you are getting money. ...not to overlook any job. Any job can be of use. Lybia Kobusinaye / Benedicta Namyonga ...work hard to fulfill her goals ...to be flexible. Charlotte Ogaliya ...follow their heart and what interests them, ...have the interest for the particular thing and when you gain the skill you will surely make it. Grace Angela N Kirabo ...try to identify a mentor for herself. ...should be willing to do any job as opposed to begging as opposed to anything that is indecent. ...God created/made all the jobs for us to be comfortable. ...should learn from their families or their relatives or something like that. ...try to be independent. ....they need to employ them to do the domestic work. Instead of me hiring someone to come and do the domestic chores, say to them, do the laundry, do the dishes; I’ll give you this much at the end of it. You’d be amazed at 68

how hard-working they get. Aselle Benna Okurut ...be focused going into business, knowing what they really want. To not look down upon jobs or business, to not ‘aim high’ but start low down and then they climb. ...look at people who’ve made it and be ambitious and try to learn from mothers who’ve succeeded, not think about (working in) offices only. Lydia B Nsubuga ...teach your children ... this business. Your children tend to learn whatever you are doing. If you’re farming they can help on the farm, if you’re keeping a shop they can help you in the shop. Importing and exporting, they can learn it from you. They can help with your business. ....I think this is not so bad to do business in your home as ladies in relationships with your family. ...You go set your business, however small it is, it is your business. You go on improving as time goes by. Senteza M. Sarah ...young women should start business early in life ...if you start business early your children will understand all these problems we are having, they will have grown knowing exactly what it is all about, you know how to operate it, they will know how to deal with business money, they will know how to handle customers. Aileen Rulomushana ...take up any opportunity to learn something and not to look down on jobs. As long as you can learn something from the job, it empowers....should always seek to be empowered. ...should also have role models to look up to, people who have made it in life, educated women who’ve gone into business. ....should also break the culture, ‘when you grow up you have to get married and then be looked after by the man’. They should do away with that and look for things that are self-sustaining. Nankya Mary Gorretie

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5.4.2 Handling Conflicts: family relations & the business Summary: Too little time for family, some positive but many negative aspects of involving family in the business. For me I have only two children. Sometimes they are, they start school, they are in the baby section. So my time, I spend all my time in my business. Because I woke up in the morning, not very early but I get up at seven a.m and I go where my chicken are. And I visit them outside to feed themselves. But the problem is in holiday. A holiday I have to wake up early in the morning and wake up my children to read their books up to ten. Makasinak Florence ...I believe I'm fair, honestly - I believe I give each 50/50, to some extent. ...When it comes to work I give the same priority that I give to home. Because it's family that will actually push you through. When you're happy at home you're happy at work; when work is fine, home is fine. ...How I balance, honestly, 50/50 is that I sleep less. I wake so early, I wake up at 5:30 - I think I've lost sleep ...I stop work and at 8:00 pm I'm entering the house. And at 8:00 am I'm at work, so I really balance. I could be at work but I'm balancing something at home. Indeed, I don't have to be there, things will move although I'm not there. I've organized myself. I love carrying my diary. Wherever I am - you find me going home - with my PC to do some work. I'm still at work and I'm thinking of home, so I balance them 50/50. Mbabazi Elizabeth ...may be that you are the one looking after the family and if you are not careful your business may collapse. ...many of us, we are mothers, single mothers, so the relatives, the business; it is very difficult to get relations... the family should be separated from the business....Business should be business. ...it should be you following the family; whatever is removed should be calculated for or accounted for… Not the thinking that the family matters should mix with the business. Once you mix everything, it will be in a mess.... A woman should avoid as much as possible to get a man whom she is 70

