References

Benassi,V. ,A., & Fernald,P. S. (1993).Preparingromorrow'spsy. chologists for careers in academe. Teachingof Psychobgy,20, 149-155. Benjamin,L. T., Jr., Daniel, R. S., & Brewer,C. L. (Eds.).(1985). Handbookfor teachingintroductorypslchology.Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc. Benjamin,L. T., Jr.,Nodine, B. F., Ernst,R. M., &Blair-Broeker,C. (Eds.). (1999). Actiuitieshandbookfor the teachingof psychologl (Vol. 4) . \Tashington, DC: American PsychoiogicalAssociation. Blumberg,H. H., Fuller,C., & Hare,A.P. (1974).Response ratesin postal surveys.Public Opinion Quarterly, 38, ll3-123. Boyer,E. L. ( 1990). Scholarship reconsidered: Prioritiesof the professorrate.Princeton, NJ: CarnegieFoundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Buskist,W., Tears,R. S.,Davis,S. F., & Rodrigue,K. M. (2002). The teaching of psychologycourse:Prevalenceand content. Teaching of P sychologl,29, 140-142. Buxton, C. E. (1951). Teaching: Have your cake and eat ir too? Americmt Psychotogist, 6, 111-1 18. Davis,B. G. (1993).Toolsfor teaching. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass. Davis,S. F., &Buskist, \7. (Eds.).(2007).Theteachingof psychobgy: Essaysln honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie and Charles L. Brewer. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc. Fox, R. J.,Crask,M. R., & Kim, J. (1988).Mail surveyresponserare: A meta.analysisofselectedtechniquesfor inducing response.Public Opinion Quarterll, 52, 467491. Goodwin, C. J. Q00Z) . Teaching the history of psychology.In S. F. Davis & W. Buskist (Eds.), The teachingof psychology: Essaysin hon"orof \XlilbertJ. McKeachieand CharlesL. Brewer (pp. 349-360). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc. Hebl, M. R., Brewer,C. L., & Benjamin,L. T., Jr. (Eds.).(2000). Handbookfor teachingintroductorypsychologyffol. 2). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,Inc. Lloyd, M. A. (1999). As time goesby: Maintaining vitality in the classroom.In B. Perlman, L. I. McCann. & S. H. McFadden (Eds.),Lessonsleamed:Practicaladvicefor the teachingof psychology (pp. 7-10). \Washington,DC: American PsychologicalSociety. Lowman, J. 9995). Masteing theteclniquesof teaching(2nd ed.). San Francisco:Jossey-Bass. McGovern, T. (Ed.). (1993). Handbookfor enhancingundergraduate educationin psychologl.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. McKeachie, \7. l. (2002). Teachingtips: Strdtegies, research,and theory for colbgeand uniuersityteachers(1lth ed.). Boston; Hought. on-Mifflin. Meyers,S. A., & Prieto, L. R. (2000). Training in the teaching of psychology: Vhat is done and examining the differences. Teachingof Psychology, 27, 258-261. Palmer,P.l. ( 1998).The couragetotedch:Exploringtheinnerlandscape of a teacher'sh/e.San Francisco:Jossey.Bass. Perlman,B., McCann, L. L, &McFadden, S. H. (Eds.).(1999).frssonsleamed:Practical aduicefor the teachingof psycholngy . Washing. ton, DC: American PsychologicalSociety. Puente, A. 8., Matthews, J. R., & Brewer, C. L. (Eds.). (1992). Teachingpsychologlin America: Ahistorl. Washington, DC: Amer. ican PsychologicalAssociation. readaboutteaching.Evanston, Quinn, J. (1993). Uniuersitl professors IL: Northwestern Universiry, National Center for Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment. Weimer, M. (1993). The discipline journals on pedagogy.Change,

2s(6),44-51. Zanna, M. P., & Darley, J. M. (Eds.). (L987) . The compleatacademic : A pr acticalpide f or the begirving socialscientist.New York: Random House.

