ENTREPRENEURIAL COMPETENCY FOR SMALL BUSINESS ENTERPRISES: A LITERATURE REVIEW METHODOLOGY Aurik Gustomo* School of Business and Management (SBM), Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
[email protected] Sri Herliana School of Business and Management (SBM), Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
[email protected] Wawan Dewanto School of Business and Management (SBM), Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
[email protected] Astri Ghina School of Economic and Business, Telkom University, Indonesia
[email protected] Presented at the: SIBR Hong Kong 2016 Conference on Interdisciplinary Business and Economics Research, 24th-25th September 2016, Hong Kong. ABSTRACT The importance of entrepreneurial competencies that positively impacts on business performance and growth has been widely recognized. Despite the concept of entrepreneurial competencies is used widely by government agencies and others in their drive for economic development and business success, the core concept of entrepreneurial competencies, conceptual framework, its measurement and its relationship to performance and business success is in need to be explored. This research thus proposes a literature review for entrepreneurial competencies as the preliminary stage for further development in research and practice. Key words: competencies; entrepreneurial competencies; business performance; business growth. 1. INTRODUCTION The role of entrepreneurs has been respected as a great contributor to the economic development of most nations (Ogbo, 2012). Nations develop faster if they have high quality, creative, and innovative entrepreneurs that implement new ideas into practical action in every business. Entrepreneur is an important issue in developing countries, more than 50% of people is consider starting a business as a desirable career choice. For example, the percentage of people consider starting a business as a desirable career choice in Philippine is 82%, Thailand is 74%, Indonesia is 73%, Vietnam is 67%, Singapore 52%, Malaysia is 50%. The percentage of people who agree that successful entrepreneurs receive high status in Philippine is 78%, Indonesia is 78%, Vietnam is 76%, Thailand is 71%, Singapore is 63%, and Malaysia is 50% (Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 2013). There is widespread acknowledgement that the success, performance and growth of a Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) is heavily dependent on the competencies of the entrepreneur (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2013). Several studies of Entrepreneurial Competencies 1
(EC) were conducted in order to support SMEs in becoming successful entrepreneurs. Despite EC is seen as important to business growth and success, according to Brinckmann (2008) the discussion of competencies in the entrepreneurial literature is in its early stages. Indeed, whilst over the years there have been some notable studies that have sought to examine the skills and competences of entrepreneurs. Mitchelmore & Rowley (2013) have reported the empirical research into the entrepreneurial competencies of entrepreneurs who are committed to the growth of their business. Continuing this study they were identifying the entrepreneurial competencies that SME owners perceive to be important to the success of their business (Mitchelmore, et al., 2014). Similar to this study, Revell-Love & Revell-Love (2016) have used the measurement which adapted from Mitchelmore & Rowley (2013) to provide analysis of perceived entrepreneurial competencies of entrepreneurs who utilize information marketing businesses to learn business skills. Kyndt & Baert (2015) have conducted a longitudinal study of the psychometric quality questionnaire which assess competencies considered to be important for entrepreneurs in the literature and to examined the predictive value of these competencies for being active as an entrepreneur three to five years after completing the instrument. Roblesa, et al. (2015) have conducted the study to establish which are the key individual competencies that determine whether or not a person is an entrepreneur. Dimitratos, et al. (2014) provides a comprehensive operationalization of firm-specific variables that constitute multinational enterprise subsidiary entrepreneurial competencies. The objective of this research is to propose a literature review of entrepreneurial competencies by: (a) selecting the database; (b) selecting the articles; (c) classifying for each research article; (d) analysis after classification of research articles. The literature review covers systematic steps to find the research gap and state the future direction. The structure of this paper consists of introduction, literature review, discussion and conclusion. Introduction contains problem statements that lead to the background of this research. Literature review discusses the findings and future direction of this research area. In the discussion section, the main findings are explained. Finally, the summary and scientific contributions of this research are shown in the conclusion section. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Literature Review Method The method adopted are for the purpose to provide a comprehensive and critical literature review of empirical research in EC. A schematic representation of literature review method adopted in this research is given in Figure 1. The issues of database selection, articles selection, articles classification, and analysis of classified articles will be discussed under the literature review schematic as follow:
