Kurdistan Regional Government Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research University of Sulaimani Faculty of Humanities School of Languages Department of English
A SEMANTIC STUDY OF CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS IN ENGLISH NEWS REPORTS A thesis Submitted to the Council of the School of Languages/ Faculty of Humanities/ University of Sulaimani in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics By
Aram Kamil Noori
Supervised by Assist. Prof. Dr.Hoshang Farooq Jawad
2015 (AD)
1436 (HIJRI)
2715 (KURDISH)
ِين ۡ ِِب ِ ِٱلز ِ ح ِ س َ ِٱلز ۡح َّ ن َّ ِنِٱهلل ِ و ٰـ ِق ۡ ِۡٱق َز ۡأِب َ نِ ِه ۡن َ َخل َ ِ)١(ِق َ َ خل َ ِكِٱلَّ ِذى ِ ٱس َ نس ٰـ َ ِٱۡل َ ِّنِ َرب ِۡ ق ٍ َِعل ۡ ك ِن )ِٱلَّ ِذ٣(ِِٱۡل َ ۡك َز ُم َ ِ َنِبِ ۡٱل َقل َ نس ٰـ َ ِٱۡل َ َّ)ِ َعل٤(ِن َ َّ ىِعل َ ُّ)ِ ۡٱق َز ۡأِ َو َرب٢( ِۡ ن (٥) ن ِۡ ََهاِلَ ۡنِ َي ۡعل
In the name of Allah, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful ( 1 ) Recite in the name of your Lord who created ( 2 ) Created man from a clinging substance ( 3 ) Recite, and your Lord is the most Generous ( 4 ) Who taught by the pen ( 5 ) Taught man that which he knew not. (The Holy Quran 30:96) Translated by Saheeh International.
Supervisor Certification I certify that the preparation of the thesis titled "A Semantic Study of Conceptual Metaphors in English News Reports" accomplished by (Aram Kamil Noori), was prepared under my supervision in the School of languages, Faculty of Humanities at the University of Sulaimani, as partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in English Language and Linguistics.
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In view of the available recommendations, I forward this thesis for debate by the Examining Committee.
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Dedication This study is dedicated to…. my parents who have raised me to be the person I am today. All I have and will accomplish are only possible due to their love and sacrifices. Thanks for all the unconditional love, guidance, and support they have always given me. my lovely brothers and my sister, my supervisor and my teachers, my patient friends.
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Acknowledgements First and foremost, I record my indebtedness to Almighty God for guiding us to conceptualise, develop and complete the study. Indeed, without His Help and Will, nothing is accomplished. I would like to express my outmost gratitude to the Kurdistan Regional Government, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, the Presidency of Sulaimani University, School of Languages and the Department of English, for giving me the opportunity to earn my MA in English language and linguistics. Ideas do not come out of thin air. In the course of preparing the study, a number of people have contributed directly and indirectly to its evolution, and thanks for their valuable help in getting the study off the ground. I would like to thank my parents, my sister and my brothers. They have been consciously supporting and encouraging me. My special and heartfelt thanks are due to my supervisor Assistant Professor Dr.Hoshang Farooq Jawad who encouraged and directed me. His constant scrutiny brought this work towards a completion. It is with his supervision that this work came into existence. I am deeply thankful to my teachers who taught me in the MA courses, namely, Dr. Rauf Kareem, Dr. Zeki Hamawand, Dr. Abbas Mustafa, Mr. Safwat Hawar, Dr.Suhair Safwat, Dr.Bassim Al-Jabouri, and Dr.Salah Muhammad. I am lucky because I had the chance of being one of their students and I learned a lot from them in the field of linguistics. I also give deep thanks to the head of English Department Dr.Azad Hassan Fatah for providing help whenever needed. I deeply appreciate the role of Dr.Sara Kamal, Aso Ali, Sapan S. Aziz, Frahad Majeed, and my colleague Sumaya Khalid in providing invaluable comments and suggestions. I am also so thankful to my fellow students in the MA courses, including Kajal Muhammad, Jyan Fazhil, Tara Aziz, Mohsin Hama Saeed, Shna Jamal, and Redar Nabi, for having the heart of gold and being at peace with me. Responsibility for errors is, of course, entirely my own. ii
Abstract This study entitled "A semantic study of conceptual metaphors in English news reports" represents a cognitive semantic study of conceptual metaphors in the online version of British and American newspapers, namely, the Guardian and the Washington Post. The theoretical framework for this study was revised by Lakoff and Johnson in their 1980 book "Metaphors We Live By". Conceptual metaphor is a relation between two conceptual domains, namely, source domain which is concrete, and target domain which is abstract. For example, ARGUMENT IS WAR. We conceptualize and understand "ARGUMENT", the target domain, in terms of "WAR", and the source domain via a process called "mapping". The study explores how the development of the theory opened new horizons into the way language can be manipulated in the portrayal of the world and our immediate and distant environment of which news, including political news are part. Moreover, political news is the most pervasive type we continually come into contact in our daily communication. The goal of the study is to carry out a cognitive analysis of conceptual metaphors used in political news reports and how reports of the two newspapers construe political issues reflected in their reports. Accordingly, the study aims to provide answers to such questions as: 1. How common are conceptual metaphors in English news reports of the online political register? 2. What types of conceptual metaphors are used in news reports in English newspapers? 3. How conceptual metaphors are experimentally based to human beings' life experiences? Based upon these research questions, it is hypothesized that Conceptual metaphors are argued to be as common in the news reports of the political register as they are in daily conversational language. Some types of conceptual metaphors are argued to be more common than others in the register in question. Moreover, all the conceptual metaphors are argued to have experiential bases which are related to our life experiences. Among the key conclusions drawn from this study are: one is that SPATIAL metaphors are the most frequent type found in the reports resulting from the experiencing with spaces and locations.
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List of Figures
Page No.
Figure.1 Comparison View of Metaphor…………………….………...…..7 Figure.2 Interaction View of Metaphor ………………………………...….8 Figure.3 Mappings………………………………………….….………….10 Figure.4 Containment…………………………………….……………….16 Figure.5 Unidirectionality of Mapping of LOVE IS A JOURNEY…..…..19 Figure.7 MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN……………………...…..……..52 Figure.8A TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT……………………..……….64 Figure.8B TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT…………………..…….….….64 Figure.9 TIME IS A PATH……………………………….………...….…66 Figure.10 TIME IS A CONTAINER…………………………..…………67 Figure.11 TIME IS A DESTINATION…………………………….……..68 Figure.12 CONTAINER METAPHOR A (Static version)………...…… 68 Figure.12 CONTAINER METAPHOR B (Dynamic version)……..…… 69 Figure.13 OBSTACLES TO ACTION ARE OBSTACLES TO MOTION……………………………………………………………..…...74 Figure.14 LINEAR SCALES ARE PATHS……………….……………..82 Figure.15 ACTIONS ARE ENTITIES …………………….……….…….84
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List of Tables Table.1 Mappings for LIFE IS A JOURNEY…………………………….12 Table.2 Mappings for LOVE IS A JOURNEY……………………..…….15 Table.3 Types of conceptual metaphors used in the data …………..…….45 Table.4 Mappings for PEOPLE ARE BUILDINGS……………….……..78 Table.5 Mappings for PEOPLE ARE SUBSTANCES …………………..79 Table.6 Mappings for HUMANS ARE RIVERS………………………....79 Table.7 Mappings for HUMANS ARE PLANTS…………………..…….80 Table.8 Mappings for AGREEMENT IS A JOURNEY ……………..…..90
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Table of Contents Dedication ………………………………………………….………………i Acknowledgements ………………………………………………..………ii Abstract ………………………………………………………...…………iii List of Figures…………………………..……………………...………….iv List of Tables…………………….………………………………....……...vi Table of Contents ……………………………………………….………...vi
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 The statement of the problem and research questions………………….1 1.2 The purpose of the study ……………………………………....………1 1.3 The hypotheses ……………………………….……………………..…2 1.4 Procedures and Data collection ……………………………….………2 1.5 The scope of the study ……………………………………..……..……2 1.6 The value of the study ……………………………………..……….….3
CHAPTER TWO: PRELIMINARIES 2.0 Introduction……………………………………………..……………...4 2.1 Definitions of Metaphor ………………………………...……………..4 2.2 The Traditional Views of Metaphor……………….….………………..5 2.2.1 Aristotle's Comparison View…………………..…………………….6 2.2.2 Richards' Interaction View……………………………..…………….8 2.3 The Cognitive Views of Metaphor……………………….…………….9 2.4 Conceptual Metaphor Theory …………………………...……………11 2.4.1 The Definition of CMT………………………………….………….11 2.4.2 The Mechanisms of CMT………………………………...…………12 2.4.2.1 Conception ………………………………………………………..12 vi
2.4.2.2 Mappings …………………………………………………...…….14 2.4.2.3 Experiential Grounding …………………………………………..15 2.4.2.4 Single Direction …………………………………………………. 16 2.4.3 Properties of Conceptual Metaphor………...……………………….16 2.4.3.1 Pervasiveness ……………………………………………….…….16 2.4.3.2 Systematicity ………………………………………………….….17 2.4.3.3 Cultural Coherence ……………………………………………….17 2.4.3.4 Unidirectionality ……………………………………………….....18 2.5 Classification of Conceptual Metaphor………………………………19 2.5.1 Structural Metaphor…………………………………………...…….19 2.5.2 Orientational Mteaphor…………..…………………………………19 2.5.3 Ontological Metaphor …………………………………………...….21 2.5.3.0 Classification of Ontological Metaphors ……...………………….22 2.5.3.1 Container Metaphor …………………………………………...….22 2.5.3.2 Substance Metaphor ……………………………………………...22 2.5.3.3 Entity Metaphor …………………………………………………..22 2.5.3.4 Personification Metaphor…………………………………………23 2.6 Criticisms of CMT………………….…………………………………23 2.7 The Invariance Principle…………………...…………………………27 2.8 Some Examples of CMT…………………...…………………………28 2.9 The Significance of Metaphors in Newspapers ………………………31 2.10 Literature Review …………………………………………...………31
CHAPTER THREE: NEWS REPORTING 3.1 Definition of News…………………………………………………………….35 3.2 Criteria (Or News Values) For News Reporting……………….……..37 3.3 Types of News Reporting………………...……………………..…….38 3.3.1 Political News………………………………………………………38 vii
3.3.2 Sports News……………………………………………….………...39 3.4 Channels of News Coverage………………………………..………...39 3.4.1 Newspapers……………………………………………….………...39 3.4.2 Radio………………………………………………………………..41 3.4.3 Television…………………………………………………………...41 3.4.4 Internet……………………………………………………..………..42
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS 4.0 Introduction…………………………………………….……..………44 4.1 Quantitative analysis of conceptual metaphors…………………..…...44 4.2 Qualitative analysis of conceptual metaphors………………………...46 4.2.1 SPATIAL Metaphor……………………………………….………..46 4.2.1.1 HIGH STATUS IS UP, LOW STATUS IS DOWN……………...47 4.2.1.2 MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN………………………….………52 4.2.1.3 FALLING IS DOWN, RISING IS UP……………………...…….53 4.2.2 PERSONIFICATION metaphor………….…………….…….……..54 4.2.2.1 COUNTRIES ARE LEADERS……………………………..…….54 4.2.2.2 INSTITUTIONS ARE SPEAKERS……………….….…………..54 4.2.2.3 INSTITUTIONS ARE DECISION-MAKERS…………….……..56 4.2.2.4 PLACES ARE PSYCHOLOGICALLY AFFECTED……..……..57 PLACES ARE PRISONERS…………………………………………...…58 4.2.2 CAUSATION metaphor……………………………………...……..59 4.2.2.1 CAUSES ARE FORCES……………………………………....….59 4.2.2.2 CAUSED CHANGE IS FORCED MOTION…………….………60 4.2.2.3 CAUSES ARE MAKERS……………………….…….………….62 4.2.2.4 CAUSES ARE SUBSTANCES…………..………………………63 4.2.3 TIME METAPHOR…………………………………….…………..63 2.2.3.1 TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT ……………………………...…..63 viii
4.2.3.2TIME IS A SURFACE…………………………………………….65 4.2.3.3 TIME IS A PATH………………………………………..…….…66 4.2.3.4 TIME IS A CONTAINER……………………………………..….66 4.2.3.5 TIME IS A DESTINATION…………..………………………….67 4.2.3.6 TIME IS SUBSTANCE………………………………….…...…..68 4.2.4 CONTAINER METAPHOR……………………………...…….…..68 4.2.4.1 PLACES ARE CONTAINERS …………………………….……69 4.2.4.2 FORCES ARE CONATINERS………………………….………..70 4.2.4.3 PRODUCTS ARE CONTAINERS…………………………...….71 4.2.4.4 VOTE IS A CONTAINER……………………………….……….71 4.2.4.5 PROCESS IS A CONTAINER………………………………..….71 4.2.5 OBSTACLES TO ACTION ARE OBSTACLES TO MOTION………………………………………………………..……..… 72 4.2.6 EXISTENCE METAPHOR………………………………...………74 4.2.6.1MAINTAINING EXISTENCE IS MAINTAINING LOCATION UP HERE…………………………………………………………………74 4.2.6.2 EXISTENCE IS AN OBJECT………………………….….……..75 4.2.6.3 EXISTENCE IS VISIBILITY……………….……………………76 4.2.7 HUMAN METAPHOR……………………………………………..77 4.2.7.1 PEOPLE ARE BUILDINGS……………………………..….……77 4.2.7.2 PEOPLE ARE SUBSTANCES…………………..……….………78 4.2.7.3 HUMANS ARE RIVERS……………………………….………..79 4.2.7.4 HUMANS ARE PLANTS……………………………….………..80 4.2.8 LINEAR SCALES ARE PATHS …………………………….…….80 4.2.9 SUBSTANCE METAPHOR ………………………………...……..82 4.2.9.1 CHANGE OF STATE IS CHANGE OF SHAPE…………..…….82 4.2.9.2 ACTIONS ARE ENTITIES………………………………...…….83 4.2.10 TALK METAPHOR……………………………………..….…….84 4.2.10.1 TALK IS A PROCESS…………………………………..………84 ix
4.2.10.2 TALK IS A BRITTLE OBJECT……………………..….………85 4.2.11PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT FORCES ARE PHYSICAL IMPACT FORCES……………………………………………..…………...……….85 4.2.12 IMPORTANCE IS PRECEDENCE………………..…………..….87 4.2.13 AGREEMENT IS A JOURNEY…………………….……….……88 4.2.14 Other conceptual metaphors………………………….…..………..89 4.2.14.1 THE RELATIONSHIP IS A HEAVY OBJECT…………..……89 4.2.14.2 REFORMS ARE PATHS………………………………...…..….90 4.2.14.3 DEBATE IS HOT FUID ……………………………………..…90 4.2.14.4 MOVEMENT IS A STRUCTURE…………………….…..……91 4.2.14.5 MISSIONS ARE SWEEPERS……………………………..……91 4.2.14.6 PLACES ARE SIZES……………………………………....…...92 4.3 Results Discussion ………………………..……………………….…93
CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES 5.1 Conclusions………………………………………………..….……....94 5.2 Suggestions for further ……………………………………….…..…..95 References……………………………………….……………..…..……..96 Appendics1 The Guardian Samples…………………….………………103 Appendics2 The Washington Post Samples……………..…..…….…..113 Abstract in Arabic………………………………………………...……..125 Abstract in Kurdish………………………………………………...……127
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Chapter One Introduction 1.1 The Statement of the Problem and Research Questions Metaphors are pervasive not only in language, but in thought and action in human beings' everyday life as well. They are an integral part of human life and have been explored and studied since antiquity. Moreover, the conceptual metaphor framework developed by Lakoff has attracted the attention of linguists and scholars ever since it came out early 1980s. This is mainly due to the novel insight it provides us into the exploration of metaphors from a completely different perspective than the traditional. The development of the theory opened new horizons into how language can be manipulated in the portrayal of the world and our immediate and distant environment. However, political news form the newest pervasive type of written discourse we encounter in our daily lives which contain a considerable number of conceptual metaphors. Hence, the present study is set to explore how conceptual metaphors are manipulated in political news by answering the following questions: 1. Concerning the quantitative aspect of the study, the question is: How common are conceptual metaphors in English news stories of the written political register? 2. Concerning the qualitative aspect of the study, the question is: What types of conceptual metaphors are used in news stories in English newspapers? 3. How conceptual metaphors are experimentally based on human beings' life experiences? (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980).
1.2 The Goals of the study Most of the studies written on metaphors are based upon the traditional analysis of metaphors found in English texts, particularly the news. The present study, however, seeks to analyze metaphors in political texts from the standpoint of Lakoff's CONCEPTUAL METAPHORS THEORY (1980) which focuses on the relationship between language and mind, and embodied experience rather than on likening one thing to another.
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1.3 The Hypotheses This study hypothesizes that: 1. Some types of conceptual metaphors are argued to be more common than others in the register in question. 2.
Conceptual metaphors are argued to have experiential bases which are related to our life experiences.
1.4 Procedures and Data Collection Method The research data analyzed in this study come from the two online versions of newspapers; one is from Britain which is the Guardian (2014-2015), and the other is from The United States which is the Washington Post (2014-2015). Ten samples from each are taken. Firstly, the metaphors extracted from the online newspapers are identified, accumulated, and schematized according to Lakoff and Johnson's metaphor theory. The study relies on two approaches of study, namely, quantitative and qualitative. After the data collection, both the qualitative and quantitative methods are applied to the samples taken from the newspapers. The quantitative analysis presents identifying all the conceptual metaphors in the data and also their types. The qualitative analysis seeks to focus on exploring the cognitive nature of conceptual metaphors used in the data and stating the most and the least common types of conceptual metaphors found in the news stories.
1.5 The Scope of the Study The present study is limited to the theoretical framework advanced by George lakoff (1980) called Conceptual Metaphor Theory and thus it excludes the traditional analysis of the metaphors found in the data. Furthermore, the study singles out the political texts found in British and American newspaper only. Thus, it does not tackle metaphors such areas as business news, sports news or commentary, weather forecast, entertainment news, etc.
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1.6 The Value of the Study This study can be helpful for the researchers of language especially those who like cognitive semantics, and are interested in the field of conceptual metaphors found in different aspects of language. This study is of use to those who seek to conduct a comparative study in languages to find similarities and differences.
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Chapter Two Preliminaries 2.0 Introduction Figurative language is used by almost everyone, both consciously and subconsciously. The most common kind of figurative language is probably metaphor (Schultz, 2012:1). However some other scholars think that metaphor is not restricted to figurative expressions but used in every part of our life as Lakoff and Johnson (1980:3) show that "metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action as well". Lots of linguistic scholars have striven to find the secrets of metaphor from Aristotle until now. In this chapter, we seek to explore the nature and types of metaphors in general.
2.1 Definitions of Metaphor The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to another. From the times of ancient Greek and Roman rhetoric, the term has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another. It is still widely used to designate the process in which a word acquires a derivative meaning. By transference of meaning the words "grasp", "get" and "see" come to have the derivative meaning of "understand". When these words are used with that meaning we can only register the derivative meaning existing in the semantic structures of the words. Though the derivative meaning is metaphorical in origin, there is no stylistic effect because the primary meaning is no longer felt (Galperin, 1977:139).
Metaphor has been the fundamental language of poetry, although it is common on all levels and in all kinds of language. Many words were originally vivid images, although they exist now as dead metaphors whose original aptness has been lost—for example, ―daisy‖ (day‘s eye). Other words, such as ―nightfall,‖ are dormant images. In addition to single words, everyday language abounds in phrases and expressions that once were metaphors. ―Time flies‖ is an ancient metaphorical expression. When a poet says "The Bird of Time has but a little way / To flutter—and the Bird is on the Wing" He is constructing a new metaphor on the foundations of an older, stock metaphor. When Tennessee Williams entitles his play "Sweet Bird of Youth", he, too, is referring to that 4
Bird of Time that flies. Thus, metaphorical language develops continuously in complexity just as ordinary language does. In poetry a metaphor may perform varied functions from the mere noting of a likeness to the evocation of a swarm of associations; it may exist as a minor beauty or it may be the central concept and controlling image of the poem (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2014). The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2009:1099) defines metaphor as "a way of describing something by referring to it as something different and suggesting that it has similar qualities to that thing." It also claims that the two entities compared are different, but one can be used to stand for the other, trying to track down closeness between the two. Cruse (2006:106) states that metaphor is "a variety of figurative (i.e. non-literal) use of language. What distinguishes a metaphorical use of an expression is the relationship between its figurative meaning and its literal meaning. Metaphor involves a relation of resemblance or analogy". He highlights the difference between the literal and non-literal use of the expressions, striving to exhibit points of compatibility. Thus, if a writer in the financial pages of a newspaper speaks of a headlong flight into bonds (perhaps because of a collapse in share prices on the stock market) she is relying for her effect on correspondences between a lot of people running away from some physical threat to a safer place and the precipitate selling of shares and buying of bonds by large numbers of investors. We are invited to ‗see something as something else‘, in this case to see the widespread selling of shares as a disorderly flight. The effect of this is to highlight some aspects of the situation and play down others (ibid.). Encyclopedia Britannica (2013) defines metaphor as a "figure of speech that implies comparison between two unlike entities, as distinguished from simile, an explicit comparison signalled by the words ―like‖ or ―as.‖The distinction is not simple." And it adds that "The metaphor makes a qualitative leap from a reasonable, perhaps prosaic comparison, to an identification or fusion of two objects, to make one new entity partaking of the characteristics of both. Many critics regard the making of metaphors as a system of thought antedating or bypassing logic."
2.2 The Traditional Views of Metaphor The study of metaphor goes back to Aristotle, and it was principally seen as a matter of linguistic usage. Given this, metaphors highlight the similarity between the elements.
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Thus, the metaphor The holiday was a nightmare works because it asserts a resemblance between "The holiday" and "a nightmare" (Riemer, 2010:247). Metaphor has traditionally been based on the notions of ―similarity‖ or ―comparison‖ between the literal and figurative meaning of an expression. The literal language could not be used as metaphor unless it was used figuratively (Ungerer and Schmidt, 2006:115). According to Aristotle, the function of both simile and metaphor trades on comparison and noticing preexisting similarities; he is also credited as an early proponent of the view that metaphor is a kind of simile. The elliptical simile theory of metaphor specifies that metaphors such as "Time is a child at play" are ellipses of corresponding similes "Time is like a child at play" (Mey, 2009:599). Metaphorical expressions were assumed to be mutually exclusive with the realm of ordinary everyday language: everyday language had no metaphor, and metaphor used mechanisms outside the realm of everyday conventional language. Traditionalists believed that everyday language had no metaphor, and metaphor was seen as a matter of language not thought‖ (Lakoff, 1993:202). Metaphor was "regarded as a linguistic phenomenon which largely [fell] in the realm of ―poetic‖ or ―figurative‖ language (Mberi, 2003:1). So metaphor was not considered to say anything "fundamental about the nature of meaning'', but it was used as a kind of embellishment in language (Riemer, 2010:247). There are three elements taking part in the metaphor, namely, ―the explained element‖, ―explaining element‖ and ―base of metaphor‖ (Ungerer and Schmidt, 2006:115). For example: Steve is a lion Steve: the explained element lion: the explaining element bravery: the Base of metaphor
2.2.1 Aristotle's Comparison View Aristotle was the first philosopher who provided a detailed dominion for metaphor (Reck, 2002:1). Aristotle (1932:23) states that ―metaphor consists in giving the thing a name that belongs to something else‖. He explains that something implicit can be clarified in terms of something explicit; therefore, a name is given to something to become familiar. For example, in ―Steve is a lion‖ Steve is not a lion; he is compared to a lion, taking the properties of a lion especially "bravery". When it is said A is B. both
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A and B share some features, A is realized by B. Aristotle adds that the ―transference‖ of features is ―either from genus to species, or from species to genus‖. The transference happens between two elements based on ―grounds of analogy‖ as explained in the above example. Abrams (1999:155) indicates that "this view usually assumes that the features being compared pre-existed the use of the metaphor; that the metaphor can be translated into a statement of literal similarity without loss of cognitive content (that is, of the information it conveys); and also that a metaphor serves mainly to enhance the rhetorical force and stylistic vividness and pleasantness of a discourse."
