Running Head: FOCUSED AND FIRED UP

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Focused and Fired Up: Narrowed Attention Produces Perceived Proximity and Increases Goal-Relevant Action

Shana Cole1 Matthew Riccio1 Emily Balcetis1 1

New York University

Word Count: 3,828 Corresponding Author: Emily Balcetis, [email protected], New York University, 6 Washington Place, Department of Psychology, New York, NY 10003

IN PRESS AT MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

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FOCUSED AND FIRED UP Abstract

Insufficient physical activity contributes to rising obesity rates. We tested one social cognitive strategy aimed at increasing physical activity in the environment. Specifically, we tested whether attentional narrowing can shift people’s perceptual representations of the environment and improve exercise behavior. Participants who adopted a narrow focus of attention, compared to participants who looked around the environment as they naturally would, perceived a target as physically closer (Studies 1, 2). In addition, narrowed attention reduced the time required to walk to a finish line and increased subjective ease of physical task performance, two markers of improved exercise (Study 2). We discuss implications of attentional strategies for perception and action in regards to health and fitness.

KEYWORDS: exercise, attention, distance perception, motivation, self-regulation

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Narrowed Attention Produces Perceived Proximity and Increases Goal-Relevant Action The worldwide obesity epidemic is alarming. More than 1.4 billion adults and 40 million children under the age of five are overweight or obese around the world (WHO, 2013). In America, obesity rates have nearly tripled in the last 30 years (Ogden & Carroll, 2010) and rates of “extreme” obesity—characterized by a Body Mass Index of 40 or higher—have increased by 350% (Trust for America’s Health, 2013). Obesity contributes to at least 2.8 million adult deaths every year (WHO, 2013). In light of these staggering statistics, at its annual meeting in the summer of 2013, the American Medical Association officially declared obesity a disease, its largest policy change on health and fitness to date (Pollack, 2013). Given the rising numbers and the recent media spotlight on the problem, the past few years have brought a marked increase in policies, programs, and laws targeting the reduction of obesity. While many initiatives focus on healthier food choices, far fewer interventions target ways to increase or improve physical activity. Insufficient physical activity is a leading contributor to obesity. Americans simply do not exercise enough. Three-quarters of American adults do not meet the minimum recommended daily amount of exercise (Mendes, 2009), and 70% of children do not attend daily physical education classes (CDC, 2011). The lack of physical activity is exacerbated among obese individuals, who are approximately 28% less likely than average weight Americans to exercise frequently (Mendes, 2011). Poor fitness contributes to reduced activity, which can reciprocally affect weight gain. Distance Perception and Perceived Effort Why are obese individuals less likely to engage in physical activity? One reason may be that, to them, the environment actually looks very difficult to traverse. Indeed, the effort required

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to move within environments influences perception of spatial layout (see Proffitt, Stefanucci, Banton, & Epstein, 2003). Hills appear steeper and distances look longer among people experiencing fatigue, low energy, physical burdens, poor health, or excessive weight (Bhalla & Proffitt, 1999; Cole & Balcetis, 2013; Proffitt, 2006; Schnall, Zadra, & Proffitt, 2010; Witt, Linkenauger, Bakdash, Augustyn, Cook, & Proffitt, 2009). In such cases, people’s perceptual experiences of the environment reflect the fact that physically traversing the space would require greater effort. As the amount of effort that walking requires increases, environments appear more extreme (Proffitt, 2006; Witt, Proffitt, Epstein, 2004). We propose that if the environment appears arduous, people may refrain from acting in it. Indeed, activities that are appraised as extremely difficult discourage task engagement (Contrada, Wright, & Glass, 1984; Obrist et al., 1978). Cardiovascular indicators suggest that people’s bodies down-regulate, reduce efforts, and physiologically disengage when tasks are appraised as extremely difficult relative to tasks that are moderately difficult but still feasible (Murray, Wright, & Williams, 1993; Wright et al., 1992). We extend this work by suggesting that perceptual experiences that lead people to appraise a physical task as extremely difficult may contribute to decisions to withhold action. Moreover, importantly, we propose that perceptual experiences that lead people to appraise a physical task as relatively less difficult may improve and increase action. The Present Research In the current research, we tested the effectiveness of one strategy at altering perceptual experiences of the environment and affecting exercise behaviors. We tested whether attentional narrowing would reduce perceptions of distance and improve the quality of exercise. Narrowed attention affects perception of space by restricting access to cues necessary for coding distance