working with to be a friend. What I mean to take him as a, as a wife (intimate partner). That is very, very dangerous. You can find that the reason is corruption. ...And at the same time it is advisable not to use your relatives... For me I don’t see that they are threatening the women, the men. That is dangerous. But relatives, your relatives, they are suffering. And you can control them, you can chase them away and they will not refuse to go. Yes, and you will be helping them to get business, to get jobs, as jobs are very difficult. ...Relatives, from my side, it is okay. Lybia Kobusinaye / Benedicta Namyonga …it affects both positively and negatively; but as for the positive part, it helps to have the family as part of the business...she’ll know how to get on in life when she grows up and what it takes to become an entrepreneur. And then negatively, you find that at times you become too busy again to be there for your children or to be there for your family. At times you come back from work and you’re tired. You don’t have enough time for your husband or your kids. Charlotte Ogaliya ...if you have a big order...you don’t want anything to come in the way, I mean relative-wise. I mean you have to get it done! Balance is the challenge. To me, that would really affect the relationships with your family. They look at you - mean- is it all about money? Has she forgotten about her relationship with the family? Grace Angela N Kirabo ...It can be positive or negative, depending on the circumstances. ...depending on circumstances it should be really positive. As long as the relationships are good. Because you are not just in business, you are contributing to the family income. You’re contributing to family comportment, you’re contributing to every other thing that touchtes the family. So in that aspect I find it really very good. And then, ...I do try, slowly, to help my children to appreciate; to be involved. When I have order for a cake, even my five year old comes. Since I don’t have a mixer, she tries. So at the end of the day when the product is finished, we all appreciate feeling part of the process. And slowly I’m training them and they’re all 71

supportive in that way. However sometimes when you find it’s demanding, the relationship becomes the reverse. In my point of view I’ve tried with my bigger daughters, I do really love them...’Now you’re the one to account for it.’ ...So they balance and realize that the profit margins are small, so they become less demanding and they less of themselves in the process and I’m less stressed sharing the money. Aselle Benna Okurut ...when you’re in business, you have little time for your family. And I found myself at times, ...I felt more tired, and all these mood swings. ...What has disappointed you there, you bring it home and involve those who are really not concerned. ...the husband, most of the time you are tired and don’t know what he’s eaten. ...when I come late and don’t know if he likes it or not, or whether it is bad for him. ...I’ve quarreled with the workers. ... it really affects our relationship in a way. ... I want to succeed in the business and I find that 90% of my attention is paid to the business because the family’s not at home I have to run the farm and I’m coming home tired and I want to go to bed....Maybe they want my time but I do not give it to them. So that’s what I think; we don’t give them enough time. Lydia B Nsubuga ...sometimes I feel I don’t give my children enough time that they would need, it affects them somehow in their growing. Because I take almost the whole day out, go back home when they’re going to eat and sleep. I don’t see how much they’re behaving to tell them what I want them to do. I think also cheat on my husband, he wants me to spend time with him but I don’t give it to him. Nankya Mary Gorretie In conclusion, ETP trained micro entrepreneurs recognize that there are potential short comings in operating their own businesses. They see their families’ needs conflicting with those of their businesses and the majority find that while it may be desirable to involve children in terms of training, it is often problematic to work with relatives. Furthermore, ETP trainees are clear in identifying the critical success factors for micro entrepreneurship, including the willingness and commitment to work hard and be accepting of unanticipated and challenging circumstances. Finally, ETP trained 72

businesswomen find that knowing really one’s strengths and weaknesses while maintaining a clear vision backed up by a wellconceived plan are ultimately indispensible for success in micro entrepreneurship. 5.5 What women microentrepreneurs perceive to have gained by participating in the ETP As noted earlier (see 5.2.8; perceptions of ETP) the majority of trainees, some 64%, reported in the ETP Evaluation that the training had a positive impact on their business in terms of performance.cxl As they have become more effective and successful business managers it is easy to understand the women microentrepreneurs’ pride in their considerable achievements. In further examination of the ETP trainees’ statements on the question of what was most important that they learned, the themes which stand out are among the most fundamental to any business’ success. Namely, how the free market functions and especially how customers and therefore businesses catering to them respond to it in terms of marketing and dealing with competition. Additionally the ETP trainees repeatedly brought up the subject of hiring, training and managing employees: ...I learnt a lot about the free market and such. Mbabazi Elizabeth ...learned how to manage my human resources; choosing and handling my staff, ...record-keeping also improved. Maria Lubega ...What I learnt was to know what products the customer wants and when they buy it and how often they buy. ...How I treat my customers and if I have employees I’m supposed to treat them as human beings. ...how to compete with my competitors. Makasinak Florence 5.6 Factors limiting the attainment of women’s empowerment among ETP trained microentrepreneurs …Although the government promotes women in a way, we lack security/collateral if you’re going for a loan. Most women in Uganda 73

