Design & Artefacts: Extending Culture in Textile Design Sandy Heffernan

Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand

As a Fashion and Textile lecturer at Massey University, Wellington, New Zealand, the author has developed an interest in cross cultural creative issues. Her recent PhD Design from Artefacts: Issues in aesthetics, collecting, education, making and marketing in J & P Coats’ Needlework Development Scheme: 1934-1962, at Glasgow School of Art, analysed and interpreted the use of artefacts in design, making recommendations for future use. These ideas are advanced in this paper. Email: [email protected]

Recently a growing discourse questioning theory and its relationship, relevance and importance to practice has emerged. There is a very real need to argue for material culture research methods and understandings of knowledge as they relate to the process of practice, particularly in the case of textile design. The objectives of this paper include understanding how artefact research contributes to the development of creative design, and the perceived problem of the relationship between the object, the word and the design. Material culture is an appropriate model for thinking about knowledge as a cultural process in the field of both textile and fashion design. It is increasingly relevant to consider research as a cultural process; there is a need for students to extend their own culture and appropriate interpretations of other cultures in design. Shared knowledge through this research of artefacts imbued with context and meaning, presents students with socio cultural and historical knowledge of artefacts. Conceptual thinking and analysis allows an awareness of other cultures to develop, incorporating a sense of their history, culture and society. This allows interpretation and engenders individual responses, empowering students to develop their individual design identity into their conceptual development and design solutions. The project section of this paper outlines the work of second year Textile History Design students at Massey University, Wellington. This centres on the transformation of historical and socio-cultural knowledge into contemporary design solutions. The students are encouraged to interpret designs from all cultures in a sensitive way, fusing museology and academic material culture approaches. Keywords: artefact, appropriation, culture, design, identity Introduction Throughout history artefacts have played a vital role in some design processes. Underpinning this paper is my recent research examining the impact of J & P Coats’ Needlework Development Scheme (NDS) on design in Britain. Coats, the Glasgow thread makers, anonymously funded the scheme established as a marketing ploy. The scheme circulated and re-circulated over three thousand textiles to art, secondary, and primary schools, as well as numerous amateur groups for almost twenty years. The embroidery designs were infused through the education networks into both rural and metropolitan Britain, achieving an important influence on textile design from 1930-60s and beyond. Market forces played a role in shaping the design of these textiles as an ethnic aesthetic evolved. Throughout Europe, during the era of the Scheme, industry failed to recognise the role of the designer. In Coats commercial activities designs were regularly copied and the adoption of this appropriation into the design process of the NDS led to perceptions of embroidery as craft rather than art. The scheme impacted on creative interpretation as a capitulation to copying developed. The value of textile design declined as designers adopted appropriation methods encouraged and utilised by industry, developed for both profits and amateur artists. Indeed the influence continues today in Britain.