Vol. 31, No. 1,2004

Notes Ve thank Tracy Zinn for her comments on an earlier version of the article. Send correspondenceto Bryan K. Saville, Department of Psychology, Stephen F. Austin State University, P.O. Box 13046, SFA Station, N acogdoches,TX 75962-30 46; e-mail: bsaville@

Using an UndergraduateHuman-Service Practicumto Promote Unified Psychology Robert Weis Unioersityof Wisconsin-Steoens Point This article describesan undergradudtecapstonecoursewith practicumdesiped to integratestudents'preuiousknowledgeof psychology, 'knowledge research methods,and statisticsand n apply this to thebenefitof others.Specifically, studentsadministereda l).week readinginteruentionand behaviormodification program to children with ReadingDisorder. Studentsconducted dssessments beforeand after interuention and statisticallyeualu. atedthe effectiueness of their work. Studentsaddressed ethicalis. suesand collaboratedwith other professionals. Outcome dnta suggested the coursewas beneficialfrom pedagogicaland service-oriented perspectiu es.

Recently, there has been renewedinterest in developinga unified psychologycharacterizedby "the multiparadigmatic, multidisciplinary, and integrated study of psychologicalphe. nomena through converging operations" (Sternberg & Grigorenko,2001,p. 1069).Unified psychologyseeksro correct the fragmentation of psychologicalscienceinto isolated subdisciplinesby reducing methodological and field fixation. Methodnlogical fixation refers to psychologists'rendenciesto rely on a singlemethod to investigatea psychologicalphenomenon, whereasfieldfixation refersro psychologisrs'rendencies to subsumepsychological phenomena under discrete, and sometimesartificial, fields of study.Advocates arguethat uni. fied psychologymore fully promotesintegrated psychological scienceby studying a singlepsychologicalphenomenon from multiple disciplines,using multiple methodologies(Staars, 1999;Sternbery,2002;Sternberg& Grigorenko,2001). Unfortunately, current educational practicestend toward specializationand differentiation rather than integration and converginglines of inquiry. For example,undergraduatecurricula often require a certain number of coursesfrom two broad categories:experimental psychologyand applied psychology (Perlman & McCann, 1999a, I999b). Furthermore, many undergraduateprogramshave adopted specialrytracks to help students focus on either research or applied areas (Messer,Griggs,&Jackson, 1999).Similarly,graduateprograms are usually organizedby psychologicalspecialry (e.g., clinical, developmental,cognitive) rather rhan the phenom. ena or populationsstudied (e.g.,aggressionin adolescents, memory and aging). Given the currenr organization of psy-

chological training, it should be no surpriseifstudents envi. sion psychology as a loose confederation of subspecialties rather than an integrated approachto studying behavior. An undergraduatehuman servicepracticum could serve as a capstone course that allows students to apply diverse knowledge gained in previous coursesfor the benefit of the individuals they serveand the community more generally.In. deed, such a capstonecourse,which integratesbroad fields and methods within the discipline and permits the applica. tion of such knowledge, is supported by theoretical (Boyer Commission, 1998) and empirical (Elmes,2002; Markus, Howard, & King, 1993)research. To help my studentsintegrare and apply their knowledge ofpsychology,I offer a 4.credit practicum courseentitled Be. havior and Learning Disordersin Children. This courseinrro. ducesadvancedpsychologystudentsto principlesofbehavior modification and their application ro alleviaring children's behavior and learning problems.Studentsparticipare in 3 hr of didactics and approximately4 hr of pracricum per week for 15 weeks. During practicum, we focus on Reading Disorder in school-agechildren becausethis disorder lends itself to multiparadigmatic,interdisciplinary study at the undergraduate level. Reading Disorder is influenced by biogenetic fac. tors; affect cognitive, social, and emotional development; impact leaming and achievement; and can be treated using rather straightforward, behavioral interventions (Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky,& Seidenberg,2001). Consequently, my students must recall, integrate, and apply information and skills from previous coursesin the curriculum to successfully completethe practicum.For example,we review researchon biopsychology,neuroimaging, and cognirion to understand the etiology and maintaining factors of Reading Disorder. Additionally, we examine the impact of the disorder on children's emotional development, interaction with peers and teachers,and academic functioning. Finally, be. causethe practicum is treatment focused,students administer a behaviorallyoriented readingintervention program and assess its effecdvenessusing their knowledgeof experimental designand statistics.In this manner, studentsappreciatehow the competent and ethical practice of psychology requires unified knowledgeof its subdisciplinesand methods. Course Process Approximately 2 monthsbeforethe beginningof the semes. ter,I contactspecialeducationteachersat localschoolsandoffer practicum students to tutor first- and second-grade children with Reading Disorder. I select first- and second-grade children becausereading interventions typically show greatestbenefits for children in this agegroup (Snow, Bums,&Griffin, 1998).Referredchildrenwhoseparentsgranl consentarerandomly assignedto either an intervention group that receivestutoring or to a control group that doesnot re. ceive tutoring. All children continue to receivespecialeducation servicesthrough the school, regardlessof assignment. During the first 3 weeks of class,we review the etiology and treatment of Reading Disorder from the perspectivesof developmental psychology,biopsychology,cognition, learn. ing, and education. I also introduce the DISTAR program (Engelmann,Haddox, & Bruner, 1983), a phonics-based readingintervention. I use DISTAR becauseit has consider. 44

