CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR): CREATING VENUES FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL STEWARDSHIP Angela Grace Toledo-Bruno1,*, Eva N. Mendoza2 and Alisa M. Cabacungan3 ABSTRACT With the expansion of agri-industries, the ecosystem services of Bukidnon are at risk. However, agri-industries can create venues to conserve biodiversity and, at the same time, promote environmental stewardship of communities. This exploratory study seeks to understand Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of agri-industrial companies in Bukidnon, specifically focusing on biodiversity and natural resources conservation and environmental stewardship. Output of the study revealed that environmental programs are separated from the CSR program. Environmental programs include forest protection, natural resources conservation, sanitation and health and compliance to legal mandates and international certifications. However, environmental concerns raised by communities also relate to social concerns on livelihood, health and, wellbeing. Thus, CSR should be re-directed toward developing mechanisms that promote environmental stewardship, particularly on biodiversity and natural resources conservation, to respond to social concerns. Institutionalized partnership among companies, communities and LGUs should be able to provide inclusive, greater accountability and responsibility for environmental management through the CSR program. Keywords: corporate social responsibility, biodiversity conservation, environmental stewardship

1,*

Assistant Professor IV, Department of Environmental Science, College of Forestry and Environmental Science, CMU, (Corresponding Author: [email protected]) 2 Associate Professor I, Department of Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, CMU, ([email protected]) 3 Assistant Professor III, Department of Behavioral Sciences, College of Arts and Sciences, CMU

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INTRODUCTION There is a vast literature of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) that defines the concept from the social, economic, business and environmental perspectives (in Dahlsrud, 2008). The European Communities (2001) defined CSR as “a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interaction with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis” (in Dahlsrud, 2008). Another definition offered by the Business for Social Responsibility (2000) links CSR with the “ethical compliance with legal requirements and respect for people, communities and the environment” (in Dahlsrud, 2008). Khoury et al. (1999, in Dahlsrud, 2008) said, “elements of social responsibility include investment in community outreach, employee relations, creation and maintenance of employment, environmental stewardship and financial performance.” Clearly, CSR is not limited to the social aspect but to the over-all operations of the companies or organizations who are conscious of the outcomes or impacts of their operations to the environment. Despite the recognition of the importance of CSR, the “full integration of the social, economic, and environmental issues within the overall CSR agenda is some way away” (Fox, Ward, & Howard, 2002). This is particularly apparent in companies whose operations, products, and services create environmental impacts in the form of degradation and depletion of critical resources such as forest, water and minerals. Although the link of environmental conditions and the quality of life of people are quite apparent, its rationalization in the context of CSR needs to be emphasized. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) defined ecosystems services as the “benefits people obtain from ecosystems” categorized as provisioning (e.g. food, water, fiber, etc), regulating (e.g. climate, flood, water purification), supporting (e.g. nutrient cycling, primary production) and cultural services (aesthetic, spiritual, educational, etc.). As a watershed province, Bukidnon contributes ecological services to the rest of Mindanao as a source of water for domestic, agriculture, and industrial consumption as well as hydropower. Moreover, the province provides habitat to a number of endemic and threatened species in the key biodiversity areas within its political jurisdiction - Mt. Kaluayan-Mt. Kinabalian Complex and the Mt. Tago Range, both at the Bukidnon-Agusan Sur border, Mt. Kitanglad Range and Mt. Kalatungan Range. With the natural resources inherent to the province, it also becomes the host to various agri-industries for large scale pineapple, banana and sugarcane plantations whose products and services cater the national and international markets. Based on the 2005 land cover map of Bukidnon generated by the Environmental Science for Social Change (ESSC) and the Local Government Unit (LGU) of the Province of Bukidnon, pineapple plantation occupies 2.06%, banana plantation has 35