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The issue of appropriation in design was the theme at a conference titled ‘All Ornament is a Crime?’ at the RMIT, Melbourne in 2004. It examined cultural debates around decoration, techniques and fashion. Comment was invited on issues behind decoration, the ethics and morality of ornament and the trafficking of meaning in decoration; also, issues around ownership, power relations, cultural sensitivity and interrogation of the visual vocabulary of pattern and design (RMIT 2003). The conference call for papers opened the debate stating ‘Designers often assume that techniques and styles are theirs for the taking. Trends affirm this. Makers lavishly pile cultural reference upon cultural reference with little regard for sources or context’ (RMIT 2003). Earlier this year the role of the artefact as an end product in design was questioned at a research into practice conference at the University of Hertfordshire. The call for papers raised the following questions: Can an artefact do more than simply illustrate a concept? Do artefacts merely stimulate linguistic reasoning? Are there special conditions for achieving synergy between artefacts and texts (University of Hertfordshire 2003)? Equally, these questions could apply to the role of the artefact initiating the design process. The NDS collection includes many examples, which profile appropriation in design. A ‘Spanish’ cushion design in the Dundee University collection has evolved from the Bourbon lily motif, originally used in Orient as a symbol of purity and chastity. A later nineteenth century lily design, from Mezõség, Transylvania, was used on a pillowcase, most probably from a printed design, inspired by seventeenth century Central European designs (Fozy 2004). The same motif appeared in a 1940s New Zealand Army Education Welfare booklet described as Rumanian (by then Transylvania was in Romania). In the late 1940s-50s copies of the lily design most probably made at Coats’ NDS Glasgow workrooms, were circulated throughout schools and amateur groups in Britain as ‘Spanish’. Made in Glasgow the design accreditation moved from its source to ‘Spanish’. During the NDS, industry, fine art, and craft philosophies influenced embroidery design in an era when design was emerging as a discipline. These practices encouraged appropriation methods, as design subordinated to industry and Scandinavian craft approaches, which eliminated interpretation in creative embroidery design solutions. An acceptance of pillaging of textile design developed as Britain colonised the Orient competing with France. Edward Said, a Palestinian academic, in Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient, writes: Throughout history Britain had a privileged place in the Orient as Britain colonised the Orient. Exploitative practices driven by trade were established (Said 1978 246). Said poses an important question: How do ideas acquire authority (Said 1978 326)? More recently, Colin Gale and Jasbir Kaur, Birmingham academics, in The Textile Book make a significant point that the appropriation of textiles has occurred throughout time and each successive cultural input enhances it: It is almost a contradiction in terms to speak of national textile traditions. Given the complex origin of many of the world’s textile styles. Textile traditions are neither static nor geographically fixed, and they have constantly changed in response to interactions from different cultures. This is a great strength of textiles and a major part of the way it has contributed to the world’s cultural heritage (Gale and Kaur 2002 101). The copying of a design without interpretation or abstraction cannot culturally enhance a design. Recently, in the report All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture, and Education, Dame Tamsyn Imison appealed for an understanding of other cultures to be developed in education: “If you only understand one culture it is like seeing with one eye only, but if you add the dimension of other cultures, you become binocular and things can be seen in perspective. It allows you to appreciate much more (Imison in Robinson 1999 50).” An opportunity exists to consider students as individuals and empower them to develop their individual design identity, as recognised by the Scottish Consultative Council on the Curriculum: ‘There is no such thing as a single general intelligence, which we all possess to a greater or lesser degree. We all have a unique combination of different kinds of abilities, which can and do change throughout our lives (Scottish CCC in Robinson 1999 35)’. The student’s individual

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identity should naturally be encouraged and developed in the design process. As the Scottish report stated, learning involves grappling with the issues to interpret them and find your own idea: “Learning involves going beyond simply acquiring new information and adding it to our existing knowledge. It involves us in making a sense of new information by using our existing knowledge and modifying, updating and rethinking our own ideas in the light of this new information (Scottish CCC in Robinson 1999 92).” Moira Fraser Steele, Director of Education and Research, the Design Council, UK, supports the call for creativity and conceptual thinking: A core aim of our education system must be to enable all [students] to develop their creativity and unlock their creative potential…if the innovative and creative minds of tomorrow are to be nurtured and inspired, teaching has to be developed in a way which appeals to the creative and emotional and which encourages conceptual thinking (Fraser Steele in Robinson 1999 64). Conceptual thinking and analysis allows an awareness of other cultures to develop, incorporating a sense of their history, culture and society. In settler cultures such as New Zealand, where Pakehas live alongside Maori in a bi-cultural manner, more ethical approaches to art and design continue to develop. Auckland designer Doris de Pont, inspired by the designs of John Pule introduced her 2003 let’s gather here fashion collection thus: ‘In a place where all races, cultures and genders mix with the freedom to celebrate their individuality and respect diversity’(de Pont 2003). De Pont, a New Zealander of Dutch descent, with a degree in cultural anthropology, explores the synergy between art, wear ability, and making art accessible. She collaborated with Pule, a Niuean/New Zealander, to design original fabric for her collections. Pule, initially surprised by De Pont’s approach, enthusiastically embraced the idea. He appreciated the potential for extending the exposure of his work stating: Showing your work in New Zealand it becomes almost regional if it stays here. So I’m quite interested in having my work on garments in the context of taking it to the world. I’m interested in that side of talking with the world through imagery. A lot of people see this part of the world as something out of a travel brochure. But if they look a bit further at the story and actually come to New Zealand they see we have a really interactive, creative way of doing things. Maori, Pakeha, Pacific Island and now Asian artists are all in the same place working with each other (Pule in de Pont 2004). De Pont furthers her desire to create original garments distinct from those made from mass-market fabrics. The designs reflect a ‘European take on Pacific influences, in a non-literal way, both looking at the things immigrants have brought here and celebrating the cross-pollination of ideas’ (de Pont 2003). These creative designs highlight the value of designs extending culture.

