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ProfessionalBiologist 4
K-12 Schools: Workingwith Scientists Insights for
ROSALYNMcKEOWN
Thisarticleexplainssome basicissuesand complexitiesassociatedwith workingwith K-12 administrators,teachers,and students.It also explains importantaspectsof schools,teaching,and learning,includingstate-mandatedcurriculumsand competitionfor K-12 classtime. Theauthor describescurrentpedagogicalstrategiesfor scienceeducation,as wellas learningmodalitiesand the importanceof engagingstudentsin each modality.Thearticleincludesan interviewwith CharlesHopkins,a formersuperintendentof curriculumand instruction,whogivesinsightful examplesof individualsandgroupsfrom outsidetheschoolsystemtryingto influencecurriculumadoptionand implementation. scienceeducation,K-12 schools,curriculumdevelopment,in-serviceteachertraining Keywords:
At
some pointintheircareers,manyresearchers
aremotivatedto workwith studentsfromkindergarten through 12thgrade(K-12). As projectsmature,researchers oftenwantto sharewhattheyhavelearnedwithaudienceswho wouldnot typicallysearchthe literaturefor researchfindings. Thetendencyis to turnto the localK-12 schoolsto sharethis new and excitingknowledge.Researchersin science,mathematics,engineering,andothertechnicalfieldsoftenthinkthat, becausethey spent 13 yearsin school, an additional4 years at a university,andseveralmoreyearsin graduatestudies,they knowhow to teachand can understandhow schoolsoperate. Buttheworldof elementaryandsecondaryschoolsis different andother fromtheworldsof nationallaboratories, universities, researchorganizations.The knowledgeresearchersbring to the K-12 classroomis often based on personalexperience ratherthan on educationalresearch,practice,and policy.In havebeentrainednot asteachersbut asother short,researchers technicalprofessionals. During my career,I have workedas a scientist (i.e., geomorphologist),educatorof scienceteachersat undergraduate and graduatelevels,educationalresearcher,curriculum developer,K-12 in-serviceworkshopprovider,and secondary school teacher.I haveworkedin universities,a nationallaboratory,and a public school. Overthe years,I havereceived telephone calls, letters, and e-mails from colleagues who would like to work with K-12 schools-writing curriculums,guestlecturing,or seekingfundingthatis tied to working with these schools. Each request came with good intentions,but I often found the requesterto be unawareof the realitiesof school life and curriculumdevelopment.I 870 BioScience * September2003 / Vol.53 No. 9
hopethe descriptionof issuesin thisarticlewillhelpacademics and researchersavoid common errorsand pitfallsin working with K-12 students,teachers,and administrators.
Oftenmandatedwith Curriculums: littleroomfor additionaltopics
A reviewof the Websites of statedepartmentsof education reveals that many states mandate K-12 curriculums or contentstandards(e.g.,NewYorkand California),especially in the core disciplines (USDE 2002); many of these states publishtheirmandatedcurriculumon the WorldWideWeb, usuallyat the statedepartmentof educationsite.Otherstates have curriculumswritten and mandatedat the district or school level (e.g., Maryland and Iowa). A mandated curriculum means that every teacher in a school within the jurisdiction that issued the mandate must teach the prescribedcontent. Curriculumsoften include objectives, outcomes,or expectationsrelatedto contentknowledgeand skills;they sometimes include other components, such as attitudesor projects.Typically,state-mandatedcurriculums arerevisedcyclically(every5 or 7 years,forexample)by a committee consistingof membersof the stateeducationdepartment,teachers,universityfaculty,andcurriculumsupervisors. is directorof the Centerfor RosalynMcKeown(e-mail:
[email protected]) Geographyand EnvironmentalEducation, Universityof Tennessee,311 ConferenceCenterBuilding, Knoxville,TN 37996-4134. She has a joint facultyappointmentwith OakRidgeNationalLaboratory. ? 2003American Instituteof BiologicalSciences.