2
Selection of database: Emerald and ScienceDirect
STEP 1
Articles selection: Search for “Entrepreneurial competencies” in article title
STEP 2
Classification for each research article: EC for Intrapreneurs EC for Entrepreneurs
STEP 3
Analysis after classification of articles: Types of research
STEP 4
1. Gaps identified
2. Significant findings
3. Future direction
Figure 1 Literature Review Method (Ghina et al., 2015) Step 1: Selection of database The articles were collected from Emerald and ScienceDirect Step 2: Article selection Emerald Database The exact phrases “Entrepreneurial Competencies” (5797 total results) was searched for in journal-article title. From the first 200 results displayed through each keyword, articles were selected by their titles’ relevance to the entrepreneurial competencies topic. The search was limited to the first 200 articles of each keyword because it was already saturated. The keyword “Entrepreneurial Competencies” resulted in 22 articles. Next, the articles were selected by reading the abstracts relating to the entrepreneurial competencies for intrapreneurs and entrepreneurial competencies for entrepreneurs. The results are 18 articles, 4 articles were eliminated because of irrelevant to the research topic. The illustration of articles’ selection can be seen in Table 1. ScienceDirect Database The exact phrases “Entrepreneurial Competencies” (4077 total results) was searched for in journal-article title. From the first 150 results displayed through each keyword, articles were selected by their titles’ relevance to the entrepreneurial competencies topic. The search was limited to the first 150 articles of each keyword because it was already saturated. The keyword “Entrepreneurial Competencies” resulted in 5 articles. Next, the articles were selected by reading the abstracts relating to the entrepreneurial competencies for intrapreneurs and entrepreneurial competencies for entrepreneurs. All articles are relevant to the research topic. The illustration of articles’ selection can be seen in Table 1.
3
Table 1 Articles’ Selection from Emerald and ScienceDirect TOTAL SELECTION-I SELECTION-II DATABASE RESULTS (By Title) (By Abstract) Emerald 5797 22 18 (Search limited to the first 200 articles in display) ScienceDirect 4077 5 5 (Search limited to the first 150 articles in display) TOTAL 27 23 Step 3: Classification of articles In this step, the 23 selected articles were critically analyzed for classification. Initial attempts to analyze this collection of articles stemmed from the goal of this research, which is an attempt to develop a conceptualization, framework and measurement of entrepreneurial competencies. This framework of categorization is based on an analytical review of Entrepreneurial Competency Model, designed by the Consortium for Entrepreneurial Education. Competencies consist of more than just a single characteristic. Competencies consist of a group of attributes, some of which are applicable to all entrepreneurs, while others are occupation/industry specific. Because some competencies are more or less universal than others, many researchers depict competency models as pyramids, with universal competencies occupying the bottom portion of the pyramid and specific competencies located near to the top. However, this is not to give priority to one competency over the other – it is simply to depict the layers of competencies that are beneficial for entrepreneurs in different industries and occupations (Olien & Wetenhall, 2013). According to Entrepreneurial Competency Model, the competency can be divided into two broad classifications namely competency for intrapreneurs and competency for entrepreneurs. The previous research was also supported this typology. Based on Kunkel (2001 in Zwemstra, 2006), he developed an entrepreneurial activity typology with different levels of entrepreneurial and intrapreneurial activities. The typology is based on whether the entrepreneurial activity takes place: by an individual or team of individuals independent of an existing organization (Independent/ Entrepreneurship) or within the structure and context of an existing organization (Corporate/Intrapreneurship). The characteristics of those classes can be seen in Table 2.