Designing From Artefacts: Student Project How do we encourage development of a student’s individual identity and interpretations of other cultures in textile history design education? A student can interpret artefacts and integrate his or her own identity into their conceptual development and design solutions. The socio-cultural and historical knowledge of artefacts allows interpretation and engenders individual responses. In settler cultures a minimal interpretation of the ideas of others, is considered to be inappropriate. In this context an appropriate way of using artefacts in contemporary design should involve theoretical interpretation to achieve appreciation and a developed aesthetic response. The year two Massey University Textile Design History prescription stipulates the requisite of social, cultural, political and technological histories of textile design. In this way it is an ideal subject for a study of artefacts imbued with context and meaning. To initiate the study the students were provided with an essay brief, which comprised an eighty percent theory and twenty percent practice component: a twenty-nine by twenty-nine centimetre croquis in a maximum of three colours for a fashion or interiors fabric. The learning outcomes included: applying knowledge and skills in interpreting

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theoretical art and design information, and the application of library skills. Analysis, organisation, and writing of critical arguments based on historical data were incorporated. Commencing the study twenty students visited the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa, and viewed a range of textile and dress artefacts. Included were: Flora an Arts and Crafts Movement Burne-Jones designed tapestry stitched by Lady Cory, Bianchini-Férier swatch books, Raoul Dufy designs, nineteenth century Berlin wool work slipper patterns, a 1780s embroidered velvet waistcoat, a nineteenth century Lyon silk hussif, and Charlotte Kemp’s 1760s Rococo dress, unpicked into twenty-six pieces to ensure economical storage for its seaward voyage to New Zealand. In a valuable opportunity to collaborate with a museum, Angela Lassig, museum history curator and specialist in dress and textiles, informatively presented the textiles, generously sharing her knowledge. Following the selection of artefacts students continued their observations, documentation, and research. A model developed for material culture research based on an archaeology model developed by Susan Pearce was provided to encourage analysis, interpretation and structure in their written submissions (Table. 1) (Pearce 1994 129). The museum’s textile condition reports, including expert descriptions of the objects and their known histories were available. Following library and on-line research the historical, socio-cultural and aesthetic context of the artefact was developed in the essay. Most students also developed design workbooks, recording their process. Accompanying the essay submission the students presented their contemporary design for a fashion or interior fabric, drawing on issues interpreted from the artefact study and their personal socio-cultural influences. Textile Artefact: Material, History & Significance Table 1. Model for Object-based Research

Material: construction and ornament

Material: design of itself & ornament

Physical description & relevant records

Comparison with other textiles to create typology sets & design theme

Material: characterisation

Comparison with other textiles and samples

Provenance

History: Own history & subsequent history

Dating etc.

Practical function in its own time

Relevant documentary research

Significance

What did it represent to owner & society? What role did it play in the formation of individual & social identity?

Interpretation:

Socio-cultural analyses:

role of artefact in social organisation

concerns & events of the period

Student Designs Kelly-Rose Murphy initiated her design process by drawing from memory an anonymous BianchiniFérier silk sample. She captured the essence of design features noting ‘flying rocks moving diagonally across silk fabric grain with stylised lines implying momentum and fast heavy movement’ (Murphy 2004). She commented on the abstract form of the design and the influence of the Cubist style of