ProfessionalBiologist Influentialnonprofitorganizations andparentgroupsmayalso be invitedto send representatives. The committeesmay inelements from national corporate disciplinarystandards(e.g., or Geography for Life[NGS 1994] NationalScienceEducation Standards[NRC1995])or frommajorscientificorganizations (e.g.,Benchmarks for ScienceLiteracy[AAAS1993]).Whenrestate-mandated curriculumand learningstandards, viewing it is evidentthat most productsof the revisioncommittees arehybridsof existingstate or local standardsand national standards. Teachingthe contentsof mandatedcurriculumsusuallyfills, or may well exceed, an academic year.Therefore,already overextendedteachers,out of eitherpersonalinterestor professionaljudgment,maynot enthusiasticallywelcomeoffers by well-intentionedprofessionalsor organizationsto add even more topics to the curriculum. Althoughit is unlikelythat schoolswill inviteindividuals or organizationsto teachor to developa curriculumfortopics thatarenot in the mandatedcurriculum,an organization that can show how using its programor materialswill help teachersfulfillmandatedcurriculumobjectivesmay garner support. One of the most successful residentialenvironmentaleducationcentersin easternTennesseehas done just that:It correlatedits program'slessons and activitiesto the fourth-gradecurriculumin science,social studies,language arts,mathematics,and music to show teachershow its program could help teach the mandated state curriculum. Equippedwith this assuranceand a qualityprogram,the environmentaleducationcenterenrollsmany classrooms.
Recommendation: Beforeapproaching a teacheror
school with an offerto teach a class,presenta program,write a new curriculumunit, train teachers, and so on, readthe curriculum.Be preparedto explainhow the proposedprogramhelps deliverit.
Curriculum competition In spite of the fact that thereis little room in the K-12 curriculumto teachadditionaltopics,nonprofitorganizations, governmentalagencies,and otherscontinueto focuson curriculumdevelopment.A briefwalkthrougha vendorfairat a K-12 conferencerevealsdozensof curriculumson topicsin everydiscipline.Manytopicaland issue-basedcurriculums (e.g.,waterpollution,antiracism,firesafety)involvea multidisciplinaryapproach,with the chosentopic taughtthrough severaldisciplines(e.g., socialstudies,science,math,music, and art).All curriculumscompetefor a time slot in the busy academiccalendar,and one that can help meet mandatesin severaldisciplinesmight well be viewed with favorby elementary teacherswho often teach interdisciplinaryunits. High schools,however,aretypicallyarrangedby disciplinary departmentsand courses;here multidisciplinarycurriculums are less useful. Many curriculum developersmatch activitiesto curriculumobjectivesso thattheycan showhow theirproductfulfillsstatemandates. Teachersand administratorsreceivemany offersfor free curriculums,and they refusemost of them. In most cases,
curriculumdevelopersarelooking for a free or inexpensive delivery system for their products. Curriculumadoption means that the school districtacceptsthe costs and the responsibilityassociatedwith the trainingof teachers,implementation,materials,assessment,evaluation,and revision. Many nonprofitorganizationsthat develop curriculums workonly on the writingphase,forwhichmoneyfromfunding sourcesis generallyavailable.Moneyis not as availablefor otherphases,suchas implementationor evaluation,whichare farmost costlythanthe writingphase.Whena school adopts a program,administratorsoften haveto takeresourcesfrom one program to invest in the new one. Moreover,many curriculumdevelopersdo not know whethertheir product is effective.Although some developersrun a pilot of their curriculumwith a few teachers,few organizationsassessthe effectivenessof theirproductand then reviseit accordingto the results.Schoolswould be much more interestedin curriculumsdevelopedby outsideorganizationsif the developersofferedto workcollaboratively with the schoolsto provide training,materials,and evaluation.
If yourorganization Recommendation: is consider-
ing writinga curriculum,also considerwritinga budget for associatedteachertrainingand followup, materials,and evaluation.Afterwriting the budget, considerwhetherfundingis availableand whetheryour organizationwould be willing to pursue it. Whatpartnerswould makethe larger projectpossible?Expectto marketthe new materials ratherthan expect the materialsto market themselves.