NO 1 2
Table 2 Characteristics of Article Classification CLASSIFICATION CHARACTERISTICS Entrepreneurial Competencies The application of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, for Intrapreneurs and behaviors in the workplace context Entrepreneurial Competencies The application of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, for Entrepreneurs and behaviors that are valuable to create ideas, designing, planning, launching the business successfully and make it growth
4
Step 4: Analysis of classified articles This step identifies the similarities and differences of classified articles to find research gaps of EC in empirical research, in addition to presenting significant findings from existing literature. As stated in numerous studies, EC is becoming more and more important worldwide to perform success in business and workplace. While research work in entrepreneurial competencies is growing and gaining increased legitimacy within the scientific community, on the other hand it lacks comprehensive elements of conceptualization, framework and qualitative measurement tools for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). Thus, it can be said that the discussion of competencies in the entrepreneurial literature is in its early stages (Brinckmann, 2008). This is probably due to the fact that most studies focus on quantitative measurement based on previous tools or previous framework. Few studies present conceptualization of EC and even fewer build on framework to elaborate the conceptualization of EC. There are two classifications of articles with three main attributes of related issues in EC: coverage of conceptualization of EC, Framework of EC, and Measurement of EC. Most authors perform empirical studies with main focus of entrepreneurs. The mapping of literature review can be seen in Table 3 (Appendix1). 3. DISCUSSION Competence is a concept that has many faces and applications, and models of entrepreneurial competence are grounded in these various approaches to and notions of the concept of competence (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010). Research and practice related to competence is typically driven by aspirations to achieve superior performance, and the potential for, in turn, economic gain or business success (Spencer and Spencer, 1993). On the other hand, one of the key challenges in the competence literature is that there are many definitions of competence (Dimitratos, et al., 2014; Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010; Rausch, et al., 2002; Garavan & McGuire, 2001). There are at least two key meanings or uses of the term competency: competency as behaviors that an individual demonstrates; and, competencies as minimum standards of performance (Strebler et al., 1997). Entrepreneurial competencies are a constellation, or group, of characteristics associated with the successful development of businesses. These competencies are described as the underlying characteristics of a person, which result in effective action and/or superior performance in a job. Competencies can range from personality traits and individual motivations, to specific knowledge and skill. Traits and motivations can also spur the development of entrepreneurial competencies. The competencies impact entrepreneurial performance through the mechanisms of venture opportunities, venture strategy, venture growth (Olien & Wetenhall, 2013). Competencies are not seen as the task of the job, but rather that which enables people to do the task. Competencies are learnable, therefore recognizing the importance of competencies and identifying these is crucial for educators and the development of learning opportunities. (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010). There have been a number of conceptualization of entrepreneurial competencies, but there were few studies that explore of what type of competencies needed by entrepreneurs with different size of business. One of the main drivers for research and practice relating to entrepreneurial competencies is their supposed association with business performance and growth, and thereby with economic 5
development. Policy makers, in particular, have been concerned about both avoiding small business failure, and promoting business growth. Venture growth has been identified in the literature as a crucial indicator of venture success (Low and MacMillan, 1998). In the context of entrepreneurship, competencies are particularly related to the birth, survival and/or growth of a venture. Research shows that an entrepreneur’s skills contribute to venture performance and growth (Bird, 1995). Further, there is evidence that developing entrepreneurial skills among entrepreneurs contributes to profitability and growth (Chandler and Jansen, 1992). There have been a number of investigations in different contexts that have sought to generate lists of entrepreneurial competencies framework, with varying levels of categorization. Some researchers have used alternative terms such as skills or expertise, but their research generates findings that are relevant to the general field of entrepreneurial competencies. These individual level competencies have been categorized under four main headings which have been labeled as entrepreneurial competencies, business and management competencies, human relations competencies, and conceptual and relationship competencies. It is evident from this list that some competencies have been identified by many authors, while others have received less attention. Also some were identified in relatively early research, and may be viewed as less significant or have changed in their nature in the intervening years. The significant number of authors agree that the following competences are important for an entrepreneur: management skills, including the ability to develop management systems and organization and coordination skills; idea generation; conceptual and analytical competencies, including the ability to coordinate activities; customer management skills; delegation and motivation skills; the ability to recognize and take advantage of opportunities, the ability to formulate strategies for taking advantage of opportunities; hiring skills; decision making skills; leadership skills; and, commitment (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2010). The previous