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and depth (Wardak, Denève, & Ben Hamed, 2011; Wu, Ooi, & He, 2004). We predicted that narrowed attention to a goal-relevant target, relative to more natural patterns of attending to the environment at large, would lead people to perceive distances as shorter. Moreover, we predicted that a narrowed attention strategy that makes a goal-relevant target seem physically closer would be associated with increased and improved physical activity. This prediction stems from classic research linking goal proximity to action (Dollard & Miller, 1950; Hull, 1932). Rats ran faster (Crespi, 1942) and pulled harder (Brown, 1948) when physically close to food or water. Similarly, the rate of purchasing behavior increased as customers drew closer to earning a free cup of coffee as a part of frequent shoppers’ reward promotion (Kivetz, Urminsky, & Zheng, 2006). In addition, people disengage from tasks that are extremely difficult, but increase efforts and physically prepare to complete tasks that are moderately difficult (see Wright & Gendolla, 2011; Wright & Kirby, 2001). Just as actually being close to a goal and appraising it as difficult but still feasible increases goal-related action, we suggest that people may engage in physical activity if they perceive environments in ways that seem less effortful to traverse. In two studies, we tested whether attentional narrowing reduces perceptions of distance. In Study 1, we sought initial support that narrowed attention can reduce perceptions of distance relative to attending naturally. In the second study, we applied attentional narrowing to the health and fitness domain. We predicted that narrowing attention on a finish line would reduce perceptions of distance and would improve physical activity. Study 1 We tested the prediction that narrowed attention would decrease perceptions of distance relative to natural attention. We assessed perceptions of distance using a visual matching

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measure (Stefanucci & Proffitt, 2009; Stern, Cole, Gollwitzer, Oettingen, & Balcetis, 2013; Teachman, Stefanucci, Clerkin, Cody, & Proffitt, 2008; Yang, Dixon, & Proffitt, 1999). We tested whether narrowed attention influences distance perception adjusting for participants’ mood and arousal, which are known to exert direct influences on perception of the environment (Riener, Stefanucci, Proffitt, & Clore, 2011; Stefanucci & Storbeck, 2009). Participants and Procedures In exchange for a cold beverage, 66 adults visiting a New York City park during the summer participated. Individuals stood 12-ft (144-in) away from an open cooler, which contained cold beverages and ice. Participants reported their current mood and level of arousal using the Self-Assessment Manikin (Bradley & Lang, 1994). The experimenter explained to participants that they would estimate the distance to the cooler using a visual matching task (see Fig. 1). Participants first observed the distance between themselves and the cooler. Then an assistant moved closer to or further away from participants along a plane perpendicular to participants’ line of sight to the cooler. Participants directed the assistant to move closer or further away until the distance separating the participant from the assistant was equal to the perceived distance separating the participant from the cooler. Before actually engaging in the visual matching task, participants received instructions to adopt one of two attention strategies. Participants randomly assigned to the narrowed attention condition (n =32) imagined that a spotlight was shining only on the cooler. They learned that to be effective at estimating distance, they should direct and focus their attention on the cooler and avoid looking around at the environment. Participants randomly assigned to the natural attention condition (n =34) were instructed to allow their attention to move naturally, in whatever way they found to be most helpful for estimating distance. The experimenter suggested they might