able empirical support for improving reading in young chil. dren, is designedfor paraprofessionals,requires minimal instruction and preparationto achievecompetence,and can be usedat school.Finally,we discussethicalissueswith children (Baird,1996). During the fourth week of the course, I randomly assign students an intervention child and a control child matched by grade,gender, and school. Students are initially unaware which child will receivethe intervention. Studentsmeet with the teachers of their assignedchildren, conduct classroom observations,and obtain child assent.In class,I teach students to administer and scorethree subtestsfrom the Wood. 'SToodcock, cock-Johnson Tests of Achievement (WJ-III; McGrew, & Mather, 2001): Letter-Word Identification, Passage Comprehension,and Word Attack. These subtests assess basicreading,reading comprehension,and phonological awareness, respectively.These subtestsrequire minimal training to administer, are easyto score,and reflect current norms. Students administer the WJ-llI subtestsbefore and after the interventi.onto both groupsof children. In class,students discusscon{identiality, securiryof test items, and storageofraw test data. During the subsequentlO-week intervention, students participate in didactics and supervision during class. Didactics focus on behavior modification in children (Hall & Hall, 1998) and child psychopathology(Mash & \7olfe, 2002). Pedagogicaltechniques involve lecrure, discussion, workbook exercises,videosof techniques,and role playing. Supervision emphasizesthe importance of integrating students' previous knowledge of psychology.For example, students often have practical questions about managing children's behavior during the tutoring sessions.Many of the referred children cannot sustain attention acrossthe 2O-min sessions. Students'questions often leadto in-classdiscussions about the reasonsfor children'sinattention from the perspective ofbiopsychology(e.g.,frontal-striatalbrain regions),developmental psychology(e.g.,the developmentof behavioral inhibition across childhood), abnormal psychoiogy (e.g., comorbidity of Reading Disorder and Attention.Deficit/Flyperactivity Disorder), affect and cognition (e.g.,emotion regulation, social problem solving), and multimodal intervention (e.g.,operantconditioning,modeling,environmental manipulation, medication). Students may have learnedthis informationin previouscoursesbut now must re. call and apply it to their pracricum experiences. At the end of the intervention, studentsscorepretest and posttestmeasuresof children'sreadingability and pool data into an SPSSfile. As a group, studentsapply their knowledge ofstatistics to evaluatethe effectsofthe intervention. For the final assignment,each studentwrites an 8- to 10.pagepaper in American PsychologicalAssociation (APA) sryledescribing the class'sresults.The exercisepromotesstudentcollaboration, helps students appreciate the importance of quantitative data analysisin evaluating treatment success, and allowsthem to practice scientific writing and APA sryle. Students'grades arebasedon (a) midterm and final examinations assessingtheir understanding of material presented in class,(b) administration and scoring of tests, (c) adminis. tration of the behavior modification program, (d) data entry and analyses,(e) final paper, and (f) attendance and participation. I measurestudent participation in the behavior modiTeaching of Psychology