studies have noted that there were many categorization of entrepreneurial competencies framework, but there were still unsystematic. There is lack of systematic framework which consists of key stakeholders’ and their roles to perform successful in business. We need a systematic guideline for further development of entrepreneurial competencies in order to be success in business, particularly for SMEs. The issue of measurement of competencies is central to both research and practice. Approaches to measuring competencies have been varied, depending on assumptions and predictions. McGowan, et al. (2001) explores the competencies needed by the entrepreneurial small firm (ESF) owner/manager for the effective use of the Internet in managing customer relationships. Dullayaphuta, & Untachaia (2013) provides a quantitative measure of the human resource competency of the small and medium enterprises in the upper Northeastern Region of Thailand. Mitchelmore, S. & Rowley, J. (2013) reports an empirical research into the entrepreneurial competencies of female entrepreneurs who are committed to the growth of their business. Similar study was conducted by Revell-Love & Revell-Love (2016), they were analyzed the perceived entrepreneurial competencies of women entrepreneurs who utilize information marketing businesses to learn business skills. Researchers such as Mitchelmore, et al. (2014) was identified the entrepreneurial competencies that women SME owners perceive to be important to the success of their business. Other researchers Kyndt & Baert (2015) assesses the psychometric quality of a questionnaire assessing competencies considered to be important for entrepreneurs in 6
the literature and to examined the predictive value of these competencies for being active as an entrepreneur three to five years after completing the instrument. The previous researchers tend to conduct the research based on quantitative measurement, few studies were found to use qualitative measurement. It shows that the literature is lack of measurement to assess the entrepreneurial competencies of SMEs which has low number of population. We need some measurement to explore more and in-depth regarding the assessment of entrepreneurial competencies particularly for micro and small business. 4. CONCLUSION Competency is often not well defined, or not defined specifically at all in some of the literature on competencies. Terms such as competencies, skills, knowledge and expertise are often used interchangeably with insufficient attention to their meaning. The research work in entrepreneurial competencies is growing and gaining increased legitimacy within the scientific community, on the other hand it lacks comprehensive elements of conceptualization, framework and qualitative measurement tools for Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs). Thus, it can be said that the discussion of competencies in the entrepreneurial literature is in its early stages. This study provides the research gap from the subject of entrepreneurial competencies of SMEs. This research is expected to make contribution toward the future direction in academics and practices. The future study is still open to build a systematic framework of entrepreneurial competencies of SMEs to perform business successfully; and to build qualitative measurement tools to assess entrepreneurial competencies for SMEs with low number of explorations REFERENCES Ahmad, N. H., Ramayah, T., Wilson, C., Kummerow, L. (2010). Is entrepreneurial competency and business success relationship contingent upon business environment?. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 182 - 203, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13552551011042780. Brinckmann, J. (2008). Competence of top management teams and success of new technologybased firms: A theoretical and empirical analysis concerning competencies of entrepreneurial teams and the development of their ventures. Deutscher UniversitätsVerlag. Bird, B. (1995). Towards a theory of entrepreneurial competency. Advances in Entrepreneurship. Firm Emergence and Growth, Vol. 2, pp. 51-72. Camuffo, A., Gerli, F., Gubitta, P. (2012). Competencies matter: modeling effective entrepreneurship in northeast of Italy small firms. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 48 66, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13527601211195628. Chandler, G. N. & Jansen, E. (1992). The founder’s self-assessed competence and venture performance. Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 7 No. 3, pp. 223-36. Dimitratos, P., Liouka, I., Young, S. (2014). A Missing Operationalization: Entrepreneurial Competencies in Multinational Enterprise Subsidiaries. Long Range Planning, Vol. 47, pp. 64–75. Dullayaphuta, P. & Untachaia, S. (2013). Development the Measurement of Human Resource Competency in SMEs in Upper Northeastern Region of Thailand. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 88, pp. 61 – 72. 7
Garavan, T. N. & McGuire, D. (2001). Competencies and workplace learning: some reflections on the rhetoric and the reality. Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 144 164, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13665620110391097. Ghina, A., Simatupang, T. M., & Gustomo, A. (2015). Building a Systematic Framework for Entrepreneurship Education. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 73-98. Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (2013).Key indicators. Retrieved January 16, 2015, from http://www.gemconsortium.org/key-indicators. Jia, J., Wang, G., Zhao, X., Yu, X. (2014). Exploring the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and corporate performance: The role of competency of executives in entrepreneurial-oriented corporations. Nankai Business Review International, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 326 - 344, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/NBRI-05-2014-0024. Jena, S. & Sahoo, C. K. (2014). Improving managerial performance: a study on entrepreneurial and leadership competencies. Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 143 - 149, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ICT-10-2013-0066. Khalid, S. & Bhatti, K. (2015). Entrepreneurial competence in managing partnerships and partnership knowledge exchange: Impact on performance differences in export expansion stages. Journal of World Business, Vol. 50, pp. 598–608. Kyndt, E. & Baert, H. (2015). Entrepreneurial competencies: Assessment and predictive value for entrepreneurship. Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 90, pp. 13 – 25. Low, M. & Macmillan, I. (1998). Entrepreneurship: past research and future challenges. Journal of Management, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 139-61. Linton, J. & Walsh, S. (2013). The effect of technology on learning during the acquisition and development of competencies in technology-intensive small firms. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 165 - 186, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13552551311310365. Man, T. W. Y. & Lau, T. (2005). The context of entrepreneurship in Hong Kong: An investigation through the patterns of entrepreneurial competencies in contrasting industrial environments. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 464 - 481, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14626000510628162. Mascarell, C. S., Garzon, D., Knorr, H. (2013). Entrepreneurial and innovative competences, are they the same?. Management Decision, Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 1084 - 1095, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/MD-11-2012-0792. McGowan, P., Durkin, M. G., Allen, L., Dougan, C., Nixon, S. (2001). Developing competencies in the entrepreneurial small firm for use of the Internet in the management of customer relationships. Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 25, No.2/3/4, pp. 126 - 136, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000005443. Mitchelmore, S. & Rowley, J. (2010). Entrepreneurial competencies: a literature review and development agenda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 92 - 111, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13552551011026995. Mitchelmore, S. & Rowley, J. (2013). Entrepreneurial competencies of women entrepreneurs pursuing business growth. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 20, No.1, pp.125-142, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/14626001311298448. Mitchelmore, S., Rowley, J., Shiu E., (2014). Competencies associated with growth of womenled SMEs. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 588 - 601, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-01-2012-0001. 8
Mulder, M., Lans, T., Verstegen, J., Biemans, H., Meijer, Y. (2007). Competence development of entrepreneurs in innovative horticulture. Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 19, No.1, pp. 32 - 44, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13665620710719330 Murray, P. (2003). Organisational learning, competencies, and firm performance: empirical observations. The Learning Organization, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 305 - 316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09696470310486656. Ogbo, A. (2012). The role of entrepreneurship in economic development: the Nigerian perspective. European Journal of Business and Management, 4(8), 95-96. Retrieved January 29, 2015, from http://iiste.org/ Journals/index.php/EJBM/article/view/1937/1917. Olien, J. & Wetenhall, P. (2013). Entrepreneurial competency. Ventureprise, UNC Charlotte, pp. 1-12. Retrieved August, 8th, 2016, from http://www.ventureprise.org. Pérez-López, M. C., González-López, M. J., Rodríguez-Ariza, L. (2016). Competencies for entrepreneurship as a career option in a challenging employment environment. Career Development International, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 214 - 229, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/CDI07-2015-0102. Rahman, S. A., Amran, A., Ahmad, N. H., Taghizadeh, S. K. (2015). Supporting entrepreneurial business success at the base of pyramid through entrepreneurial competencies. Management Decision, Vol. 53, No. 6, pp. 1203 - 1223, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/MD08-2014-0531. Rausch, E., Sherman, H., Washbush, J. B. (2002). Defining and assessing competencies for competency-based, outcome-focused management development. Journal of Management Development, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 184 200, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02621710210420264. Revell-Love, C. & Revell-Love, T. (2016). Competencies of women entrepreneurs utilizing information marketing businesses. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. -, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JSBED-02-2016-0027. Roblesa, L. & Zárraga-Rodrígueza, M. (2015). Key Competencies for Entrepreneurship. Procedia Economics and Finance, Vol. 23, pp. 828 – 832. Strebler, M., Robinson, D., Heron, P. (1997). Getting the Best Out of Your Competencies. Institute of Employment Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton. Zwemstra, J. (2006). Differentiating between Entrepreneurs and Intrapreneurs: a Competency Approach. Industrial Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, pp. 1-111. Retrieved August, 8th, 2016, from http://hdl.handle.net/2105/4041.
9
APPENDIX-1 Table 3. The Mapping of Literature Review N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
1
Pérez-López, M. C., GonzálezLópez, M. J., Rodríguez-Ariza, L. (2016). Competencies for entrepreneurship as a career option in a challenging employment environment. Career Development International, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 214 - 229, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/CDI-072015-0102
Explanatory
Empirical research
2
Revell-Love, C. & Revell-Love, T. (2016). Competencies of women entrepreneurs utilizing information marketing businesses. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. , http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JSBED02-2016-0027
Explanatory
Empirical research
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Purpose
Scope
To determine the direct relationship between competency of resilience and entrepreneurship as a career option, and to analyse the mediating role of resilience in the relation between entrepreneurial intention (EI) and underlying factors such as attitudes towards entrepreneurship, social norms and self-efficacy. To analyse the perceived entrepreneurial competencies of women entrepreneurs who utilize information marketing businesses to learn business skills.