Heavyworkloadof teachers A teacher'sworkdaymay appearto be short (approximately 6.5 to 7 hours), but it does not end when the childrenleave the school building. Planning, grading papers, evaluating and reportingperformance,and completingofficialpaperwork,forexample,takemanyadditionalhours.In fact,many surveys indicate that teachers need more planning time. Teacherswould like to explore new ways to teach themes within the curriculum; however, limited planning time prohibits them from exploring, reading, preparing, and running pilots of new curricular materials. Curriculum developersarebewilderedwhen teachersdo not reviewtheir materials,but lackof time preventsteachersfrom exploring even the highestqualitymaterials. Recommendation:Form an advisorygroup of teachersto help developmaterialsthat reduce reviewand preparationtime. Becauseteachers rarelycan miss school for committeework,the advisorycommittee should meet in the eveningor during the summer.Membersof the advisorycommittee should be compensatedfor their time at ratescommensuratewith their salaries. 2003/ Vol.53 No.9 * BioScience871 September
ProfessionalBiologist Learningstyles:Noteveryonelearnsthe same way
Until the mid-1970s,educationalresearchfocused on finding one bestmethodforteachingeveryone.Now,however,educatorsrecognizethateachstudentlearnsin a preferredway. These preferredways of learning are called learningstyles. Althougheach person'slearningstyle is unique,these styles fallinto majorgroups.Teachingto engagestudentsof different learning styles is a major considerationwhen developing new K-12 curricularmaterials(Sampleset al. 1985,Dunn and Griggs1995). Learningstylescanbe categorizedin a varietyof ways,one of whichis modality.A modalityis a sensorychannelthrough whicha personreceivesand retainsinformation.The modalities most importantto educatorsare auditory,visual, and kinesthetic-tactile(Guildand Garger1985). Auditory learnersuse their voices and ears as primary modesof learning.Auditorylearnersrememberwhattheyhear and what they expressverbally.When they have difficulty learning,they tend to talk things through.As learners,they thrivein discussions,appreciatetheteacher'sexplanations, and rememberassignmentsthat aregiven orally. Visual learners picture in their minds what is being described.Theyunderstandand rememberwhat they seewrittenworks,pictures,graphs,maps, movies, and art, for example. They appreciatepleasant physical surroundings and the use of illustrations(e.g., charts,diagrams,outlines, overhead transparencies, and slides). They remember assignmentswrittenon the board. Kinesthetic-tactilelearnerslike to touch things and to be physicallyinvolvedin what they study.As learners,they like to be busy-making a product,actingout a situation,or doing a project.Theythrivein laboratorysettingswheretheycan experiment,practice,and try new things. All this activity helps them to understandand to remember. Mostprimaryschoolstudentsarekinesthetic-tactile learners;as they mature,they add visual and auditorystrengths (ASCD1979).Forthis reason,hands-onteachingis essential for buildinga good scienceand math foundationin the elementaryyears.Childrenlearnbestusingmanipulativesor exploringthe macroworldaroundthem. Becauseone-thirdof high school studentsalso learnbest through the kinesthetic-tactile modality, manipulatives, hands-on activities,laboratoryactivities,and exploration remaineffectiveteachingtools in the uppergrades,although the tendencyis to relymore on lectures(ASCD 1979,Dunn and Griggs1995). Successfullearnersoftenfunctionin morethanone modality. Multimodalitystudentshave a higherchanceof success becausethey drawfrom a broadrangeof situationsthrough which they can learn.Studentswith one modal strengthcan become strongerstudentsby transferringinformationfrom a weakermode to a strongerone. To accommodateand teach studentsof all threelearning modalities, teachers plan lessons, units, programs, and materialsso that all studentscan hear,see, and do each time a new set of concepts is presented.Teachersare systematic 872 BioScience * September2003 / Vol.53 No. 9
aboutengagingstudentsof eachmodality.If studentsdo not understandan idea presentedin one modality, they may understandit when it is presentedagainin anothermodality. Teacherscan help studentsdeveloptheirweakermodalities by helping them practicetypes of learningthat arenot naturallyeasy for them. Rememberthat most children in primaryschooland abouta thirdof high schoolstudentsare kinesthetic-tactilelearners.It is importantfor their success thatwe do not teachthem only throughtalking,which is the currentnorm. Peopletend to teach in one of two generalpatterns.They imitatethe way they weretaught,or they teachthe waythey learnbest (Ebeling2000).Bothof thesegeneralpatternshave broughtsome measureof successto the classroom,yet many studentsstill struggleto learn.Becausethe way these struggling studentshavebeen taughtdoes not matchthe waythey learnbest,manyof them feellikeunsuccessfullearners(Dunn and Griggs 1995, Leaver1997). Varyingteaching styles to engagestudentsof differentmodalitiesor learningstylesensuresthat more studentswill be reached. Recommendation:Createprogramsthat engage studentsof all learningmodalities,and identifythis featurein the projectdescriptionand promotional literature.