Figure.1 Comparison View of Metaphor
Aristotle considered metaphor a sign of language mastery and genius. He also deemed it ornamental for poetry (McGlone, 2007:110). He sees metaphor as a kind of decorative addition to ordinary language. Metaphor is regarded as something outside of normal language, requiring special forms of interpretation (Finch, 2005:161). In his account, Aristotle discusses four types of metaphor. He regards what is known today as "metonymy" as one of these types. Of the four types of metaphor Aristotle discusses, the first two apply to what we know today as synecdoche. The third type is what we know today as metonymy and it is only the fourth type that corresponds to what we know today as metaphor. In addition to the third type of Aristotle's metaphor, there are some examples which are based on metonymic relations in his fourth type of metaphor. Those Aristotle obviously did not discuss as metonymic. Aristotle treated metonymy as a subclass of metaphor, metonymy continued to be discussed as such till the late 1950s when Jakobson proposed that metaphor and metonymy are in fact two distinct figures based on two opposite principles ( Al-Sharafi, 2000:19).
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To sum up, the comparison view focuses on the affinity between the two elements based on the shared features. This view states deviation in language for the sake of adornment.
2.2.2 Richards' Interaction View In place of the comparison view, in "The Philosophy of Rhetoric", I. A. Richards put forward a new view of metaphor; he (1936: 93) states that "When we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction." The emergent meaning is the outcome of the interaction of two thoughts, and he further encapsulated it with "two ideas for one" which rests on what the two ideas affect each other. Lynne (2003:18) states that the key development offered by the Interaction theory was the notion that Topic [or tenor] and Vehicle are systems of ideas, knowledge and beliefs that interact, rather than just names or features of concepts that are simply 'transferred'. Richards (1936: 92) believes metaphor exists in every place of language; no three sentences can be uttered without it. Hence metaphor is an integral part of language.
Figure.2 Interaction View of Metaphor
Richards (1936:96) introduced two terms vehicle for the term which is being used metaphorically and tenor [topic] for the element to which the metaphorical word is assigned. Look at the expression Memory is a storm I can't repel (Sommer and Weiss, 2001:281). The word memory is called the tenor and storm is labelled the vehicle. Gibbs (1994:211) cites that "the relationship between the topic and vehicle is the ground". Richards also introduced the notion of tension to describe the literal incompatibility of the topic and vehicle. Consider the above expression Memory is a storm I can't repel. The concept memory is literally inconsistent with the concept storm, and therefore our 8
comprehension of Memory is a storm I can't repel brings about metaphorical tension resulting from the literal inconsistency. Almost twenty years later, in an influential essay entitled "Metaphor" (1954-55), the philosopher Max Black refined and greatly expanded Richards' treatment. Black proposed that each of the two elements in a metaphor has a "system of associated commonplaces," consisting of the properties and relations that we commonly attach to the object, person, or event. When we understand a metaphor, the system of commonplaces associated with the "subsidiary subject" (equivalent to I. A. Richards' "vehicle") interacts with the system associated with the "principal subject" (Richards' "tenor") so as to "filter" or "screen" that system, and thus effects a new way of perceiving and conceiving the principal subject (Abrams, 1999:155). In a nutshell, traditional views of metaphor can be summed up in the following way" 1. Metaphor is a linguistic device which is used in poetry for decorating and embellishment. 2. It has nothing to do with thought or mental state. 3. It is an elliptical simile. 4. Everyday has no metaphor. 5. Metaphor depends on preexisting features among the participants. 6. Three items partake in creating metaphor, namely, topic, vehicle, and base of analogy (Lakoff, 1993; Sommer and Weiss, 2001, and Abrams, 1999).
2.3 The Cognitive Views of Metaphor The study of metaphor is primarily conceptual and conventional. Part of our ordinary system of thought and language can be traced back to Michael Reddy's classic paper, "The conduit metaphor". Reddy (1979) explains that the focal point of metaphor is thought, not language. He was the first to demonstrate it by vigorous linguistic analysis, stating generalizations over voluminous examples (Lakoff, 1993:203). Reddy (1979:288) states that when human beings speak and write, they put their internal thoughts and feelings using external signals of language, so language is a linguistic device to express human thoughts and feelings. Lakoff (2009:15) claims "Language uses symbols. Language is a tool, an instrument, but it is the surface, not the soul, of the brain."
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Later George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1980) developed Reddy's thoughts about metaphor, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson provide a short and accessible introduction to this cognitive view; they conceive metaphor to be a projection and mapping across what they call "conceptual domains"; that is, its use is basically a cognitive mental process, of which the metaphorical word, phrase, or sentence is only the linguistic aspect and expression. To identify the two elements that compose a metaphor, the authors replace "vehicle" and "tenor," or "primary" and "secondary," with the terms "source domain" and "target domain." In using and understanding a metaphor, part of the conceptual structure of the source domain is "mapped" onto the conceptual structure of the target domain, in a one-way "transaction" (as distinct from an "interaction") which may serve to alter and re-organize the way we perceive or think about the latter element (Abrams,1999:157). In the cognitive linguistic view, metaphor is defined as understanding one conceptual domain in terms of another conceptual domain. Examples of this include when we talk and think about life in terms of journeys, about arguments in terms of war, and many others. The two domains that participate in conceptual metaphor have special names. The conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is called source domain, while the conceptual domain that is understood this way is the target domain. Thus, life, arguments, and others are target domains, while journeys, war, and others are source domains. The target domain is the domain that we try to understand through the use of the source domain (Kovecses, 2010:4).
Figure.3 Mappings
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In the diagram the small black circles represent concepts and the connecting lines represent cross-domain mappings (Evans, 2007:53). Metaphor provides us with a means for comprehending domains of experience that do not have a preconceptual structure of their own. Cognitive models derive their fundamental meaningfulness directly from their ability to match up with preconceptual structure (Lakoff, 1987:303). To sum up, conceptual metaphor is based upon two conceptual domains namely target domain and source domain, and it does not depend on preexisting seminaries between the two domains as it could be noticed in the case of traditional views.
2.4 Conceptual Metaphor Theory 2.4.1 The Definition of CMT A theoretical framework developed by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, but also associated with other influential scholars including Zoltán Kövecses, Raymond Gibbs, Eve Sweetser and Mark Turner. CMT was first presented by Lakoff and Johnson in their 1980 volume Metaphors We Live By. CMT was one of the earliest theoretical frameworks to be developed in cognitive semantics and provided much of the early theoretical impetus for this approach to the relationship between language, mind and embodied experience (Evans, 2007:33). The basic idea is that metaphor is essentially a relation between conceptual domains, whereby ways of talking about one domain (the ‗source domain‘) can be applied to another domain (the ‗target domain‘) by virtue of ‗correspondences‘ between the two. Typically, the source domain is relatively familiar and conceptually wellstructured, and the structures are used to articulate the target domain. By this theory, metaphor is not tied to particular linguistic expressions: a given conceptual metaphor can in principle underlie any number of metaphorical expressions, some of which may be conventionalised, others not. An example of a conceptual metaphor is Life is a journey. Here, the source domain is that of journey and the target domain – what the metaphorical expression refers to – is that of life (Cruse, 2006:31). The following are some of the relevant correspondences between these domains:
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Table.1 Mappings for LIFE IS A JOURNEY JOURNEY= source domain
LIFE= target domain
beginning of journey
Birth
end of journey
Death
reaching destination
Achieving aim
crossroads
Point of choice
going uphill
finding life difficult
obstacles
difficulties
fellow-travellers
partners, colleagues, friends
In a nutshell, Croft and Cruse (2004:198) summarize Lakoff‘s conceptual theory of metaphor as follows: i. It is a theory of recurrently conventionalized expressions in everyday language in which literal and metaphorical elements are intimately combined grammatically. ii. The conventional metaphorical expressions are not a purely linguistic phenomenon, but the manifestation of a conceptual mapping between two semantic domains; hence the mapping is general and productive (and assumed to be characteristic of the human mind). iii. The metaphorical mapping is asymmetrical: the expression is about a situation in one domain (the target domain) using concepts mapped over from another domain (the source domain). iv. The metaphorical mapping can be used for metaphorical reasoning about concepts in the target domain.
2.4.2 The Mechanisms of CMT Conceptual metaphor theorists consider that Conceptual metaphor has some characteristics with which it can be recognized. Evans and Green (2006) and Geerarts (2010) provide some propositions of Conceptual metaphor:
2.4.2.1 Conception Geerarts (2010:204) pinpoints that the cognitive nature of metaphor is not only a linguistic device, but it is also a deep-seated conceptual phenomenon that influences our 12
thinking. There are several examples proving Metaphor to be a conceptual phenomenon as well: First, metaphor appears in patterns that go beyond the usual limits of the individual lexical items. For examples:
THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS
Is that the foundation for your theory?
The theory needs more support.
We need to buttress the theory with solid arguments.
The theory will stand or fall on the strength of that argument.
The argument is shaky. We need some more facts or the argument will fall apart.
We need to construct a strong argument for that.
The argument collapsed.
MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN
The number of books printed each year keeps going up.
My income rose last year.
The number of errors he made is incredibly low.
His income fell last year. He is under age.
If you are too hot, turn the heat down.
Second, metaphoric images may be used creatively. The sets of expressions that illustrate metaphoric patterns are open-ended; they do not only comprise conventionalized expressions, but may also attract new ones. If theories are buildings, you could say things like Complex theories usually have problems with the plumbing: the metaphoric image is a live one that may be exploited for construing new expressions. An expression, like to walk on cloud nine 'to be very happy ', may be expanded in non-conventional ways: You may be walking on cloud nine now, but don't forget there's a world with other people underneath. Such extensions show that the image contained in to walk on cloud nine is a live one (ibid: 205). Third, metaphoric patterns occur outside linguistic units. A simple case is a 'thumbs up' gesture: if good is up and bad is down (Things are looking up. We hit a peak last year, but it's been downhill ever since. Things are at an all-time low), then a 'thumbs up' 13
gesture is straightforwardly motivated by the metaphoric pattern. Pointing upward is a sign of positive affect, just as the expression up is correlated with the positive end of an evaluative scale (ibid.)
2.4.2.2 Mappings CMT has a set of systematic correspondences between the source and the target in the sense that constituent conceptual elements of B correspond to constituent elements of A. technically, these conceptual correspondences are often referred to as mappings (Kovecses, 2010:8). Typically, it is only one salient part of the source concept that is highlighted for a metaphorical mapping, the other parts being backgrounded, or even ignored entirely (Heine, 1997:140). According to Evans (2007:130) some mappings are relatively stable and persist in long-term memory while others are temporary associations set up due to dynamic processes of meaning-construction. Mappings which hold in long-term memory are most commonly associated with Conceptual Metaphor Theory and are known as cross-domain mappings. Mappings which are more temporary in nature and serve to associate two regions of conceptual space for the purposes of situated understanding are most commonly associated with processes of conceptual projection dealt with in Mental Spaces Theory. Lakoff (2009:253) clarifies the mapping constitutes metaphor. What is important is not mere words, but the fact that you can think in terms of this metaphor. The metaphor maps knowledge about travel, as characterized by the Journey frame onto knowledge about love in love as Journey frame, allowing you to reason metaphorically. For example:
LOVE IS A JOURNEY
Look how far we've come.
We're at a crossroads.
We'll just have to go our separate ways.
We can't turn hack now.
I don't think this relationship is going anywhere.
Where are we?
We're stuck.
It's been a long, bumpy road. 14
This relationship is a dead-end street.
We're just spinning our wheels.
Our marriage is on the rocks.
We've gotten off the track.
This relationship is foundering.
The lovers correspond to travellers. The love relationship corresponds to the vehicle. The lovers' common goals correspond to their common destinations on the journey. Difficulties in the relationship correspond to impediments to travel (Lakoff, 1980:45). Here the basic metaphor is that of a journey, and there are various types of journeys that one can make: a car trip, a train trip, or a sea voyage.
Table.2 Mappings for LOVE IS A JOURNEY (Evans and Green, 2006: 295).
2.4.2.3 Experiential grounding CMT is the idea that metaphors are grounded in experience: language is shaped by human experience. An important line of research associated with CMT focuses on the corporeal nature of this experiential grounding—the notion of embodiment (Geerarts 2010:204). Embodiment relates to the concept of image schema which is an important form of conceptual structure in the cognitive semantics literature. The basic idea is that because of our physical experience of being and acting in the world –of perceiving the environment, moving our bodies, exerting and experiencing force, etc. –we form basic conceptual structures which we then use to organize thought across a range of more abstract domains (Saeed, 2003:354). Containment, for instance, is an image schema related to our frequent experience of inserting objects into and removing them from bounded areas. Metaphoric uses of the containment image schema occur when someone enters into a depression, to take an example: the abstract emotional condition is seen as a container restricting the person's behaviour (Geerarts, 2010:204). 15
o
Figure.4 Containment
2.4.3.4 Single Direction CMT is unidirectional, moving in one single direction. This means that metaphors map structure from a source domain to a target domain but not vice versa. For example, PEOPLE ARE MACHINES. When we conceptualise PEOPLE in terms of MACHINES, we cannot conventionally structure MACHINES in terms of PEOPLE: 'speed' is not conventionally described as ‗efficiency‘. Hence, the terms ‗target‘ and ‗source‘ encode the unidirectional nature of the mapping. (Evans and Green, 2006: 296)
2.4.3 Properties of Conceptual Metaphor Conceptual metaphor is not a sort of structure in language, in which it is arbitrary, but it has some principles and properties with which it can be recognized. Here are some of them:
2.4.3.1 Pervasiveness According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980:7) metaphor is pervasive in everyday life, not just in language but in thought and action. Metaphor is ubiquitous in every portions of life, for example, in thinking and performance, what humans do is actually metaphorical in nature. Metaphor is an integral part in humans' every second of life. Metaphors "also govern everyday functioning, down to the most mundane details". To clarify this feature related to metaphor, there are several examples proving metaphor to be pervasive. For example,
ARGUMENT IS WAR
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument.
His criticisms were right on target.
I demolished his argument.
I've never won an argument with him. 16
You disagree? Okay, shoot!
If you use that strategy, he'll wipe you out.
He shot down all of my arguments. It is important to see that we don't just talk about arguments in terms of war. We can
actually win or lose arguments. We see the person we are arguing with as an opponent. We attack his positions and we defend our own. We gain and lose ground. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:4). Arguments and wars are two different sorts of things –"verbal and discourse", both argument and war have connections with each other. One is understood in terms of another. The sets of expressions of WAR brought to comprehend the concept ARGUMENT.
2.4.3.2 Systematicity Systematicity refers to the way that metaphor does not just set up single point of comparison: features of source domain and target domain are joined so that the metaphor may be extended, or have its own internal logic (Saeed, 2003:348). Lakoff and Johnson (1980:7) claim that "metaphorical concept is systematic; the language we use to talk about that aspect of the concept is systematic". Linguistic metaphorical expressions are systematically bound with the conceptual metaphorical expression; their connections are not arbitrary and random. For instance,
TIME IS MONEY
You're wasting my time.
This gadget will save you hours.
I don't have the time to give you.
How do you spend your time these days?
That flat tire cost me an hour.
I've invested a lot of time in her.
2.4.3.3 Cultural Coherence Basically, cultural values will be coherent with the metaphorical structures that prevail in culture. For example, UP-DOWN metaphors are coherent with some cultural
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ethics by which we live but not the other way round (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:22). Here are some examples: "More is better" is coherent with more is up and good is up. "Less is better" is not coherent with them. "Bigger is better" is coherent with more is up and good is up. "Smaller is better" is not coherent with them. "The future will be better" is coherent with the future is up and good is up. "The future will be worse" is not.
MORE IS UP
The number of books printed each year keeps going up.
You made a high number of mistakes.
My income rose last year.
The amount of artistic activity in this state has gone down in the past year. His number of errors is incredibly low.
His income fell last year.
GOOD IS UP
Things are looking up.
We hit a peak last year, but it‘s been going downhill ever since.
Things are at an all-time low.
The quality of life is high these days.
2.4.3.4 Unidirectionality Saeed (2003:350) supposes that "metaphors do not establish a symmetrical comparison between two concepts, seeking to set up the points of resemblance. Instead they push the listener to transmit the properties from the source to the target domain". Evans and Green (2007:296) claim that "conceptual metaphors are unidirectional. This means that metaphors map structure from a source domain to a target domain but not vice versa. For example, while we conceptualise LOVE in terms of JOURNEYS, we cannot conventionally structure JOURNEYS in terms of LOVE: travellers are not conventionally described as ‗lovers‘, or car crashes in terms of ‗heartbreak‘, and so on.
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Hence, the terms ‗target‘ and ‗source‘ encode the unidirectional nature of the mapping." As it is displayed in Figure 2.3:
Figure.5 Unidirectionality of Mapping of LOVE IS A JOURNEY
2.5 Classification of Conceptual Metaphor 2.5.1 Structural Metaphor Lakoff and Johnson (1980:14) define Structural metaphors as "cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another." That is to say, the source domain provides a relatively rich knowledge structure for the target concept ….the cognitive function of these metaphors is to enable speakers to understand target A by means of the structure of source B. this understanding takes place by means of conceptual mappings between elements of A and elements of B. (Kovecses,2010:37). For example, LIFE IS A JOURNEY. Life is structurally and metaphorically shaped in terms of journey.
2.5.2 Orientational Metaphor This type of metaphor in what Lakoff and Johnson (1980:14) point out that orientational metaphor "organizes a whole system of concepts with respect to one another… since most of them have to do with spatial orientation: up-down, in-out, front-back, on-off, deep-shallow, central-peripheral. These spatial orientations arise from the fact that we have bodies of the sort we have and that they function as they do in our physical environment. Orientational metaphors give a concept a spatial orientation; for example, HAPPY IS UP/ SAD IS DOWN. The fact that the concept happy is oriented up leads to English expressions like 'I'm feeling up today'" and sad is oriented down such as "I'm feeling down". 19
HAPPY IS UP/ SAD IS DOWN
I'm feeling up.
That boosted my spirits.
My spirits rose.
You're in high spirits.
Thinking about her always gives me a lift.
I'm feeling down.
I'm depressed.
He's really low these days.
I fell into a depression.
My spirits sank. The orientaional metaphors are not randomly bundled together, but they are based
upon physical experience. Kovecses (2010:40) believes that this type of metaphor to be known as "coherence metaphor". By "coherence" he simply means that certain target concepts tend to be conceptualized in a uniform manner. For instance, some metaphors are oriented "UP'', while their opponents take "Down". Consider the following examples:
MORE IS UP; LESS IS DOWN:
Speak up please.
Keep your voice down, please.
CONSCIOUS IS UP; UNCONSIOUS IS DOWN:
Get up!
Wake up!
I'm up already.
He rises early in the morning.
He fell asleep.
He dropped off to sleep.
He's under hypnosis.
He sank into a coma.
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These examples indicate that human beings and any other creatures usually sleep lying down and stand up when they awaken (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:15).
2.5.3 Ontological Metaphors Ontological metaphors are generated when our experience with physical objects and substances make them possible to conceive of abstract intangible concepts such as emotions, ideas, psychological activities and states as concrete tangible entities and substances (Liu , 2013:157). These involve the projection of entity or substance status on something that does not have that status inherently (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:196). Kovecses (2010:38) points out that "we conceive of our experiences in terms of objects, substances, and containers, in general, without specifying exactly what kind of object, substance, or container is meant." Ontological metaphors have a physical world entity in the source and an activity (e.g., ―He put a lot of energy into his attack‖ ), emotion (e.g., ―He has fear‖ ) or idea (e.g., ―We have a problem‖ ) in the target (Ibáñez and Hernández, 2011:4). Once we can identify our experiences as entities or substances, we can refer to them, categorize them, group them, and quantify them—and, by this means, reason about them (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980:25). For example:
Identifying Aspects The ugly side of his personality comes out under pressure. The brutality of war dehumanizes us all. I can't keep up with the pace of modern life. His emotional health has deteriorated recently. We never got to feel the thrill of victory in Vietnam
Referring My fear of insects is driving my wife crazy. That was a beautiful catch. We are working toward peace. The middle class is a powerful silent force in American politics. The honor of our country is at stake in this war.
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Quantifying It will take a lot of patience to finish this book. There is so much hatred in the world. DuPont has a lot of political power in Delaware. You've got too much hostility in you. Pete Rose has a lot of hustle and baseball know-how.
2.5.3.0 Classification of Ontological Metaphors 2.5.3.1 Container Tendahl (2009:117) pinpoints that a substantial ontological metaphor is the CONTAINER metaphor, which often makes us construe things as closed and bounded even though they are not. Categories are, for example, often metaphorically understood as containers. We project in–out orientations onto categories, which is manifest in utterances like:
He is in the team,
Gary is out of sight
Liam is in deep trouble.
2.5.3.2 Substance Metaphor A substance metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction, such as an event, activity, emotion, or idea, is represented as material. Here are some examples of the activity-as-substance metaphor (Day et al, 2004):
There was a lot of good sprinting in the race.
I couldn‘t do much sprinting until the end.
2.5.3.3 Entity Metaphor An entity metaphor is an ontological metaphor in which an abstraction is represented as a concrete physical object. In the following sentences, the mind is represented as a machine or a brittle object (ibid.):
We're still trying to grind out the solution to this equation.
My mind just isn‘t operating today.
Her ego is very fragile.
You have to handle him with care since his wife‘s death. 22
2.5.3.4 Personification Metaphor In this type of ontological metaphor we are seeing something nonhuman as human in a way that the physical object is further specified as being a person. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980:33) For example,
His theory explained to me the behavior of chickens raised in factories.
This fact argues against the standard theories.
Life has cheated me.
Inflation has robbed me of my savings.