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drawing objects from multiple angles, and identifies the design was uncharacteristic for the period. In her essay Murphy recognised the influence of Japonism, and drew a comparison with the Japanese depiction of extreme moments in nature using stylised abstract design, and the functional rather than excessive decoration Art Deco style. Drawing from the aesthetics and design tensions she developed her views on today’s globalisation of society, including technical communication, transportation, and the rise in social and cultural integration issues in the twenty-first century. Key to her conceptual development was the polarisation in debates on these issues. In her design the lines are faint against the background relating to hazy, unclear answers to controversial situations presented by media and governments. Ngahuia Damerall selected the Berlin wool work slipper patterns for her research. She emphasised both the role of the 1851 Great Exhibition increasing the popularity of Berlin wool work patterns and scientific progress with the invention of aniline dyes increasing the colouration of the designs. The slipper patterns also provided an opportunity for Damerall to discuss the role of needlework in social organisation. Convention at the time and indeed the male perception considered it was ideal for middle and upper class woman to appear busy stitching. Men designed the slipper patterns for women to stitch, and then later gift to their husbands. Discussing the design she included aesthetic advice from the 1851 Art Journal, recommending woman not to adorn the slippers with a fox’s head, as when worn it would peep out from under trousers, appearing as though it was about to advance on a visitor (Damerall 2004). Her final analysis suggested the slipper patterns represented to the colonial immigrant all that was good about the life left behind. In her design process Damerall explored the use of native New Zealand plants, such as ferns, and Huia feathers. From her definition of Ngahuia as ‘precious gift’ and the role of Huia feathers in earlier Maori society as sacred, used as a special gift, she developed several designs. Rachel Higham researched the Burne-Jones Flora tapestry stitched by Lady Cory, and gifted to the colonial museum after it was no longer required in England. Within her socio-cultural examination she acknowledged the contradiction of the proponents of the Arts and Crafts Movement, who, opposed to mass production, produced patterns requiring a minimum of interpretation skill for middle and upper class women to stitch. She challenged the notion by discussing the typology of the Burne-Jones design and the many copies. In conclusion she wrote that his cartoon-like patterns allowed woman creativity solely in the form of choice for colour shading (Higham 2004). In this way she hinted at the negative influence of the Arts and Crafts Movement on women’s design. In her design development Higham chose to exploit the essence of the Burne-Jones design Flora tapestry, in particular the outline design style and natural subdued colours. Choosing tulips for their ‘classic yet contemporary feel’ drawings and design were developed digitally. The floral imagery of the artefacts was inspirational for several students, for example Rebekah Harman analysed the flowing floral Rococo patterns, inspired by seventeenth and eighteenth century Indian chintz, in the Kemp dress. She discussed the political influence on both Spitalfields and Lyon silks, stressing the lack of government support for design tuition led to copying of textile designs (Harman 2004). For her design inspiration she drew on her childhood memories of the Kowhai flower: her fascination with the extended stigma and bright yellow seeds, which burst from the brown seed pod. Sarah Spence delved into the eighteenth century French waistcoat, which featured a rich colourful rose and poppy design. She was attracted to the fluidity of the design and the manner by which the motifs appeared to float upwards as if defying gravity. In her own design she explored her Australian heritage choosing Waratah and Golden Wattle to substitute for the Rococo florals. Drawing on Aboriginal artwork Spence used the intense red of the Waratah as a base, but subdued the yellow and other reds consistent with the Rococo design. She successfully exploits the idea of objects floating upwards as well as filling in the negative space with a structured repeat of the stylised Wattle (pale yellow circles) reminiscent of the voided lozenge patterned velvet of the waistcoat (Spence 2004).

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Findings This project provided students with the opportunity to acquire the essence of a material culture research approach. Taking into account the second year status of this subject, the intention was to avoid encumbering students with terminology, encouraging a hands-on approach to research method learning. Students were empowered to translate theory into practice. They developed the context and meaning of the museum’s objects, engaging with theory to develop contemporary concepts. Individual responses from their own identity, cultural heritage and other cultural interpretations were integrated in their designs. Mostly, these textile design students integrated their own identity and other cultural interpretations into creative design solutions, in an ethical way, without appropriation. However a few students who exhibited an inconsistent attendance at tutorials and lectures, distracted by the need to undertake paid employment, failed to grasp the concept. A minor problem was the change in the museum’s photography policy during the project resulting in a limiting influence on the amount and accuracy of typology research achievable by the group. Also photographs that were taken initially were lost due to a technical problem.