Age anddevelopmentally appropriate materialsand programs
We all knowthat teachingrelativityto kindergartenstudents would be a futile effort-their brainssimplyarenot mature enough to grasp abstractconcepts. For science and math teachers,knowing when students can grasp abstractconceptsis important.Forexample,manystudentsin grade7 have difficultyunderstandingthe conceptof density.Thismaybe because seventh-gradestudentsarein transitionfrom concreteto formaloperations,as definedby JeanPiaget.Concrete learnersneed to see or manipulateobjects to understand concepts.Abstractthinkers,who arecognitivelymoremature, do not needconcreteobjectsto helpthemunderstandabstract concepts.Cognitivedevelopmenthas manyimplicationsfor scienceclasses,suchas limitingthe numberof variablesin an experiment-concrete learnerscan controlfor only one variable (Trowbridgeand Bybee1990). Recommendation:Beforedesigninga science educationprogram,learnabout the intended audience,includingthe students'cognitivelevel of development.
Soundlearningtheoryis essential After decades of education research,we now have an impressiveknowledgebaseon how peoplelearnandon bestpracticesrelatedto effectiveteachingmethods,trainingof teachers, and evaluationof studentachievement.In previousdecades, educatorscouldmovefearlesslyahead,writingcurriculumon the basisof intuition,untestedpractice,or speculativetheory. Today,however,good curriculumdevelopersbaseprograms on qualitativeand quantitative research.In fact, schools
Professional Biologist expectnew materialsandprogramsto be basedon best practices and sound theory.
review Do a thoroughliterature Recommendation:
before creatingprogramsand materialsto ensure that the proposedproductsarebased on sound learningtheory and practice.
Soundscience pedagogy Over the past 40 years, the educational community has learneda greatdealabouthow to teachscienceeffectively. Researchshowsthathands-onscienceandlearningthroughdiscoveryor inquiryare effectiveand important(Bredderman 1983,Blosser1985).Forexample,laboratorywork- an importantpartof scienceeducation,especiallysincethe 1960sengagesstudentsin scientificenterpriseand developsscience processskills,which canbe used in manyotherdisciplinesas well as in life outside the classroom.Some hands-on activities use specialized equipment (e.g., vacuum pumps and graduatedcylinders),and othersuse common itemsfound in everydaylife (e.g.,batteriesand light bulbs).Somelaboratoandparks. riesarecarriedout in naturalsettingsin schoolyards All three approachesare effective.The currenttrend is to use common materialsfor hands-on activities in the elementarygradesand middleschool and to reservespecialized withcolleaguesand equipmentforhighschools.Conversations cuts and concern with recent reveal that, budget publishers over safetyand hazardouswaste,laboratoriesthat use more common materialsor computer simulationsare replacing specializedequipmenteven in the highergrades. Laboratorywork allows students to experience science firsthand.Laboratoryactivitiesoften fall into three general categories: (1) Inductivelaboratoryactivitiesgenerallygive students concretelearningexperiencesfrom which they can explorenew ideas or the world aroundthem before conceptsare formallyintroducedin the classroom. (2) Verificationor deductivelaboratoryactivitiesgive studentsopportunitiesto confirm abstractconcepts and theoriesthey have learnedin class.