2.6 Criticisms of CMT CMT has come under criticism on several issues. Fabiszak (2007:23) claims that much of the criticism of Lakoff – Johnson (1980) stems from an inadequate representation of the views Lakoff – Johnson show. Moreover, CMT is presented as a completely novel approach, as if it had no links whatsoever with a long time metaphor research. CMT has been criticized for several reasons and from different standpoints. Kovesces (2008) selects and briefly deals with some large issues. Consider the following:
1.The Issue of Methodology Researchers of conceptual metaphor have often been criticized for using examples that are unrepresentative of ―genuine‖ metaphorical language or simply not metaphorical at all (Cserép, 2014: 263). Many CMT researchers examine their own mental lexicons or the data found in dictionaries and thesauri, and on the basis of some linguistic examples they arrive at and suggest conceptual metaphors. If, for example, in the dictionary the verb boil also means "to be very angry", explode means 'to lose control over anger,' hot headed means 'someone who loses control over anger easily,' seething means 'to lose control over anger at any moment,' then CMT researchers conclude that there exists a conceptual metaphor that we can call ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER (Kovecses, 2008:169). Thus, the nature of the data is one of the reasons why CMT is attacked. Another reason is the difference in focus and methodology between various scholars. CMT was originally formulated as a theory of what our conceptual system is like based on 23
intuitive linguistic expressions, while a number of critics have a psycholinguistic orientation with experimental methodology and a focus on immediate metaphor processing. Psycholinguists are concerned not only with whether conceptual metaphors exist in long-term semantic memory, but also with how conceptual metaphors are activated or accessed during processing and production (Cserép, 2014:262). Pragglejaz Group criticize the approach for two reasons. On the one hand, they claim that CMT researchers take for granted which expressions are metaphorical, and, on the other, critics also suggest that the approach does not pay attention to which actual expressions are used for the target domain (of, for example, anger) by real speakers in natural discourse. They propose, in the light of these objections, that we need to construct a reliable methodology to identify metaphorical expressions and we need to use real corpora in the course of identifying such expressions (Handi and Shmid, 2011:24).
2.The Issue of Mapping Metaphor as cross-domain mapping has come under considerable criticism. By using the conceptual metaphor, ARGUMENT IS INTIMATE CONFLICT, Vervaeke and Kennedy (cited in Chow, 2010:39). express their doubt about the tenet of CMT that the knowledge of the source domains motivates our understanding of the target domains. Instead, they argue that there must be some pre-existing understanding or experience of both domains. They insist that we must first know some rules of how the argument (target domain) is to be conducted and thus knowledge of the target domain is premetaphoric. In this light, they claim that metaphor comprehension involves pre-existing similarity (or shared properties) between the two domains that have been reordered and reformatted through interactions. Some linguists comment that the uni-directional mapping from the source to the target domains in CMT appears to be inadequate in explaining novel metaphors. For instance Grady et al (1999) point out that the image in the novel metaphor "steam was coming out of his ears" seems not to exist in both the source domain (AN ANGRY PERSON) and the target domain (HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER). Therefore, it is hard to explain this metaphor in terms of cross-domain mapping as there are no systematic correspondences between the two domains (ibid.). Taylor (2002:492) argues that in order for a target domain to be subject to mapping from a source domain, there has to be some prior conceptualistion of the target domain. 24
We need to know, at the very least, which elements of the source domain can map into which elements of the target domain, and this presupposes that the target domain already has some initial "premetaphorical structure. This is not to deny that can enrich the target domain and our conceptualization of it, and even influence the way we behave with respect to it. Still, it is implausible that it is metaphor creates our conceptions of reasoning, time, morality, and so on.
3. The Issue of The Direction Analysis: In the contemporary theory, it is believed that metaphor is primarily conceptual in nature and that conventional metaphors at the linguistic level yield important clues to human thought and cognition. The rejection of these two beliefs will surely lead to the denial of the central claim of the contemporary theory that human conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorically structured (Yu, 1996:60). Richie (2013:83) shows that a more fundamental objection to CMT is that it is built entirely on what may be little more than coincidences in language use, with no evidence to test or confirm that people actually experience the stipulated connections between experiences and concepts. Clearly, those researchers who follow the "traditional" practice of CMT type of analysis follow the top-down direction, since on the basis of a small number of decontextualized examples they postulate conceptual metaphors and then they examine the internal structure of these metaphors (set up mappings, entailments, etc.). By contrast, in bottom-up approaches a large number of expressions are studied (e.g., an entire corpus), the metaphorical expressions are checked for their detailed behavior (semantic, structural, pragmatic, esthetic, etc.) in concrete contexts of use, and finally conceptual metaphors are established as a result of a multi-stage procedure. A major problem that representatives of the bottom-up approach point out in connection with the top-down approach is that conceptual metaphors do not provide an account of the meaning and, more generally, the irregular linguistic-semantic behavior of many metaphorical expressions. These critics of traditional CMT believe that the linguistic behavior of metaphors is more irregular than regular, and that this dominant feature of linguistic metaphors is hidden by an approach that emphasizes (hypothetical) global cognitive structures, such as conceptual metaphors (Kovecses, 2008:170-171).
Let us take as an example the metaphorical expression split hairs. How can we explain the meaning of the expression (i.e., its semantic behavior) in the light of 25
traditional CMT? In order to be able to do that, we would have to know which global conceptual metaphor underlies the expression; that is, the metaphor that motivates the meaning "to pay too much attention to small and unimportant differences in an argument." It is not easy to find a global conceptual metaphor that can readily and naturally account for this meaning. this situation is unlike cases where we have well known metaphors, such as ANGER IS A HOT FLUID IN A CONTAINER (for the word boil), THEORIES ARE BUILDINGS (for foundation), or LIFE IS A JOURNEY (for bumpy road), that easily come to mind and readily explain the behavior of many metaphorical expressions. If there is no easily retrievable conceptual metaphor that accounts for the meaning of the expression split hairs in a natural way, then the expression will remain hopelessly unmotivated, that is, irregular, as regards its meaning. But even if there is such a global metaphor in this case (though it's not easy to find), it is likely that there are many other cases where no global conceptual metaphors can be discovered and used to explain the semantic behaviour of particular metaphorical words and expressions. Given this, we cannot claim that there is a global conceptual metaphor behind, or underlying, each and every metaphorical expression (ibid: 170).
4. The Issue of Arbitrariness in CMT Kennedy and Vervaeke (cited in Snævarr, 2010:121) think that there is a moment of arbitrariness in the Lakoffian theory. Think about the following sentences: ―He is a solid citizen‖, ―he is dense‖, ―Don‘t talk to him, he is heavy‖, ―he is so thick‖, ―he is many-faceted‖, ―he is so durable‖, ―he is so hard‖. Do these examples show that there is an underlying conceptual metaphor like PEOPLE ARE STONES? This sounds counterintuitive, but this is the way Lakoff and his cohorts argue when trying to show that a host of expressions have their basis in certain conceptual metaphors. Furthermore, Kennedy and Vervaeke maintain that we can regard expressions like ―he undermined my beliefs‖ as a manifestation of either the war metaphor or the metaphor of arguments as movements in space. The problem is that we have no criteria for discriminating between those expressions that are manifestations of many underlying conceptual metaphors and those that are manifestations of only one such metaphor. Yet again, we see the arbitrariness of the theory.
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2.7 The Invariance Principle Metaphorical mappings face problems in copying properties from source domains onto target domains. So the problem, here, is which part of the source domain can be mapped onto the target domain. So that the process of mapping can stay away from this problem, Lakoff (1993: 215) proposed a hypothesis called "The Invariance Principle"; he states that "Metaphorical mappings preserve the cognitive topology (that is, the image schema structure) of the source domain, in a way consistent with the inherent structure of the target domain".The Invariance Principle means that the relationships between the target domain points will be consistent with relationships between the source domain points. Lakoff (1990) gives the example of LIFE IS A JOURNEY, where elements of literal journeys are mapped onto the target domain of life in a consistent way; so that the start of a journey is mapped onto birth, and the end of the journey is mapped onto death. The start of the journey will not be mapped onto a middle point in life, and difficult pathways will not be mapped onto easy periods of life. Turner develops this point, writing that metaphorical mappings import only the elements of the source domain that are consistent with the structure of the target domain, and import them in a way that is consistent with the structure of the source domain (Degnan, 163:2005). Here, the corresponding mappings can be interpreted and demonstrated as Barcelona (2003:213) shows that The Invariance Hypothesis is a constraint on existing metaphorical mappings to the effect that: 1. The mapping is consistent with the inherent structure of the source domain: sources are mapped onto sources, paths onto paths etc., not sources onto paths or paths onto sources. In SCALES OF MEASUREMENT ARE PATHS, John is way ahead of Bill in intelligence. 'John is far more intelligent than Bill'. We find that the beginning of the path is mapped onto the bottom of the scale, and distance travelled onto distance in general. 2. The mapping cannot violate the image-schematic structure of the target domain. One example: in ACTIONS ARE TRANSFERS (She gave me a kick), the source domain contains the information in its image schema structure that the object given remains in the possession of the recipient. But the inherent structure ofthe target domain does not include the fact that the recipient of the action keeps the action in
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his possession (although the effects of the action may be with him for a long time!). In this case, this part of the mapping cannot take place.
Actually, the invariance encounters problem due to the process of mapping between the source and target domains. Antunano (I999:38) diagnoses that "The only problem with this principle is that it does not show exactly what part of the source domain is the one that must be consistent with the structure of the target domain". This is the case that we do not know how this process occurs. As a solution, he puts forward the processes called 'Property Selection'. These processes will show not only how some of the set of properties that characterize the source domain are mapped onto the target domain, but also what properties are mapped. It is precisely by this selection of properties from the source domain in the target domain that metaphorical mappings are constrained. The properties selected in the target domain must be part of the properties identified in the source domain and not others. The number of properties from the source domain preserved in the extended meanings is not an issue, as this is not the same in each extension. What is important is the fact that there is a transfer of only some properties from the source to the target domain. For example:
1. The dog was sniffing the ground looking for the hare. 2. The police have been sniffing around here again.
These meanings select the property because the dog in (1) and the police in (2) are trying to detect those hints that would lead them to find what they are looking for; the property is selected because this search is carried out consciously, both the dog and the police are active subjects of the action of smell. The only difference in these two sentences is that in (1) the action of smell is a physical one, where the dog is actually using its nose in order to follow the trail left by the hare, whereas in (2), the police do not smell physically, but in a metaphorical way.
2.8 Some Examples of CMT 1) ANGER IS AN OPPONENT (IN A STRUGGLE)
I'm struggling with my anger.
He was battling his anger. 28
She fought back her anger.
I've been wrestling with my anger all day.
I was seized by anger.
I'm finally coming to grips with my anger.
He lost control over his anger.
Anger took control of him.
He surrendered to his anger.
He yielded to his anger.
I was overcome by anger.
Her anger has been appeased. (61)
2) FEAR IS AN OPPONENT
He was wrestling with his fear.
Her fear overcame her.
Fear took hold oJ him.
I was gripped by fear.
He could not control his fear any longer.
She was besieged by fear.
They were seized by fear.
She eventually suppressed her fear.
I was struggling with fear.
He was fighting his fear but fear won out.
She was attacked by fear.
He was in the clutch oJfear.
I was incapacitated by fear.
Fear gripped the village.
Panic overtook them.(77)
3) PEOPLE ARE COMMODITIES
He proved his worth to everyone.
She values him highly.
She felt an appreciation for her parents.
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He's goodfor nothing.
His new position added to his worth.
This paper lowered his value as a scholar.
He deserves a good beating/spanking.
He is a valuable person.
She considered him to be worthy of trust.
The value of computer scientists keeps going up.
The Giants traded Jones for Smith (Kovecses, 1990:112).
4) FORCE IS A SUBSTANCE CONTAINED IN AFFECTING CAUSES
Put more force into your punches.
He said some forceful words.
His punches carry a lot of force.
Each sentence contained the force of an order.
His punches have a lot of force.
Her death hit us all forcefully.
Her death hit us with a lot of force.
The force of the blow knocked me over.
The force added to the swing was enough to send the ball over the fence. (Day et al, 2003)
5) THE BODY IS A CONTAINER FOR THE SELF
He's a young man trapped in an old man's body.
He withdraws into himself.
She found a chink in his armor.
Once you get past his rude exterior, you'll find a warm and caring person inside.
He's a beautiful person inside (ibid.).
6) STATES ARE LOCATIONS
He is in love.
What kind of a state was he in when you saw him?
She can stay/remain silent for days.
He is at rest/at play. 31
He remained standing.
He is at a certain stage in his studies.
What state is the project in? (Lakoff et al, 1991:8)
9.2 The Significance of Metaphor in Newspapers Metaphors are used as a part of journalistic routines for the purposes of popularizing, concretizing, and dramatizing (Muhammad, 2006:8). Newspapers as part of journalism play a crucial role in everyone's daily life. Lakoff (2002: 5) writes that much of what we read on the daily opened pages of our finest newspapers is metaphorical commonsense reasoning. Muhammad (2006:33) states that "News stories have a complex underlying structure. In order to study news story, one need to study the definition of news, the values of the news, the news sources, the structure of news, and the types of news" because every aspect of news has impact of the conveying the message the newspapers write.
2.10 Literature Review Human beings have the ability to think and express; they try to express their thoughts and ideas into words to convey the message reflected in their minds. Metaphor is one of the tools which can be used in mirroring the feelings and judgments. Metaphor is considered to be a raw material which has attracted the attention of the language scholars to pore over the features of metaphors and how they can be an active participant in language. Since Aristotle until the current time concerning functioning the aspects of metaphor, linguists study metaphors. Traditionalists believed that metaphor was a linguistic device which can be in literature, specifically poetry, for embellishment and decoration. Furthermore, it has nothing to do with thought. It is purely a linguistic matter. 1. In 1980, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson published a book entitled "Metaphors We Live By". They (1980:ix) claimed that "metaphor is pervasive in everyday language and thought". They believe that conceptual metaphor is a relation between two conceptual domains, namely, "source domain" and "target domain". From that 31
time on, a handful of researchers all over the world sank their teeth into the field of conceptual metaphors in many languages. They try to apply the themes of conceptual metaphor to the linguistic and semantic structure of their languages in different aspects of language such as journalism, daily conversation, science, technology, etc. 2. As far as journalism is concerned, some researchers have tackled conceptual metaphors recently. In his paper, Sabbah (2003) entitled "Conceptual Metaphors of War in News Reports Covering the 2003 Invasion of Iraq by the New York Times and The Daily Star" shows that how politically conflicting parties cognitively conjure up the image of "war" by means of conceptual metaphors. He extracted war metaphors samples from two English newspapers, one is the Daily Star which is issued in Lebanon and the other is New York Times which is issued in United States. The two newspapers are geographically, socially, and culturally are different. These factors have impact on the accurate portrayal of the war news reports. Sabbah tries to find similarities and differences between realized in both newspapers, he (ibid: 157) states that" the conceptual metaphors pertaining to war will provide an understanding of how journalists of the new York times and the daily star construct the events of the war against Iraq in 2003 based on conceptual metaphors" he aims at showing how do The New York Times and The Daily Star categorize the participants in the war according to " THE FAIRY TALE OF JUST WAR"(ibid.). the war news reports are organized into three stages, viz, prewar, war, and postwar. He seeks to explore how the two newspapers draw the picture of "Who is the hero?", "Who is the villain?", "Who is the victim?", "What is the crime?", and "What counts as victory?" The two newspapers delineate and report the events from different perspectives. Two main Conclusions can be drawn from his study; one is that both news papers did not conceptualize Iraqi people as [VICTIM] consistently throughout the prewar, war, and postwar periods. Both build up different pictures of Saddam Hussein. He (ibid: 170) pinpoints that "The Daily Star did not portray Saddam Hussein as irrational as The New York Times did". Here, he states that news reports are ideologically overloaded. 3. Readers sometimes face difficulties in understanding metaphors when they read a newspaper or watch a programme on TV. So they need to know the structure and the meaning of the metaphor. Muhammad (2006) conducted a semantic and syntactic study on metaphors to better understand the metaphors found in English 32
modern journalism. Muhammad (ibid: 2) notes that readers, due to the ubiquity of metaphors, have problem with comprehending metaphors in journalism. Metaphors have different structures which can pose difficulty to understanding. Muhammad (ibid.) argues that "metaphors are abound in journalism and that, unlike metaphors in everyday language, but like those in poetry and literary language, they are fresh, novel and less involved. Since the journalists' intention is to impress the readership, they tend to avoid extended metaphors, which spread over several sentences, or mixed and compound metaphors, which consists the overlapping of two or more individual metaphors, i.e., when there are two vehicles and tenors." He (ibid: 120) came to some conclusions that "metaphors do not abide by the principles of compositionality because their meanings cannot be constructed out of the individual meaning of the components. Though, in some cases the meaning of the components in isolation becomes very significant in providing clues about the meaning of the whole expression" 4. With regard to syntactic and semantic analysis of metaphoric expressions, Linh (2011:5) focuses on the syntactic and semantic aspect of metaphors found in Vietnamese and English newspapers. He compares and contrasts between the two languages. Moreover, Linh (ibid: 11) argues that how cases of metaphor functioned to denote or express the reference to various aspects of life mentioned in newspapers. He found that metaphor themes are universal features which can be realized in both languages. Linh (ibid: 22) comes to a conclusion that "English and Vietnamese newspapers share in common almost every characteristic in the aspects of syntax and semantics" 5. On the subject of metaphors in advertisements, Abusaeedi et al (2012) deal with the metaphors found in Iranian advertisements. They test two theories of cognitive semantics, viz, conceptual metaphor and conceptual blending in some Iranian family journals. They ask 30 college students to identify the metaphor used in the adverts, and why the advertiser used such a metaphor. The question is here how the addressees understand the metaphoric adverts and to examine the effectiveness of the two theories. Abusaeedi et al (ibid: 158) indicate that conceptual metaphors cannot explain metaphoric advertisements and idiomatic expressions completely. Consequently, conceptual metaphor, in this respect, theory does not work, and the alternative tool is conceptual blending.
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6. With respect to conceptual metaphors used in political discourses, in their paper Xue, Mao, and Li (2013:678) entitled "conceptual metaphor in American presidential inaugural addresses" presents that "language is the primary medium of practicing ideology and power, and metaphorical language is much more powerful". They aim at analyzing typical and authentic data which can help understand American politics and cultures in a certain way. They end up with some points through analyzing the data which are some metaphors could be found in the data such as journey, human, war, building family, light, and illness metaphor. Additionally, some metaphors are imbedded in another one. Xue et al (ibid: 682) comes to the point that "political metaphors have such functions as filtering, persuasion, motivation, simplification, and bridge" It could be said that metaphor takes up all aspects of journalism. It needs much more research to be conducted in all other aspects of journalism in different mass media in different places so that the significance and role of metaphor could be revealed; Therefore, this thesis is conducted in one aspect of conceptual metaphors in English news reports, specifically the political news reports. CMT can be studied from different angles.
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Chapter Three News Reporting 3.1 Definition of News Events happen every second, and probably around us then reported and broadcast from various mass media. Indeed, not all the reports are important to us. We pay attention to the news reports per our preferences. Life appears to be a shapeless jumble of events, falling over each other, elbowing and jostling each other. Journalists each day structure this chaos, so that the public receives it sorted out and neatly packaged into stories, the same day on radio, television or online and the next day in newspapers (Ingram and Henshall, 1991). ―A community needs news,‖ said the British author Dame Rebecca West, ―for the same reason that a man needs eyes. It has to see where it is going.‖ For William Randolph Hearst, one of America‘s most important newspaper publishers, news was ―what someone wants to stop you [from] printing: all the rest is ads‖ (Britannica, 2013). Reporting is on the face of it a simple set of actions and skills: finding information, asking questions, ―getting the story.‖ There is also the expectation that a reporter will go beyond the superficial, ―dig‖ for the ―real story,‖ go ―the extra mile.‖ These expectations hold whether the story is slight and has minimal impact, or is an investigative enterprise geared toward ―uncovering truth.‖ (Cotter, 2010:38).
The first point to make is that "news" does not happen. Events happen, and news is produced by reporting some events. For example if two people are slightly hurt in a car crash, that's an event. If it is reported everywhere, it becomes news (Clare, 2004:2). Within media, news is the primary language genre. It fills pages of the daily newspaper and hours of radio and television time (Bell, 1991:1). News is the communication of selected information on current events. It is shared in various ways: among individuals and small groups (such as by word of mouth or newsletters); with wider audiences (such as by publishing, either in print or online, or broadcasting, such as on television or radio); or in ways that blend those traits (such as when social media sharing starts among individuals but goes viral) (Wikipedia, 2015). According to Fowler (1991:4) news can be defined as "the representation of the world in language: because language is a semiotic code, it imposes a structure of values, social 35
and economic in origin, on whatever represented; and so inevitably news, like every discourse, constructively patterns that of which it speaks …it is not a value-free reflection of "facts" ….each particular form of linguistic expression in a text-- wording, syntactic option, etc. has its reason. News is the process of selection in which events are priotized according to a range of socially organized categories. This process is one which already tells us a great deal about the political positioning and the belief systems in specific mass media (Conboy, 2007:36). The news informs listeners about current events and developments. The information has to be new, interesting and relevant to the lives of the listeners. The news can also update listeners‘ knowledge about ongoing developments and events. Furthermore, the news supplies listeners with the information they need to form their own opinions about things that are happening and make them more aware of certain issues and problems (Hüllen and Karg, 2013: 6). The vast majority of events are not mentioned, and so selection immediately gives us a partial view of the world. The news media selects events for reporting according to a complex set of criteria of newsworthiness; so news is not simply that which happens, but that can be regarded and presented as newsworthy (Fowler, 1991:11-13). News is also about the unusual – you don‘t find bulletins and newspapers filled with items about how the traffic ran smoothly and there were no multiple pile-ups. Therefore news is selective in two ways: what is it about a story that makes it news, and, of all the newsy stories that happen, why do some make headlines and others not see the light of day? (Franklin et al, 2005: 163) There are always processes of choice and prioritization in the language selected to represent them to specific audiences. The exploration of these patterns can tell us a great deal about the social and political positioning of the news media. (Conboy, 2007:30) The English word "news" developed in the 14th century as a special use of the plural form of "new".[2] In Middle English, the equivalent word was newes, like the French nouvelles and the German neues. Similar developments are found in the Slavic languages—the Czech and Slovak noviny (from nový,"new"), the cognate Polish nowiy and Russian novosti and in the Celtic languages: the Welsh newyddion (from newydd) and the Cornish nowodhow (from nowydh) (Wikipedia, 2015).