don’t own property. And if you went for a loan in the bank, they’ll point to the lack of collateral. ‘Do you have a house somewhere?’ And you lose out. They won’t give you a loan and if they did they’d give you little money, it would not be enough for your business. Lydia B Nsubuga Because you’re a lady, he expects that for any decision, you have to consult otherwise you may create conflicts. Sometimes that, I feel, is a disadvantage to my business. Nankya Mary Gorretie 5.7 How have women ETP-trained microentrepreneurs translated their changes in well-being into changing their gender relations individually and within their households and community? From the qualitative research conducted on ETP trainees responding to the question, ‘What are the advantages and disadvantages of being an entrepreneur?’ it is clear that the women value the respect and agency they acquire as a result of their entrepreneurial efforts: Yeah, as for me that advantage that I see as a woman entrepreneur is that you are taken to be, uh, you are respected at home. Like if you’re doing something and you have some income in your pocket you are respected by your children, by your husband and by some other family members. Because there is some business going on and that means that if there is some business there is some income and you have some money to support your family. Charlotte Ogaliya I look at it in the way that when you’re earning money or you’re making money in your business, surely you’re respected in society. If you’re dealing with men you have an advantage. Grace Angela N Kirabo Then I also have a disadvantage when it comes to decision making. I have to do some consultancy sometimes with my husband. Because you’re a lady, he expects that for any decision, you have to consult otherwise you may create conflicts. Sometimes that, I feel, is a disadvantage to my business. Nankya Mary Gorretie 74

Conclusion: ETP trainees clearly experience significant and irrevocable changes in their relations with their families, husbands and communities through the process of becoming entrepreneurs. Many of the changes to their livelihood that follow a career in entrepreneurship are positive although there are inevitable and unavoidable tensions which arise, both directly and indirectly, with which women entrepreneurs must struggle. Women entrepreneurs enjoy enhanced respect from their families and communities but also must endure the envy, demands and expectations from their families and friends that follows their heightened status and greater material success. 5.8 Is the theoretical underpinning of the study consistent with related international literature? That women microentrepreneurs’ livelihoods were changed through the experience of starting and operating a business is amply evident in the qualitative and quantitative research that examined ETP participants. The overwhelming evidence - five example of which are cited below - supports the conclusion that these ETP trained women felt - despite the inevitable stress, long hours and hard work that all entrepreneurs face in the course of running a business - that they benefitted in general. The small, medium and micro enterprise sector has been widely recognized as an engine of economic growth in South Africa… This study, conducted in a developing economy, therefore supports the findings of similar studies in developed economies, that the level of education of an entrepreneur and the success of their business are related.(cxli Peters & Brijlal 2011, pp. 265-275) Women showed their ‘power within’ in their pride both collectively in the focus group discussions and individually during individual interviews when they reminded us to critically see the difference they have with others in the community. (cxlii Lakwo, 2007, p.138) While the (Tanzania-based) Women Entrepreneurship Development 75

Programme had little, if any, influence in empowering women with regard to awareness of injustice…With regard to contribution to household income, WED Programme-supported women had become empowered as they were able to contribute monthly to household income, a thing that they were previously unable to do.(cxliii Mwatima Makombe, 2006, p 172.)

Women entrepreneurs account for a sizable majority of small-scale entrepreneurs in Africa. A minor change in their capitalization could assure their participation in diverse productive activities and has a large impact on their lives and families, as well as on the economy.(cxliv Belwal et al, 2010) …sector- and function-focused strategies offer the most promise for helping women to make significant economic gains and deserve further experimentation and donor support.(cxlv McKee, 1989) With no or few significant differences shown to exist between male and female business owners or managers once they have already started an enterprise, there is a strong indication that Africa has sizeable hidden growth potential in its women. (cxlvi Halkias et al, 2011 pp 221-235)

5.9 Chapter summary The analysis and discussion focused on the characteristics and profiles of women micro entrepreneurs and their microenterprises as well as on their perception of what they gained by participating in the Entrepreneurial Training Programme, what obstacles they face in their quest for improved livelihoods, dignity and gender equality. Finally, the theoretical underpinning of the study was found be consistent and overlap with the findings of related international literature.