fication program via a questionnaire completed by the studentsand myself.The questionnaireconsistsof four items on a 5-point Likert scaleranging from 0 (not at all true) to 4 (completelyrrue). Items include (a) accuracyof DISTAR ad. ministration and willingness to seek supervision, (b) collection of pretest and posttest data, (c) frequency of tutoring, and (d) proGssionalismand adherenceto ethical standards. Teachersof the children who participate in the intervention alsocompletethe last two items about practicumstudents. Pedagogical and Human-Service Value of the Course I analyzeddata from a recent practicum class(N : 12 students)to assess the valueofthe course.I assessed studentsatisfaction in threeways.First, studentsprovided an overall course evaluationon a 5.point Likert scalerangingfrom 0 (F) to 4 (A) . Second,studentscompleted a questionnairedesignedfor the courseto assess their learning experiences.This questionnaire consistedof 23 items on a lO.point Likert scalerangingfrom I (notatalltrue)to I0 (uerytrue).Third, studentsprovidedquali. tative feedbackin written form. Student responses were anonymous. The mean rating for students' overall course evaluationwas3.83 (SD : .39). The meanratingfor coursesin the departmentwas3.55 (SD : .6i) and the universirywas 3.39 (SD : .84).Inspectionofstudents'raringsofspecificas. pectsofthe course(Table 1) indicatedthat studentsbelieved that they increasedtheir understandingof behavior modiftcation techniques, psychoeducationalinterventions, the integration of psychologicalsubdisciplines,and appreciation for researchmethodsand statistics. Teachers of the children who participated in the intervention assessed satisfactionwith the behavior modification program and interest in having another practicum student the following year using a 5-point Likerr scaleranging from 0 (not at all true) to 4 (completelytrue). A11teachers (N : 10) completed the satisfaction questionnaire.Teachers' mean satisfactionrating was 3.88 (SD : .35). Teachers' mean rating of interest in having another practicum student was3.75 (SD : .71). Finally, norm-referenced test data showed that children who received the intervention significantly improved their overall reading and phonological awarenessskills relative to children in the control group (Table 2). Indeed, the mean Table 2.

standard scoreofchildren who participated in the interven. tion was within the averagerange. In summary, student reports, teacher ratings, and child outcome data suggestthe coursehas value from pedagogical and human-serviceperspectives.These resultsare consistent with other studiesinvestigatingthe benefitsof externship ex. periencesin helping studentslearn human-service(Hardv & Table 1. Results of Student Evaluations

This class increasedmy knowledgeof: Attentionand ignoringto changechildren's behavior. Usingpositiveand negativereinforcement with children. Usingtoken economieswith children. Usingpromptsto changechildren'sbehavior. Modelingto teach new behaviors. Positivepractice,self-correction, and overcorrection. Responsecosts to changechildren'sbehavior. Behavioralcontractsand suiciderisk in ._ childrenand adolescents. Usingtime out with children. Ethicswith children. Readingdisorderswith children. Readinginterventions with children. Workingas a behaviortherapistin a school setting. Psychological testing. How to collectpre- and posttestdata to evaluatean intervention. Basicstatisticslike within-subjectsttests and ANOVA. Describingresultsin APA format. The importanceof collectingdata and evaluatingan interveniion. This class increasedmy ability: To work with teachersand other school personnelin a professionalmanner. To use SPSS to analyzedata. I feel betterable to help childrenusingbehavioral techniquesbecauseof this class. This class increasedmy interestin workingwith childrenor in psychologyin general. I enjoyedlhis class.