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3.2 Criteria for News Reporting Cotter (2010:4) states that news values are the qualities that make a news item ―newsworthy‖ – become embedded in text and govern practice. Clare (2004:5) claims that "news must be new. That's what the word means." If it is not new, it cannot be news. Everything that happens in the world is a new event, and somebody, somewhere, will have some level of interest in that occurrence. But what takes it from being new to becoming news? The set of values applied by different media – local, regional, national and international, print, television, radio, internet, bulletin board – are as varied as the media themselves. Some form of matrix system is needed to prioritise those events, to filter them into levels of applicability and relevance to the audience. In an attempt to rationalise and analyse this process, Norwegian social scientists Johan Galtung and Mari Homboe Ruge developed and eventually published a paper on this in the 1965 edition of the Journal of International Peace Studies. Entitled "Structuring and Selecting News", they began by analysing the output of a cluster of newspapers in their native land, and identified a number of common strands – the presence of élite nations or individuals, the cultural proximity of events to the intended audience and so forth – then went on to create a system for prioritizing news (Brighton and Foy, 2007:1). They began to set several values for news broadcasting. Ryan (cited in Braun, 2009:4) puts it, ―There is no end to lists of news criteria‖. There are numerous news values for news reporting after Galtung and Ruge. Here is a list of news values that Galtung and Ruge thought that would best fit their judgment (ibid: 5) as follows: 1. FREQUENCY—Events that unfold conveniently within the production cycle of a news outlet are more likely to be reported. 2. THRESHOLD—The larger the event, the more people it affects, the more likely it is to be reported. Events can meet the threshold criterion either by being large in absolute terms, or by marking an increase in the intensity of an ongoing issue. 3. UNAMBIGUITY—The fewer ways there are of interpreting an event, the more likely it is to be reported. 4. MEANINGFULNESS—The more culturally proximate and/or relevant an event is, the more likely it is to be reported. 37
5. CONSONANCE—If a journalist has a mental pre-image of an event, if it‘s expected to happen, then it is more likely to be reported. This is even more true if the event is something the journalist desires to happen. 6. UNEXPECTEDNESS—If an event is unexpected, it is more likely to be considered newsworthy and to be reported. 7. CONTINUITY—Once an issue has made the news once, future events related to it are more likely to be reported. 8. COMPOSITIONAL BALANCE—News editors will attempt to present their audience with a ―balanced diet‖ of news. An event that contributes to the diversity of topics reported is more likely to be covered than one that adds to a pile of similar news items. 9. ELITE NATIONS—Events that involve elite nations are more likely to be reported than those that do not. 10. ELITE PEOPLE—Events that involve elite people are more likely to be reported than those that do not. 11. PERSONIFICATION—Events that can be discussed in terms of the actions of individual actors are more likely to be reported than those that are the outcome of abstract social forces. By the same token, social forces are more likely to be discussed in the news if they can be illustrated by way of reference to individuals.
12. NEGATIVITY— An event with a negative outcome is more likely to be reported than one with a positive outcome.
3.3 Types of News Reporting It goes without saying that news reports subsume different types for instance "weather, political, advertising, economics, sports, entertainment, etc." but here only two are given explanation political and sports news reports. Needless to say, all of them have special style of writing concerning targeting their own audience.
3.3.1 Political News It usually reports on political issues the country such as elections, parliament, debate, politicians, groups, campaigns, etc. it often concentrates the current political issues 38
happening across the country and the world. These issues are directly or indirectly related to people's daily lives. The language written in political news often linked to war expressions such as ARGUMENRT IS WAR. When two members from two different political parties argue, it is said they attack each other as Lakoff and Johnson (1980:4) state that "This metaphor is reflected in our everyday language by a wide variety of expressions". For example:
Your claims are indefensible.
He attacked every weak point in my argument.
His criticisms were right on target.
I demolished his argument.
I've never won an argument with him.
3.3.2 Sports News The sports news coverage is specialized for those who like a particular sport or are players in a team or fans of a club. By and large, people are fans of football clubs around the world. The language employed in sports coverage is bound up with war expressions. Richardson (2007:66) provides some examples of sports news expressions "attack and defense, counter-attack, shoot for goal, and under siege"
3.4 Channels of News Coverage Channels fall into different modes of broadcasting namely newspapers, radio, television, and internet. Each plays a crucial role in covering the news reports and telling the stories.
3.4.1 Newspapers Newspapers have only been around for a few hundred years. Before newspapers, people received the day‘s news by word of mouth. Town criers walked through villages and announced local news such as births, deaths, and weddings. In ancient Rome, news 39
was posted throughout the city in written notes. These notes were called Acta Diurna, or ―Daily Events.‖ Acta Diurna announced social events and politics. In China, printed newspapers called Paos reported court affairs. Over time, several inventions made printing easier. One was developed in the 1450s by German printer "Johannes Gutenberg". He developed a press that used movable type, which made printing copies of a manuscript easier (Hamilton, 2005:6). Newspaper is the channel that people could be aware of the news of the events happening the earliest time to the readers as Reah (1998:2) claims that "The term newspaper suggests that the content of the newspaper will be primarily devoted to the news of the day". In England the printed news book or news pamphlet usually related a single topical event such as a battle, disaster, or public celebration. The earliest known example is an eyewitness account of the English victory over the Scots at the Battle of Flodden (1513). Other forerunners include the town crier and ballads and broadsides. The first English corantos appeared in London in 1621. By the 1640s the news book had taken the form of a newspaper—the title page being dropped. The first English daily was The Daily Courant (1702–35). Not until 1771 did Parliament formally concede journalists the right to report its proceedings. The Times, which became a model for high quality and later led in mechanical innovation, was founded by John Walter in 1785, and The Observer was founded in 1791 (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2013). British news veteran David Randall put it succinctly: ―A newspaper‘s role is to find fresh information on matters of public interest and to relay it as quickly and accurately as possible to readers in an honest and balanced way. That‘s it‖ (Cotter, 2010:68) When you read a newspaper, you learn about current events. Newspapers tell you what is happening around the world. They also keep you in touch with news in your own neighborhood. Newspapers are more up-to-date than books. They have more variety than magazines. And, they provide more details than television. So, newspapers are a useful part of the research process (Hamilton, 2005:4). Generally, Newspapers have a special kind of writing style. Here, they are written for a special educated class of audience. Thorne (1997:230) pinpoints that "paragraphs of
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newspapers are longer so the reader has to concentrate for longer periods of time", they have to have the liking to continue on reading.
3.4.2 Radio Radio is the world's oldest form of genuine mass communication – and the way some executives regard it you'd think it had already been pensioned off. Many regard radio as simply television without pictures. (Clare, 2004:67). Samuel Morse‘s invention of telegraph in 1842 prompted scientists to find out ways to transmit messages over air. Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi succeeded in it in 1895. For further development of the mechanism, he started the Marconi Company in England and started commercial production of radio transmitters for military purpose. Marconi‘s device was sophisticated by Reginald Fessenden and started transmission of sound over radio transmitters, instead of textual signals (Muhammadali 2011:5) The Italian, Guglielmo Marconi, is justly regarded as 'the father of radio 'because it was he who brought together so many of these discoveries and inventions. (Crisell, 2002:15) In 1922, British Broadcasting Company was set up in England. Later on it was converted into British Broadcasting Corporation in 1927. It goes without saying that B.B.C. is one of the biggest broadcasting networks in the world putting its transmission in almost every language in the world (Bosra, 2014). Radio writing is writing for the spoken words and everyday speech should be the guide to the words we use and the manner in which we use them. In talking with one another, we use familiar words. We assemble what we have to say in short phrases and seldom put our ideas together in the kind of lengthy paragraphs which we may write (Muhammadali, 2011:13). Thompson (2005:119) states that "simplicity and clarity are the main principles".
3.4.3 Television "TV is pictures. Everyone knows that"(Thompson, 2005:123). This is a quotation which distinguishes TV from radio. And he (132) added that" The domain of television is pictures and the real of radio is sound ". So the pictures clarifies the complicated language of the report even if the viewer does not the language spoken by the presenter. 41
Television is the world's most powerful communication medium. Surveys show that TV is the primary source of news for many people. Other surveys also show it is much more trusted than newspapers (Clare, 2004: 33). In 1884, Russian-born Paul Nipkow invented a scanning system which dissected a scene into a pattern of pixels, or ‗picture dots‘ which could then be transmitted and reproduced as a visual image. The world‘s first public demonstration came in 1925 when John Logie Baird showed his television system in Selfridge‘s department store, London. Television – literally ‗seeing at a distance‘ – was not the instant success of radio. It was seen as relatively unreliable, frivolous, expensive and a toy for the rich (Franklin et al, 2005:262).
Television is a transnational business and also a national institution. It is our most celebrated form of entertainment and our most important source of information. It is an outlet for creativity and a medium through which social concern or political views may be expressed. (Holland, 2000:3). Thomson (2005:133) pinpoints that "Television news has a staple diet of packages, composed of sequences of moving pictures, and these picture sequences are not silent. They carry real sound with the images throughout"
3.4.4 Internet In the decades after the First World War the news industry saw newspapers being displaced by radio as the medium that audiences turned to for breaking news, especially in times of crisis. The wireless now seems a crucial element of so many accounts of society during the Second World War. Radio‘s brief ascendancy came to an end when it was supplanted by television in the 1950s. Again, a series of world crises from the Vietnam War to Chernobyl and the Gulf War are inextricably linked with the history of television. In 1999, during the Kosovo crisis, it is clear that such a displacement has occurred once more and readers are turning to the Internet for a news experience that has the immediacy of broadcast forms as well as more depth – it allows them to scan a range of primary sources for themselves. (Hall, 2001:26)
The origins of the Internet, a word often shortened to Net and also known as cyberspace, can be traced as far back as 1957 when Russia launched Sputnik, the first 42
artificial satellite, which was to herald the beginning of the global communications era. Exponential growth in the use of the Internet started in the late 1980s with the launch by the National Science Foundation of NSFNET, a highspeed network which linked up five newly-established supercomputing centres and a series of regional networks, forming the basic, multi-layered structure of the Internet which was fully established in 1990 (Franklin et al, 2005: 116).
The news media were the third global professional sector, after the military complex and higher education and research, to go online. In a period of some 18 months in the mid- 1990s most national newspaper titles in the world and many regional and local titles produced web editions or went online to some extent. In some cases the transition radically affected the ways in which they produced news and, in the case of the American magazine Omnium, even allowed it to cease print publication for a period while it was restructured and yet apparently to retain the bulk of its circulation. (Hall, 2001:3). Online news mainly focuses on the written form rather than spoken since the people read the most information rather than hear it. Online news is a special form of print. Consumers use it in a different way from a newspaper or a book. The screen is quite a small frame; it uses pictures a great deal; it is brightly coloured; and it is constantly inviting to look at something else. Online news is written very sharply, very concisely, and very personally (Thompson, 2005: 149).
Nowadays, political news pervades in our life experiences over other news categories such as entertainment, sports, weather forecast. Online news adapts the written style rather than spoken.
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Chapter Four Data Analysis 4.0 Introduction Metaphors pervade in every part of our experiences with life. Evidence proves that Conceptual metaphors in English news reports play an important part in their pervasiveness. This chapter aims to conduct a cognitive semantic study of conceptual metaphors in English news reports from both online newspapers The Guardian and Washington Post. Firstly, the metaphors extracted from the online newspapers are identified, accumulated, and schematized according to Lakoff and Johnson's metaphor theory (1980). After the data collection, both the qualitative and quantitative methods are applied to the samples taken from the newspapers. The quantitative analysis identifies all the conceptual metaphors in the data and also their types. The qualitative analysis also tries to focus on exploring the cognitive nature of conceptual metaphors used in the data.
4.1 Quantitative analysis of conceptual metaphors From the output presented below, 172 conceptual metaphors can be tracked down from both The Guardian and Washington Post. Among the samples collected and analyzed then, we come across 14 widespread metaphors which pervade the English news reports. Consider the following table:
Conceptual Metaphors
Count
Percentage
SPATIAL
59
34.30 %
PERSONIFICATION
19
11.04 %
44
CAUSATION
14
8.13 %
TIME
13
7.55 %
CONTAINER
11
6.39 %
OBSTACLE
9
5.23 %
EXISTENCE
8
4.65 %
HUMAN
8
4.65 %
LINEAR SCALES
5
2.90 %
PSYCHOLOGICAL
4
2.32 %
TALK
4
2.32 %
AGREEMENT
4
2.32 %
IMPORTANCE
4
2.32 %
SUBSTANCE
4
2.32 %
Other metaphors
6
3.48 %
FORCES
Table.3 Types of conceptual metaphors used in the data From the Table.3, you can see that SPATIAL metaphors take up the largest proportion in the data in a way that 59 of the conceptual metaphors are spatial metaphors
which
make
34.30%
of
the
distribution.
Following
that
is
PERSONIFICATION metaphor, and 19 samples can be found which occupy 11.04 % of the data analysed. After that, the CAUSATION metaphors comprise 8.13% of the data which amounts to 14 expressions. Next, the TIME metaphors which contain 13 metaphorical expressions that calculate 7.55 % of the data. The metaphorical 45
expressions which include SPATIAL, PERSONIFICATION, CAUSATION, and TIME cover a wide range of the data compiled from the English news of political issues. This indicates that these conceptual metaphors are more pervasive comparing to others. They take in the first proportion of the data. The second widespread conceptual metaphors are CONTAINER, OBSTACLE, EXISTENCE, and HUMAN. The conceptual metaphors are distributed in a way that 11 for CONTAINER, 9 for OBSTACLE, 8 for EXISTENCE, and 8 for HUMAN in order. They take percentages 6.39%, %5.23, 4.65 %, and 4.65 % respectively. The lowest proportions of the conceptual metaphors amassed in the data are rightly assigned to LINEAR SCALE, PSYCHOLOGICAL FORCES, TALK, AGREEMENT, IMPORTANCE, and SUBSTANCE. The numbers 5, 4, 4, 4, and 4 represent the metaphorical expressions respectively. So do the percentages viz 2.90%, 2.32%, 2.32%, 2.32%, 2.32%, and 2.32%. There are some sporadic conceptual metaphors which can be found in the data such as RELATIONSHIP, REFORM, DEBATE, MOVEMENT, MISSION, and SIZE. Each of them has one conceptual metaphor in the data. This indicates that conceptual metaphor is pervasive in every aspect of speech even though they contribute a minor share to the data.
4.2 Qualitative analysis of conceptual metaphors 4.2.1 Spatial Metaphor Based on our interaction with life, we see that spatial metaphors are bipolar such as in-out, up-down, and centre-periphery works because they are coherent with each other. For example, HAPPY is coherent with UP, and SAD is coherent with DOWN.
I am feeling up. (HAPPY)
I am feeling down. (SAD)
The samples found in the data present these spatial metaphors (HIGH STATUS IS UP, LOW STATUS IS DOWN, MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN, RISING IS UP, and FALLING IS DOWN). 46
4.2.1.1 HIGH STATUS IS UP, LOW STATUS IS DOWN Source domain: up, down Target domain: high status, low status Cultural background of any society provides different ranking systems to people or things in its environment. It may classify its members according to occupation, socioeconomic position, gender, age, etc.; therefore, the power and authority differ from one to another. Someone from high status has more power than someone who is low in status. So, there are different ranking systems in society from the high system like the government to the lowest one like family such as father has the highest rank and then to the mother and the children. Other examples, the prime minister has power over the ministers in his administration. The same in a group, the leader has the power over the members. The examples below display the ranking system in society. 1. The Israeli prime minister’s surprising announcement that he will address a joint meeting of Congress in early March is straining relations between Israel and its closest ally (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 2. The White House on Thursday said that president Obama would not meet in Washington with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is in the midst of an election campaign. ―We want to avoid even the appearance of any kind interference with a democratic election,‖ said White House spokesman Josh Earnest (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 3. Darusman said that the U.N. commission of inquiry report, ―The Interview‖ and various online animations mocking the North Korean ―supreme leader‖ have combined to put new pressure on him and his regime (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 4. The mood is downbeat and sober compared to the tantalising hopes awakened in Vienna with the arrival of US secretary of state John Kerry to meet face-to-face with his Iranian counterpart, Mohammad Javad Zarif, accompanied by five other foreign ministers from major powers(The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 5. The defence secretary, Michael Fallon announced an additional deployment of British combat-ready troops numbering ―in the low hundreds‖ to help train local forces battling Isis forces, who control vast swathes of northern Syria and neighbouring Iraq (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). 47
6. ―We are surprised by the position of the Iraqi interior ministry in light of the fact [Dulaimi] said that she was married to Ibrahim al-Samarai, who is also known as Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi,‖ said a Lebanese security official (The Guardian, 3 December 2014). 7. Over the weekend, the head of Israeli intelligence also discussed the impact of new sanctions with a delegation of visiting U.S. senators (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 8. Exactly what Mossad chief Tamir Pardo said to the visiting American delegation was a subject of yet more argument on Thursday (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 9. Pardo, meanwhile, denied saying any such thing during a Jan. 19 meeting with the Americans. Instead, the Mossad director said he reiterated that ―firm pressure‖ was needed ―to bring about meaningful compromises from the Iranian side.‖ (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 10. ―In the overall picture, I think much hinges on the way the U.S. acts,‖ said Darusman, a former Indonesian attorney general. Taking a harder line against North Korea could ―stall or delay the process that needs to be put into place,‖ he said (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 11. Demonstrators stood one by one after Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. opened the day‘s session, raising their hands and shouting phrases such as ―Money is not speech‖ and ―One person, one vote.‖ (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 12. Gov. Steve Beshear (D) is term-limited. The field to replace him already includes state Attorney General Jack Conway (D), state Agriculture Commissioner James Comer (R) and self-funding former Louisville councilman Hal Heiner (R), among others (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 13. Scott Pruitt, Oklahoma’s attorney general, said Monday he was asking the U.S. Supreme Court to postpone three executions in his state that are scheduled over the next six weeks, with the first set for Thursday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 14. The brief will argue that "the public interest across the country is served clearly and overwhelmingly by implementing immigration reform by executive action," the 48
mayors said in a statement. They made the announcement at the U.S. Conference of Mayors, which is taking place in Washington (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 15. Senate Democrats stalled the Republican-led push to construct the Keystone XL Pipeline on Monday, dealing the first significant blow to the new Republican majority less than three weeks after being sworn in (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 16. Eight senators were absent from the vote, including Minority Leader Harry M. Reid (D-Nev.), who was recovering from eye surgery; Sen. Marco Rubio (R-Fla.), who is on a fundraising swing as he weighs a White House run; and Sen. John McCain (RAriz.), who was traveling to Saudi Arabia….(Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 17. House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) said during a news conference Thursday that it is "out of the ordinary" for a House speaker to invite a world leader to a joint session of Congress without consulting leadership from the other party (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 18. Grimes challenged now-Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R) in one of the highest-profile contests of 2014. McConnell won by about 15 percentage points. (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 19. The two-pronged push was launched from Rabia, on the border with Syria, and Zumar, on the shores of Mosul Dam Lake, said senior officers in the Kurdish army known as the peshmerga (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 20. Peshmerga forces launched an operation to liberate some important areas in Sinjar and Zumar at 7am (04.00 GMT),‖ a peshmerga brigadier general said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 21. ―The plan to liberate Sinjar was reviewed by the Kurdish leader and the peshmerga field commanders. God willing, we will liberate it soon,‖ Fuad Hussein said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 22. Since some laws, although almost exclusively applicable to England, have a knockon effect for Scotland as the junior economic partner in the union (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 23. The officials say air strikes since mid-November have killed senior and mid-level leaders as well as about 1,000 fighters, particularly around the fiercely contested 49
Kurdish town of Kobani on the Syrian-Turkish border (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 24. Graham Allen, the Labour chairman of the public administration select committee, also criticised the narrow scope of the Hague reforms, saying: ―The real debate is not about House of Commons procedure but about how local government can be the vehicle of devolution in England (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 25. ―We are ready, we are waiting for the advancing forces from Rabia and Zumar,‖ said Dawood Jundi, a field commander with the peshmerga (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). By paying attention to the above-mentioned examples, we find different levels of status in the corpus –at the level of the highest ranking system of the government then to the level of the ministers and then to the level of institutions and parties. In examples (1, 2, & 3), the status is at the top level of the government. The person who is in charge of this level has the power and authority over members below him. For example, the president has the power over any other officials who work in the governmental intuitions, and as well as the prime minister and supreme leader have over the officials below them. In examples (3, 4, 5,6,7,8 and 9), the ranks are at the level of the ministers. The US secretary of state John Kerry in his ministry is higher than the officials in his ministry; they are at Kerry's command, they obey his orders. But Kerry has a counterpart in another country outside of his country; the officials there are not at his command. His counterpart has the same power as Kerry over the people below his rank. The Mossad director of Israel, the Iraqi interior ministry, Lebanese security official, the head of Israeli intelligence, and the defense secretary all have the authority over their below officials. They have the ability to give orders and the people who are junior than them obey their orders and carry out their duties according to the instructions come with the command. In (10,11,12,13, and 14) Darusman, a former Indonesian attorney general, Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr., state Attorney General Jack Conway, self-funding former Louisville councilman Hal Heiner, Oklahoma’s attorney general, and the mayors all are in charge of the institutions belong to the government. All the employees working in those intuitions are under command of those heads, and they act according to the set of 51
instructions or rules. They are from lower status. In examples (15, 16, 18 and 24) senate Democrats, Minority Leader, House Minority Leader Nancy, the Labour chairman of the public administration, Senate and Majority Leader are responsible for the affairs of their parties, the head of these parties lead and manage the issues related to the affairs inside the party. The members are required to comply with regulations of their parties. If not, they are given to sack. In the rest of the examples, senior officers in the Kurdish army, the Kurdish leader and the peshmerga field commanders, peshmerga brigadier general etc. are shown. These commanders of the army especially the legal army related to government. The soldiers are strictly complied with the orders of their commanders, they cannot disobey in no way to their commands; otherwise they are imprisoned and/or faced heavy fines. In examples (17 and 22) given above such as junior economic partner and House Minority Leader, we conceive that both have low status comparing to their rival opponents. According to Longman dictionary 2009, The House Minority Leader is the president of a political party in congress that has fewer politicians than the leading party. Majority leader is the person who organizes the members of the political party that has the most people elected, in the US House of Representatives or Senate. Here, the Minority Leader has less power than the majority leader due to the position they have in the House of Representatives. In the example of the junior economic partner is a partner who has less authority comparing to a partner who is senior. From those examples, we reach two points that firstly, someone from a high position has an authority and high status while someone from a low position has less power and authority and is required to comply with instructions. Secondly, high status is coherent with being up, and low status corresponds with being down. 51
4.2.1.2 MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN These two metaphors in the examples show two things, one is verticality and the other is quantity. Both have a coherent relationship with each other. When the quantity of a material increases, it usually goes upward, while decreasing, it is downward.
Figure.6 MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN
26. But more protesters were scattered among the spectators who had waited in line to view the court‘s proceedings (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 27. Such a move, Obama has said, would cause the delicate talks with Iran to fail and increase the likelihood of armed conflict (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 28. Internationalisation face losing their jobs by the end of the decade as part of George Osborne‘s plans to shrink the size of the state, according to a Labour analysis of figures compiled by the House of Commons library (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 29. On Labour‘s analysis, if the Met had to cut its budget by £100m in 2016-7, it would have to trim police numbers by 1,298 if it relied on officer headcount reductions alone to achieve that level of saving. If the same level of saving was required for each of the four years, 194 posts could be at risk (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). In the example of (26), there will be seen that more protesters take more the size of an area and their number rises up. In example (27), the likelihood of armed conflict will rise up when the quantity is increased. But when it is decreased, it is falling down as in the case of examples of (28 & 29) shown. When the size of the state is shrunk, it will 52
become smaller. And when the headcount is reduced, it will have low numbers then.