0.43%, and sugarcane covers 7.18% of the total area of Bukidnon. Primary forest that remains is only 2.79%, mossy forest is 14.23%, and secondary forest is 7.87% (ESSC and Bukidnon Province LGU, 2005). The Northern Mindanao Regional Development Plan for 2011-2016 indicates that the development direction for Bukidnon is agribusiness and ecotourism (NEDA Region X, 2011). Indeed, there is an accelerated rate of expansion of agri-industries that demand land resources for its large-scale plantations for export crops. This is validated through observations and accounts of communities and local officials. With the booming agriindustrialization, the ecological services of the province are at risk. Thus, there is a need to extend economic benefits and sustain the ecosystem services to ensure that people’s lives and their environment are not jeopardized due to the negative impacts of agri-industrialization. One of the avenues in sustaining both the economic activities and ecosystem services is through the company’s commitment to CSR. However, CSR should be targeted, not only to people but also to the biophysical component of the environment. CSR must create a positive image on the company’s commitment to protect the environment as a source of the raw materials for many products and services. It should recognize that people and society depend on the environment to sustain life. Thus, CSR should be a holistic approach to integrate social and environmental concerns. Recognizing the link between company, community, and environment in the implementation of CSR, this study focuses on the relevance of CSR in the aspect of biodiversity and natural resources management and community environmental stewardship. This study explores the environmental component of the CSR of the agri-industries in Bukidnon. Specifically, it aims to examine the relevance of the CSR initiatives to biodiversity conservation and natural resources management; evaluate the mechanisms that facilitate environmental stewardship; and recommend mechanisms to institutionalize partnership of companies, communities and LGU on environmental management in the context of CSR program.

METHODOLOGY The exploratory nature of this study commands a highly qualitative method of assessing CSR among agri-industries in Bukidon. Three companies were selected to represent three major agri-industrial crops produced in the province, namely pineapple, banana, and sugarcane. These companies are located in Valencia, Don Carlos and Lantapan, which operate in Bukidnon for 10 to 30 years. 36

Purposive sampling was employed in the selection of respondents. Indepth Interviews and Key Informant Interviews using semi-structured questionnaires were conducted among company environmental officers, local officials, and communities. Seven (7) focus group discussions were also conducted, with 7-15 community members and beneficiaries as participants and with an average of 8 participants per FGD, to gather as well as validate information gathered from companies. Site visits were also done in plantation areas and in areas where environmental programs were implemented. Activities were conducted on July 2011 to March 2012. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Environmental programs of agri-industries in Bukidnon CSR focuses more on the social aspects such as livelihood, education, health and wellness, and other social services. On the other hand, environmental program is a separate component based on the company’s organizational structure. Environmental programs of agri-industrial companies in Bukidnon focus on forest protection, natural resources conservation, sanitation and health, and compliance to legislation and certification (Table 1).

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Table 1. Environmental Protection and Management Programs of AgriIndustrial Companies in Bukidnon COMPONENT

ACTIVITIES

 Forest protection

Natural resources conservation

       

Sanitation and health

  

Local and national regulations and international certification

   

Financial assistance for forest protection activities Nursery establishment Adopt-a-forest Tree planting Signage on forest protection and biodiversity conservation Financial support for water resources protection activities Tree planting along riverbanks and buffer zones Water and soil quality monitoring Rainforest Alliance certification Waste segregation and disposal in company premises Seminars on solid waste management Distribution of waste disposal bins from used chemical containers Water and soil quality monitoring Multipartite monitoring team (MMT) assessment Monitoring of environmental issues raised Submission of monitoring reports

The separation of social from environmental component shows that there is an apparent lack of link between CSR and the environmental programs implemented by the companies. Although companies support community activities on forest protection and natural resources conservation, this is in the context of its environmental programs. There is an unclear mechanism of integrating environmental programs to livelihood, health and wellness, environmental education of communities and community stewardship within the realm of the CSR.