M

SD

87.25a o1 A7

7.44 6.88 6.89 8.24

87.42^ 8 3 . 1 7^

8.42

2.27

8.17 8.50 8.75 8.25

2.17 2.39 't.87 2.26

9.00 8.17

1.20 2.25

8.08 8.75 8.83 9.25 9.67

2.35 1.60 1.80 1.42 0.65

8.67 9.33

1,50 0.89

9.33

0.98

7.08 7.50

2.54 2.78

8.92

1.51

7.75 7.58

2.63 2.57

9.00

2.00

9.25 9.58

1.21 0.90

Effects of Intervention on Children's Reading Abilities

Preassessment

Basicreadingskills Letter-word identification Passagecomprehension Word attack

SD

Note. N = 12. Basedon ratingsrangingtrom 1 (not at all true)to 10 (very true)

InterventionGroup

ReadingVariable

M

ControlGroup

Postassessment M 100.08b 99.00b 95.75b 100.83b

Preassessment

SD

M

9.78 7.89 8.05 11.20

88.92u 89.50" 88.00a 82.67u

SD 11.02 10.57 11.14 11.06

Postassessment M

SD

90.42u 91.25" 88.58u 84.92a

10.25 10.76 8.25

v.62

Note. N= 24 children.All scoresare standardscoreswith M= 100and SD = 15. Meansin the same row that do not sharesubscriptsdifferat p < .05' in the Tukey HSD test. Resultsof mixedANCOVAfor each measureof readingability,with two levelsof time (repeatedmeasure:pre- anct postintervention) and two levelsof group(intervention and control),controllingfor lQ, revealedsignificantGroupx Tihe interactionsfor ci-rildren's basicreadingskills,F(1,21) =21.95,p<.001 , partialrf =.50; and wordattackskills,F(1,21)= 16.96,p=.OOt, partialq2=.45. No significant interactionwas foundfor children'sletter-wordidentification skills,F(1, 21) = 3.95,p= .10,partialn, = .1i; or passagecomprehension skills,F1t, 21)= 1.48,P = .24,partialq2= .97.

Vol. 31,No. 1,2004

45

Schaen, 2000; Osborne & Gray, 1995; O'Sullivan, 1993; Raupp & Cohen, 1992) andresearch(Chapdelaine& Chapman, 1999)skills.However, this coursewasdesignedto not only help studentsappreciatethese two facetsofpsychology, but more important, to help them integrate experimentaland applied methods of inquiry into a unified psychologicalscience.Indeed,studentsusedtheir knowledgeofchild devel. opment, abnormal psychology, cognition, biopsychology, researchdesign and statistics,and writing skills to complete the course.Studentsappreciatedhow materialpresentedin previousclasseswas necessaryto competentlyand ethically practice psychologicalscience.For example, one student wrote in her formative evaluation: The bestaspectofthe classwaslearningto usea widerangeof psychological knowledge to helpourchildren.I neverrealized theimportance of thefactsI learnedin all myotherclasses un. til now.I alwaysknewtheyweresomehow related,but now I seehow theyall dependon eachother. Instructors wishing to adopt a similar capstone course should keep three points in mind. First, students' successful participation in the coursepresupposes knowledgeofcore ar. eas in psychology.Consequently,this course should be reserved for advanced psychologymajors. Second, instructors should aliow ample time to complete the intervention and conduct analyses.Practicum sites must be securedapproximately 2 months beforethe coursebeginsso studentscan begin their practicum approximately3 weeksinto the semester. Instructors should allow 3 weeksat the end of the coursefor in-class data analysis and writing. Instructors who teach 1O-weekquarters,rather than 16-weeksemesters,may wish to extend the courseover two quarters.Finally, some school systemsmight not permit phonics.basedreading inrerventions. Although there is considerableevidence supporring the use of phonics-basedinterventions, readinginstruction is a politically charged issue, and educators rypically hold strong opinions regarding the best way to alleviate reading problems(seeRayneret a1.,2001).On a more positivenore, the resultsof sffuctured practica that involve systematicdata collection and analysismay be appealingto schoolpersonnel. Furthermore, results may change attitudes regarding the merits of phonics.basedintervenrions and highlight the benefits of psychologyas a means of scientificallypromoting the welfare of children. References practiamt,atd fieldpktrement Baird,B. N. (1996).The intemship, handbook: A gridefor thehelpingprofessiorc, UpperSaddleRiver, NJ: PrenticeHall. (i 998). RelnuenringmAergrafunte BoyerCommission. educatirn: AbluB.printfor Arnerica's resemch wiuerslries. StonyBrook,NY: Author. Chapdelaine, A., & Chapman,B. L. (1999).Usrng commuprojectsto teachresearch nity-based research methods.Teaching of Psychologl, 26, l0l-105. Elmes,D. G. (2002,September). Labcourses for undergrads: Benefitsareclear.APSObsercrer, I5\7), |i, 40. Engelmann, S.,Haddox,P.,&Bruner,E. (1983).Teachyour childto readin 100easylessoru. New York: Simon& Schuster. Hall,R.V., &Hall, M. L. (1998).Howtomanagebehauior (2nded.). Austin,TX: Pro-Ed. 46