Competency of resilience, entrepreneurial intention, Theory of Planned Behavior
Deductive
Undergraduate s in business studies at the University of Granada (Spain)
Female Entrepreneurial Competencies (FEC): (1) personal and relationship competencies; (2) business and management competencies; (3) entrepreneurial competencies; (4) human relations competencies (Mitchelmore & Rowley, 2013)
Deductive
Female entrepreneurs in US
10
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
NonProbability: quota
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
Nonprobability: convenience
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
3
Khalid, S. & Bhatti, K. (2015). Entrepreneurial competence in managing partnerships and partnership knowledge exchange: Impact on performance differences in export expansion stages. Journal of World Business, Vol. 50, pp. 598–608
Descriptive
Empirical research
To analyze the relationship between entrepreneurial competence and two relational capabilities of partnership knowledge exchange and partnership management
Entrepreneurial competencies
Deductive
Cross-national data of medium-sized internationaliz ing firms mainly from Scandinavia, Asia Pacific and a relatively smaller number from the USA and the UK
Probability: random
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
4
Kyndt, E. & Baert, H. (2015). Entrepreneurial competencies: Assessment and predictive value for entrepreneurship. Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 90, pp. 13 – 25
Descriptive
Empirical research
To assess the psychometric quality of a questionnaire assessing competencies considered to be important for entrepreneurs in the literature and to examined the predictive value of these competencies for being active as an entrepreneur three to five years after completing the instrument
Measurement of competencies
Deductive
aspiring entrepreneur in Flanders (a region of Belgiumwith 6million inhabitants) that contacted UNIZO (Union of Independent Entrepreneurs) , VDAB (Public Employment Service of Flanders) or Syntra (Adult Education Centres for Entrepreneurs) for information or coaching regarding (the start-up of) their business
NonProbability: convenience
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Longitudinal
11
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
5
Rahman, S. A., Amran, A., Ahmad, N. H., Taghizadeh, S. K. (2015). Supporting entrepreneurial business success at the base of pyramid through entrepreneurial competencies. Management Decision, Vol. 53, No. 6, pp. 1203 - 1223, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/MD-082014-0531
Explanatory
Empirical research
6
Roblesa, L. & ZárragaRodrígueza, M. (2015). Key Competencies for Entrepreneurship. Procedia Economics and Finance, Vol. 23, pp. 828 – 832
Descriptive
Empirical research
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Purpose
Scope
To empirically explore the influence of support from Large private organisations (LPOs) on entrepreneurship business success among the Base of the economic Pyramid (BoP) segment through entrepreneurial competencies. To establish which are the key individual competencies that determine whether or not a person is an entrepreneur.
Information, Technical, Training support (Independence variables), entrepreneurial competencies (Mediating variable), business success (Dependent variable)
Deductive
Entrepreneurs in Bangladesh
Key competencies at individual level
Deductive
10 entrepreneurs
12
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
Not clear
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
Probability: random
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
7
Dimitratos, P., Liouka, I., Young, S. (2014). A Missing Operationalization: Entrepreneurial Competencies in Multinational Enterprise Subsidiaries. Long Range Planning, Vol. 47, pp. 64–75
Descriptive
Empirical research
To provide a comprehensive operationalization of firm-specific variables that constitute multinational enterprise subsidiary entrepreneurial competencies
A comprehensive set of competencies: innovativeness, risk-taking, proactiveness, learning, intramultinational networking, extramultinational networking and autonomy
Deductive
260 subsidiaries located in the UK
NonProbability: quota
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
8
Jia, J., Wang, G., Zhao, X., Yu, X. (2014). Exploring the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and corporate performance: The role of competency of executives in entrepreneurial-oriented corporations. Nankai Business Review International, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 326 - 344, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/NBRI05-2014-0024
Explanatory
Empirical research
To explore the mediating role of executive competency in entrepreneurialorientated corporations between entrepreneurial orientation and corporate performance
Entrepreneurial orientation (Innovation, risk taking, antecedence, competitive aggressiveness, autonomy), Competencies of executive (Profession features, concept features, interpersonal features, individual internal drive features), Corporate performance (Growth, profitability)
Deductive
Executives from entrepreneuria l-oriented enterprises in China
Nonprobability: purposive with criteria
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
13
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
9
Jena, S. & Sahoo, C. K. (2014). Improving managerial performance: a study on entrepreneurial and leadership competencies. Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 46, No. 3, pp. 143 - 149, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ICT-102013-0066
Explanatory
Empirical research
To ascertain predictors for superior managerial performance with special emphasis on leadership and entrepreneurial competencies required in manufacturing units.