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Biodiversity and natural resources conservation initiatives of agri-industrial companies Based on the 2005 land cover map of Bukidnon, agri-industrial crops (e.g., banana, sugarcane, and pineapple) occupy about 10% of the total land area. However, the vast and rapid expansion of agri-industrial plantations of these crops remains unmonitored. In fact, company plantations have already encroached the uplands of Bukidnon. Activities of companies to enhance and conserve biodiversity include tree planting and “adopt-a-forest.” All the three companies support efforts for forest protection sponsored by the LGUs and other organizations by providing seedlings, transportation, as well as labor during tree planting activities. Of the three companies, two companies are engaged in the “adopt -a-forest”. These companies protect their “adopted” forests through tree planting, vegetation enhancement, and monitoring and implementation of policies on “no cutting of trees and hunting of wildlife.” They also maintain their own nurseries as sources of seedlings for tree planting and vegetation enhancement activities. These companies are also engaged in information dissemination, through posters and billboards, as expressions of their commitment to biodiversity conservation and environmental protection. In addition, these two companies provide financial support to local forest guards and to the forest protection activities in the declared protected area, the Mt. Kitanglad Range Natural Park. Despite efforts to help in the enhancement and conservation of biodiversity, companies enrich the forests with fast-growing exotic species like mangium, mahogany, eucalyptus, paulonia, and calliandra. Exotic species were seen and reported being prominent in the “adopt-a-forest” sites. Although these species increase vegetation cover and help in carbon sequestration, such species do not support and increase diversity of Philippine wildlife, especially endemic and threatened. This is because exotic species are not naturally associated with the ecology of wildlife. In the study of Mt. Malindang fauna conducted in 2005, natural forest ecosystems harbor endemic and threatened species than agro-ecosystems and plantation forests (Nuneza, Ates, Alicante, Enguito, Bruno, Labajo, & Dejarme 2006). This is consistent with the findings of flora survey (Amoroso, Arances, Gorne, Ruba, Comilap, Montimar, Rufila, Opisa, Demetillo, Noval, van den Berg, Stortelder, Kessler, Gruezo, Lagunzad, Tan, Aranico, Roscom, & Alava, 2006). Thus, flora species should be able to support the ecology wildlife fauna, especially endemic and threatened species, which in turn, increase the diversity of Philippine wildlife. 39

Natural resources conservation is another component of the environmental programs of companies. These are implemented through tree planting along buffer zones and riverbanks to prevent erosion and siltation in water bodies. Water quality monitoring and soil tests are normally done in compliance to policies and recommendations of the Multipartite Monitoring Team (MMT). Companies engaged in banana and pineapple plantations also comply with the demands of their clients abroad on environmental protection and management, particularly soil and water quality tests. In one established company, the implementation of its environmental program is an initiative to maintain its existing Rainforest Alliance certification. This certification is awarded to companies who practice “environmental, social, and economic sustainability.” Certification also obliges company to practice integrated pest and water management. This same company also practices environmental management system following ISO 14000 standards. Two companies encouraged its employees to participate and monitor activities such as tree planting/growing, forest protection, and waste management. One company shared that they also conducted seminars on climate change and waste management, but this information was not crossvalidated. Environmental program and stewardship of communities

Companies fully provide funding for their environmental programs. In addition, they also provide support to LGUs, communities, and local organizations for environmental management activities. For instance, LGUs and local organizations turn to companies for support in their activities such as tree planting and river clean-up. Support comes in terms of money, transportation, seedlings, as well as participation to such activities. Promoting environmental stewardship particularly on forest protection is manifested through the support of two companies in allocating funds for allowances of forest guards in Mt. Kitanglad and Mt. Kalatungan. No other mechanism is done to promote stewardship, particularly to communities in upland and forest ecosystems. In an interview with the President of a People’s Organization (PO) of fisher folks, the company provided them with financial assistance when they asked for it. In 2003, when fish kill occurred in Pulangi, the company hired them to conduct river clean-up, but this was not sustained. According to the President of the PO, the work offered by the company was merely to compensate for the loss of livelihood of fisher folks due to fish kill. There is no clear evidence of what caused the fish kill, but since the company discharges wastewater in Pulangi Lake, the fisher folks perceived somehow that the company contributed to the occurrence of fish kill. 40