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look around the environment or take a few glances at the cooler. Participants practiced their strategy by describing aloud what they saw. Experimenters recorded and coded each descriptor for whether it mentioned aspects of the cooler or the surrounding environment. Next, participants completed the visual distance matching measure while using their attention strategy. Participants instructed the assistant to move further or closer until the two distances were equated. The experimenter then measured the distance separating the assistant and the participant; this represented the perceived distance to the cooler. Positioning assistants closer indicated that participants perceived the distance to the target as shorter. Finally, participants received a beverage and were debriefed. Results Manipulation Check of Attentional Strategy The number of descriptors stated aloud depended on the interaction between the attention condition to which participants were assigned and the target of description, F(1,64)=57.45, MSE =5.95, p<.001. Participants who narrowly focused attention reported more descriptors of the cooler (M=4.8, SD=2.9) than people who attended naturally (M=1.5, SD=2.0), t(64)=6.84, p<.001, d=1.71. Participants who attended naturally reported more descriptors of the environment (M=3.9, SD=2.4) than people who narrowly focused attention (M=0.8, SD=1.1), t(64)=6.42, p<.001, d=1.61. The instructions given to participants successfully affected the scope of attention participants adopted. Distance Perception Attention strategy influenced distance perception. Participants in the narrowed attention condition positioned the experimenter closer to themselves (M=121.9-in, SD=23.6) than participants in the natural attention condition (M=132.8-in, SD=20.9), one-tailed t(64)=1.99,

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p=.03, d=.50, indicating they perceived the cooler to be closer. The effect of attention strategy on distance estimates remained significant, even after adjusting for mood and arousal by including them as covariates in the previous model, F(1,61)=4.15, p=.05, ηp2=.064. Results suggest that adopting a narrowed focus of attention, relative to letting the eyes move around the environment as they naturally would, led participants to perceive the target as closer. We also tested whether participants’ self-reports of what captured their attention mediated the relationship between the attention strategy to which they were assigned and their perceptions of distance. We computed a target-focus score by subtracting the number of items participants listed about the environment from the number of items they listed about the cooler. Higher numbers indicated greater focus on the target. We found a significant mediation, as indicated by a bootstrap bias-corrected and accelerated 95% confidence interval that did not contain zero{-23.14, -2.85}. Participants in the narrowed attention condition reported greater focus on the cooler than those in the natural attention condition, and greater focus on the cooler predicted smaller distance estimates. Study 2 We applied the attention strategy to the health and fitness domain. We tested whether adopting a narrow scope of attention would lead to perceived proximity as well as improved physical activity. We assessed improved exercise by using both physical and psychological markers of exertion. To assess physical indicators, we measured how fast participants walked. Walking briskly elevates heart rate and increases physical exertion, factors which are required to meet the Centers for Disease Control’s recommendation for healthy living (Marshall et al., 2009). A meta-analysis of 9 studies found that among nearly 35,000 older adults, faster walkers were 3

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to 4 times more likely than slower walkers to live at least another 10 years (Studenski, et al., 2011). Faster walking is indicative of greater exertion and improved physical activity. To measure psychological indicators of improved activity, we assessed participants’ subjective feelings of perceived exertion after completing the exercise. Subjective feelings of difficulty and effort predict fatigue and likelihood of quitting. Lower subjective perceived exertion is associated with greater endurance and improved physical performance (Fitzgerald, 2010; Periera, 2011). A meta-analysis of 21 studies showed that manipulations that decreased subjective experiences of exertion during exercise predicted greater improvements in exercise performance (Doherty & Smith, 2005). In the present study, we tested whether narrowly focusing attention on a goal-relevant target would improve exercise by leading people to walk faster and to experience the task as easier. Methods At a university gym, 73 adults (54% female, 70% over the ideal waist-to-hip ratio for their gender) participated in a study about health and fitness in exchange for $10 or course credit. At the start of the study, we weighed participants and measured waist and hip circumferences. Then participants learned they would complete a “weighted walking test.” The experimenter described the test as diagnostic of cardiovascular function and the likelihood of future health complications. The test required participants to high step to a finish line located 20-ft (240-in) away while encumbered by ankle weights measuring 15% of their body weight. Participants took a few steps in place to learn that the task was quite difficult. We randomly assigned participants to one of two attention conditions. Participants assigned to the narrowed attention condition (n=36) received instructions to narrow their attention on the finish line, demarcated by a colorful 24-in traffic cone. They imagined a