(1) Business Knowledge; (2) Spirit of Competitivenes s; (3) Dimensions of Leadership; (4) managerial performance
Deductive
Executives in manufacturing units
(not clear)
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
10
Mitchelmore, S., Rowley, J., Shiu E., (2014). Competencies associated with growth of women-led SMEs. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 588 - 601, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/JSBED01-2012-0001
Explanatory
Empirical research
To identify the entrepreneurial competencies that women SME owners perceive to be important to the success of their business
Entrepreneur’s business (turnover growth, annual sales, number of employees, business sector, legal status, stage of business development); Entrepreneurial competencies (e.g. idea generation, recognition, and taking advantage of opportunities); business and management competencies (e.g. business operational skills, financial and budgeting skills); human relations competencies (e.g. delegation skills, leadership
Deductive
Female entrepreneurs in England and Wales
Nonprobability: convenience
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
14
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
NonProbability:
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
skills), and conceptual and relationship skills (interpersonal skills, written communication skills, logical thinking skills).
11
Dullayaphuta, P. & Untachaia, S. (2013). Development the Measurement of Human Resource Competency in SMEs in Upper Northeastern Region of Thailand. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, Vol. 88, pp. 61 – 72
Descriptive
Empirical research
To provide a quantitative measure of the human resource competency of the small and medium enterprises in the upper Northeastern Region of Thailand
Four - factor human resource competency, which consists of skills, expertise, problemsolving, and adaptability (test the validity and reliability)
15
Deductive
The managers of SMEs in 3 provinces including UdonThani, Nongkhai, and Beungkarn
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
12
Linton, J. & Walsh, S. (2013). The effect of technology on learning during the acquisition and development of competencies in technology-intensive small firms. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 165 - 186, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1355255 1311310365
Descriptive
Empirical research
To consider whether the characteristics of a technology affect the type of learning mode used for acquiring abilities related to specific competencies. While technological competencies have a direct impact on firm performance for technologyintensive startups
Corporate learning and technological competencies
Deductive
High-tech start-ups in the semiconductor silicon industry
NonProbability: purposive
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
13
Mascarell, C. S., Garzon, D., Knorr, H. (2013). Entrepreneurial and innovative competences, are they the same?. Management Decision, Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 1084 - 1095, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/MD-112012-0792
Exploratory
Empirical research
To study competencies between two groups of professionals: employees in innovative companies and entrepreneurs. Therefore the following questions arise: Are these two types of competences the same? Do innovative companies demand an entrepreneurial profile? Are entrepreneurs’ companies spontaneously innovative?
Entrepreneurial and innovative competencies: Achievement cluster (opportunity seeking and initiatives, risk taking, demand for efficiency and quality, persistence, commitment to the work contract); Planning cluster (information seeking, goal setting, systematic planning and monitoring); Power cluster (persuasion and networking, independence and selfconfidence)
Inductive
Innovative company and entrepreneurs' company in USA
NonProbability: purposive
Qualitative (Grounded Theory)
Cross sectional
16
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
14
Mitchelmore, S. & Rowley, J. (2013). Entrepreneurial competencies of women entrepreneurs pursuing business growth. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 20, No.1, pp.125-142, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1462600 1311298448
Descriptive
Empirical research
Report empirical research into the entrepreneurial competencies reported by female entrepreneurs who are committed to the growth of their business.
Four main clusters of competencies were identified: (1) personal and relationship competencies; (2) business and management competencies; (3) entrepreneurial competencies; (4) human relations competencies
Deductive
Participants were identified through women’s networks based in England and Wales. Many of the networks were identified by using female entrepreneur support programmes and associations such as PROWESS.
Nonprobability: convenience
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
15
Camuffo, A., Gerli, F., Gubitta, P. (2012). Competencies matter: modeling effective entrepreneurship in northeast of Italy small firms. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 48 - 66, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1352760 1211195628
Descriptive
Empirical research
To explore if and to what extent the competency portfolio of entrepreneurs affects firm’s performance, controlling for a set of individual and organizational variables.