The dependency of fisher folks to Pulangi Lake motivated them to initiate monitoring of the lake, especially on water contamination and illegal fishing. One company supports the local association of fish wardens in Pulangi River by extending financial support for monitoring and clean-up activities, allowances of fish wardens and for participation to trainings and seminars of the officers or representatives of the fisher folks’ organization. This same company also lends its heavy equipment and dump truck during the river clean-up sponsored by the Local Government Unit (LGU). This specific situation is an avenue for the company to integrate social concern on livelihood in the context of protecting the environment that sustains community’s source of livelihood. Since environmental program is separated from the CSR program, CSR beneficiaries of one company were only tapped to participate in tree planting activities sponsored by companies in a declared municipal tree park. Interviews and visits in the company’s “adopt-a-forest” sites reveal that these sites are maintained and protected by company employees. Residents along the periphery of the company’s reforestation site shared that they do not participate in any activity within the reforestation site as this is exclusive to company employees only. Matching environmental programs with community environmental concerns In one particular case, communities are already used to the existence of the sugarcane plantation. In fact, sugarcane is the main source of economic activities of the municipality. In interviews conducted, LGU officials and the municipal’s Environment and Natural Resources Officer expressed gratitude to the company in terms of revenue generation, financial assistance, and the use of equipment. The presence of the company boosts the local income of the municipality, which translates to the provision of social services including the construction of school buildings. Most of the communities expressed that they are already used to a plantation-dominated environment, primarily because its presence also entails source of employment as plantation or field workers. However, one LGU official and some residents interviewed confessed that employment caused company workers to become dependent on debts and money lending scheme with interest rates because they are assured that money will come on payday. In an interview with women’s group who are beneficiaries of CSR, one respondent admitted that she prefers the environment before the establishment of plantations. Her family used to harvest 2-3 times per year of their crops. The environment then was dominated with corn and the peak 41

of community activities happen during the harvesting season of crops, usually every three months, where people are busy harvesting, transporting produce, and buying goods from the market. This is the scenario that she prefers. Now, residents and landowners become company workers while some are engaged in non-farm livelihood activities. Landowners who leased their land now receive money from the company in the form of rent, but the amount is still to be deducted with tax and interest rates if the landowner has cash advances. However, they are given the privilege of employment in the company which suits their qualification, usually as plantation workers. Signing the land lease agreement for her is to show unity among community members and DAR beneficiaries. She also sensed that if majority agreed to lease their lands, then her small farm size will still be affected by the operations of the plantation anyway. The other concern she raised is if the land leased to plantations can still be used for farming. In the case of a recently-established pineapple plantation and processing plant, the presence of the company also causes entry of migrants who are hired as company workers. In fact, migrants’ houses proliferated around the periphery of the company’s premises. This also paved the way for the establishment of businesses such as stores, boarding houses, and cafeteria. Thus, the change in the landscape also changed the composition of inhabitants in the area. In addition, communities surrounding a lake also complained that this company causes the decline of the lake’s water. In a study conducted on water governance (Toledo-Bruno, 2009), residents blame the decreasing depth of the lake to the huge volume of water extracted by this company in their operations. Community apprehension on the existence of agri-industry crops stems from their concerns on the changes of their environment. Concerns with the present plantation-dominated environment are caused by issues such as siltation, chemical contamination and turbidity in streams, particularly within plantation areas. They fear that hazardous chemicals and wastes of companies are discharged into water bodies. Interviewed households residing near the company’s plant complain of the change of their water quality, which resulted to diarrhea and stomach ache experienced by residents. Communities are also alarmed on the effect of sprays and the application of herbicides in plantations, particularly to their livestock, due to run-off of chemical-contaminated water that drains into the streams and canals. Residents admitted that they had apprehensions in engaging into livestock-raising, particularly the possibility that their animals would be poisoned. Some residents near plantation areas also shared their observations that company workers throw their wastes indiscriminately.

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Although these observations and accounts of communities cannot be validated by scientific data and are beyond the scope of this study, it is important to note that these environmental concerns cause apprehensions of the communities in terms of their sources of water, livelihood, health and well-being. In fact, company environmental officers attested that the above issues are the common complaints of communities and, on their part, addressed the issues to avoid further damage. Employees were trained on waste management, especially related to their program on occupational safety for employees. Company environmental officers are also monitoring their activities in the field to ensure good environmental management practices. Biodiversity and Natural Resources Conservation and Environmental Stewardship in the CSR Context The dependence of communities to their biophysical environment can no longer be argued. Rambo (1983) presented theories and framework for a deeper understanding of the interactions between the social and biophysical components of the environment. As such, CSR initiative goes beyond the ethical and philanthropic sense of providing social services such as livelihood, health and education. CSR efforts can also be directed toward sustaining the ecosystem services of the biophysical environment. This includes involving communities in protecting the natural resources of the communities such as water, land, and forests, and responding to their environmental concerns related to livelihood, health and well-being. The use of exotic species in tree planting, reforestation, and in “adopta-forest” can result in increased vegetation cover and carbon sequestration, but these species compete with endemic species, and do not support the ecology of the Philippine wildlife. In addition, plantation species such as mahogany and mangium are fast-growing species that are harvested to respond to market demand for timber. Thus, companies should be clear on the objectives of their tree planting, reforestation, and “adopt-a-forest” initiatives. It has to be emphasized that biodiversity conservation cannot be equated with merely increase in vegetation cover. “Adopt-a-forest” and reforestation programs of the companies should embody the principles of rainforestation, i.e. planting endemic species, to help conserve Philippine biodiversity and restore the ecology of the natural forest. This is also a way of restoring or enhancing the ecosystem services that forest ecosystems and biodiversity provide – provisioning, supporting, regulating, and cultural services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005).