Hardy, M. S., &Schaen, E. B. (2000).Integratingthe classroomand community service: Everyonebenefits.T eachingof Psycholagy,2 7,

47-49. Markus, G.B.,Howard, Integrating J.P.F.,& King,D. C. (1993). community serviceand classroominstruction enhanceslearning: Results from an experiment. Educatiorwl Eualuation m.d Policy Analysis,15,410419. Mash, E. J., & Wolfe, D. A. (2002). Abnormal child pqchology(Znd ed.). Belmont,CA: \Tadsworth. Messer,!7. S.,Griggs,R. A., &Jackson,S. L. (1999).A nationalsurvey of undergraduate psychology degree options and major requirements. Teachingof Pslcholagy,26, 164-17 I. Osborne,J. L., & Gray,L. A. (1995).Professional developmenrsites: A description ofa new practice in counseloreducation. Counselor Educationand Superuision, 35, 159-167. O'Sullivan,M. J. (1993).Teachingundergraduatecommunirypsychology: Integrating the classroomand the surrounding community. Teachingof Psycholog1,20, 80-83. Perlman, B., & McCann , L. l. (1999a). The most frequently listed coursesin the undergraduatepsychologycurriculum. Teachtngof Psychologl,2 6, 177*182. Perlman,B., & McCann, L. I. (1999b).The srructureof the psychologyundergraduatecurriculum. T eachingof P slchalog1, 26, 17l-17 6. Raupp,C. D., & Cohen, D. C. (1992)."A thousandpoints of light" tlluminate the psychologycurriculum: Volunteering as a learning experience.Teachingof Psychologl,19, 25-30. Rayner,K., Foorman,B., Perfetti,C., Pesetsky, D., &Seidenberg,M. (2001).How psychologicalscienceinforms the teachingofreading. Pslchologic al Sciencein the Public Interest,2, 33-7 4. Snow, C. E., Bums, M. S., & Griffin, P. (Eds.).(1998). Preuenring readingdfficuhies in yow'tgchildren. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Staats,A. \7. (1999).Unif ing psychologyrequiresnew infrastructure, theory, method, and a research agenda. Reviewof General Psycholog1,3,3-13. Sternberg,R. J. (2002,November).In searchof a unifiedfield of psychology.APS Obsener, 15(9), 9-10, 49. Sternberg,R.1., & Grigorenko,E. L. (2001). Unified psychology. Americmt P sychologist, 56, 1069-1079. Woodcock, R. \il/., McGrew, K. S., & Mather, N. (2001). Wood(3rd ed). Itasca, IL: Riverside. cock-JohnsonTests of Achieotement

Note Send correspondenceto Robert Weis, Department of Psychology, 'Wisconsin, Universiry of StevensPoint, WI 54481; e-mail: rweis@ uwsp.eou.

Using Radio Diaries to Teach Developmental PsychologyConcepts Jane P. Sheldon Departmentof Behaaioral Sciences Uniaersity of Michigan-Dearborn

Applying psychologicaltheoriesmtd conceptsto case studiesis an effectiuewayfor studentsto leamand understandcoursematerial. For mt adolescent deq,)elnpment coursestudentsaccessedNational PublicRadio'sTeenageDiaries Web siteand chose1 diary to malyze.Theyappliedpsychomalytic,Ieaming,cognitiu e, ecological, and sociobiological theoriesto the teenager'sdiary. Studentsliked Teaching of Psychology