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spotlight shining only on the cone, focused their attention solely on that cone, and avoided looking around, as in Study 1. Participants randomly assigned to the natural attention condition (n=37) received instructions to look around the environment as they naturally would; experimenters suggested participants glance at the cone and looking at the surroundings, just as in Study 1. All participants reported aloud what they saw. As a manipulation check, we counted the number of descriptors referencing the cone and the number referencing the surroundings. Participants next estimated distance. Replicating the methods used in Study 1, participants estimated the distance using a visual matching measure. Participants directed the researcher to move closer or farther away until the distance separating the participant and the researcher appeared equidistant to the distance separating the participant and the cone. The experimenter measured the distance between participant and researcher. We added two additional measures; participants offered a numeric estimate of the distance to the cone, using a 1-ft clipboard as reference (Balcetis & Dunning, 2010). They also reported subjective representations of distance by indicating how close or far the cone felt (1=extremely close; 7=extremely far away; Alter & Balcetis, 2011). To assess exercise behavior, participants completed the weighted walking test while timed. Immediately after walking to the cone, they reported the intensity of the exercise using a Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion (Borg, 1992)—a 15-point rubric describing the degree to which exercise requires light (6) to exhaustive (20) effort. We considered faster walking times and reduced subjective feelings of exertion as markers of improved exercise. Results Manipulation Check of Attention Strategy

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The number of descriptors stated aloud depended on the interaction between the attention strategy to which participants were assigned and the target of description, F(1, 71)=508.25, MSE=3.01, p<.001. Participants who attended narrowly reported seeing more features of the cone (M=7.6, SD=2.2) than people who attended naturally (M=1.3, SD=1.0), t(71)=15.62, p<.001, d=3.71. Participants who attended naturally reported more features of the environment (M=6.7, SD=2.9) than people who attended narrowly (M=0.05, SD=0.2), t(71)=14.03, p<.001, d=3.33. Distance Estimates Participants who attended narrowly positioned the experimenter nearer to themselves during the visual matching measure than participants who attended naturally, t(71)=8.02, p<.001, d=1.90, suggesting they perceived the finish line as closer (see Table 1). Replicating the model presented in Study 1, the target-focus score mediated the relationship between attention condition (effects coded) and the visual matching measure of distance perception, as indicated by a bootstrap bias-corrected and accelerated 95% confidence interval that did not contain zero {30.14, -1.13}. Moreover, attention strategy affected estimates of distance using two additional measures. Those who attended narrowly offered smaller numeric estimates of distance than people who attended naturally, t(71)=4.94, p<.001, d=1.17. They also subjectively represented the cone as closer when asked how far away it felt, t(71)=5.93, p<.001, d=1.41. Results from three measures suggest that narrowed attention induced perceived proximity (see Table 1). Exercise Outcomes