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Companies engaged in “adopt-a-forest” initiative could have been an appropriate venue for community stewardship. Aside from tapping communities to monitor activities in the “adopted” natural forests, they could be given responsibilities to make them accountable in restoring and managing the forests to enhance and conserve Philippine biodiversity in exchange for incentives in the form of allowances, salaries and other benefits. Thus, support of companies to local forest guards in Mt. Kitanglad and Mt. Kalatungan should be sustained. Residents along forest buffer zones could be hired to monitor activities within these areas and report cases of violations or actions that deteriorate the forest, water, and soil. This would make these residents accountable and responsible for the degradation or improvement on the conditions of their forest, water and land resources. Moreover, areas for “adopt-a-forest” may not necessarily be located within the premises or buffer zones of the company plantation areas, but those located in uplands where financial, technical, and social support are needed. Companies could also opt to provide funding for forest rehabilitation or assisted natural regeneration initiatives in partnership with the local communities and the local LGU. Such initiatives could make biodiversity and natural resources conservation more relevant and responsive. Current efforts of local fish wardens in monitoring the Pulangi Lake as their source of livelihood encourage environmental stewardship. This should be complimented with sustained support mechanisms of the company. Based on interviews with local officials and people’s organization of fisher folks, there is no Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between them and the companies. Requests for assistance are channeled to companies through formal communication. In most cases, LGUs, communities and local organizations seek the support of the companies on an “as the need arises” basis. What is lacking is responding to communities’ environmental concerns on siltation, turbidity, and wastewater contamination of their water sources as well as sprays and herbicides that are related to community concerns for livelihood, health and well-being. Although these concerns are responded in the companies’ environmental programs, these do not promote stewardship since communities are not given the opportunity to partner with companies in activities such as water quality test and monitoring and planting along riverbanks to improve water quality of community water sources.

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Apprehensions on the effect of sprays and herbicides could be reduced if companies work with communities in disseminating information on the safety precautions and the management practices of companies that avoid damage and contamination to people, crops, and livestock. Communities should be able to experience the efforts of companies to reduce impacts to livelihood, health and well-being. In all these initiatives, partnership among company, communities, and LGU should be institutionalized within the CSR program of the company. This is because environmental concerns are also social concerns. The partnership will facilitate mechanisms for inclusive, greater accountability and responsibility for environmental management, supported with local ordinances. This includes providing venues for the community to raise their concerns and complaints directly to the companies and the local government unit. Moreover, mechanism should provide a venue where companies are able to feedback to communities and LGUs on their environmental management programs based on their environmental monitoring reports. On the other hand, LGUs and communities can be empowered to compel companies to be more responsive to their concerns. At the same time, companies can demand communities and LGUs to ensure sustainability of their CSR program. This approach shares the load of responsibility and accountability in the implementation of the CSR program of companies that “integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations” (European Communities, 2001 as cited in Dahlsrud, 2008). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS As a watershed province endowed with rich forest and water resources, Bukidnon’s ecosystem services are currently at risk with the expansion of agri-industrial companies. Although agri-industrialization could boost local and national economies, there is also a need to balance the economic benefits with securing the ecosystem services of the province. This exploratory study is an attempt to get a level of understanding on the implementation of the Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) among selected agri-industries in Bukidnon representing 3 major agriindustrial crops, i.e. banana, pineapple, and sugarcane, which are in operation for about 10 to 30 years. The evaluation of the CSR program is focused on the environment aspect, specifically on biodiversity and natural resources conservation and environmental stewardship. 45