activitiesgivestudents (3) Skilldevelopment laboratory classifying, practicein usingbasicskills(e.g.,observing, data, recording questioning, usingnumbers,measuring, skills(e.g.,defining andpredicting), integrated inferring, operationally,formulatingmodels, controllingvariables, interpretingdata,hypothesizing,and designingexperi-
ments),ortechnicalskills(e.g.,focusinga microscope andusinga balance). or calibrating
Hands-onactivitiesgivestudentsthe chanceto "do"science, to experiencescience as a way of systematicallyexploring and knowing,ratherthan to encounterscienceas a body of knowledgeor history of accumulatedfacts and ideas to be memorized.Hands-onactivitiesarealso enjoyablefor many students and serve to motivate them and stimulate their interestin scienceand school (Trowbridgeand Bybee 1990, Ebenezerand Haggerty1999).
The imageof a teacherpouringinformationintoa student's head is outdated.Today,the K-12 educationalcommunity thinksof studentsas active,not passive,learners.Studentsare encouragedto createtheir own knowledgethrough active involvement in the learning process (Yager1991, Schulte 1996).Asa result,teachingstrategiessuchas discovery,inquiry, constructivism,and learning cycles are popular.Research also indicatesthat they areeffective(Gabel2003). Althougha single,accepteddefinitionof discoverylearning is difficult to find, discovery learning is generally acceptedas an essentialcomponentof good scienceteaching. For discovery,the teacher provides a rich and supportive learning environment in which students can observe or manipulatematerials.Throughtheircuriosity,explorations, use of the materials,questioning,and discussions,students investigateand discoverthe macroworldaroundthem. Such discoveriesas noticing that bulbs burn more dimly when severalare connectedin a series circuithave been made by thousandsof studentsoverthe decades,but each childwho makes the discoveryundergoesa meaningfuland memorablelearningexperience. Relevanceof scientific concepts to students'lives is also important. If students can understanda link between the science they study in the classroomand the world they live in, they areoften more motivatedand havebetterattitudes towardscience.Improvedattitudeis often linkedto greater achievement.
Useprovenmethodsof effective Recommendation:
teaching,such as hands-on scienceand discovery, when designingeducationalprograms.
of achievementtest scores Importance
High-stakestesting has become a major educationalissue. Standardizedtestinghasbecome morepopular,and in many states,testingis usedto rateschools,to determinegraduation and promotion of studentsfrom one gradeto the next, and to evaluateteachers(Jaeger1991,Shepard1991,Stake1991, Loschert2000, Costigan2002,Voke2002).Althoughtesting is popularwith policymakersand politicians,it has changed thetaughtcurriculum,compellingteachersto preparestudents throughoutthe year for taking tests (Jaeger1991, Shepard 1991).Becausesuch tests arebased on a mandatedcurriculum, teachers are hesitant to dedicate classroom time to topics and programsthat are not mandatedor that do not appearon a test.Teachersfearthattime awayfromthe mandated curriculumor test preparationswill lower test scores (Shepard1991,Loschert2000, Costigan2002). Recommendation:Pilot test new materialsand analyzestandardizedachievementtest scoresor other measuresof achievementto determinethe new program'seffectiveness.
Proposalclearance
Most school districtsrequirethat all proposalsfor outside fundinggo beforethe schoolboardfor approvalbeforesubmissionto the fundingagency.Tobe placedon the agendaf6r * September2003 / Vol.53 No. 9 BioScience 873
Professional Biologist 4 a schoolboardmeeting,usuallyanyitem of new businesshas to withstandseveralpreliminarycommitteemeetings.Keep in mind that school boardsmeet monthly or less frequently.