4.2.1.3 FALLING IS DOWN, RISING IS UP Source domain: down Target domain: falling Falling is usually down oriented. The direction is downward. This is what we really see in the world around us, this is what we experience in life. Falling is coherent with down orientation. Consider the followings: 30. However, the French proposal is seen by Palestinians as falling far short of their demands (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 31. A Pentagon spokesman, Rear Admiral John Kirby, said the deaths had degraded its ―command and control current operations‖ (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 32. In August, the terror threat level in Britain was raised from ―substantial‖ to ―severe,‖ (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). In example (30), the Palestinians set a level for their demands; they want the demands to reach that level, but the French proposal does not go up so as to reach the level, but from Palestinians' angle, it is falling down. In (31), the deaths decreased the level of the operations. The operations were at a level, but due to the deaths they went down. In (32), the level threat goes upward from substantial to severe. Through three examples from above, we reach a point that falling is coherent with down orientation—it does not go to the opposite extreme, and rising is coherent with up orientation.
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4.2.2 Personification Metaphor Personification is to see nonhuman as human beings. For example, the conceptualization of physical objects as humans as it is seen in the example (33) 33. Cameras are not allowed in the courtroom (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). Cameras are comprehended as humans mapping the properties of human beings onto the physical objects "cameras". When people are not allowed to enter a building or a governmental place because they are special places and are only for very specific people for instance, prison buildings are not free for everyone to enter. Here, cameras are treated in the same way for not being allowed to enter the courtroom. Personification metaphor has various types in both newspapers The Guardian and The Washington Post.
4.2.2.1 COUNTRIES ARE LEADERS Leaders: source domain Countries: target domain Human beings have the feature of leading a group of people; they can lead them to anywhere they want. So, when this feature is mapped onto a nonhuman place, it plays the same role as humans do as in the example (34) 34. But Republicans have challenged the actions, calling them unconstitutional. The lawsuit from 25 states, led by Texas, argues that the "unilateral suspension of the Nation‘s immigration laws is unlawful." (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). Here, Texas plays the role of humans as it leads the lawsuit of the state. The feature of leading by humans has been transferred to Texas by a systematic process, in other words, mapping.
4.2.2.2 INSTITUTIONS ARE SPEAKERS Speakers: source domain Institutions: target domain 54
Buildings become humans when the property of speaking is attached to the building especially governmental ones such as office, the white house, and library. These buildings become people, and even they answer and ask questions as seen in the below examples: 35. House Speaker John A. Boehner invited the Israeli leader to speak to Congress amid a heated debate over whether new sanctions, to be imposed if talks fail, would scuttle tenuous negotiations with Iran over its nuclear program (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
36. The White House on Thursday said that President Obama would not meet in Washington with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is in the midst of an election campaign. ―We want to avoid even the appearance of any kind interference with a democratic election,‖ said White House spokesman Josh Earnest (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
37. The Guardian reported that the Met needed to find an extra £800m of cuts in the next budget period, from 2016-2020 (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). In example (35), Congress is comprehended as humans that can listen to someone to whom they hear. Congress takes the feature of listening from human beings. The Israeli leader is invited to speak to congress as if it were human that can listen or respond. The same in examples (36 and 37), The White House says something or delivers a speech and it gives a report about Obama just like humans report on occasions, so this feature is mapped onto the governmental institution—The White House. The guardian is regarded as a reporter that reports on events happened somewhere.
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4.2.2.3 INSTITUTIONS ARE DECISION-MAKERS Decision-makers: source domain Institutions: target domain Decision-making is the feature of human beings, and it does not belong to any creatures or inanimate being in the world because decision-making relates to logic, and this logic is only the distinctive feature of human beings who are distinguished from any other creature in this universe. In the examples below institutions are presented to make decisions on various occasions: 38. It is not the first time spectators have shouted objections to the court’s Citizens United decision, and courtroom security was increased last year after someone took and posted online video of a bit of an oral argument (Washington Post, 21 January 2015).
39. Scott Pruitt, Oklahoma‘s attorney general, said Monday he was asking the U.S. Supreme Court to postpone three executions in his state that are scheduled over the next six weeks, with the first set for Thursday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 40. Last week, the court announced it would hear arguments over Oklahoma‘s procedures for lethal injections in response to a petition filed by the three inmates the state intends to execute. The justices are going to consider whether the protocol used by Oklahoma violates the constitutional ban on cruel and unusual punishment (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 41. Pruitt said he was asking for a stay until the court issues a ruling or until the state’s Department of Corrections can obtain a drug to use in executions other than the sedative midazolam, which is at the center of concerns about the injection procedure. (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 56
42. While the Senate was in session, the House canceled its Monday votes, citing a blizzard bearing down on the Northeast (Washington Post, 26 January 2015).
In example (38), the court, which is a governmental institution, made a decision about citizens, but the spectators raised the objections to the court's decision. Here, even the spectators treat the court as a human that can respond to the reactions of the opposite people, and it can hear the arguments to have its say on the current situations that has to give as in (39). The court has the ability to take actions to do something as it is seen in the examples of (40) that can postpone the decision of three decisions of executing three prisoners, and in (41) the court brings attentions to reaching a decision on the execution and in (42) the house performed the cancelling Monday votes. In the above examples the characteristics of humans are mapped onto the institutions receiving the properties such as making decisions, postponing executing prisoners, and cancelling a process.
4.2.2.4 PLACES ARE PSYCHOLOGICALLY AFFECTED Psychologically affected: source domain Places: target domain Places, like humans, involve psychological effects when facing difficult situations. They are worried about how to deal with a sudden a situation the same as humans when they want to decide to do something; they are hesitant and afraid to face a bad result. 43. North Korea was so worried that Kim would be personally named in the ICC referral that it offered Darusman an opportunity to visit North Korea if the leader‘s name was left out of the resolution. Pyongyang had previously declined to extend such an invitation. Darusman, who has never been to North Korea, rejected the offer (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 57
44. China has faced Western-backed provocations from neighboring countries over disputes in the East and South China seas (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). 45. China says Japan and the Philippines in particular are being encouraged by the United States to take more assertive stances in their territorial disputes with Beijing (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). 46. The Commons library is impartial and does not endorse individual party policies. It carries out research on behalf of MPs, including frontbenchers (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 47. The US is using Turkish bases for intelligence-gathering purposes but Ankara remains reluctant to allow its bases to be used for launching bombing sorties (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). By paying attention to the above the examples, we comprehend that places, like humans, are psychologically influenced by the environment in which they exist. Psychological states are human nature. Humans become angry, sad, happy or they feel disappointed, etc. these features are mapped onto the places to place the humans' role. In example (43), North Korea was worried; it was psychologically affected with the situation exits. In (44), China involves a situation which is unpleasant that makes China feels upset and angry. In (45), both countries Japan and the Philippines have positive feelings because they are encouraged by the United States, so they are in good mood like humans when they are acknowledged for what they have done, they feel good. In (46 and 47), both the Commons Library and Ankara have negative feelings—they feel reluctant and impartial because of the condition in which they undergo.
4.2.2.5 PLACES ARE PRISONERS Source domain: prisoners Target domain: places Places are viewed as prisoners that can be released or liberated, captured or recaptured. Humans are put into prison due to a decision made by a judge because that person from the perspective of law in that area has committed a crime; therefore she/he 58
captured by police and then sent to prison, or that person may be captured by a group of people out of the law in the area or the state, and the government try to release them by force. In the below example, places face the same situation as humans do. 48. Peshmerga forces launched an operation to liberate some important areas in Sinjar and Zumar at 7am (04.00 GMT),‖ a peshmerga brigadier general said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 49. Yazidi fighting units that were formed in the wake of the August attack have struggled to control land in the Sinjar area and retreated to the mountain once again in September (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 50. Iraqi Kurdish forces launched a broad offensive on Wednesday aimed at recapturing areas near the Syrian border that have been held by Islamic State (Isis) for months, officials said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 51. A senior US official said Isis had suffered particularly high casualties as a result of its determination to capture Kobani, sending many fighters to the border town, where they could easily be targeted by US planes (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). In example (48), peshmerga forces are prepared to free the areas from ISIS's control because ISIS has already captured these areas. The rest of the examples are the same, ISIS has taken control of the areas namely Sinjar, Kobani, and other areas. The Kurdish forces try to recapture those lands that are under that group's control. Here, these examples signal that features of humans are mapped onto the places.
4.2.2 Causation Metaphor Causation is the process in which the participants are conceptualized as different kinds of involving forces in a way that the agent acts on the patient in different ways such as change of state, causing to move, etc. here are the list of causation metaphors discovered in the data:
4.2.2.1 CAUSES ARE FORCES Forces have the quality of changing things or states from one state into another. 59
Causes, in the same way, have the same feature onto which they are mapped. Accidents happen due to various motivators around them from different sides and push them into a state that is often unpleasant or discouraging as in the following examples: 52. Such a move, Obama has said, would cause the delicate talks with Iran to fail and increase the likelihood of armed conflict (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 53. Complicating the issue are several factors, not least the fact that Israel is at the beginning of a prolonged election campaign that diplomats believe will lead to a hardening of Netanyahu‘s position (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). In example (52), the move is a factor to inject the delicate talks into a negative state which is failure condition and resulting in bad situation. In (53), hardening of Netanyahu‘s position is the result of the prolonged election campaign, both the factor and the result are interlinked. One cannot be done without the other.
4.2.2.2 CAUSED CHANGE IS FORCED MOTION Source Domain: motion, control Target Domain: cause, causation, change Causation metaphors to change the state of someone or something are like to move them into a place that is unfamiliar with and sometimes is unpleasant because it is inappropriate. In the following example, we see these situations that humans or things engage in. 54. Kerry told reporters on Wednesday that the Israeli intelligence chief had made an impassioned case against new sanctions, saying that they would be akin to ―throwing a grenade into the process.‖ Such a position would have put him [Pardo] at odds with his prime minister (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 55. The first protester caused the most disruption, as court police knocked over chairs in an attempt to reach her and drag her from the chamber (Washington Post, 21 January 2015).
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56. ―The head of the Mossad emphasized in the meeting the extraordinary effectiveness of the sanctions against Iran, for a number of years, in bringing Iran to the negotiating table (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 57. Internationalisation of the issue – several European countries have taken symbolic votes recognising a Palestinian state – has pushed some to speculate that the Washington is more open to engaging in talks about security council intervention (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 58. Among the goals is the Sinjar area, which was home to many members of the Yazidi minority before Isis attacked in early August and forced most of them to flee (The Guardian, 17 December 2014).
59. It was partly the plight of the Yazidi people that forced Barack Obama and the international community into action against Isis (The Guardian, 21 December 2014). 60. The latest victories for peshmerga forces and the recapture of northern Mount Sinjar have brought new hopes to the Yazidis who are still stuck on the mountain and want to go back to their villages (The Guardian, 21 December 2014). In example (54), the position took the Israeli intelligence chief, Tamir Pardo, from his own condition into another as if he were held with hands and moved into a different place. Here, the causation adopts the qualities of transferring someone from a position to another, and it forces the entity to leave the place in which they exist. In (55), the police dragged and pulled the first protester from her chamber into a place the police want. Here, the police make her to leave her place and settle in another position. In (56), the sanctions on Iran are a factor to force Iran from the stable situation into a different condition. In (57), the factor is the Internationalisation of the issue has pushed some European countries to chew over the issue of recognizing the Palestinian state. In this case, the cause is the moving the people from being a psychological condition into another. The change is in mental state of the humans. In (58), ISIS, which is a militant group, is making the Yazidi people leave their places and settle far away from the involved areas. They were forced to keep away from their homeland. In (59), the difficult situation in which Yazidi peole live push Obama to react to what happened to them and perform a ground operation against ISIS. The situation, in this case, pushes Obama reaction from a mental state into another. In (60), the latest victories brought 61
new hopes to Yazidis. Here. The new hopes are regarded as substances taken to some people, so they are held in hands and handed to some people. The cause moves the hopes brought from somewhere and given to some people somewhere else. The factor is the cause to move and change the place. We see in the above examples two points: one is concerned with physical movement from one place to another. The other point is concerned with movement is from a mental state into another.
4.2.2.3 CAUSES ARE MAKERS Source Domain: makers, inventors, creators Target Domain: causes In some condition, causes create situations like a person who invents new things out of the materials available at hand; they can use them and create different shapes out of them they want. Causes can do the same as humans; they can create different situations from different factors. Let's consider to the examples below: 61. The debate over the sanctions has already provoked a rare intervention from British Prime Minister David Cameron, who last week lobbied U.S. lawmakers to forgo any new punitive measures against Tehran (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 62. Pardo, meanwhile, denied saying any such thing during a Jan. 19 meeting with the Americans. Instead, the Mossad director said he reiterated that ―firm pressure‖ was needed ―to bring about meaningful compromises from the Iranian side.‖ (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 63. "Delaying implementation of the President‘s executive action will further hurt our families, negatively impact our economies, and create unnecessary insecurity in our communities,‖ de Blasio said in a statement (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 64. Downing Street dismissed Hogan-Howe‘s call for a reduction in the number of police forces, prompting fears that cuts will have to be introduced in other ways (The Guardian, 22 December 2014).
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In example (61), the debate, which is a factor, stimulates the intervention and create a situation for Tehran. In (62), firm pressure is could be used to make meaningful compromises appear when it is activated and put to use. In (63) Delaying implementation of the President‘s executive action will result in a situation which is considered to be unnecessary insecurity their communities. In (64), the call to reduce in the number of police forces bring about fears among people. Fears result from the factor. Before the reduction, there was no fear, but now fear is spread among the people. Here, psychologically causes do create new situation. In the above examples, we come to a point that causes like human can create new situation that have not been existed before. 4.2.2.4 CAUSES ARE SUBSTANCES Source Domain: SUBSTANCES Target Domain: CAUSES At this time, causes are treated like substances that can be put and take to somewhere so that a state the factor wants can happen or come to view as seen in the examples below: 65. Speaking ahead of his trip to meet Kerry in Rome, Netanyahu said: ―We will not accept attempts to impose unilateral measures upon us by a set date, at a time when radical Islam is spreading throughout the world.‖ (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). In example (65), Netanyahu in his speech says that he will not accept anything that is put upon them. Here the factor is regarded as a substance that is put on somebody or somewhere. The features of substance are mapped onto the factor.
4.2.3 Time Metaphor The concept of time is viewed in different ways according to the observer. The observer sees the time from different angles. The observer conceptualizes time in four versions as explained in the following with examples:
4.2.3.1 TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT Source domain: A MOVING OBJECT Target domain: TIME 63
The concept of time is considered to be a moving object with reference to the observer whose state is the present. In Figure.22A, events leave the future and the observer. But in Figure.22B, events leave the past on the way towards the observer. Consider the examples from (93) to (97):
Figure.7 A TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT (leaving the observer) (Evans, 2013:4)
Figure.7 B TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT (towards the observer) (ibid.)
66. The peshmerga had already recaptured three small villages, the officer added (The Guardian, 17 December 2014).
In the above example, time of recapturing is stationary and the observer is leaving behind the event happened in the past. 67. The Palestinian president, Mahmoud Abbas, is pushing for a vote in the United Nations Security Council – as early as Wednesday – on a resolution calling for a deadline to end the 47-year-long Israeli occupation (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 68. Earlier this month, the Guardian reported that the Met needed to find an extra £800m of cuts in the next budget period, from 2016-2020 (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 69. That report has come in for some scrutiny in recent days, however, since Shin Dong-hyuk, a star witness before the commission, admitted that there were some inaccuracies in his testimony (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 64
70. Oklahoma‘s new policy involves a higher dose of midazolam, matching the amount that Florida has used since 2013 (Washington Post, 26 January 2015).
In the examples (67 and 68), the occurrence of events shown in a way that one has happened sooner than the other as in earlier in which one event was prior to others visà-vis the observer's state. In the example (69), the event in recent days happened in the nearest point to the observer. In the example (70), the time of the event has a starting point lasting to the time of the state in which the observer exits.
4.2.3.2TIME IS A SURFACE Time: target domain Surface: source domain Time, here, is presented as a landscape or a surface on which moving objects walk or fly as it is depicted in Fig.24 In this case the prepositions like (on and over) play this role. 71. The White House on Thursday said that President Obama would not meet in Washington with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is in the midst of an election campaign. ―We want to avoid even the appearance of any kind interference with a democratic election,‖ said White House spokesman Josh Earnest (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
72. Over the weekend, the head of Israeli intelligence also discussed the impact of new sanctions with a delegation of visiting U.S. senators (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
In the examples (71 and 72), Thursday and the weekend are coceptualized as a ground. On states the condition of the starting point of the meeting in on Thursday. Over signals the duration that lasts along the weekend.
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4.2.3.3 TIME IS A PATH Time: target domain Path: source domain The concept of time is viewed as a passage or a path that events move along it either from the past to the future or the other way round as it is seen 73. The officials say air strikes since mid-November have killed senior and mid-level leaders as well as about 1,000 fighters, particularly around the fiercely contested Kurdish town of Kobani on the Syrian-Turkish border (The Guardian, 19 December 2014).
74. Internationalisation face losing their jobs by the end of the decade as part of George Osborne‘s plans to shrink the size of the state, according to a Labour analysis of figures compiled by the House of Commons library (The Guardian, 22 December 2014).
In the example (73), the killing occurred in the middle of the month November in which November is depicted as a path and the observer saw the event moving until it reaches the middle of the path then it occurred. In example (74), here the event took place when it arrived at the end of the path.
Figure.8 TIME IS A PATH
4.2.3.4 TIME IS A CONTAINER Time: target domain Container: source domain Time is conceptualized as a bounded object having the capacity of taking hold of things that we put in and take out, and the prepositions like (in, to, into) play this role in container metaphors as it is shown in the following figure: 66
Figure.9 TIME IS A CONTAINER
75. The Israeli prime minister‘s surprising announcement that he will address a joint meeting of Congress in early March is straining relations between Israel and its closest ally (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 76. In August, the terror threat level in Britain was raised from ―substantial‖ to ―severe," (Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
In the examples (75 and 76), the time (March and August) are regarded as bottles or pots and the events characterized as being objects that we put into the bottle.
4.2.3.5 TIME IS A DESTINATION Time: target domain Destination: source domain In (77), Tuesday is presented as destination in example (104) because the duration of the event lasts until a point in the future which is Tuesday. That is to say, Tuesday is the line on which the event continues to exist. 77. The filing deadline is Tuesday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015).
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Figure.10 TIME IS A DESTINATION
4.2.3.6 TIME IS SUBSTANCE Time: target domain Substance: source domain Time is conceptualized as substance. The substance can be shaped in a way the user wants to, that user can reshape or extend it so that the area of the substance could be enlarged or produce many different shapes from this substance. Here, time could be extended like substance as in example (105) 78. The deadline was extended until the beginning of July 2015, with the aim of agreeing over a framework deal by March 1(The Guardian, 15 December 2014). The end of the time appointed is extended just like the substance enlarged.
4.2.4 Container metaphor Container metaphor is the concept which is considered as a bounded region that has in-out dimension. Here, there are two patterns of the container schema. First, when an item is in the container, and when an item is outside the container. Second, when the item moves to the inside of the container, and when the item goes out from the container.
Figure.11A Container metaphor (Static version)
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Figure.11B Container metaphor (Dynamic version)
4.2.4.1 PLACES ARE CONTAINERS Containers: source domain Places: target domain Places are conceptualized as containers—as having an in-out orientation. They are bounded region that things go in and go out from them or things are put in them. The prepositions such as (to and into) represent motion to the container while the prepositions such as in, inside, within, etc. represent the state of being in the container and outside and excluding represent the state of being outside the container. Look into the following examples: 79. TOKYO — Direct criticism of Kim Jong Un — whether through Hollywood films or international reports — has hit ―a raw nerve‖ in Pyongyang and should be continued, says the United Nations‘ special rapporteur on human rights in North Korea (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 80. Since then, the continued devolution of further powers to Scotland and Wales has increased the call for matching devolution within England (The Guardian, 16 December 2014).
81. At the same time, US advisers are operating alongside Iraqi trainers in Anbar province, helping train and organise Sunni tribesmen into regular units to confront Isis (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 82. If this kind of ridicule seeps into North Korea, it could become lethal for the regime, he said (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 69
83. Yim had fled into the forest near the border with North Korea but was captured following a failed suicide attempt (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). Examples of (79, 80 and 81) signal the state of being in the container resulting from the using prepositions like in and within. In (79), North Korea is conceptualized as a container having the ability to hold objects. In (80), England is the container for holding the call for matching devolution in the space of the bounded region which is England. US advisers' operation alongside Iraqi trainers occurs in the bounded region—Anbar as in (81). So Anbar is recognized as a container to hold the operation. In (82 and 83), the containers are the goal to which other objects move. They are outside the container. They are on the way to go inside them. In (82), North Korea is the conceptualized container into which the ridicule, like water, flow. In (83), the container is the forest. It is regarded as a bounded region into which Yim fled.
4.2.4.2 FORCES ARE CONATINERS Containers: source domain Forces: target domain 84. This time, the Iraqi government will seek to absorb the Sunni units into the national security forces (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 85. At the same time, US advisers are operating alongside Iraqi trainers in Anbar province, helping train and organise Sunni tribesmen into regular units to confront Isis (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 86. Fallon said details of the contribution to an international mission were still being finalised but would likely include a small contingent of combat-ready British soldiers at four US-led ―safe‖ centres, one in Kurdistan and three near the Iraqi capital Baghdad (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). In examples (84 and 85), the national security forces and regular units are containers to the sunni units and regular units move. They flow into the forces as if they are considered to be bowls and pots into which liquid materials, like stream, flow. In (86), details of the contribution are viewed as containers, and the small contingent of combatready British soldiers is inside this container. Here, the state of the forces is static, and they are part of the other materials available in the container. 71
4.2.4.3 PRODUCTS ARE CONTAINERS Containers: source domain Products: target domain 87. TOKYO — Direct criticism of Kim Jong Un — whether through Hollywood films or international reports — has hit ―a raw nerve‖ in Pyongyang and should be continued, says the United Nations‘ special rapporteur on human rights in North Korea (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). In example (87), the produced materials, here, are conceptualized as bounded regions through that things can go and move. They are considered as a hollow space –things go in and go out. Hollywood films or international reports are seen as containers, and the criticism of Kim Jong Un, as a moving object, go either through Hollywood films or international reports.
4.2.4.4 VOTE IS A CONTAINER Containers: source domain Vote: target domain 88. The most radical of the three options involves non-English MPs being excluded from all votes of an English-only nature, including the budget (The Guardian, 16 December 2014).
All votes, in example (88), are seen containers that things could be put in and taken out from them. Non-English MPs are considered as objects that are taken out from the container into the exterior side of the container—they are out outside the container.