It is apparent from results of interviews among communities and LGUs that the presence of plantations entails livelihood and revenue. In some cases, agri-industrial companies change the biophysical as well as social conditions of the area. Albeit there is no report on disasters or accidents due to the operations of agri-industrial companies, discussions among LGUs at the barangay and municipal level are evaluating the impact of plantations to flooding, landslides, and damage to roads. Output of the study reveals that companies have separate programs for CSR and environmental management. Environmental programs focus on forest and natural resources conservation, health and sanitation, and compliance to local and national legislations and international certification. Although there are efforts towards biodiversity conservation, adopt-a-forest and tree planting initiatives need to be re-directed toward supporting and increasing Philippine biodiversity. Environmental concerns raised by communities cause apprehensions in terms of their sources of water, livelihood, health and well-being. Thus, environmental concerns are essentially social concerns on livelihood, health and well-being. Except in the case of support to local fish wardens and forest guards, companies need to work on promoting environmental stewardship among communities within the plantation areas, “adopt-a-forest”, and reforestation areas. Responding to environmental concerns on siltation, turbidity, wastewater contamination of water sources, and sprays and herbicides, does not promote environmental stewardship because communities are not given the opportunity to participate in the environmental programs of the companies to avoid damage and contamination to people, crops, and livestock. The findings are important input in assessing the direction of CSR geared towards biodiversity and natural resources conservation and environmental stewardship. Because environmental concerns are also social concerns, both should be integrated within the CSR program of the company. Partnership among company, communities and LGU should be institutionalized to facilitate mechanisms for inclusive, greater accountability and responsibility for environmental management, supported with local ordinances. The integration of social and environmental programs within the CSR is a venue for companies, communities and LGUs to have a shared responsibility and accountability in environmental management. Given the above considerations, this study proposes the following recommendations:

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First, integrate social and environmental concerns within the CSR program of the companies. Second, encourage wider and more inclusive participation of communities and LGUs in the CSR program through assignment of specific roles and tasks in the CSR. Third, institutionalize support to biodiversity and natural resources conservation initiatives through strategies such as assisted natural regeneration, agro-forestry, rainforestation, vegetation enhancement along stream bank, participatory soil and water quality monitoring, community river/canal clean-up, etc. Fourth, legitimize CSR program of companies by providing incentives, rewards or recognition from partner LGU. Fifth, strengthen partnership of companies with LGUs, through the public-private partnership (PPP) initiatives of the national government, in programs that promote improvement of the quality of life of people and their environment. LITERATURE CITED Amoroso, V. B., et al. (2006). Participatory inventory and assessment of plants in Malindang Range Natural Park, Mindanao island, Philippines. Biodiversity Research Programme (BRP) for Development in Mindanao: Focus on Mt. Malindang and Environs. Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). Dahlsrud, A. (2008). How corporate social responsibility is defined: An analysis of 37 definitions. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, Corporate Society Responsibility Environment Management, 15, 1–13. Retrieved from www.interscience.wiley.com Environmental Science for Social Change (ESSC) and the Local Government of Bukidnon. (2005). Land Cover Map of Bukidnon. Fox, T., Ward, H., & Howard, B. (2002). Public sector roles in strengthening corporate social responsibility: A baseline study. Corporate Responsibility for Environment and Development Programme. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), The World Bank, Washington DC. USA. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and human wellbeing synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington DC: Island Press. National Economic Development Authority Region X. (2011). Northern Mindanao Regional Development Plan (2011-2016). NEDA Region X, Cagayan de Oro, Philippines. 47

Nuñeza, O.M., et al. (2006). Vertebrate faunal diversity and relevant interrelationships of critical resources in Mt. Malindang. Biodiversity Research Programme (BRP) for Development in Mindanao: Focus on Mt. Malindang and Environs. Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA). Rambo, T. A. (1983). Conceptual approaches to human ecology [Research Report no. 14]. East West Environment and Policy Institute, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Toledo-Bruno, A.G. (2009). Linking social and biophysical variables of water governance: An application of the model (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). State University of New York, Syracuse, New York.

Acknowledgement: The r esearcher acknowledges the funding suppor t of CMU; the participation of communities, residents, local leaders, environmental officers of companies, and the LGUs of Valencia, Lantapan, and Don Carlos; Ms. Wendy Ilao for assistance in data gathering and analysis; and the reviewers who helped in improving this article.

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