Competencies: Action and attainment skills, people management skills, analytical reasoning skills
Deductive
Participants to the first three editions of the “Master for Entrepreneurs of SMEs”, a part-time master program with a duration of 20 months organized by Fondazione CUOA, one of the most important Italian business schools
NonProbability: purposive
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
17
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
16
Ahmad, N. H., Ramayah, T., Wilson, C., Kummerow, L. (2010). Is entrepreneurial competency and business success relationship contingent upon business environment?. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 182 203, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1355255 1011042780
Explanatory
Empirical research
To evaluate the effect of entrepreneurial competencies and the moderating effect of business environment on business success in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in Malaysia
Entrepreneurial competencies (Strategic, conceptual, opportunity, relationship, learning, personal, ethical, familism), Business environment, Entrepreneurial success (Financial, nonfinancial)
Deductive
Malaysian SME ownerfounders
Nonprobability: purposive with criteria
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
17
Mitchelmore, S. & Rowley, J. (2010). Entrepreneurial competencies: a literature review and development agenda. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior & Research, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 92 111, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1355255 1011026995
Descriptive
Literature Review
To undertake a literature review of research on entrepreneurial competence in order to: provide an integrated account of contributions relating to entrepreneurial competencies
(1) Concept of competencies; (2) Framework of entrepreneurial competencies; (3) Measurement of entrepreneurial competencies; (4) Business performance
Deductive
Articles of competencies
-
-
-
18
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
18
Mulder, M., Lans, T., Verstegen, J., Biemans, H., Meijer, Y. (2007). Competence development of entrepreneurs in innovative horticulture. Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 19, No.1, pp. 32 44, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1366562 0710719330
Descriptive
Empirical research
19
Man, T. W. Y. & Lau, T. (2005). The context of entrepreneurship in Hong Kong: An investigation through the patterns of entrepreneurial competencies in contrasting industrial environments. Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 464 - 481, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1462600 0510628162
Explanatory
Empirical research
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Purpose
Scope
To study the learning of entrepreneurs in authentic learning environments. The research questions are: How do entrepreneurs assess their compentencies, and how do employees and external consultants assess the compentencies of these entrepreneurs? What are the competence strengths and weaknesses of entrepreneurs? What are the learning activities that entrepreneurs perform? To investigate how the characteristics of owner/manager can sustain in different industrial environments.
Measurement of competencies
Deductive
Ten small business owners
Entrepreneurial competencies (Opportunity, relationship, analytical, innovative, operational, human, strategic, commitment, learning and personal strength competencies); Industrial environment (Opportunities for innovation, perceived industry
Deductive
Owner/manag er in IT services industry and wholesale trade industry in Hong Kong
19
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
NonProbability: purposive
Quantitative and Qualitative
Cross sectional
Probability: random
Quantitative (questionnaire)
Cross sectional
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
Quantitative and Qualitative
Cross sectional
growth, importance of new products or services, market heterogeneity)
20
Murray, P. (2003). Organisational learning, competencies, and firm performance: empirical observations. The Learning Organization, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp. 305 - 316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/0969647 0310486656
Explanatory
Empirical research
To make the major contribution to the strategic management literature by showing what type of competencies are more likely to lead the superior firm performance and how competencies are linked to learning.
Organizational learning, competencies, firm performance
20
Deductive
Large contractors in the New South Wales construction industry
NonProbability: purposive
N O
Author / Title / Publication
Types of Research
Types of Article
Purpose
Scope
Analytical Approach
Units of Analysis
Sampling Strategy
Types of Data
Occurrence
21
Rausch, E., Sherman, H., Washbush, J. B. (2002). Defining and assessing competencies for competency-based, outcomefocused management development. Journal of Management Development, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 184 - 200, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/0262171 0210420264
Descriptive
Literature Review
To undertake a literature review of research on competencies for competencybased, outcomefocused management
Conceptualizati on of competencies and measurement
Deductive
Articles of competencies
-
-
-
22
Garavan, T. N. & McGuire, D. (2001). Competencies and workplace learning: some reflections on the rhetoric and the reality. Journal of Workplace Learning, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 144 164, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/1366562 0110391097
Descriptive
Literature Review
To explore the concept of competency and measurement; the context within which the value of competencies as a basis for workplace learning can be considered and discusses the philosophical and epistemological perspectives found in much of the literature.
Conceptualizati on of competencies and measurement
Deductive
Articles of competencies
-
-
-
21
N O 23
Author / Title / Publication McGowan, P., Durkin, M. G., Allen, L., Dougan, C., Nixon, S. (2001). Developing competencies in the entrepreneurial small firm for use of the Internet in the management of customer relationships. Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 25, No.2/3/4, pp. 126 - 136, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EUM00 00000005443
Types of Research
Types of Article
Descriptive
Empirical research
Purpose
Scope
To explore the competencies needed by the entrepreneurial small firm (ESF) owner/manager for the effective use of the Internet in managing customer relationships.
Identified five further competencies deemed important in determining the likely adoption and use of the Internet in managing buyer-seller relationships. These were: communication, knowledge, judgement, experience; and planning
22
Analytical Approach Deductive
Units of Analysis Small firm entrepreneurs who to a greater or lesser extent engaged in the use of the Web across different sectors including manufacturing , services and retail
Sampling Strategy NonProbability: purposive
Types of Data
Occurrence
Qualitative
Cross sectional