4.2.4.5 PROCESS IS A CONTAINER Containers: source domain Process: target domain 71
89. Kerry told reporters on Wednesday that the Israeli intelligence chief had made an impassioned case against new sanctions, saying that they would be akin to ―throwing a grenade into the process.‖ Such a position would have put him at odds with his prime minister (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). The process in example (89) is viewed as a container. The grenade is viewed as a light moving object that could be thrown into a container. The process is the container into which the object thrown. Here, the container is an empty bounded hollow space into which the materials are put or thrown.
4.2.5 OBSTACLES TO ACTION ARE OBSTACLES TO MOTION Source Domain: motion Target Domain: obstacles Moving objects on the road face obstacles that make them get in the way of their moving forward. People face difficulties in life as well, but they have to remove and overcome these things they encounter. So the qualities of obstacles facing the moving objects are mapped onto the difficulties encountering the people in life. Consider the following examples: 90. About half a dozen protesters disrupted the solemn proceedings of the Supreme Court on Wednesday morning on the fifth anniversary of the court‘s controversial decision that cleared the way for greater corporate and union spending in election campaigns (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 91. Netanyahu is expected to offer up a harder-line view, supported by many Republicans and some Democrats, that the threat of more sanctions is needed to blunt Iran’s ambitions to build a nuclear weapon (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 92. But Republicans have challenged the actions, calling them unconstitutional. The lawsuit from 25 states, led by Texas, argues that the "unilateral suspension of the Nation‘s immigration laws is unlawful." (Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
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93. But Monday‘s vote was more a speed bump than a roadblock; both parties are expected to continue hashing out their differences on the bill (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 94. The vote fell mostly along party lines. While a handful of centrist Democrats crossed over to vote with the GOP, others withheld their support in protest against Republican leaders, who they say unfairly ended consideration of proposed amendments last week (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 95. President Obama has said he will veto the bill if it gets to his desk. But now, it‘s unclear how soon it could reach him, as both parties must continue negotiating in order to advance the bill (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 96. If Republicans aren’t able to move forward on the bill by the end of the week, it could put the GOP push to construct the pipeline in serious jeopardy (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 97. The House passed a similar but less sweeping Keystone bill earlier this month. That bill passed with less than two-thirds support, meaning Democrats probably have the votes to prevent Republicans from overriding a presidential veto, should the bill make it to Obama‘s desk (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 98. While the Senate was in session, the House canceled its Monday votes, citing a blizzard bearing down on the Northeast (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). In example (90), the protesters, as obstacles, prevented the progress made by the court, by disrupting the proceedings of the Supreme Court. In (91), the sanctions become hindrance to Iran's ambitions to go forward. They make them move forward slowly and lag behind the point to which Iran want to reach. In (92), the Republicans pose the challenges to the actions by 25 states—the lawsuit. The Republicans suspend the decision to be made by 25 states. Here the Republicans become obstacles to the 25 states' law on immigration. In (93), Monday's vote is viewed as an obstacle to the continuing discussion of the differences among the parties. It is a speed bump put across the path to keep the situation move forward slowly. In (94), some of the republicans hinder the amendments put forward by the other groups and ended the consideration, that's to say, they become barriers that get in the way of the consideration of the proposed amendments. In (95), President Obama will veto and obstructs in advancing the bill, he is going to block the road if the situation goes in this way. Here Obama receives the features of obstacles in advancing a project. In (96), Republicans aren’t 73
able to move forward on the bill by the end of the week, they are cooped up with the situation in which they are found. The situation, here, is the barrier and doesn‘t let them go. They are trapped. In (97), Democrats' votes prevent Republicans from overriding a presidential veto. The Republicans' attempt to override the presidential veto comes to halt due to Democrats' votes. The votes are roadblocks to the attempt by the Republicans. i.e., they do not let them continue on their attempt. In (98), the House as an institution becomes obstacle so that the votes will not work. By considering the examples above, we conceptualize the entities whether they are abstract or concrete, they become obstacles in moving forward the projects or any other suggestions. That's the way we face in life. This schema is at work in seeing life is a journey. In life, there are so many obstacles as we see in journeys.
Figure.12 OBSTACLES TO ACTION ARE OBSTACLES TO MOTION
4.2.6 EXISTENCE METAPHOR 4.2.6.1 MAINTAINING EXISTENCE IS MAINTAINING LOCATION UP HERE Maintaining location: source domain Maintaining existence: target domain To keep an object stay existent needs to exist in a place, it calls for a strong prop to hold it and to stand still. Look at the following examples 99. It [The group 99Rise] asked for support for the ―Supreme Court 7.‖ (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 100.
We continue to stand by his testimony (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 74
101.
The mayors of Atlanta, Baltimore, Chicago, Houston, Denver and San Francisco
also joined the brief in support of Obama's actions. So far 28 mayors in all have signed on (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). In example (99), the Supreme Court requires the public or any group to support it to keep carrying out its duty and stay independent and keep away from any intervention outside law. In (100), to continue to stand by his testimony is to make the testimony stay as it is. Here the existence of the testimony is the goal to which they try to achieve and continue. In (101), the mayors are in an attempt to support Obama's actions. Actions are the goal for them to keep their existence. The examples above imply that maintaining the existence of something is treated as an object putting somewhere and trying to protect its existence in its own shape and style. Let it be as it is, preventing to let it fall down.
4.2.6.2 EXISTENCE IS AN OBJECT Object: source domain Existence: target domain When something come out of something else or is made of something, then it has existence. It is seen as an object. Existence is shown and treated as an object. It is true that we make objects out of the materials available to us. Here some examples to disambiguate the matter: 102.
They [the mayors] made the announcement at the U.S. Conference of Mayors,
which is taking place in Washington (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 103.
―This is a new thing, spotlighting the leadership and ridiculing the leadership. In
any authoritarian, totalitarian system, that is an Achilles heel,‖ Darusman said in an interview in Tokyo, where he held talks with the government on an investigation into North Korea‘s abductions of Japanese citizens (Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
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104.
Obama announced in November that he would use his executive powers to
protect as many as 4 million illegal immigrants from deportation and make other changes to border control policies designed to focus federal resources on violent and repeat criminals (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). In example (102), the mayors made the announcement. They brought it into existence as if the announcement is an object. Now it is existent. The features of an object are transferred into the newly existent thing which is the announcement. In (103), the new thing is viewed as a newly made object. It did not exist before— it is new. In (104), the abstract noun power is considered to be an object that can be used for many different purposes. Here it is used for protecting as many as 4 million illegal immigrants from deportation. To put it in a nutshell, the existence and emergence of any abstract concept is treated as an object that can be made, used, etc.
4.2.6.3 EXISTENCE IS VISIBILITY Visibility: source domain Existence: target domain Existence is regarded as a visible thing that comes into sight when it appears. Ideas, situation s, accidents, etc. have the same condition. Lets' regard the following samples: 105.
She said most of the disrupted plots appeared to be inspired or directed by
terrorism overseas (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 106.
But Grimes emerged as one of the standout fundraisers of the midterms, stirring
talk that she might seek a run for Kentucky's open governor's seat in 2015 (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). In example (105), the disrupted plots come into view and existence; therefore they are inspired and directed by terrorism overseas. In (106), Grimes's existence in the occasion is measured as his appearance in the situation. So his emergence as one of the standout fundraisers of the midterms is conceptualized as his existence. His existence is the visible matter to have his say. 76
4.2.7 HUMAN METAPHOR From the data, we see that the human body is conceptualized as entities that support to stand firm like buildings. The human body is likened to rivers, substances, and plants. The features of these source domains are mapped onto the humans. Consider the following:
4.2.7.1 PEOPLE ARE BUILDINGS Buildings: source domain People: target domain Buildings are well structured in order that their parts will be connected to one another and stand firm. Buildings have walls, roofs, and pillars which are the backbones of the house, and there are some other parts to support the house, and so the people. They will become the prop and support for things. Sometimes, things will be support for them. Consider the following samples: 107.
―The entire state structure has disintegrated in Anbar province. The tribal
structure is not the same as when we were there … Even a prominent tribal sheikh can issue an edict and not everyone, not the teenagers, are going to listen.‖ (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 108.
I support decentralisation. This is centralisation in an English parliament of
83%.‖ (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 109.
Kurdish peshmerga forces backed by US-led air strikes pushed Islamic State
militants out of a large area around Mount Sinjar in northern Iraq, according to Kurdish officials (The Guardian, 21 December 2014).
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PEOPLE =target
BUILDING=source
Body
structure
Leg
Wall, support
Foot
foundation
back
pillar
Table.4 mappings for PEOPLE ARE BUILDINGS
4.2.7.2 PEOPLE ARE SUBSTANCES Substances: source domain People: target domain People are considered to be substances because they receive features from substances. Substances can be extended, thrown, boiled, scattered, removed from somewhere, etc. the same situations could be happened to people as seen in the following examples: 110.
But more protesters were scattered among the spectators who had waited in line
to view the court‘s proceedings (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 111. Netanyahu is expected to offer up a harder-line view, supported by many Republicans and some Democrats, that the threat of more sanctions is needed to blunt Iran‘s ambitions to build a nuclear weapon (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). In example (110), protesters are scattered and distributed like as the substances may be scattered on the ground or thrown somewhere. The scattering quality of a substance mapped onto the protesters. In (111), a harder-line view is supported by humans as if the humans are substances that are used to make something firm and fixed. This property of the materials is transferred to people to play the role of the substances. We see that the characteristics of the substances, which are typical of materials, can be transmitted from it to the people.
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People = target domain
Substance = source domain
separating
scattering
helping
supporting
Table.5 mappings for PEOPLE ARE SUBSTANCES
4.2.7.3 HUMANS ARE RIVERS Rivers: source domain Humans: target domain It is heard from the news that some parts of the world are covered with heavy rain pouring down resulting in serious damage to a large number of buildings, crops, cars, etc. humans take on the qualities of the rivers. Look at the followings: 112.
―They were committed to this and we could see fighters flooding in from Raqqa
and we saw that as an opportunity to attrit their manpower,‖ he said (The Guardian, 19 December 2014).
113.
The official said it was too soon to tell whether the rate of attrition among Isis
fighters had stemmed the flow of jihadi volunteers from abroad. The US is seeking to cut the flows from the home countries of the volunteers and at the main point of transit, the Turkish border (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). In examples (112 and 113), fighters, like river, flooding try to wear down their enemies and remove the obstacles so that they can move forward. Rivers when flooding remove the trashes, waste materials, houses, cars, etc from the place into which they flow. These features are mapped onto humans from source domain to the target domain. Humans = target domain
Rivers = source domain
Crowding, gathering
flooding
Walking
flowing
jumping
The tide going out
attacking
storming
Table.6 mappings for HUMANS ARE RIVERS
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4.2.7.4 HUMANS ARE PLANTS PLANTS: Source domain HUMANS: Target domain Plants have roots, branches, leaves, etc. they drink water. They grow and fall. They are cut down and rooted out by people or with violent storms. Humans are like that. Follow the example below 114.
―That means they [fighters] have got to be rooted out by ground troops. This has
to be done by an own-grown army, not by western groups.‖ (The Guardian, 13 December 2014).
In example (114), the fighters are rooted out, like plants. This feature of plants is mapped onto the humans. Humans grow up, are planted and rooted out. Both humans and plants have communal properties. Humans = target domain
Plants = source domain
hands
Leaves
Body, back
stem
foot
root
Table.7 mappings for HUMANS ARE PLANTS
4.2.8 LINEAR SCALES ARE PATHS Source Domain: paths Target Domain: scales, linear scales In this kind of conceptual metaphor, there is a linear road. It has beginning and middle and end. In this we are sometimes in a race with our rival to move forward and leave the others behind. These features of road are mapped onto the scales of life that with the others we are in a race. Pay attention to the following examples: 115.
But Republicans have challenged the actions, calling them unconstitutional. The
lawsuit from 25 states, led by Texas, argues that the "unilateral suspension of the Nation‘s immigration laws is unlawful." (Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
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116.
―We continue to stand by his testimony. The fact that he came out clarifying his
earlier statement and corrected his timelines of events does not in any way affect the integrity and neither credibility of the report nor the thrust of its recommendations,‖ Darusman told reporters in Tokyo earlier Friday (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 117.
The president said he acted after Congress failed to approve a comprehensive
immigration reform bill last summer (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 118.
Although China‘s military capabilities lag far behind those of the United States,
its defense spending is growing by double-digit percentages annually (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). 119.
―Overturn Citizens United,‖ one shouted, referring to the court‘s 2010 decision
in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. That, along with subsequent court rulings, has greatly expanded the amounts that individual and corporate interests may spend on election campaigns (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). In example (115), Twenty-five states are going on a road. The states are led by Texas, so Texas is the leader of the states. It is ahead of them, and the others are behind the leader. In (116) earlier statement signals that there are some statements made by Darusman but the one he is clarifying is the earlier one. So the statements are ordered in sequence, but the one he means is before the specific one. They are in a linear scale ordered in sequence. In (116), the president's act is after congress's failure attempt. Here, the failure is a specific point and other incidents are viewed from the perspective of congress's failure; therefore the president's act is after the failure. In (118), China‘s military capabilities are taking part in a race against those of United States. Those of China's are behind those of US. They are late in competing with the opponent. In (119), there are court rulings, the court's decision in 2010 is nearly at the end of the series of rulings issued by the court. Here, the rulings are regarded as a path, and the court‘s 2010 decision is expanded along this road in a linear level on the road. It is located in the succeeding rulings of the court. From the examples above we deduce that we conceptualize entities according to a line in which it has beginning and middle and end. We specify a point in the line, and we see whether the entity is before or after the line. 81
Figure.13 LINEAR SCALES ARE PATHS
4.2.9 SUBSTANCE METAPHOR The items which are not basically material or substance, like abstract things, are conceptualized as substance. They take on the features of the substance as they are illustrated below:
4.2.9.1 CHANGE OF STATE IS CHANGE OF SHAPE Change of shape: source domain Change of state: target domain When a solid material changes into gas, the shape of the material changes then. For example, water. When it is heated, it evaporates and changes into gas. Or when it is poured into a glass, it picks up the shape of the glass. Consider the following 120.
Darusman, echoing Michael Kirby, the Australian judge who led the
commission, said Shin was just one of more than 200 witnesses who testified and that slight changes in his story did not dent the totality of the evidence that the commission had collected (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 121.
Although China has made no secret of its desire to expand its navy and add to its
sole aircraft carrier (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). In example (120), the totality of the evidence is dented and bent inwards, when dramatic changes happen to it. Thus the totality of the evidence depends on the factor that changes the shape. Hence, there is great coherence between the change of state and the change of shape. These properties are mapped from source domain onto target domain as a result. When things are expanded, their shapes are changed as in (121). The 82
structure of the navy is changed when expanded. Substances have, by definition, some features such as the ability to expand, enlarge, shorten, etc. these qualities are mapped onto the target domain—navy.Navy has the capacity to expand, here. It takes on the qualities of substance via mapping. Hence, the navy is likened to substance.
4.2.9.2 ACTIONS ARE ENTITIES Entities: source domain Actions: target domain Entities are the existing materials that can be counted, pressed down, broken, etc. some of the characteristics entities have can be mapped onto the actions. Consider the followings: 122.
Scott Pruitt, Oklahoma‘s attorney general, said Monday he was asking the U.S.
Supreme Court to postpone three executions in his state that are scheduled over the next six weeks, with the first set for Thursday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 123.
Senate Democrats stalled the Republican-led push to construct the Keystone XL
Pipeline on Monday, dealing the first significant blow to the new Republican majority less than three weeks after being sworn in (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). In example (122), three executions take on the features of entities. The executions have the quantity in number—three executions. They are similar to the entities being countable. In (123), the blow takes the number one comparing to other actions prepared to be carried out. It is number one. It is conceptualized as an entity as a result.
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Figure.14 ACTIONS ARE ENTITIES
4.2.10 TALK METAPHOR Talk represents different things in the examples discovered in the data. It is likened to various entities as it is explained below: 4.2.10.1 TALK IS A PROCESS PROCESS: source domain TALK: target domain Process is a string of events or actions connected to each other happening one after the other, and it gives rise to a particular result. It takes place across along a road. The process has beginning, middle, and end. It is sometimes static or nonstop. It depends on the way the process occurs in a particular situation. The process's features are mapped onto the talks. Consider the following examples: 124.
The talks have begun on a low key, without Kerry or Zarif or any of the other
foreign ministers for the time being (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 125.
As the International Crisis Group points out in its comprehensive assessment of
the talks, Iran Nuclear Talks: The Fog Recedes, this was an essential procedural short-cut that was agreed at the end of the Vienna talks (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 126.
―The French are talking about a timeframe for a conclusion of peace talks (The
Guardian, 15 December 2014). In example (124), the talks have begun on a small event—it is still at the beginning of a process. In (125), the talks are at the end of the process. They are taking the final steps of the process, and they are about to finish. In (126), the talks are at the end of the 84
process recapping the whole story of the peace process, and they are drawing the conclusion of the process. In a nutshell, the process has some features which are mapped onto the talks. The talks take on these qualities that can be applied in different activities.
4.2.10.2 TALK IS A BRITTLE OBJECT A brittle object: source domain Talk: target domain Brittle objects are easily damaged and broken down. They need to be well looked after lest they can break down. For the talks the same could happen. Consider the example below: 127.
Such a move, Obama has said, would cause the delicate talks with Iran to fail
and increase the likelihood of armed conflict (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). The talks between US and Iran are likely become worse. They are about to come a standpoint; therefore, their talks are delicate, they are shaky. The talks take on the features of the brittle object.
4.2.11 PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT FORCES ARE PHYSICAL IMPACT FORCES Psychological impact forces: source domain Physical impact forces: target domain One of the devices that opponents use is the psychological means which is put into use during the conflict provoked between them. For example, the superpowers hand out punishments to other countries resulting from the violation of international rules. Here, the characteristics of psychological impact are displayed as physical impact, i.e., as if they were physically harmed by using physical objects and having visible results consequently. Reflect on the following examples: 85
128.
Thomas said: ―George Osborne‘s plans for cuts in Metropolitan police funding
... would have a devastating impact on the quality of policing in London and be the final death knell for high visibility, bobby-on-the-beat local policing.‖ (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 129.
A veto would upset Palestinians and perhaps some Arab allies frustrated by
years of diplomatic gridlock. Several are fighting alongside the US against the Islamic State (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 130.
But this also comes as the United States imposes more sanctions — with
possibly more to come — on North Korea as punishment for its alleged hacking of Sony Pictures in retaliation for ―The Interview,‖ a movie revolving around a plot to assassinate Kim (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 131.
Darusman said that the U.N. commission of inquiry report, ―The Interview‖ and
various online animations mocking the North Korean ―supreme leader‖ has combined to put new pressure on him and his regime (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). In example (128), Osborne's plan is viewed as a big object that has the ability to devastate the quality of policing in London due to having the impact on the quality. In (129), the veto is regarded as a force to psychologically upset and annoy Palestinians. They consider the veto as a force which is going to return them to the first point. They again start negotiating with Israel. This result in wasting more time to declare the Palestinian independent state, but the problem is the veto by some countries which upset the Palestinians. In (130), the punishment on North Korea is conceptualized as a physical force that is shown this country if it does not comply with their demands. The sanctions are used as a punishment against North Korea for committing the network crime by hacking Sony Pictures. In (131), the pressures are seen as a physical force against North Korea's illegal activities, and it is used as an object that is put on North Korea to prevent it from committing any illegal reactions. From the above example, we can perceive that psychological forces are used in a way that has physical results.
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4.2.12 IMPORTANCE IS PRECEDENCE Precedence: source domain Importance: target domain
Everything is almost, in life, ordered according to importance, i.e., the most important things take priority over the less ones and so on. Look at the following samples: 132.
―The first duty of any government is the safety and security of its citizens(The
Guardian, 22 December 2014). 133.
But more important than the people is the process. This time the talks have
quickly entered their most effective forum, bilateral encounters between the Americans and the Iranians(The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 134.
Labour believes reducing police numbers would be a dangerous process. Under
the A19 procedures, which are designed to protect their independence, police officers can only be removed for disciplinary reasons. The only way to do it is to require officers with at least three decades of experience to retire. This means that officers with experience would have to be targeted (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 135.
He also suggested that a key element of the UK contribution would be passing
on the experience gained during previous operations in Iraq – the last British troops to withdraw from the country left as recently as May 2011(The Guardian, 13 December 2014). In example (132), the safety and security of its citizens are the most important duties of the government to fulfill at first. They are taken high priorities. They need more attention over others. In (133), the process takes precedence over the other issues for being important for both the Americans and the Iranians in bringing closer the two sides. In (134), three decades of experience to retire is the inevitable requirement for the police officers to be removed from their jobs. So it is the minimum level to fulfill the decision. In (135), passing on the experience gained during previous operations in Iraq is the key element of the UK contribution. Passing on the experience is the overriding priority. It is taken into consideration while the other issues lagged behind. 87
4.2.13 AGREEMENT IS A JOURNEY Journey: source domain Agreement: target domain Journeys have some features that are mapped onto target domain, agreement. In journeys, we encounter obstacles, difficulties, long paths, being tired, etc. In journeys; we want to get a point. We have a goal. The agreement takes on these features. Consider the followings: 136.
Now we know, more or less, the scale and nature of the obstacles that prevented
them clinching an agreement (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 137.
After failing to reach agreement in Vienna by a November 24 deadline after
nine months of negotiations, diplomats are sitting down in Geneva today to try to keep the momentum for a nuclear deal going (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 138.
It was expected that the major sticking points would be the scale of Iran‘s
uranium enrichment capacity and the pace of sanctions relief (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 139.
He is to put forward a range of different proposals, reflecting the inability of the
parties to come to an agreement (The Guardian, 23 December 2014). In example (136), the agreement faces obstacles which do not let it make progress. In (137), to reach agreement is like to reach a goal that you are going to move towards it. Here, the agreement does not achieve the goal, it fails. That is a difficulty facing the agreement in its movement to go forward. In (138), sticking points are the major problems and difficulties on which the sides are not agreed. They prevent the sides from coming to an agreement. In (139), the agreement is conceptualized as a goal in the journey which the parties are not able to reach. That is the way we encounter in journeys, we sometimes cannot get the place we want to go due to some difficulties. We see through the above examples that agreement is conceptualized as journeys. In journeys, we have a goal, and we sometimes face difficulties preventing us from reaching the goal. So does the agreement. The properties are mapped onto the agreement.
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Agreement = target domain
Journey = source domain
negotiators
travellers
Disagreement, quarrel
obstacles
conclusion
destination
Table.8 Mappings for 4.2.13 AGREEMENT IS A JOURNEY
4.2.14 Other conceptual metaphors In the data collected from the online newspapers, it can be found some conceptual metaphors participate in low numbers. Each of them play one part in the data as it is described in below samples:
4.2.14.1 THE RELATIONSHIP IS A HEAVY OBJECT A heavy object: source domain The relationship: target domain Relationships are conceptualized in different ways. Here, it is viewed as a heavy object that is firm and fixed which is difficult to lift, push or remove from somewhere. Consider the examples below: 140.