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Attention affected exercise outcome measures. Compared to participants who attended naturally, participants who narrowed their attention walked more quickly to the cone, t(71)=3.86, p<.001, d=0.92, and reported less difficulty doing so, t(71)=3.80, p<.001, d=0.90, see Table 1. Finally, we tested whether perceived proximity predicted faster walking times and lower feelings of exertion. Table 2 presents correlational relationships between each measure of distance perception and each exercise outcome. Although improved exercise was best predicted by the visual matching measure of distance perception, all correlations suggest a similar pattern. We created an aggregated index of distance perception by standardizing estimates gathered through visual matching, numeric report, and subjective representation then averaging the three standardized values. This standardized average measure of distance perception too was significantly related to exercise outcomes; the closer participants perceived the target, the more quickly they walked and the easier they believed the task to be. General Discussion Over 63% of American adults (Mendes, 2010) and 53% of young people are overweight or obese (Ogden et al., 2008). If current trends continue, total healthcare costs attributable to obesity could reach $957 billion by 2030 (American Heart Association, 2013). Obesity is the result of, among other factors, insufficient physical activity. This research offers one social cognitive strategy to promote exercise. Narrowed attention made distances appear shorter, people move faster, and exercise feel easier. Possible Mechanisms Although this research does not offer insight into the specific mechanisms by which narrowed attention and perceived proximity lead to improved exercise, we can conjecture on the processes involved. For example, narrowing attention and perceiving a goal as closer may

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increase self-efficacy, people’s beliefs that they are capable of effectively taking on and meeting goals (Bandura, 1982). Increased self-efficacy is related to regulatory success (Bandura, 1994); people with high self-efficacy are able to persist at goals even when they are difficult. People who narrowly focused attention and saw the goal as more within reach may have believed they were more capable of meeting the goal, which in turn may have influenced how quickly they walked and how easy they believed the task to be. In addition, narrowing attention and perceiving a goal as closer may physiologically prepare a person to act (Wright, 1996). Systolic blood pressure, a physiological indicator of the body’s readiness to engage in action, increases when people engage in goal-promoting activities that demand moderate effort (Wright & Dill, 1993; see Gendolla & Wright, 2005 for a review). When people see goals as within reach, it may mobilize action, producing bursts of energy that result in quicker walking times and an experience of ease. Narrowing attention and perceiving a goal as closer may influence how effortful the task feels, whether one’s actions seem more likely to lead to beneficial outcomes, or one’s general motivational drive to pursue the goal (e.g. Dollard & Miller, 1950). Future research might test these possibilities. Indeed, the relationships between the psychological and physiological factors that predict physical activity are likely quite nuanced and advanced methods and statistical models that plot the role of mediating processes are necessary. It is important to note that the relationships between perception and motivation are dynamically related. In the present studies we used a social cognitive strategy to influence perception in order to shift motivational processes and promote action. But the reverse causal direction also likely holds; motivational processes and opportunities for action may also affect perception. Indeed, people motivated to acquire a monetary reward (Balcetis & Dunning, 2010;

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Cole & Balcetis, 2013) or to avoid a threatening tarantula (Cole, Balcetis, & Dunning, 2013) perceived distances as shorter than those without the motivations. Motivational states and perceptual experiences likely maintain a reciprocal relationship. Attention Strategies and Exercise Behavior The narrowed attention intervention affected perceptions of distances to goal-relevant locations and facilitated exercise behavior. Because the effectiveness of this particular social cognitive strategy is predicated on the visual experience of proximity to a goal, this strategy may specifically apply to those situations in which a goal on which one can focus attention is visible. This specification may highlight one reason why workouts on treadmills and stationary bikes are difficult to sustain as an exercise regime. These popular exercise methods offer no visible goal that people are working towards. Visual attention is not focused on the road ahead or a tangible finish line to cross. As a result, people may not experience the motivation, sense of efficacy, or burst of energy that comes from seeing oneself move closer to a goal. Indeed, a recent study found that people who were randomly assigned to run 5k on a treadmill, compared to those who were assigned to run outdoors, were less satisfied with their performance, reported greater perceived exertion, and had slower performance times (LaCaille, Masters, & Heath, 2004). To fully combat the obesity epidemic in America, future research should explore strategies that promote increased exercise behaviors in different settings. For example, treadmill runners may be aided by cognitive distraction, while movement in expansive outdoor spaces may be assisted by focused attention on the target, goal, or finish line situated within the greater surroundings. At-Risk Populations In addition, future research should explore the extent to which this intervention strategy is effective for populations at risk for experiencing difficulty engaging in effective exercise. For