If yourorganization Recommendation: partners
with a school in a proposal,consultwith them earlyin the planningprocessto find out what sort of lead time they need to get internalapproval.
Conversation witha superintendent of curriculum and instruction CharlesHopkins, a former superintendentof curriculum and instructionfor the TorontoBoardof Education,sayshe usedto meet on averagewith one specialinterestgroupeach week.Eachgrouptriedto convincehim thatits issue,concern, or new ideashouldbe includedin the K-12 curriculum.The many topics rangedfrom scientificto social issues (e.g., fire safety,peanut allergies,genderissues,eatingdisorders,antior pro-furharvest,careof classroomanimals,multiculturalism, antibullying,cleanair,wastereduction,or wildlifeconservation). Some groups brought binders of curriculum materials,whichthey offeredto distributefreeto teachers.In each case,the groupwantedto use the school as a freeor inexpensive delivery system for its message. Hopkins commented,"Eachgroup tried to makeits needs a school issue. It was myjob to meet the needsof the students,teachers,and community,not the needs of the specialinterestgroups."He went on to explain,"To implement any new program I'd haveto takeresourcesawayfrom otherprograms.Those resourcesaremoney,time, and teachergoodwill,and all three of thesearein shortsupply.So if you'regoingto use them,you haveto pick your programsvery carefully." "Thefew who were successful,"said Hopkins,"offeredto workwith us to codevelopmaterials.Weput togethergroups of teachersand professionalsfrom outsidethe school system to assurethe educationmethodsandthe disciplinarycontent were of high quality." Hopkinswent on to explainthat some groupsthink that if they givebindersof curriculummaterialto schoolsto distributeto teachersthey aremakinga big contributionto the school district.However,the developmentand distribution of curriculumis the leastcostlypartof implementinga new program.In fact, trainingteachersis an expensive,yet important, part of curriculumadoption. Hopkins explained thatresearchshowsthatif materialsaredistributed,about 10 percentor fewerof the teacherswill use a few selectedpages. If distributionis accompaniedby a shortworkshop,adoption of the entireprogramis 2 to 5 percent;with a one-dayworkshop,adoptionrisesto 5 to 7 percent.Follow-upsessionswith teacherscommitting to use the materialswill yield higher adoption rates.Workshopsand follow-up sessionswith inserviceteachersareexpensive,becauseschool districtsmust oftenbearthe cost of substituteteacherswhile the classroom teachersattendthe workshops.Programprovidersoften pay teachersstipendsif they attendweekendor summerworkshops. 874 BioScience - September 2003 / Vol. 53 No. 9
"Whois going to pay for evaluatingthese proposedproaskedHopkins,expandingon the ramificationsof the grams?" requests of special interest groups. "How are we going to know [aprogramis] effective,so we canlearnfromit andbuild on it?Or get rid of it, if it does not accomplishwhat the authors intended." "Schoolsystemsarehardto change,"he advised."Theyare not likebusinesses.In business,if you sell an ideaor a partto the top, changewill occur throughoutthe organization.For example,if you sell a partto Ford,it will appearin all Broncos for a year or more. In a school district,however,you could sell an idea to a superintendent,but a principal or teachermay not totallybuy in." "Onereasonteachersmaynot adopta new programis that they areworriedabouttheirown professionalperformance," he explained."Withany new skill,your performancetemporarilydrops as you learn somethingnew. Eventually,you may reachnew levelsof performance,but the dip is scary." Hopkinsaddeda concludingremark:"Inall my yearsas a not one personcameto me and principalandsuperintendent, askedwhat I needed help with. Most groupsapproachedus witha solutionto a problemwe did not have.Fewgroupswere willingto developan ideawith us. Mostviewedus as a cheap deliverysystemfor theirpackage,message,and solution."
Recommendation: Begina dialogueearlywith
a school systemthat you want to workwith and offerto co-developmaterials.