―The bilateral relationship is unshakable,‖ said a source close to Kerry. ―But
playing politics with that relationship could blunt Secretary Kerry‘s enthusiasm for being Israel‘s primary defender.‖ (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). In (140), the relationship is considered as a heavy object. It is unshakable, it cannot be lifted because it is difficult to move—it needs much energy and strength. Here the relationship has the same condition as a heavy object does. The relationship is in the state of being firm and steady between the two sides. They have a good relationship with each other. So the relationship takes on the features of the heavy object. In the second example, the bilateral relationship could be under threat resulting from being played with politics. The relationship is likened to a heavy object that could blunt and make the point of other objects less sharp. Here, the relationship is blunting
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Secretary Kerry‘s enthusiasm for being Israel‘s primary defender. From the cases above the relationships being unshakable and blunting are realized that the analogy is drawn between the relationship and a heavy object both could be steady, firm, and hard to be pressed down easily.
4.2.14.2 REFORMS ARE PATHS Paths: source domain Reforms: target domain Paths usually have a beginning, middle, and an end. Paths pick up different shapes such as wide, narrow, steep, high, and low. Paths sometimes are rocky, muddy, etc. Some of these qualifications can be mapped onto the reforms. Reflect on the following sample: 141.
Graham Allen, the Labour chairman of the public administration select
committee, also criticised the narrow scope of the Hague reforms, saying: ―The real debate is not about House of Commons procedure but about how local government can be the vehicle of devolution in England (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). In example (168), the Hague reforms have the narrow scope that does not let the system in the parliament be improved and made changes. Here the road is narrow. It is too difficult to go across carrying a heavy bag, for example. The condition applies to the reforms. Making changes becomes a difficult task when the reforms have a narrow scope.
4.2.14.3 DEBATE IS HOT FLUID Hot fluid: source domain Debate: target domain Fluid is an entity that has the ability to be heated, boiled, evaporated, and melted when it is solid. Consider the following example: 142.
House Speaker John A. Boehner invited the Israeli leader to speak to Congress
amid a heated debate over whether new sanctions, to be imposed if talks fail, would
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scuttle tenuous negotiations with Iran over its nuclear program(Washington Post, 22 January 2015). In (142), the debated is realized as a fluid which becomes heated as fire is used to make it hot. The debate is heated when different people who have different attitudes over discussing issues to offer good solutions to problems facing their government. Different viewpoints are put forward from several angles with which they interact each other, and then the debate among them is heated, like fluid. So, the properties of the fluid are mapped onto the debate.
4.2.14.4 MOVEMENT IS A STRUCTURE Entities: source domain Actions: target domain Buildings are structured in a way that its different parts are strictly organized and ordered, and it is built with blocks so that every part of the wall can be connected to one another firmly lest they may collapse and have tragic consequences. Consider the following example: 143.
The group 99Rise, which said on its Web site that it is “building a nationwide
movement to get big money out of American politics through nonviolent action,‖ said it was responsible for the protests (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). Here, in the example above the movement to get big money is realized as the structure a building which is going to build. The properties of structure are mapped onto the source domain, i.e., the substance. The movement should be fixed and stable in order that it can confront unpleasant conditions which may happen.
4.2.14.5 MISSIONS ARE SWEEPERS Sweepers: source domain Missions: target domain
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Sweepers clean places off the marks, dirt, unnecessary materials, trashes, and anything which are not used any longer, and they are thrown away. When a road is blocked off with a fallen tree preventing people from crossing it, people try to remove the obstacle to let them go. Mission plays the same role. Consider the following: 144.
For months the US airforce and RAF planes have been heavily involved in air
strikes and reconnaissance missions across Iraq that are credited with helping slow the advance of Isis fighters and have now paved the way for ground operations(The Guardian, 13 December 2014). In example (144), air strikes and reconnaissance missions across Iraq are sweepers. They remove the ground from the advance of Isis fighters so that the ground will be ready to carry out the ground operations. The missions are paving the way from the Isis fighters. Here, both the missions and sweepers share some features such as removing, cleaning, brushing, etc. the features from the sweepers are mapped onto the missions.
4.2.14.6 PLACES ARE SIZES Sizes: source domain Places: target domain Sizes have various shapes such as middle, small, big, large, etc. So do places which they bear resemblances to sizes. Consider the following: 145.
A group of big-city mayors led by New York's Bill de Blasio and Los Angeles's
Eric Garcetti announced plans (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). In example (145), the city is conceptualized as shapes having big size—the big city. The city features of sizes. Here, we reach a point that two different things can be likened to one another due to having the features of mapping between them.
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4.3 Results Discussion The study ends up with the following findings: 1. The spatial metaphor controls the largest distribution of the data by 59 which makes 34.3 %of the total data. This may be due to the fact that humans lead most of their life experiencing space and locations. For example, moving from place to place, travelling, driving, etc. humans move more frequently rather than think. 2. The researcher believes that human interaction with their fellow human beings is so recurrent and widespread that personification metaphors come second only to the spatial category because human beings are, by nature, social creatures who find it hard to lead an isolated life particularly nowadays in the age of communication. 3. Causation metaphor comes third in the category. This is for the reason that human beings conceptualize political issues in terms of wars, change of state, creating, and substance associating with organizing physical and cultural realities. 4. Temporal metaphors occupy the fourth type in the category. This may result from the fact that time is not of much importance to the politicians. 5. Container metaphors come next in the table. This results from that human beings are physical beings that are covered with skins leading to being kept apart from the rest of the world, and other beings are viewed as containers. Moving from house to house is container coming out into another. In the data, places, forces, products, processes, and votes are seen as containers having in-out orientations. 6. Obstacles, existence, and human metaphors share somehow similarities among the news reports resulting from the way we construe the frequency of the events taking place around us. They take an average level in the table.
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Chapter Five Conclusions and Suggestions for Further Studies 5.1 Conclusions This chapter presents the conclusions of the study on conceptual metaphors in English news reports. It has reached these conclusions: 1. Conceptual metaphors are pervasive in political news reports, be they from Britain or the United States' newspapers. 2. Some conceptual metaphors are more frequent than the others such as SPATIAL,
PERSONIFICATION,
and
TEMPORAL
metaphors
respectively. 3. Some properties of the source domain can be mapped onto the target domain, highlighting some features and hiding some others. 4. Metaphors,
other
than
SPATIAL,
PERSONIFICATION,
and
TEMPORAL, take up the low level, and they are less frequent comparing with the other metaphors. This is for the reason that human beings have more access to the object items located in their immediate environment. The more they can contact with them, the more they can experience with them. This demonstrates that these metaphors are less close to being involved human beings.
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5.2 Suggestions for Further Studies Conceptual metaphor is a new theory in cognitive linguistics, specifically in cognitive semantics. Aspects of conceptual metaphors can be applied to numerous languages in different areas of study; therefore, the following suggestions are put forward: 1. A Semantic Study of Conceptual Metaphors in English and Kurdish News Reports. 2. Conceptual Metaphors In Kurdish Advertisements 3. Weather Forecast Conceptual Metaphors: A Cognitive Semantic Study 4. English And Kurdish Conceptual Metaphors In Economic News Headlines 5. Metaphors in English Sports Commentary: A Cognitive Semantic Study.
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Appendix 1: The Guardian Samples HIGH STATUS IS UP, LOW STATUS IS DOWN 1. Peshmerga forces launched an operation to liberate some important areas in Sinjar and Zumar at 7am (04.00 GMT),‖ a peshmerga brigadier general said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 2. ―The plan to liberate Sinjar was reviewed by the Kurdish leader and the peshmerga field commanders. God willing, we will liberate it soon,‖ Fuad Hussein said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 3. Since some laws, although almost exclusively applicable to England, have a knockon effect for Scotland as the junior economic partner in the union (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 4. The officials say air strikes since mid-November have killed senior and mid-level leaders as well as about 1,000 fighters, particularly around the fiercely contested Kurdish town of Kobani on the Syrian-Turkish border (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 5. Graham Allen, the Labour chairman of the public administration select committee, also criticised the narrow scope of the Hague reforms, saying: ―The real debate is not about House of Commons procedure but about how local government can be the vehicle of devolution in England….(The Guardian, 16 December 2014).cddsss 6. ―We are ready, we are waiting for the advancing forces from Rabia and Zumar,‖ said Dawood Jundi, a field commander with the peshmerga (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN 7. Internationalisation face losing their jobs by the end of the decade as part of George Osborne‘s plans to shrink the size of the state, according to a Labour analysis of figures compiled by the House of Commons library (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 8. On Labour‘s analysis, if the Met had to cut its budget by £100m in 2016-7, it would have to trim police numbers by 1,298 if it relied on officer headcount reductions alone to achieve that level of saving. If the same level of saving was required for each of the four years, 194 posts could be at risk (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 113
9. Kerry‘s sudden involvement in talks around the resolution is being seen as an attempt to manage a process the US fears could raise already high tensions and in which according to one quoted official it sees only ―bad scenarios‖ (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 10. If there are fewer police, they will have to rely on people phoning as a result of an emergency rather than getting access to that intelligence (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 11. The majority of those trapped on the mountain fled when Kurdish forces opened a corridor but, four months on, little has improved for those who are still on the mountain (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 12. Last month General Martin Dempsey, the most senior officer in the US military, revealed that the US is actively considering the direct use of troops against Isis in Iraq, days after Barack Obama doubled troop levels there (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). 13. Fallon revealed that the RAF had flown a ―huge number‖ of missions above Iraq second to the United States and five times as many as France (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). 14. Thousands of UK police officers The Labour MP Graham Allen said the esca,lation represented exactly the kind of mission creep opponents of the initial engagement had feared and suggested MPs be asked again to give their approval (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). 15. Specifically excluded from the Commons motion approving action to Iraq (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). 16. While Labour hides from reform because it hopes its Scottish MPs will ensure it retains an overall Commons majority (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 17. Internationalisation face losing their jobs by the end of the decade as part of George Osborne‘s plans to shrink the size of the state, according to a Labour analysis of figures compiled by the House of Commons library (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 18. On Labour‘s analysis, if the Met had to cut its budget by £100m in 2016-7, it would have to trim police numbers by 1,298 if it relied on officer headcount reductions alone to achieve that level of saving. If the same level of saving was required for
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each of the four years, 194 posts could be at risk (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 19. The experience in this parliament – in which we‘ve cut spending by 20% and crime has fallen by more than a fifth – shows that it‘s possible to do more with less.‖ (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 20. Kuwait has agreed to defer next year‘s Iraqi reparations payment dating to Saddam Hussein‘s 1991 invasion, which would reduce Baghdad‘s costs by $4.6bn, helping compensate for the slump in oil prices and allowing more to spend on building up loyalist forces to combat Isis (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 21. Labour boycotted the interparty talks largely because it wanted the issue discussed at greater length and in the round, including the implications for the future of the House of Lords (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 22. The US-led coalition air strikes, which began in early August, have intensified over the past 20 days after Kurdish ground forces began attacking Isis positions in Sinjar areas (The Guardian, 21 December 2014). 23. On Saturday night on Mount Sinjar, the air strikes continued non-stop for more than 12 hours on Isis positions, some of which were visible from the mountain top. Peshmerga fighters there told the The Guardian that the past two days had seen the most intensive bombing so far (The Guardian, 21 December 2014). 24. Kerry‘s sudden involvement in talks around the resolution is being seen as an attempt to manage a process the US fears could raise already high tensions and in which according to one quoted official it sees only ―bad scenarios‖ (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). FALLING IS DOWN, RISING IS UP 25. However, the French proposal is seen by Palestinians as falling far short of their demands (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 26. A Pentagon spokesman, Rear Admiral John Kirby, said the deaths had degraded its ―command and control current operations‖ (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). INSTITUTIONS ARE SPEAKERS 27. The Guardian reported that the Met needed to find an extra £800m of cuts in the next budget period, from 2016-2020 (The Guardian, 22 December 2014).
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PLACES ARE PSYCHOLOGICALLY AFFECTED 28. The Commons library is impartial and does not endorse individual party policies. It carries out research on behalf of MPs, including frontbenchers (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 29. The US is using Turkish bases for intelligence-gathering purposes but Ankara remains reluctant to allow its bases to be used for launching bombing sorties (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). PLACES ARE PRISONERS 30. Peshmerga forces launched an operation to liberate some important areas in Sinjar and Zumar at 7am (04.00 GMT),‖ a peshmerga brigadier general said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 31. Yazidi fighting units that were formed in the wake of the August attack have struggled to control land in the Sinjar area and retreated to the mountain once again in September (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 32. Iraqi Kurdish forces launched a broad offensive on Wednesday aimed at recapturing areas near the Syrian border that have been held by Islamic State (Isis) for months, officials said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 33. A senior US official said Isis had suffered particularly high casualties as a result of its determination to capture Kobani, sending many fighters to the border town, where they could easily be targeted by US planes (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 34. Peshmerga forces launched an operation to liberate some important areas in Sinjar and Zumar at 7am (04.00 GMT),‖ a peshmerga brigadier general said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014).
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35. Yazidi fighting units that were formed in the wake of the August attack have struggled to control land in the Sinjar area and retreated to the mountain once again in September (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 36. Iraqi Kurdish forces launched a broad offensive on Wednesday aimed at recapturing areas near the Syrian border that have been held by Islamic State (Isis) for months, officials said (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 37. A senior US official said Isis had suffered particularly high casualties as a result of its determination to capture Kobani, sending many fighters to the border town, where they could easily be targeted by US planes (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). CAUSES ARE FORCES 38. Complicating the issue are several factors, not least the fact that Israel is at the beginning of a prolonged election campaign that diplomats believe will lead to a hardening of Netanyahu‘s position (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). CAUSED CHANGE IS FORCED MOTION 39. Internationalisation of the issue – several European countries have taken symbolic votes recognising a Palestinian state – has pushed some to speculate that the Washington is more open to engaging in talks about security council intervention (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 40. Among the goals is the Sinjar area, which was home to many members of the Yazidi minority before Isis attacked in early August and forced most of them to flee (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 41. It was partly the plight of the Yazidi people that forced Barack Obama and the international community into action against Isis (The Guardian, 21 December 2014). 42. The latest victories for peshmerga forces and the recapture of northern Mount Sinjar have brought new hopes to the Yazidis who are still stuck on the mountain and want to go back to their villages (The Guardian, 21 December 2014).
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CAUSES ARE MAKERS 43. Downing Street dismissed Hogan-Howe‘s call for a reduction in the number of police forces, prompting fears that cuts will have to be introduced in other ways (The Guardian, 22 December 2014).
CAUSES ARE SUBSTANCES 44. Speaking ahead of his trip to meet Kerry in Rome, Netanyahu said: ―We will not accept attempts to impose unilateral measures upon us by a set date, at a time when radical Islam is spreading throughout the world.‖ (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT 45. The peshmerga had already recaptured three small villages, the officer added (The Guardian, 17 December 2014). 46. The Palestinian president, Mahmoud Abbas, is pushing for a vote in the United Nations Security Council – as early as Wednesday – on a resolution calling for a deadline to end the 47-year-long Israeli occupation (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 47. Earlier this month, the The Guardian reported that the Met needed to find an extra £800m of cuts in the next budget period, from 2016-2020 (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). TIME IS A PATH 48. The officials say air strikes since mid-November have killed senior and mid-level leaders as well as about 1,000 fighters, particularly around the fiercely contested Kurdish town of Kobani on the Syrian-Turkish border (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 49. Internationalisation face losing their jobs by the end of the decade as part of George Osborne‘s plans to shrink the size of the state, according to a Labour analysis of figures compiled by the House of Commons library (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 118
TIME IS SUBSTANCE 50. The deadline was extended until the beginning of July 2015, with the aim of agreeing a framework deal by March 1(The Guardian, 15 December 2014).
PLACES ARE CONTAINERS 51. Since then, the continued devolution of further powers to Scotland and Wales has increased the call for matching devolution within England (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 52. At the same time, US advisers are operating alongside Iraqi trainers in Anbar province, helping train and organise Sunni tribesmen into regular units to confront Isis (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). FORCES ARE CONATINERS 53. This time, the Iraqi government will seek to absorb the Sunni units into the national security forces (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 54. At the same time, US advisers are operating alongside Iraqi trainers in Anbar province, helping train and organise Sunni tribesmen into regular units to confront Isis (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 55. Fallon said details of the contribution to an international mission were still being finalised but would likely include a small contingent of combat-ready British soldiers at four US-led ―safe‖ centres, one in Kurdistan and three near the Iraqi capital Baghdad (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). VOTE IS A CONTAINER 56. The most radical of the three options involves non-English MPs being excluded from all votes of an English-only nature, including the budget (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). PEOPLE ARE BUILDINGS 57. ―The entire state structure has disintegrated in Anbar province. The tribal structure is not the same as when we were there … Even a prominent tribal sheikh can issue
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an edict and not everyone, not the teenagers, are going to listen.‖ (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 58. I support decentralisation. This is centralisation in an English parliament of 83%.‖ (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). 59. Kurdish peshmerga forces backed by US-led air strikes pushed Islamic State militants out of a large area around Mount Sinjar in northern Iraq, according to Kurdish officials (The Guardian, 21 December 2014).
HUMANS ARE RIVERS 60. ―They were committed to this and we could see fighters flooding in from Raqqa and we saw that as an opportunity to attrit their manpower,‖ he said (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). 61. The official said it was too soon to tell whether the rate of attrition among Isis fighters had stemmed the flow of jihadi volunteers from abroad. The US is seeking to cut the flows from the home countries of the volunteers and at the main point of transit, the Turkish border (The Guardian, 19 December 2014). HUMANS ARE PLANTS 62. ―That means they [fighters] have got to be rooted out by ground troops. This has to be done by an own-grown army, not by western groups.‖ (The Guardian, 13 December 2014). TALK IS A PROCESS 63. The talks have begun on a low key, without Kerry or Zarif or any of the other foreign ministers for the time being (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 64. As the International Crisis Group points out in its comprehensive assessment of the talks, Iran Nuclear Talks: The Fog Recedes, this was an essential procedural shortcut that was agreed at the end of the Vienna talks (The Guardian, 15 December 2014).
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65. ―The French are talking about a timeframe for a conclusion of peace talks (The Guardian, 15 December 2014). PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT FORCES ARE PHYSICAL IMPACT FORCES 66. Thomas said: ―George Osborne‘s plans for cuts in Metropolitan police funding ... would have a devastating impact on the quality of policing in London and be the final death knell for high visibility, bobby-on-the-beat local policing.‖ (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 67. A veto would upset Palestinians and perhaps some Arab allies frustrated by years of diplomatic gridlock. Several are fighting alongside the US against the Islamic State (The Guardian, 15 December 2014).
IMPORTANCE IS PRECEDENCE 68. ―The first duty of any government is the safety and security of its citizens(The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 69. But more important than the people is the process. This time the talks have quickly entered their most effective forum, bilateral encounters between the Americans and the Iranians(The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 70. Labour believes reducing police numbers would be a dangerous process. Under the A19 procedures, which are designed to protect their independence, police officers can only be removed for disciplinary reasons. The only way to do it is to require officers with at least three decades of experience to retire. This means that officers with experience would have to be targeted (The Guardian, 22 December 2014). 71. He also suggested that a key element of the UK contribution would be passing on the experience gained during previous operations in Iraq – the last British troops to withdraw from the country left as recently as May 2011(The Guardian, 13 December 2014). AGREEMENT IS A JOURNEY 72. Now we know, more or less, the scale and nature of the obstacles that prevented them clinching an agreement(The Guardian, 15 December 2014).
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73. After failing to reach agreement in Vienna by a November 24 deadline after nine months of negotiations, diplomats are sitting down in Geneva today to try to keep the momentum for a nuclear deal going(The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 74. It was expected that the major sticking points would be the scale of Iran‘s uranium enrichment capacity and the pace of sanctions relief(The Guardian, 15 December 2014). 75. He is to put forward a range of different proposals, reflecting the inability of the parties to come to an agreement (The Guardian, 23 December 2014). REFORMS ARE PATHS 76. Graham Allen, the Labour chairman of the public administration select committee, also criticised the narrow scope of the Hague reforms, saying: ―The real debate is not about House of Commons procedure but about how local government can be the vehicle of devolution in England…. (The Guardian, 16 December 2014). MISSIONS ARE SWEEPERS 77. For months the US airforce and RAF planes have been heavily involved in air strikes and reconnaissance missions across Iraq that are credited with helping slow the advance of Isis fighters and have now paved the way for ground operations (The Guardian, 13 December 2014).