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example, individuals who experience physical activity as a threat rather than a challenge (Blascovich, 2008) may have difficulty exercising. The biopsychosocial model of challenge and threat suggests that prior to a task, individuals weigh the demands of a task with the resources they have to meet the demands. When individuals determine that their resources are sufficient to meet demands, a challenge state emerges; when individuals determine their resources fall short of meeting demands, a threat state emerges (Seery, 2011). Believing a task to be a threat compared to a challenge impairs performance on the task by affecting emotions, eye gaze, motor movements, and muscle activity (Moore, Vine, Wilson, & Freeman, 2012). Testing strategies specifically within populations that vary in physical and psychological characteristics that make them susceptible to difficulties exercising is an important next step for future research. Attention Strategies and Eating Behavior Addressing obesity requires multiple approaches. Strategies meant to increase and improve exercise will only be effective if they accompany strategies to improve healthy eating. In 2012, New York City rolled out a campaign to promote healthier eating. Fast food restaurants were required to display calorie counts, restaurants were banned from using trans fats, and farmers’ markets were required to accept food stamps increasing the accessibility of fresh fruits and vegetables for lower-income residents (Sifferlin, 2012). Likewise, the United Stated Department of Agriculture updated its standards for school lunches. New regulations established in 2013 required that school vending machine snacks be limited to 200 calories. Drinks sold in high schools must contain 60 calories or less, and elementary and middle schools could only sell water, 100% fruit or vegetable juices, and low-fat milk (Sifferlin, 2013). Future research should test whether attention can serve as a basis for interventions that not only promote exercise but foster healthy eating as well. How people visually attend to foods

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in their environment likely affects decisions regarding what to consume. Indeed, people trying to restrain their eating cognitively attended to palatable foods but inhibited cognitive attention paid to these unhealthy options when thinking about dieting (Papies, Stroebe, & Aarts, 2008). These patterns of cognitive attention predicted the likelihood of successfully regulating eating behavior Researchers and public health officials may best position themselves to foster healthier lifestyles by considering various strategies that target both exercise and eating. Concluding Remarks An age-old adage encourages people to keep their “eyes on the prize” to achieve success. Our research seems to echo the sentiment. Focusing visual attention on a goal-relevant target helps make the goal appear more within reach and engaged action. Exercise is a necessary component of a healthy lifestyle, and this research may suggest a potential intervention in the fight against obesity. For individuals who are otherwise dissuaded from engaging in action because the world around them looks too difficult to engage, keeping their “eyes on the prize” may be an effective self-regulatory strategy.

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AUTHORS’ NOTE This work was supported by a grant from NSF BCS #1147550 awarded to Emily Balcetis. Study 2 was conducted as a part of Matthew Riccio’s undergraduate senior thesis.

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Table 1. Mean (SD) distance estimates and exercise outcomes as a function of attention strategy. Distance Estimate Attention Strategy

Exercise Outcomes

Numeric (in.)

Subjective

Matching (in.)

Time (sec)

Effort

Narrow

181.62 (33.13)

2.41 (0.60)

171.70 (21.23)

5.90 (1.90)

8.78 (1.90)

Natural

249.92 (77.16)

3.42 (0.84)

213.42 (23.18)

7.64 (1.97)

10.64 (2.26)

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Table 2. Correlational r-values (p-values) reflecting relationships between three individual and one aggregate measure of distance perception with two exercise outcome measures. Exercise Outcomes Distance Measure

Time (sec)

Effort

Visual Matching

.24 (.04)

.23 (.05)

Numeric Estimate

.19 (.12)

.19 (.10)

Subjective

.17 (.15)

.42 (<.001)

Standardized AVG

.25 (.04)

.35 (.003)

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Figure 1. Visual matching task used to measure perceived distance to the cooler in Study 1.