Conclusion with the best of intentionsmaybe Unfortunately,researchers unawareof the realitiesof K-12 schools.Althoughit is easy to make mistakesin approachingschools, developingcurriculum,or teaching,carefulpreparationwill increasesuccessfulinteractionswith K-12 schools.
Referencescited [AAAS]American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1993. Benchmarksfor ScienceLiteracy.New York:Oxford UniversityPress. (www.project2061.org/tools/benchol/bolframe.htm) [ASCD]Associationfor Supervisionand CurriculumDevelopment.1979. Learning- A Matterof Style,Part I. Alexandria(VA):ASCD.Videocassette. BlosserPE.1985.ImprovingScienceEducation.InformationBulletinNo. 3. Columbus (OH): ERIC(EducationalResourcesInformationCenter) Clearinghousefor Science,Mathematics,and EnvironmentalEducation. ERICIdentifierno. ED 266931. BreddermanT. 1983.Effectsof activity-basedelementaryscienceon student outcomes:A qualitativeanalysis.Review of EducationalResearch53 (Winter):499-518. CostiganAT.2002. Teachingthe cultureof high stakestesting:Listeningto new teachers.Action in TeacherEducation23: 28-34. and learningstyle:Teachingand Dunn R,GriggsSA. 1995.Multiculturalism counselingadolescents.Westport(CT):Praeger. EbelingDG. 2000. Adaptingyour teachingto any learningstyle.Phi Delta Kappan82 (November):247-248. EbenezerJV,HaggertySM. 1999. Becoming a SecondarySchool Science Teacher.UpperSaddleRiver(NJ):Merrill/PrenticeHall. Gabel D. 2003. Enhancing the conceptual understanding of science. EducationalHorizons81 (Winter):70-76.
Professional Biologist GuildPB,GargerS. 1985.Marchingto DifferentDrummers.Alexandria(VA): Associationfor Supervisionand CurriculumDevelopment. JaegerRM. 1991.Legislativeperspectiveson statewidetesting:Goals,hopes, and desires.Phi Delta Kappan73 (November):239-242. LeaverBL. 1997.Teachingthe Whole Class.4th ed. ThousandOaks (CA): CorwinPress. LoschertK.2000.Raisingthe anteforstudents,teachers,andschools.InASCD Infobrief 23. High-Stakes Tests. (21 July 2003; www.ascd.org/cms/ objectlib/ascdframeset/index.cfm?publication=http://www.ascd.org/ ) publications/infobrief/issue23.html [NGS] National GeographicSociety. 1994. Geographyfor Life:National GeographyStandards.GeographyEducationStandardsProject.Washington (DC):NationalGeographicSocietyCommitteefor Researchand Exploration. [NRC] National Research Council. 1995. National Science Education Standards.Washington(DC): NationalAcademyPress. SamplesB, Hammond B, McCarthyB. 1985. 4MATand Science:Toward Wholenessin ScienceEducation.Barrington(IL):Excel.
Schulte PL. 1996. A definition of constructivism. Science Scope 20 (November-December):25-27. ShepardLA. 1991.Will nationaltests improvestudentlearning?Phi Delta Kappan73 (November):232-238. StakeRE.1991.The teacher,standardizedtesting,and prospectsof revolution. Phi Delta Kappan73 (November):243-247. TrowbridgeLW,Bybee RW. 1990. Becoming a SecondarySchool Science Teacher.5th ed. Columbus(OH): Merrill. [USDE]US Departmentof Education.2002. Educationresourceorganizations directory.(21 July2003;http://bcolO2.ed.gov/Programs/EROD/org_ listbyterritory.cfm) VokeH. 2002. What do we know about sanctionsand rewards?In ASCD Infobrief 31. High-StakesAccountability Strategies. (21 July 2003; www.ascd.org/readingroom/infobrief/issue31.html) YagerRE. 1991. The constructivist learning model. Science Teacher58 (September):52-57.
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