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Appendix 2: The Washington Post Samples HIGH STATUS IS UP, LOW STATUS IS DOWN 1. The Israeli prime minister’s surprising announcement that he will address a joint meeting of Congress in early March is straining relations between Israel and its closest ally (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 2. The White House on Thursday said that president Obama would not meet in Washington with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is in the midst of an election campaign. ―We want to avoid even the appearance of any kind interference with a democratic election,‖ said White House spokesman Josh Earnest (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 3. Darusman said that the U.N. commission of inquiry report, ―The Interview‖ and various online animations mocking the North Korean ―supreme leader‖ have combined to put new pressure on him and his regime (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 4. Exactly what Mossad chief Tamir Pardo said to the visiting American delegation was a subject of yet more argument on Thursday (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 5. Pardo, meanwhile, denied saying any such thing during a Jan. 19 meeting with the Americans. Instead, the Mossad director said he reiterated that ―firm pressure‖ was needed ―to bring about meaningful compromises from the Iranian side.‖ (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 6. ―In the overall picture, I think much hinges on the way the U.S. acts,‖ said Darusman, a former Indonesian attorney general. Taking a harder line against North Korea could ―stall or delay the process that needs to be put into place,‖ he said (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 7. Demonstrators stood one by one after Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. opened the day‘s session, raising their hands and shouting phrases such as ―Money is not speech‖ and ―One person, one vote.‖ (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 8. Gov. Steve Beshear (D) is term-limited. The field to replace him already includes state Attorney General Jack Conway (D), state Agriculture Commissioner James 113
Comer (R) and self-funding former Louisville councilman Hal Heiner (R), among others (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 9. Scott Pruitt, Oklahoma’s attorney general, said Monday he was asking the U.S. Supreme Court to postpone three executions in his state that are scheduled over the next six weeks, with the first set for Thursday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 10. The brief will argue that "the public interest across the country is served clearly and overwhelmingly by implementing immigration reform by executive action," the mayors said in a statement. They made the announcement at the U.S. Conference of Mayors, which is taking place in Washington (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 11. Senate Democrats stalled the Republican-led push to construct the Keystone XL Pipeline on Monday, dealing the first significant blow to the new Republican majority less than three weeks after being sworn in (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 12. Eight senators were absent from the vote, including Minority Leader Harry M. Reid (D-Nev.), who was recovering from eye surgery; Sen. Marco Rubio (R-Fla.), who is on a fundraising swing as he weighs a White House run; and Sen. John McCain (RAriz.), who was traveling to Saudi Arabia….(Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 13. House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi (D-Calif.) said during a news conference Thursday that it is "out of the ordinary" for a House speaker to invite a world leader to a joint session of Congress without consulting leadership from the other party (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 14. Grimes challenged now-Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R) in one of the highest-profile contests of 2014. McConnell won by about 15 percentage points (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 15. The two-pronged push was launched from Rabia, on the border with Syria, and Zumar, on the shores of Mosul Dam Lake, said senior officers in the Kurdish army known as the peshmerga (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). MORE IS UP, LESS IS DOWN 16. But more protesters were scattered among the spectators who had waited in line to view the court‘s proceedings (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 114
17. Such a move, Obama has said, would cause the delicate talks with Iran to fail and increase the likelihood of armed conflict (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 18. The debate over the sanctions has already provoked a rare intervention from British Prime Minister David Cameron, who last week lobbied U.S. lawmakers to forgo any new punitive measures against Tehran (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 19. Shin has admitted that many of the places and timing of events in his account were wrong, and Harden is now working with him to correct the story(Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 20. "Delaying implementation of the President‘s executive action will further hurt our families, negatively impact our economies, and create unnecessary insecurity in our communities,‖ de Blasio said in a statement (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 21. Grimes challenged now-Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell (R) in one of the highest-profile contests of 2014. McConnell won by about 15 percentage points. (w6) 22. Counter-terrorism policing coordinator Helen Ball said Friday police have been running ―exceptionally high numbers of investigations, the likes of which we have not seen for many years.‖ (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 23. She said most of the disrupted plots appeared to be inspired or directed by terrorism overseas (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 24. Senate Democrats stalled the Republican-led push to construct the Keystone XL Pipeline on Monday, dealing the first significant blow to the new Republican majority less than three weeks after being sworn in (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 25. The measure fell short of attaining the 60 votes needed to proceed to final passage under Senate rules. Fifty-three senators voted to move to a final vote on the oil pipeline, which would run from Canada to the U.S. Gulf Coast, while 39 voted against it (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 26. The vote fell mostly along party lines. While a handful of centrist Democrats crossed over to vote with the GOP, others withheld their support in protest against 115
Republican leaders, who they say unfairly ended consideration of proposed amendments last week. (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 27. The House passed a similar but less sweeping Keystone bill earlier this month. That bill passed with less than two-thirds support, meaning Democrats probably have the votes to prevent Republicans from overriding a presidential veto, should the bill make it to Obama‘s desk (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 28. Although China‘s military capabilities lag far behind those of the United States, its defense spending is growing by double-digit percentages annually (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). FALLING IS DOWN, RISING IS UP 29. In August, the terror threat level in Britain was raised from ―substantial‖ to ―severe,‖ … (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). COUNTRIES ARE LEADERS 30 But Republicans have challenged the actions, calling them unconstitutional. The lawsuit from 25 states, led by Texas, argues that the "unilateral suspension of the Nation‘s immigration laws is unlawful." (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). INSTITUTIONS ARE SPEAKERS 30. House Speaker John A. Boehner invited the Israeli leader to speak to Congress amid a heated debate over whether new sanctions, to be imposed if talks fail, would scuttle tenuous negotiations with Iran over its nuclear program (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 31. The White House on Thursday said that President Obama would not meet in Washington with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is in the midst of an election campaign. ―We want to avoid even the appearance of any kind interference with a democratic election,‖ said White House spokesman Josh Earnest (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
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INSTITUTIONS ARE DECISION-MAKERS 32. It is not the first time spectators have shouted objections to the court’s Citizens United decision, and courtroom security was increased last year after someone took and posted online video of a bit of an oral argument (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 33. Scott Pruitt, Oklahoma‘s attorney general, said Monday he was asking the U.S. Supreme Court to postpone three executions in his state that are scheduled over the next six weeks, with the first set for Thursday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 34. Last week, the court announced it would hear arguments over Oklahoma‘s procedures for lethal injections in response to a petition filed by the three inmates the state intends to execute. The justices are going to consider whether the protocol used by Oklahoma violates the constitutional ban on cruel and unusual punishment (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 35. Pruitt said he was asking for a stay until the court issues a ruling or until the state’s Department of Corrections can obtain a drug to use in executions other than the sedative midazolam, which is at the center of concerns about the injection procedure. (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 36. While the Senate was in session, the House canceled its Monday votes, citing a blizzard bearing down on the Northeast (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). PLACES ARE PSYCHOLOGICALLY AFFECTED 37. China has faced Western-backed provocations from neighboring countries over disputes in the East and South China seas (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). 38. China says Japan and the Philippines in particular are being encouraged by the United States to take more assertive stances in their territorial disputes with Beijing (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). CAUSES ARE FORCES 39. Such a move, Obama has said, would cause the delicate talks with Iran to fail and increase the likelihood of armed conflict (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
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CAUSED CHANGE IS FORCED MOTION 40. The first protester caused the most disruption, as court police knocked over chairs in an attempt to reach her and drag her from the chamber (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 41. ―The head of the Mossad emphasized in the meeting the extraordinary effectiveness of the sanctions against Iran, for a number of years, in bringing Iran to the negotiating table (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). CAUSES ARE MAKERS 42. The debate over the sanctions has already provoked a rare intervention from British Prime Minister David Cameron, who last week lobbied U.S. lawmakers to forgo any new punitive measures against Tehran (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 43. Pardo, meanwhile, denied saying any such thing during a Jan. 19 meeting with the Americans. Instead, the Mossad director said he reiterated that ―firm pressure‖ was needed ―to bring about meaningful compromises from the Iranian side.‖ (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 44. "Delaying implementation of the President‘s executive action will further hurt our families, negatively impact our economies, and create unnecessary insecurity in our communities,‖ de Blasio said in a statement (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). TIME IS A MOVING OBJECT 45. That report has come in for some scrutiny in recent days, however, since Shin Dong-hyuk, a star witness before the commission, admitted that there were some inaccuracies in his testimony (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 46. Oklahoma‘s new policy involves a higher dose of midazolam, matching the amount that Florida has used since 2013 (Washington Post, 26 January 2015).
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TIME IS A SURFACE 47. The White House on Thursday said that President Obama would not meet in Washington with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who is in the midst of an election campaign. ―We want to avoid even the appearance of any kind interference with a democratic election,‖ said White House spokesman Josh Earnest (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 48. Over the weekend, the head of Israeli intelligence also discussed the impact of new sanctions with a delegation of visiting U.S. senators (Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
TIME IS A CONTAINER 49. The Israeli prime minister‘s surprising announcement that he will address a joint meeting of Congress in early March is straining relations between Israel and its closest ally (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 50. In August, the terror threat level in Britain was raised from ―substantial‖ to ―severe,‖ … (Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
TIME IS A DESTINATION 51. The filing deadline is Tuesday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). PLACES ARE CONTAINERS 52. TOKYO — Direct criticism of Kim Jong Un — whether through Hollywood films or international reports — has hit ―a raw nerve‖ in Pyongyang and should be continued, says the United Nations‘ special rapporteur on human rights in North Korea (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 53. If this kind of ridicule seeps into North Korea, it could become lethal for the regime, he said (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 54. Yim had fled into the forest near the border with North Korea but was captured following a failed suicide attempt (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). 119
PRODUCTS ARE CONTAINERS 55. TOKYO — Direct criticism of Kim Jong Un — whether through Hollywood films or international reports — has hit ―a raw nerve‖ in Pyongyang and should be continued, says the United Nations‘ special rapporteur on human rights in North Korea (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). PROCESS IS A CONTAINER 56. Kerry told reporters on Wednesday that the Israeli intelligence chief had made an impassioned case against new sanctions, saying that they would be akin to ―throwing a grenade into the process.‖ Such a position would have put him at odds with his prime minister (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). OBSTACLES TO ACTION ARE OBSTACLES TO MOTION 57. About half a dozen protesters disrupted the solemn proceedings of the Supreme Court on Wednesday morning on the fifth anniversary of the court‘s controversial decision that cleared the way for greater corporate and union spending in election campaigns (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 58. Netanyahu is expected to offer up a harder-line view, supported by many Republicans and some Democrats, that the threat of more sanctions is needed to blunt Iran’s ambitions to build a nuclear weapon (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). 59. But Republicans have challenged the actions, calling them unconstitutional. The lawsuit from 25 states, led by Texas, argues that the "unilateral suspension of the Nation‘s immigration laws is unlawful." (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 60. But Monday‘s vote was more a speed bump than a roadblock; both parties are expected to continue hashing out their differences on the bill (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 61. The vote fell mostly along party lines. While a handful of centrist Democrats crossed over to vote with the GOP, others withheld their support in protest against
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Republican leaders, who they say unfairly ended consideration of proposed amendments last week (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 62. President Obama has said he will veto the bill if it gets to his desk. But now, it‘s unclear how soon it could reach him, as both parties must continue negotiating in order to advance the bill (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 63. If Republicans aren’t able to move forward on the bill by the end of the week, it could put the GOP push to construct the pipeline in serious jeopardy (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 64. The House passed a similar but less sweeping Keystone bill earlier this month. That bill passed with less than two-thirds support, meaning Democrats probably have the votes to prevent Republicans from overriding a presidential veto, should the bill make it to Obama‘s desk (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 65. While the Senate was in session, the House canceled its Monday votes, citing a blizzard bearing down on the Northeast (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). MAINTAINING EXISTENCE IS MAINTAINING LOCATION UP HERE 66. It [The group 99Rise] asked for support for the ―Supreme Court 7.‖ (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 67. We continue to stand by his testimony (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 68. The mayors of Atlanta, Baltimore, Chicago, Houston, Denver and San Francisco also joined the brief in support of Obama's actions. So far 28 mayors in all have signed on (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). EXISTENCE IS AN OBJECT 69. They [the mayors] made the announcement at the U.S. Conference of Mayors, which is taking place in Washington (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 70. ―This is a new thing, spotlighting the leadership and ridiculing the leadership. In any authoritarian, totalitarian system, that is an Achilles heel,‖ Darusman said in an interview in Tokyo, where he held talks with the government on an investigation into North Korea‘s abductions of Japanese citizens (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 121
71. Obama announced in November that he would use his executive powers to protect as many as 4 million illegal immigrants from deportation and make other changes to border control policies designed to focus federal resources on violent and repeat criminals (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). EXISTENCE IS VISIBILITY 72. She said most of the disrupted plots appeared to be inspired or directed by terrorism overseas (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 73. But Grimes emerged as one of the standout fundraisers of the midterms, stirring talk that she might seek a run for Kentucky's open governor's seat in 2015 (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). PEOPLE ARE SUBSTANCES 74. But more protesters were scattered among the spectators who had waited in line to view the court‘s proceedings (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). 75. Netanyahu is expected to offer up a harder-line view, supported by many Republicans and some Democrats, that the threat of more sanctions is needed to blunt Iran‘s ambitions to build a nuclear weapon (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). LINEAR SCALES ARE PATHS 76. But Republicans have challenged the actions, calling them unconstitutional. The lawsuit from 25 states, led by Texas, argues that the "unilateral suspension of the Nation‘s immigration laws is unlawful." (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 77. ―We continue to stand by his testimony. The fact that he came out clarifying his earlier statement and corrected his timelines of events does not in any way affect the integrity and neither credibility of the report nor the thrust of its recommendations,‖ Darusman told reporters in Tokyo earlier Friday (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 78. The president said he acted after Congress failed to approve a comprehensive immigration reform bill last summer (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 122
79. Although China‘s military capabilities lag far behind those of the United States, its defense spending is growing by double-digit percentages annually (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). 80. ―Overturn Citizens United,‖ one shouted, referring to the court‘s 2010 decision in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission. That, along with subsequent court rulings, has greatly expanded the amounts that individual and corporate interests may spend on election campaigns (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). CHANGE OF STATE IS CHANGE OF SHAPE 81. Darusman, echoing Michael Kirby, the Australian judge who led the commission, said Shin was just one of more than 200 witnesses who testified and that slight changes in his story did not dent the totality of the evidence that the commission had collected (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 82. Although China has made no secret of its desire to expand its navy and add to its sole aircraft carrier (Washington Post, 2 February 2015). ACTIONS ARE ENTITIES 83. Scott Pruitt, Oklahoma‘s attorney general, said Monday he was asking the U.S. Supreme Court to postpone three executions in his state that are scheduled over the next six weeks, with the first set for Thursday (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). 84. Senate Democrats stalled the Republican-led push to construct the Keystone XL Pipeline on Monday, dealing the first significant blow to the new Republican majority less than three weeks after being sworn in (Washington Post, 26 January 2015). TALK IS A BRITTLE OBJECT 85. Such a move, Obama has said, would cause the delicate talks with Iran to fail and increase the likelihood of armed conflict (Washington Post, 22 January 2015).
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PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT FORCES ARE PHYSICAL IMPACT FORCES 86. But this also comes as the United States imposes more sanctions — with possibly more to come — on North Korea as punishment for its alleged hacking of Sony Pictures in retaliation for ―The Interview,‖ a movie revolving around a plot to assassinate Kim (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). 87. Darusman said that the U.N. commission of inquiry report, ―The Interview‖ and various online animations mocking the North Korean ―supreme leader‖ has combined to put new pressure on him and his regime (Washington Post, 23 January 2015). THE RELATIONSHIP IS A HEAVY OBJECT 88. ―The bilateral relationship is unshakable,‖ said a source close to Kerry. ―But playing politics with that relationship could blunt Secretary Kerry‘s enthusiasm for being Israel‘s primary defender.‖ (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). DEBATE IS A HOT FLUID 89. House Speaker John A. Boehner invited the Israeli leader to speak to Congress amid a heated debate over whether new sanctions, to be imposed if talks fail, would scuttle tenuous negotiations with Iran over its nuclear program (Washington Post, 22 January 2015). MOVEMENT IS A STRUCTURE 90. The group 99Rise, which said on its Web site that it is “building a nationwide movement to get big money out of American politics through nonviolent action,‖ said it was responsible for the protests (Washington Post, 21 January 2015). PLACES ARE SIZES A group of big-city mayors led by New York's Bill de Blasio and Los Angeles's Eric Garcetti announced plans ……(Washington Post, 23 January 2015).
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اخلالصة ِره السضالة حتت عٍىاُ ( دزاضة داللًة عَ التكازيس االخبازية االزلمًصية يف ضىء ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية) الدزاضة اضتخدً طسيكة عمي المػة االدزاكٌ ملفّىً االضتعازة يف جسيدتني عمى الصبكة االلكرتوًٌة العاملًة (االٌرتًٌت) يف (بسيطاًٌا) و (الىاليات املتخدة االوسيكًة) ،و ِىا جسيدتى (جازدياُ) و (واشٍطَ بىضت). ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية تعىد اىل ضٍة ( )0891عٍدوا ٌصس (جىزج اليكىف و وازك جىٌطَ) كتابا بعٍىاُ (االضتعازات التى سلًا بّا)ٌ .ظسية االضتعازة التصىزية عالقة بني دلالني تصىزيَ رلتمفني وِىا (دلاه املصدز) و ِى دلاه وعٍى واضح و (دلاه اهلدف) و ِى دلاه غاوض .وثال (اجلداه حسب)ٌ ،طتطًع أُ ٌفّي (اجلداه) و ِى دلاه (اهلدف) بطبب كمىة (احلسب) و ِى دلاه (املصدز) بطبب عىًمة تطىى (التخطًط). واملصكمة ٍِا ٌِ أُ ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية تىفس أفكا وتطعا اواً أٌظازٌا حتى ٌبخث عَ كًفًة اضتخداً المػة يف زؤية احلًاة و البًئة اليت ٌعًض فًّا،و خاصة يف اخلطابات الطًاضًة التى كثريا وا ٌىاجّّا. والػاية وَ ِره الدزاضة أُ تبخث بصكن حتمًمى يف إدزاك ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية يف التكازيس االخبازية الطًاضًة .وكًفًة اضتخداً الٍظسية يف التكازيس الطًاضًة اليت ٌصست يف اجلسيدتني املركىزتني ،وودى اٌعكاضّا فًّىا ،و وَ ٍِا ميثن البخث ذلاولة الجابةعمى االضئمة التالًة: .0وا ٌِ ودى اٌعكاس ٌظسية االضتعازة يف االخباز الطًاضًة يف اجلسائد االزلمًصية؟ .2وا ٌِ ابسش أٌىاع ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية املٍتصسة يف اجلسائد االزلمًصية؟ .3كًف تتعمل االضتعازة التصىزية بتجسبة حًاة االٌطاُ؟ و بٍاءً عمى ِره األضئمة تفرتض الدزاضة بأُ ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية وٍتصسة يف قصص االخباز الطًاضًة كىا ٌِ وىجىدة يف حًاتٍا الًىوًة ،و أُ بعض اٌىاعّا أكثس اٌتصازا وَ غريِا يف ممازضاتٍا الًىوًة ،و اُ وصدز ِره الٍظسية ٌِ جتسبة حًاتٍا البصسية. تىصمت الدزاضة اىل أُ ٌظسية االضتعازة املكاًٌة ٌِ أبسش االٌىاع املٍتصسة يف التكازيس ،وذلك ألُ جتسبة حًاة االٌطاُ تكىُ وع األوكٍة و الفضاءات اكثس وَ اى شىء اخس.
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حنوٍت اقيٌٍ موردستاُ وزارة اىتعيٌٍ اىعاىً واىبحث اىعيًَ جاٍعت اىسيٍَاٍّت فاميتً اىعيوً االّساٍّت سنوه اىيغاث قسٌ اىيغت االّنيٍسٌت
دزاضة داللًة عَ التكازيس االخبازية االزلمًصية يف ضىء ٌظسية االضتعازة التصىزية
رساىت ٍقدٍت اىى ٍجيس سنوه اىيغاث /فاميتً اىعيوً االّساٍّت فً جاٍعت اىسيٍَاٍّت مجسء ٍِ ٍتطيباث ٍّو درجت اىَاجستٍر فً اىيغت االّنيٍسٌت وعيٌ اىيغت ٍِ قبو اراً ماٍو ّوري
باشراف أ.ً.د .هوشْل فاروق جواد
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1436هـ
2715ك
ثــــوخـتــة ئةم نامةية بة ناوونيشانى (تويَريهةوةيةكى واتاناضييانةى خواشةى شةيهى لة زِاثؤزتة يةوالَى ئيهطميصيدا) تويَريهةوةيةكة ثةيسِةوى زِيَباشى (واتاناضيى يؤشةكى) دةكات بؤ خواشةى شةيهى لة دوو زِؤذنامةى ضةزي َيمَى ئيهتةزنيَت لة بةزيتانيا و ئةمسيكا ،ئةوانيش :زِؤذنامةى (طازديةى) و (واشهطنت ثؤضت)ى .بريؤكةى خواشةى شةيهى دةطةزِيَتةوة بؤ ضالَى ( )0891كاتيَك جؤزج لةيكؤف و مازك جؤنطو كتيَبيَكياى بمَاوكسدةوة بة ناوونيشانى (ئةو خواشانةى لةطةلَياندا دةذيو). خواشةى شةيهى ثةيوةندييةكة لة نيَواى دوو بوازى شةيهيدا ،ئةوانيش ( :بوازى شةيهى ضاوط) كة بوازي مانايةكى ئاشكساية و (بوازى شةيهى ئامانج)يش ناديازة .بؤ منوونة( :دةمةقالَىَ شةزِكسدنة) .ليَسةدا ئيَنة دةتوانني لة "دةمةقالَىَ" ،كة بوازى ئاماجنة ،تيَبطةيو بةيؤى وشةى "شةزِكسدى"ةوة ،كة بوازى ضاوطة ،بة يؤى كسدةيةكةوة كة ثيَيدةوتسيَت "نةخشاندى" .طسفتةكة ليَسةدا ئةوةية بريدؤشى خواشةى شةيهى ئاضؤيةكى بةزفساوانى خطتؤتة ثيَش ضاوماى
تا
بكؤلَيهةوة لةوةى كة شماى ضؤى بةكازدةييَهسيَت لة ويَهاكسدنى جيًاى و ئةو ذيهطةيةى تيَيدا دةذيو بةتايبةتى بابةتة ضياضييةكاى كة شؤزتسيو بةزكةوتةماى لةطةلَياندا يةية. مةبةضت لةم تويَريهةوةية ئةجنامدانى ليَكؤلَيهةوةيةكى شيكازييانةى يؤشةكيانةية بؤ خواشةى شةيهى لة زِاثؤزتة يةوالَة ضياضييةكاندا ،وة يةزوةيا ئةو زِاثؤزتانة لةو دوو زِؤذنامةيةدا ضؤى خواشةى شةيهى لة زِاثؤزتة ضياضييةكانياندا زِةنطدانةوةياى دةبيَت .يةزلةم زِوانطةيةوةية تويَريهةوةكة دةيةويَت وةلَامى ئةم ثسضيازانةى خوازةوةى دةضتبكةويَت : .0تا ض زِاددةيةك خواشةى شةيهى لة يةوالَة ضياضييةكانى زِؤذنامة ئيهطميصييةكاندا زِةنطى داوةتةوة ؟ .2بةزبمَاوتــسيو جـــؤزةكانى خواشةى شةيهى كامانةى كة لة زِؤذنامــة ئيهطميصييةكاندا بةزجةضتةبووى ؟ .3ضؤى خواشةى شةيهى ثةيوةندى بة ئةشموونى ذيانى مسؤظةوة يةية؟ لةضةز بهةماى ئةو ثسضيازانة ،تويَريهةوةكة طسميانةى ئةوة دةكات كة دةوتسيَت خواشةى شةيهى لة زِاثؤزت ى يةوالَة ضياضييةكاندا بةزبمَاوة يةزوةك ئةوةى لة طفتوطؤى ذيانى زِؤذانةماندا يةية ،وة يةزوةيا يةنديَك جؤزياى لةوانى تس بةزبمَاوتسى .يةموو جؤزةكانى خواشةى شةيهى لة ئةشموونى ذيانى زِؤذانةمانةوة ضةزضاوةياى طستووى. تويَريهةوةكة بة ضةند دةزةجناميَك طةيشتووة لةوانة :خواشةى شةيهيى مةودا بةزبمَاوتسيو جؤزيانة كة لة زِاثؤزت ة يةوالَييةكاندا بةزضاودةكةوى و ئةمةش بةيؤى ئةشموونكسدنى مسؤظة لةطةلَ شويَو و بؤشاييدا.
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حلومةتى هةريَمى كوردصتان وةسارةتى خويَهدنى باهَا و تويَذيهةوةى سانضتى سانلؤى صويَمانى فاكةهَتى سانضتة مزؤظايةتييةكان صلوهَى سمان بةشى سمانى ئيهطويشى تويَريهةوةيةكى واتاناضييانةى خواشةى شةيهى لة زِاثؤزتة يةوالَى ئيهطميصيدا
نامةيةكة خويَهدكار ئارام كاميى نورى
ثيَشلةشى ئةجنومةنى صلوهَى سمان /فاكةهَتى سانضتة مزؤظايةتييةكان هة سانلؤى صويَمانى كزدووة وةن بةشيَم هة ثيَداويضتييةكانى بةدةصتويَهانى ثوةى ماصتةر هة سمانى ئيهطويشى و سانضتى سماندا
بةصةرثةرشتى ث.ى.د .هؤشةنط فاروق جةواد
2015ساييهى
1436كؤضى
2715كوردى