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CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 6.1 Introduction This chapter presents the summary, conclusions and contributions of the study. 6.2 Summary The primary objective of the study was to explore and to describe the extent to which the Entrepreneurship Training Programme had transformed the livelihoods participating women microentrepreneurs in Uganda. Secondary objectives included examining factors limiting the attainment of women’s empowerment, identifying the motivations, attitudes of ETP trained women and their perspectives on gender inequality as well as their perceived value of the ETP. Finally, related international literature was explored in order to provide the setting for the research questions. Research questions Consistent with the research objectives, the major research question for the study was: To what extent and in what ways have the livelihoods of women microentrepreneurs been impacted by their participation in the ETP? Secondary question were the following: What are the profiles of microenterprises owned by women microentrepreneurs who participate in the ETP Program? Secondly: What challenges and/or advantages, if any, do women entrepreneurs face? Thirdly: In what ways have women ETP micro entrepreneurs translated their well-being changes into changing their gender relations individually and within their households and community? Fourthly: What are the factors limiting the process of empowerment by ETP-trained women microentrepreneurs? Finally; Is the theoretical underpinning of the study consistent with related international literature 77

6.3 Conclusions From the findings, the following conclusions are drawn: With regard to transforming livelihoods, women ETP-trained micro entrepreneurs had ameliorated their livlihoods though pursuing careers in, as well as receiving training in, entrepreneurship. Successful women ETP trainees also typically operated MSEs with little or no outside financing, beginning with little start up capital. Their business skills were enhanced due to the ETP training, particularly in improved record keeping, which they are convinced contributed to making them more effective business managers. The study showed what kinds of businesses women ETP trainees were operating and their backgrounds. Finally the study found that among the greatist challenges that women ETP-trained entrepreneurs face is in balancing the demands of their family lives with those of their businesses.

6.4 Contribution of the study The contribution of this study to literature and knowledge is as follows; first, very little seems to have been researched or written on how entrepreneurship-training affects women’s livelihoods in developing countries. The knowledge generated by this study may be useful not only to Uganda but also to other developing countries in the area of women entrepreneurship development empowerment and livelihood. The findings of the study with regard to the impact of the ETP on selected livelihood variables may well be of interest to policy makers and development practitioners in government, such as Iceland’s Development Agency, ICEIDA, that initiated the ETP in conjunction with Uganda’s UIA, non-governmental organisations and in the 78

donor community as well as to business development service providers. 6.5 Suggestions / Policy Recommendations Based on the conclusions of this study, entrepreneurship training in the ETP format proves to be an effective and relatively inexpensive method for improving the livelihoods of women while simultaneously promoting gender equality in the context of developing countries. The Entrepreneurship Training Programme is thus a worthy model for emulation and may well serve as such for future interventions.

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Appendix i

Questions for Discussion for ETP participants UIA offices, The Investment Center, TWED Plaza, 22B Lumumba Avenue, Nakasero Hill, Kampala, Uganda. 1) What is your busineses - what service do you provide or product do you sell? 2) Why did you decide to go into business? 3) Did you take a loan to get your business started, if so, from where? (Bank? Family? Women's Circle? Street loan?) 4) What did you learn from the ETP that was especially important and useful? 5) What does it take to be a successful entrepreneur? 6) What advantages and/or disadvantages are there for female entrepreneurs? 7) What mistakes should a woman avoid as an entrepreneur? 8) How does being an entrepreneur effect your relationships and family life? 9) What advice do you have for young women? Note: All relevant information resulting from these interviews will be made available online and can be sent to your email address. These interviews and the information collected in them are for academic research purposes only.

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Social Watch E-Newsletter - Issue 7 - December, 2003 anakin.paullier.net newsletter Montevideo, Uruguay

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Social Watch / p. 167 - Tanzania - Benefit of an elite at the expense of the poor majority

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