Discussion The practice component of the essay was developed so that students could develop a synergy between the theory and practice. There was likelihood this would be the only opportunity for this lecturer to work with these students, hence the inclusion of the practice. Ideally in such a project students would receive studio tuition to assist the translation of theoretical concepts into practice or preferably complete a practice brief as a development of the essay brief. Within a design process the concept may be understood as the generation of a personal idea illustrated by analogues, diagrams, sketches etc. that guide the progression of ideas, help to make coherent decisions by the designers, and can be communicated and discussed in an early stage of a project. Jennifer Moon, in her influential book Learning Journals: a handbook for academics, students and professional development, writes of the value of journals or as we more commonly call them in design, workbooks or visual diaries (Moon 1999). Student workbooks can describe creative process as graphic, creative ideas and reflective notes are recorded. Indeed the workbook itself can generate creative ideas and prove to be a sourcebook for creative projects. Students can use workbooks to clarify and define their attitudes, values, and sense of personal and cultural identity. Another use of the workbook is in assessment of the creative process rather than placing too much emphasis on the outcome of student art or design work (Davies in Moon 1999 57). Today, digital technology allows the appropriation/misappropriation of images, copied in multiples, with astounding speed as the development and use of it increases. However, as Dorothy Bosomworth, Dundee University, alluding to the increase in appropriation, suggests designers could use technology to record their sketches, designs, photographs, and notes on workshop practice to strengthen their design process (Bosomworth 2003 10). Concepts are ideas formed by the process of abstraction and provide categories for storing interpretations and experience. Skill development empowers students to translate the theory into practice, including interpretation in the design process. Observational, analytical, and developmental drawing skills along-with design synectics can allow conceptual development of theoretical issues to flourish, while incorporating an awareness of an ethical design process.1 Students could be encouraged to use symbolic representation of larger issues such as sex, death, power, politics, and economics in aesthetically pleasing ways, using processes such as visual paradox, symbolism and surrealistic perceptions

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Conclusion Theoretical engagement with artefacts exploring socio-cultural issues can be translated into practical design solutions that elevate textile design to art status, and engender respect for the medium. Skill development empowers students to translate the theory into practice, including interpretation in the design process. Clearly this research, highlighting the vital role of interpretation of artefacts in design, offers interesting new perspectives to the debates. The students have made significant progress in their material culture research, in a hands–on approach. In subsequent years the potential exists for them to develop this further by including archive and / or oral history practice where appropriate, and further skill development. The value of textiles and their perceived position in society can be improved both in the textile education system, developing from the curriculum that underpins it. Students do not appropriate or copy for its own sake, but interpret and make use of historical and theoretical studies for the purpose of understanding. The ideas gain authority ethically, and designs are culturally enhanced. Artefacts can be a magic key for textile design students, not only can they open the mind of the learner, they then reveal a vast cornucopia of endless delight, challenge and opportunity.

Note 1 The term synectics is from the Greek word synectikos, which means ‘bringing forth together’ or ‘bringing different things into unified connection.’ Nicholas Roukes explains its relevance to creativity: Since creativity involves the coordination of things into new structures, every creative thought or action draws on synectic thinking Roukes, N. 1989. Design Synectics: Stimulating Creativity in Design. Worcester, Massachusetts, Davis Publications.

References Bosomworth, D. “Record, retrieval and response: the roles of digital technology in facilitating relationships between identity, memory and meaning in crafts.” Unpublished: 2003, 1-12. Damerall, N. “Berlin Wool Work Slipper Essay.” Unpublished, 2004. de Pont, D. “DNA Clothing: Doris de Pont.” www.dnaclothing.co.nz. [15 October 2004]. de Pont, D. “Information on Design Collaboration.” [24 Nov 2004]. Fozy, V. “Bourbon Lily Design.” Email to Author. Wellington, 4 November 2004. Gale, C. and J. Kaur The Textile Book. Oxford: Berg, 2002. Harman, R. “Textile Design History Essay.” Unpublished, 2004. Higham, R. “The Flora Embroidery of Lady Cory.” Unpublished, 2004. Moon, J. Learning Journals: a handbook for academics, students and professional development. London: Kogan Page, 2004. Murphy, K.R. “A Focus on Early Twentieth Century French Silk.” Unpublished, 2004. Pearce, S. “Thinking About Things.” Interpreting Objects and Collections. S. M. Pearce. London: Routledge, 1994, 125-132. RMIT. “Intermesh: Exchanges in Fashion and Textiles.” http://www.Rmit.edu.au/departments/af/intermesh. [Nov 2003]. Robinson, K. “All Our Futures: Creativity, Culture, & Education/National Advisory Committee on Creative and Cultural Education.” Sudbury, Department for Education and Employment, 1999. Roukes, N. Design Synectics: Stimulating Creativity in Design. Worcester, Massachusetts: Davis Publications, 1989. Said, E. Orientalism: western conceptions of the Orient. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978. Spence, S. “Textile Design Essay.” Unpublished, 2004. University of Hertfordshire. “Research into practice conference.” http://www.herts.ac.uk/artdes/research/res2prac/locate1.htm. [6 Dec 2003].

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